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INVESTIGATIONS, 1904, . . .
* * ---
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF J. " _ " - .jºs
ELWOOD MEAD,
3. CHIEF OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
SEPARATE NO. T :
x
REVIEW OF THE IRRIGATION WORK OF THE YEAR 1904. T
By R. P. TEELE, Expert in Irrigation Institutions. -
-
Al-
[Reprint from Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
s WASHINGTON:
. . GOVERNMENT PRINTING


































1905.
SEPARATES FROM OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS BULLETINN
~
Separate No. 1. *,
Review of the Irrigation Work of the Year 1904. By R. P. Teele. Pp. i-Tö. • * ,
SEPARATE No. 2. A 2. ---
&
&-
3.
Irrigation in Santa Clara Valley, California. By S. Fortier. Pp. 76–91, , , ,
} - Mechanical Tests of Pumping Plants used for Irrigation. By J. N. Le Conte. Pp: • *
195–255. - *~. . . . .
* SEPARATE No. 3. *r. • *
‘s * * * *
\ The Distribution and Use of Water in Modesto and Turlock Irrigation Districts, Cal- >
\ , ifornia. By Frank Adams. Pp. 93–139. ... . ;
Relation of Irrigation to Yield, Size, Quality, and Commercial Suitability of Fruits. . . .
By E. J. Wickson. Pp. 141–174. -
f Irrigation Conditions in Imperial Valley, California. By J. E. Roadhouse. Pp. tº
175–194. >. - - -
\ * SEPARATE No. 4. Jº * –-S
Irrigation in Klamath County, Oregon. By F. L. Kent. Pp. 257-266.
Irrigation Investigations in the Yakima Valley, Washington, 1904. By O. L. Waller.
2- Pp. 267–278. S
Irrigation Conditions in Raft River Water District, Idaho, 1904. By W. F. Bartlett.
Pp. 279–302. *
SEPARATE No. 5.
Irrigation Investigations at New Mexico Experiment Station, Mesilla Park, 1904.
By J. J. Vernon. Pp. 303–317. - * .
Irrigation Investigations in Western Texas. By Harvey Culbertson. Pp. 319-340.
Pumping Plants in Texas. By C. E. Taii. Pp. 341–346. •
~~,
SEPARATE No. 6. .
f
Irrigation in Southern Texas. By Aug. J. Bowie, jr. Pp. 347–507.
SEPARATE No. 7.
Rice Irrigation in Louisiana and Texas in 1903 and 1904. By W. B. Gregory. Pp. *
509–544. .* _ _-
Rice Irrigation on the Prairie Land of Arkansas. By C. E. Tait. Pp. 545–565. 's -
*
&
j
*
SEPARATE No. 8.
ion Experiments at Fort Hays, Kansas, 1903 and 1904. By J. G. Haney. Pp.
lear Garden City, Kansas. 1904. By A. B. Collins and A. E. Wrigh'.
in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas. By O. V. P. Stout. Pp. 595–
kyford, Colorado, 1904. By A. E. Wright. Pp. 609–623.
rainage of Cranberry Marshes in Wisconsin. By A. R. Whitson.
* gº' l
l
SEPARATE No. 9. ! ~.
ions, 1904. By C. G. Elliott. Pp. 643–743.






















837
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Z(S, OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS,
A. C. TRUE, DIRECTOR.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
ELWOOD MEAD,
CHIEF OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
SEPARATE NO. I :
REVIEW OF THE IRRIGATION WORK OF THE YEAR 1904.
By R. P. TEELE, Expert in Irrigation Institutions.
[Reprint from Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
WASHINGTON:
GovKRNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1905.
‘… •
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director.
E. W. ALLEN, Ph. D., Assistant Director.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
ELwooD MEAD, Chief.
C. G. ELLIOTT, in Charge of Drainage Investigations.
S. M. WooDwARD, in Charge of Irrigation Investigations.
R. P. TEELE, Expert in Irrigation Institutions.
C. J. ZINTHEo, in Charge of Farm Mechanics.
SAMUEL ForTIER, in Charge of Pacific District.
F. C. HERRMANN, Eaſpert in Irrigation as Related to Dry Farming.
II
º,43°
CONTENTS.
Page.
Leading lines of work ---------------------------------------------------- 21
Duty of water------------------------------------------------------- 25
Main Canals----------------------------------------------------- 25
Laterals -------------------------------------------------------- 28
Farms----------------------- ^- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30
Crops------------------------------------------------------------ 31
Losses of water from canals ---------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 35
Return seepage------------------------------------------------------- 38
South Platte and tributaries--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38
North Platte and tributaries----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 48
Methods of preparing land for irrigation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50
Methods of applying water----------...---------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 51
Pumping ------------------------------------------------------------ 52
California-------------------------------------------------------- 53
New Mexico ----------------------------------------------------- 54
Texas ----------------------------------------------------------- 54
Louisiana -------------------------------------------------------- 56
Arkansas -------------------------------------------------------- 56
Kansas ---------------------------------------------------------- 57
Colorado -------------------------------------------------------- 57
Windmills ------------------------------------------------------ 61
Laws and institutions------------------------------------------------ 63
Irrigation in the humid sections - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 68
Rice irrigation --------------------------------------------------- 68
Cranberry irrigation ---------------------------------------------- 73
Irrigation in Porto Rico.------------------------------------------- 75
ILLUSTRATION,
sº --- Page.
FIG. I. Diagram showing return seepage to South Platte River - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42
ANNUAL REPORT OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
REVIEW OF THE IRRIGATION WORK OF THE YEAR.
By R. P. TEELE.
In providing for the continuation of the work of the irrigation
investigations of the Office of Experiment Stations through the season
of 1904, Congress added to the lines of work already carried on the
investigation of plans for the “removal of seepage and surplus waters
by drainage,” and changed the title of the work from “Irrigation
investigations” to “Irrigation and drainage investigations.” The
paragraph of the law providing for this work is as follows:
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs: To enable the Secretary of Agriculture
to investigate and report upon the laws of the States and Territories as affecting irriga-
tion and the rights of appropriators and riparian proprietors and institutions relating
to irrigation and upon the use of irrigation waters at home and abroad, with espe-
cial suggestions of the best methods for the utilization of irrigation waters in agri-
culture, and upon plans for the removal of seepage and surplus waters by drainage,
and upon the use of different kinds of power and appliances for irrigation and
drainage, and for the preparation, printing, and illustration of reports and bulletins
on irrigation and drainage, including employment of labor in the city of Washington
or elsewhere; and the agricultural experiment stations are hereby authorized and
directed to cooperate with the Secretary of Agriculture in carrying out said investi-
gations in such manner and to such extent as may be warranted by a due regard to
the varying conditions and needs and laws of the respective States and Territories
as may be mutually agreed upon, and all necessary expenses, sixty-seven thousand
five hundred dollars.
As suggested by the law the work is carried on very largely in
cooperation with the agricultural experiment stations of the States,
thereby securing the use of their equipment and the services of their
scientists at an expense much smaller than would be required to do the
same work independently of the stations, while the cooperation with
this Office enables the stations to enlarge their work on these lines to
an extent which would be impossible without the funds supplied by
this Office. This cooperation has also brought about a degree of coor-
dination in the work of the various stations which would not otherwise
exist. The function of this Office in this work has been to bring about
... a degree of harmony in the work of the stations and to bring together,
19
20 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
digest, and publish the results of experiments and observations, con-
sidered from a standpoint broader than that of any of the individual
stations. The cooperative work has in some cases been aided by State
appropriations, California providing $5,000 for the work in 1904, and
Nevada providing $1,000 for the work of the same year. The cooper-
ative work has been carried out as follows:
Prof. S. Fortier, with headquarters at the University of California
at Berkeley, has had charge of all work in that State. The university
and the State experiment station have aided in the work of this Office
by giving a headquarters office free of rent, by aiding in the testing
of pumps in the mechanical laboratory, by making free of cost a large
number of water analyses, and by aiding in a study of the effects of
irrigation on the quality of fruits and vegetables. Professor Fortier
was assisted by Prof. J. N. Le Conte and Prof. E. J. Wickson, of the
State University, and Mr. Frank Adams and Mr. A. J. Turner, of
this Office. - -
In Nevada we have cooperated with the State experiment station
under a special State appropriation, the work being under the direc-
tion of Prof. Gordon H. True, of the State station.
In Oregon the field work was carried on under the direction of
Director James Withycombe, of the State station, with Prof. F. L.
Kent as assistant.
In Washington field work was carried on under the direction of
Prof. O. L. Waller, of the State station, with Albert L. Smith as
assistant. -
In Idaho Mr. W. F. Bartlett, of this Office, was detailed for field
work in cooperation with the State engineer’s office. -
In Utah field work was under the direction of Director J. A. Widt-
soe, of the Utah Experiment Station, with Prof. W. W. McLaughlin
as assistant. -
In Montana field work was carried on under the direction of Director
F. B. Linfield, of the State experiment station, with Prof. J. S. Baker
as assistant. f * *
In Colorado field work was carried on in part by Mr. A. E. Wright,
of this Office, and in part under the direction of Prof. L. G. Carpenter,
director of the State experiment station, with Mr. S. L. Boothroyd
and Mr. P. J. Preston as field assistants. -
In Nebraska field work was under the direction of Prof. O. V. P.
Stout, of the State University. *
In Kansas field work was carried on at Garden City under the direc-
tion of Mr. A. E. Wright and Mr. A. B. Collins, of this Office, and at
Hays under the direction of Mr. J. G. Haney, of the State experiment
station. -
In Louisiana field work was carried on by Prof. W. B. Gregory and
Prof. Morton A. Aldrich, of Tulane University. -
REVIEW OF THE work of THE YEAR. 21
*
In New Mexico field work was under the direction of Prof. J. J.
Vernon, of the State experiment station. - • * -
In Arkansas the work was in part under the direction of Director
W. G. Vincenheller, of the State experiment station, and in part done
by C. E. Tait, of this Office. -
In Indiana field work in drainage was under the direction of Prof.
W. D. Pence, of Purdue University, assisted by Mr. K. B. Duncan.
In Iowa field work in drainage and the testing of drainage and
pumping machinery was under the direction of Prof. C. J. Zintheo.
In Wisconsin field work was under the direction of Prof. A. R.
Whitson; in New Jersey, under the direction of Prof. E. B. Voorhees;
in Porto Rico, under, the direction of D. W. May, special agent in
charge of the experiment station, and in Hawaii, under the direction
of Jared G. Smith, special agent in charge of the experiment station.
In addition to the work done in cooperation with the State stations
investigations along certain lines have been carried on by the agents
of this Office, the irrigation work being under the personal direction
of the Chief and the drainage work under the supervision of Mr. C. G.
Elliott. drainage engineer.
LEADING LINES OF WORK.
The work of this Office in studying the duty of water began with
the collection of information as to the quantity of water used in gen-
eral practice. This included the measurement of water diverted by
canals at their head gates, measurements of discharges of laterals at
their head gates, and measurements at the margin of fields being irri-
gated. The farmers were requested to use water according to their
usual custom, just as if no measurements were being made. This
information was to serve as a basis for a more scientific study of water
requirements of crops. Records of these measurements have been
published in previous annual reports of this Office."
During the season of 1903 a more scientific study of the water
requirements of crops was undertaken. Experiments were begun to
determine quantities of water which will produce the largest crop
returns under varying conditions. These have been continued through
the season of 1904. Such experiments were made in California, Utah,
Nevada, and New Mexico. The results of measurements in New
Mexico are contained in the report of Professor Vernon, on pages
305-317. A much larger number of measurements have been made in
California and Utah, but it was deemed advisable to continue the
experiments at least another season before attempting to draw con-
clusions. Such experiments must necessarily cover a number of years
before the results can be considered completed.
a U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Buls. 86, 104, 119, and 133.
22 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
In connection with the experiments to determine the water require-
ments of crops, data regarding the cost of water and lands and the
cost of applying the water to crops, and crop returns have been col-
lected in an attempt to work out the principles which should guide
farmers in determining how much water to apply to crops. Under
certain circumstances it would be to the profit of the farmer to secure
something less than the largest crop per acre, if by so doing he could
secure crops from a larger area. On the other hand, where the area
of land is limited and water is plentiful, it would be to his profit to
secure less than the largest product per unit quantity of water, if by
increasing the depth of water applied he could secure a sufficiently
large increase in the product per acre. Sufficient measurements have
not been made, so far, to work out these principles. Experiments are
being continued which in time will give the data necessary for such
computations. The measurements made by the agents of this Office
during 1904 are given in detail in the reports which follow, and those
measurements and measurements previously made by this Office and
by the State experiment stations and reported in their bulletins are
summarized on pages 25–35.
Closely allied with the study of the duty of water is that of methods
of applying water to land. It is found that by applying water by
one method a given quantity of water can be made to serve larger
areas than when it is applied by another method. Methods vary with
the character of the soil and with the character of the crops and with
the available supply. The experiments of this Office are for the pur-
pose of determining what methods are best suited to various classes
of soil which are found throughout the arid region and the different
crops which are raised by irrigation, and to varying conditions of
water supply. During the year 1904 a bulletin" on this subject was
published by this Office and the reports given in this volume contain
further information on the same subject. This is summarized on pages
51, 52. Great numbers of farmers are beginning irrigation each year
and it is probable that with the construction of irrigation works by
the Government and by private individuals the number of such begin-
ners will increase very rapidly within the next few years.
The condition of the lands which are to be reclaimed varies widely
from that of the humid region from which the settlers will come, and it
has therefore been deemed advisable to collect information as to
methods of preparing land for irrigation. Bulletin 145 mentioned
above contains descriptions of methods of clearing and the implements
used, with statements of the cost of such work. Further information
is given in the reports which follow, and this is summarized on pages
50, 51. In this work the attempt is made to give directions which
can be followed by any farmer of ordinary intelligence, in order that
time and money may not be wasted in doing this work by wasteful
a U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 145.
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 23
methods. The preliminary work necessary before crops can be raised
by irrigation is much greater than that required in the humid region,
since the land must be brought to even slopes, if hot leveled, in order
that water may be spread over it. This fact is often overlooked by
those buying land to be reclaimed by irrigation, and the added expenses
for this work have proven very discouraging and often caused failures.
In these reports the attempt has been made to state fairly the expenses
necessary for preparing land, in order that intending settlers may
intelligently weigh the advantages and disadvantages of beginning
agriculture in irrigated regions.
It has been found in collecting information as to the duty of water
that there is a very wide difference between the quantity of water
diverted by canals and that delivered to the land by the same canals.
In some places this loss between the head gate and the farm is as great
as 90 per cent, and it has been necessary for irrigation engineers to
plan works to carry much larger volumes than would be necessary if
all or a large part of the water diverted reached the land. In order
to give irrigation engineers a basis on which to conclude the additional
size of channels necessary, a large number of measurements of the
losses from existing canals have been made. These measurements
have shown that losses were much greater than was previously sup-
posed, and have called attention to the need and possibility of adopting
methods which will check the losses. ' A series of measurements on a
canal will show not only what losses occur but also where these losses
occur, and enable the owners to check the losses by improving canals
or abandoning especially bad sections. Seepage losses are of impor-
tance not only to the owners of the canals from which the water is
lost but also to the owners of land lying under canals, since the water
lost tends to injure the lands lying below the canals and makes their
drainage necessary. The measurements made by this Office since the
beginning of the work are summarized on pages 35–38.
While water is lost from canals through seepage, most streams show
a gain in flow from this source. Water which leaks from canals and
that which is applied to the lands finds its way by gravity back to the
streams. The quantity of water which returns to the streams is a very
important matter for irrigation officials, modifying and complicating
their distribution of water. Measurements show that this return
seepage to the streams of the arid region is constantly increasing,
making possible a constant increase in the area which may be served
by them. The measurements of return seepage are summarized on
pages 38–50.
The pumping of water for irrigation is becoming constantly more
important. In many regions where the stream supply has been
exhausted continuous irrigation has raised the level of the ground
water until very often the supply of water for irrigation can be secured
24 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
by pumping more cheaply than in any other way, and large areas can
be reclaimed for which there is no supply from streams. In parts of
California and Colorado pumps are being installed in the midst of
regions which are irrigated with river water and increased areas are
being reclaimed.
In semiarid regions there are vast areas for which no stream water
is available. For these lands the pumping of underground water or
the Collection of storm water in reservoirs is the only source of supply
for irrigation. During the season of 1904 several agents of this Office
were detailed to study the operation of existing pumping plants to
determine the extent of the water supply, cost of wells, cost of pump-
ing machinery, cost of fuel and of operation, and collect information
as to crop returns, to determine not only the possibilities of pumping
in semiarid regions, but its profitableness. It is not expected that
pumping in these sections for general agriculture will prove profitable,
because the lifts are generally high and the cost of fuel is high, but it
is believed that it will prove profitable to pump water for vegetables
and fruit and some forage, the irrigated areas to be farmed in conjunc-
tion with large areas of unirrigated land. The information collected
on this subject is summarized on pages 52–63. The detailed reports
are found on pages 195—255, 341–507. •º
The studies of irrigation in the humid sections of the United States
carried on in previous years were continued during 1904. These in-
cluded the irrigation of rice in Louisiana and Texas, the irrigation of
rice in Arkansas, and the irrigation of cranberries in Wisconsin and
New Jersey. Reports from these various points are contained in the
following pages and the results summarized on pages 68–75.
The studies of the laws and institutions controlling the distribution
and use of water have been continued during 1904. The work on the
Platte River and tributaries, begun in 1903, was completed;" the his-
tory and present conditions of the Modesto and Turlock irrigation dis-
tricts in California are reported on (pp. 93-139); the operation of
some parts of the irrigation law of Idaho, passed in 1903, was inves-
tigated; and information has been collected concerning the laws and
institutions of other States. (See pp. 63–68.) . • . :
The drainage work of the Office differs from irrigation work in that
it consists very largely in giving advice to individuals and associations
interested in the reclamation of particular tracts of land. This work
is carried on in various localities in all parts of the United States.
In the arid region large sections have been ruined by seepage water
from canals and irrigated lands and it is necessary to remove this sur-
plus water from the wet lands or intercept it before it reaches them.
Throughout the Central States large areas of river-bottom land are
annually overflowed, and the drainage engineers of this Office have
a U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 157.
BEVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 25
assisted the owners of these bottom lands in preparing plans for the
protection of their lands from overflow and the removal of the surplus
water. Along the Atlantic coast studies of the reclamation of salt
marshes have been made, and in the South experiments with drainage
as a means of reclaiming eroded hillsides and checking erosion have
been carried on with very good results. A study of the reclamation
of the Everglades of Florida has also been made, and plans for an
experiment in draining these lands have been made, but have not yet
progressed far enough to give any results. . The detailed report of
drainage investigations is given on pages 643–743.
DUTY OF WATER.
The measurements of the quantities of water used are divided into
four classes: Measurements of (1) the quantity of water entering main
canals; (2) the quantity of water entering laterals; (3) the quantity of
water used on individual farms, and (4) the quantity of water used on
separate crops.
MAIN CANALS.
The results of the measurements of the first class are of especial use
to the builders of irrigation works, whether public or private. They
give a fairly definite idea of the quantity of water which must be
diverted from a stream to reclaim an acre of ground, and hence are
the basis for the computations of the promoter and also for the work
of the engineer. For the convenience of those interested in this sub-
ject the results of former years have been incorporated in the table
with those for 1903 and 1904, which are published for the first time.
The following table does not include all of the records of the duty of
water under main canals, those for Arizona made by Dwight B. Heard
not being received in time to be published in this report:
Quantity of water used per acre wrider main canals, 1899–1904.
[Acre-feet.]

Name of canal. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. º
Arizona: - -
Arizona, Maricopa, and Salt-------------|- - - - - - - - 2.45 4.59 --------|--------|-------- 3. 52
Utah ------------------------------------|-------- 2, 49 4.93 ------------------------ i 3. 71
€In De- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 88 4.06 --------|---------------- 3.47
Consolidated (mesa water) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.02 4.58 ------------------------ 3. 28
Mesa ------------------------------------ 3.81 2.35 -------------------------------- ! 3.08
California: - :
Gage------------------------------------. 2. 24 2. 23 2.00 --------|---------------- | 2. 16
Plano.-----------------------------------|---------------. 7.91 ------------------------ 7.91
Poplar-----------------------------------|---------------- 3.19 ----------------|-------- 3.19
Pioneer ditch (Tule River) - - - - - - - - - - - - - -] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.01 ----------------|-------- 8.01
Pleºsant Valley . . . . . . . ------------------|--------|-------- 6.31 --------|--------|-------- 6. 31
Santa Clara Valley ----------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 4.93 4, 93
Pioneer ditch------------------------|----------------|--------|--------|-------- 3.44 3.44
Sorosis and Calkins----------------------------------|--------|---------------. 1. 75 1. 75
Statler.... ---.. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - • - - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 58 1.58
Turlock district ---------------------|---------------------------------------- 8. 34 8. 34
Modesto district---------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 13. 18 13. 18
South Tule Independent............l........l........ 7.46 --------|---------------- 7. 46
26 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Seymour and Wells..................
Quantity of water wsed per acre whder main canals, 1899–1904—Continued.
Name of canal. 1899, 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. º
Colorado:
Amity----------------------------------- 4.92 --------|--------|--------|-------- tº e < * * * * * 4.92
Grand Valley----------------------------|--------|-------- 4.11 --------|--------|-------- 4. 11
Keefer Extension of Grand Valley. - - - - - - - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.42 --------|--------|-------- 5. 42
Lake --------------------------------------------|-------- 2.58 --------|--------|-------- 2.58
New Cache la Poudre -------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 2.21 |-------- 2. 21
Home Supply----------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 1.64 - - - - - - - - 1.64
Loveland and Greeley ------------------|----...---------|--------|-------- 1.96 - - - - - - - - 1.96
Farmers Irrigating----------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 1.09 ||-------- 1,09
Supply ----------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 1.77 -------- 1.77
Agricultural-----------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- .92 -------- .92
Farmers High Line ---------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 1.41 -------. 1.41
Rocky Mountain ------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 1.88 |-------. 1, 88
Warrior ---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 4.64 - - - - - - - - 4. 64
Pioneer Union ----------------------------------|--------|--------|-------- 4.47 -------- 4.47
Brantner --------------------------------|--------|--------|---------------- 4. 17 |-------. 4, 17
Farmers Independent-------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------. 4.41 -------- 4.41
Brighton --------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 3.93 I-------- 3.93
Platteville .....-------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 6.95 ||-------. 6.95
Lower Latham --------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 3.36 |-------- 3.36
Weldon Valley ...........---------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 8.28 |-------- 8.23
Fort Morgan ----. . . . . . ------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 2. 14 1-------. 2. 14
Upper Platte and Beaver.... ------------|--------|--------|--------|-------. 1.74 |- - - - - - - - 1. 74
Lower Platte and Beaver ---------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 1.17 l-------- 1. 17
Tetsel -----------------------------------|--------|--------|---------------- 7.35 - - - - - - - - 7.35
Idaho: Raft River, below Langsford's bridge---------|--------|--------|---------------- 6.00 6.00
MOntana: -
Gird Creek ------------------------------|--------|-------- 1.45 3.50 --------|-------- 2.47
Highline --------------------------------|--------|--------|-------- 6.32 l--------|-------- 5. 32
Kuhen ditch ----------------------------|--------|--------|-------- 4.68 |--------|-------- 4. 68
Middle Creek --------------------------- 2. 10 1.90 2. 34 1.15 ---------------- 1. 87
Big ditch--------------------------------|-------- 1. 88 2.56 3.68 i.-------|-------- 2.71.
Republican------------------------------|--------|-------- 3.35 4.41 --------|-------- 3. 88,
edge-----------------------------------|--------|-------- 3, 97 4.76 l--------|-------- 4. 36.
Ward ------------------------------------|--------|-------- 2.41 2.49 --------|-------- 2.45
Skalkaho--------------------------------|--------|-------- 4. 68 6.79 |--------|-------- 5. 73
Nevada: Orr ditch --------------------------|-------- 7.08 --------|--------|--------|-------- 7.08
Nebraska:
Gothenberg ----------------------------. 2.57 --------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 2. 57
Mitchell and Gering --------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 5.41 -------- 5:41
Winters Creek---------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- . 78 -------- 4. 78
Sutherland and Paxton -----------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 2.03 -------- 2.03
North Platte-------------------------------------|--------|---------------- 2.17 1-------- 2, 17
New Mexico: Pecos - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6. 61 6.99 || 10.09 |--------|--------|-------- 7. 90
Utah: -
Butler ditch----------------------------- 6. 24 5, 18 l--------|----------------|-------- 5. 71
Brown and Sanford - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5. 32 4.08 --------|--------|--------|-------- 4. 70
Upper - --------------------------------- 6.30 3.92 l--------|----------------|-------- 5, 11
Green ditch ----------------------------- 4, 52 6.14 I--------|--------|--------|-------- 5.33
Lower ----------------------------------- 2.83 3.06 |--------|--------|--------|-------- 2.95
Big ditch -------------------------------- 3.09 2.86 ----------------|---------------- 2.98
Logan and Richmond------------------. 3.59 4.82 --------|--------|--------|-------- 4. 22
Tanner ditch ----------------------------|-------. 3.62 --------|--------|--------|-------- 3, 62
Farr and Harper ------------------------|-------. 5.77 --------|------------------------ 5. 77
Logan, Hyde Park, and Smithfield. -----|- - - - - - - - 3.94 --------|--------|--------|-------- 3.94
Bear River ------------------------------|---------------- 4.84 i--------|---------------- 4.84
Washington:
Natches River—
Natches and Cowitche---------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 4.62 4.62
Natches Valley Irrigation Co. -------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 10. 50 10. 50
New Shannon -----------------------|--------|--------|--------|---------------- 5. 54 5.54
R. S. and C. ditch -------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 5. 73 5. 73
Selah Valley Co ---------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 3.33 3.33
apato------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 5. 71 5. 71
Yakima Valley Irrigation Co-...----|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 4, 25. 4.25
Yakima River—
Fowler ditch ------------------------|--------|----...---------|---------------- 5.50 5.50
Hubbard and Maxee----------------|--------|----------------|--------|-------- 3.33 3.33
New Reservation--------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|--------| 10.80 10, 80
N. P. Irrigation Co-------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 8.21 8, 21
Prosser ditch ------------------------|-------- 3.04 4.70 --------|-------- 3.98 3. 9]
Selah and Maxee. -------------------|-----, - - - I - - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - 3. 87 3. 87
Sunnyside--------------------------- 10. 64 || 10.24 9.75 9.11 -------- 6.08 9. 81
Wyºf -
Canal No. 2, Wyoming Development Co. 2.53 4.90 --------|--------|--------|-------- 2.72
Deer Creek-
Arnold No. 1 .......... tº G & º & & - © tº ~ * * * * I us w = * * * * * : * * * * * * * * I s = e s m = • * : * * * * * * * * 14, 56 |........ 14.56
Mortimore..... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * I • * * * * * * * 19, 16 1. --...-- 19, 16
Toland Nos. 2, 3, and 4, and Heming-
way Nos.1 and 2 (Little Deer Creek) |........|........|--------|........ 5.63 |---...-- 5, 63
Little Supply, Long, and Heller.....|-. * * * * * * : * * * * * * * = i < * * * * * * * 1 - a • * * * * * 11.06 1. ------. 11, 06
De Voe and Walkinshaw ... . . * * * * * ~ v H = • * ~ * * v- w ł w w = * * * * * r * * * * * * * * H = * * * * * * * 3.84 |........ 3.84
Young, Olsen, and Heller ........... - - - - ----|--------|--------|-------- 1%; - - - - - - - - 1%;


18BVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR.
27
Quantity of water used per acre under main canals, 1899–1904—Continued.

Name Of Canal. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. º
Wyoming—Continued.
Horseshoe Creek—
Macfarlane No. 1 --------------------|--------|----------------|-------- 8.70 |........ 8. 70
Macfarlane No. 2.--------------------|--------|--------|---------------- 14.42 1... ----. 14.42
Reeder --------------------------------------|--------|--------|-------- 3.80 . . . . . . . . 13.80
Waln No. 1 --------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 11.25 - - - - - - - - 11.25
P. Freaney---------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 9.88 - - - - - - - - 19.88
Waln High Water--------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 4. 61 -------. 4.51
St. Dennis ----------------------------------------------------------- 9.78 . . . . . ... 9. T8
M. Moran. ---------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 21. 13 - - - - - - - - 21. 13
T. Freaney No. 1.--------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------. 4.86 - - - - - - - - 4.86
T. Freaney No. 2 --------------------|--------|----------------|-------- 12.91 - - - - - - - - 12.91
T. Freaney No. 3 --------------------|--------|------------------------ 11.62 -------- 11. 62
D. Gordon ---------------------------|------------------------|-------- 5.82 - - - - - - - - 5.82
Moran No. 1 -------------------------|-------------------------------- 4.89 - - - - - - - - 4.89
Moran No.2 -------------------------|----------------i---------------- 9.67 l........ 9. 67
P. J. Hall No. 1 ----------------------|--------|------------------------ 4.58 - - - - - - - - 4.58
W. E. Comalo ------------------------|--------|------------------------ 3.26 -------- 3.26
P. Paulsen No. 1 --------------------|--------|----------------|-------- 17.74 |........ 17. 74
Moran and Torgerson ---------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 3.33 ||-------- 13. 33
Torgerson ---------------------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 8.61 1. . . . . . . . 8. 61
Wellman and Dupes-----------------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 5.71 -------- 5. 71
Dupes and Skolinski------------------------|--------|--------|------- 8.92 - - - - - - - - 8.92
Walker No. 1 ------------------------|----------------|--------|-------. 5.59 |........ 5.59
Shives -------------------------------|----------------|--------|-------- 6.42 - - - - - - - - 6.42
Howard, Smith, and McDermott....|- - - - - - - -]. - - - - - - -j-...-----|- - - - - - - - 10.83 |........ 10.83
Walker No. 2 ----------------------------------------|--------|-------- 4.52 -------- 4.52
Average ----------------------- 4. 49 4.08 4.80 4.59 7. 06 5.75 5. 13
This table shows a fairly close agreement for the first four years
given. The measurements for 1903 and 1904 were made on different
ditches than those for the previous years and the higher averages for
these years require explanation.
The figures given for Idaho are hardly comparable with those for
the other States, because up to June 19 the measurements were made
at a certain point in the Raft River and the duty figured on the basis
of the acreage under all the canals below the point of measurement,
and no record is given of the flow of the river below the head of
the lowest canal. After June 19 the diversions were measured, but
no account was taken of the losses and waste from the canals.
The measurements on Deer Creek and Horseshoe Creek, Wyoming,
represent a duty based upon the amount of water diverted, but this is
above the true duty, because no record is taken of the waste and
return flow at the ends of the canals. Certain features of irrigation
practice on these two streams make the amount of waste water large.
A relatively large area is devoted to the production of native hay, and
many of the farmers keep a constant flow of water across their fields,
so that something like a third or more of the water returns to the
stream without being used. The figures on return seepage on page
50 are very instructive in this connection.
Averaging the figures in the above table gives a depth of 5.13 feet
as a general average for all the canals on which measurements have
been made. The list includes canals of all ages and all degrees of effi-
ciency. Some of the Utah canals have been in use for nearly half a
2S IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
&
century, while the Washington canals have been used for only a few
years. -
The Gage canal is cemented, so that there is practically no loss of
water, while one of the Tule River canals is reported as losing in 2
miles more than 90 per cent of the water entering it. Furthermore,
the canals are distributed widely enough to be representative of the
whole arid region. The general average of 5.13 acre-feet may there-
fore be considered a very fair statement of the quantity of water
which on the average is being supplied at the head of a canal for each
acre of land to be irrigated. Stated in another way: Where a known
volume of water can be obtained, the area of land which, according to
present practice, can be irrigated with that supply will be 1 acre for
every 5.13 acre-feet of water available. As has been stated, this
represents present practice, and it should not be considered as repre-
senting what is possible. In fact, the possibility of a much more
economical use of the water supply is the basis for the hope of a great
future expansion of agriculture in many sections where the supply of
water is now all in use. -
The smallest quantity given in the table is 1.15 acre-feet per acre,
under the Middle Creek canal, in Montana, in 1902; the largest is
21.13 acre-feet per acre, under the M. Moran ditch on Horseshoe
Creek, Wyoming, in 1903. If the latter locality could get along with
as little water as the former, the water used under the M. Moran ditch
would serve more than eighteen times the area now farmed. Both of
these canals are extremes; but a comparison of the average of all the
measurements made in Colorado in 1903, 3.27 acre-feet per acre, with
the average of all measurements made in Wyoming in the same year,
8.52 acre-feet per acre, likewise shows a very wide difference in the
quantity of water used. These comparisons indicate that a more care-
ful use of the water supply in certain districts would make possible a
great expansion of the area devoted to agricultural production.
LATERALS.
*
The following table gives all the measurements at the heads of
laterals which have been made by this Office in the four years covered
by the investigations.
FEVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR.
29
Quantity of water used per acre under laterals.

Canal. Lateral. Year. State. - Quantity.
Acre-feet.
Modesto district .................. Lateral No. 1 ........ --------- 1904 California. ........ 5. 76
Turlock district................... Lateral No. 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904 |..... do ------------ 7. 69
Pioneer --------------------------- Flume lateral No. 2 - - - - - - - - - - 1901 . . . . . do -----------. 1.41
Amity ---------------------------- Biles lateral - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1899 || Colorado - . . . . . . . . 1.82
Lake-----------------------------. Lewis lateral . . . . . ... --------. 1901 | . . . . . do ------------ 3.11
Ridenbaugh ...................... Rust lateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899 || Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 06
Do --------------------------------- O - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1901 . . . . . do ------------ 6.49
Do ---------------------------- Crawford lateral ..... . . . . . . . . 1901 - - - - -do - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. 38
Do ---------------------------- Huntington lateral. . . . . . . . . . . 1901 . . . . . do ------------ 3.04
Do ---------------------------- CreeSOn lateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 4.48
Do.---------------------------- Hunter lateral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 4. 24
Do ---------------------------- Rutledge lateral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 3.90
Do ---------------------------- Tuttle lateral... -- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 5.47
Do ---------------------------- Pollard lateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 3.81
Do ---------------------------- Clark lateral.----------------- 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 4. 64
Do ------------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Perkins lateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1901 . . . . . do ------------ 4. 49
Do ------------ ---------------- Brose lateral.-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1901 | . . . . . do ------------ 5.93
Pecos ----------------------------- Division No. 1 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899 || New Mexico - - - - - - 6. 51
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1899 - - - - - do ------------ 4. 53
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -. 1899 - - - - - do ------------ 2.95
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1899 - - - -do - - - - - - - - - - -. 3.56
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1900 - - - - - do ------------ 4.65
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1900 - - - - - do ------------ 3. 39
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1900 - - - - - do ------------ 2.48
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1900 - - - - - do ------------ 2. 27
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 5. 11
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 2... - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 3.91
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 3.... --- - - - - - - - - - 1901 || - - - - - do ------------ 3.02
Do ---------------------------- Division No. 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1901 - - - - - do ------------ 1.88
Bear River.----------------------- Lateral A 15------------------ 1901 || Utah - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.84
AVerage---------------------|--------------------------------|-------------------------- 4.03
These measurements can hardly be considered as representative,
since only eight canals are represented. They show, however, a
decrease in the average quantity of water supplied for each acre of a
little more than 21 per cent, compared with the average for main
canals (see pp. 25–27). If the averages given for the laterals in this
table are compared with those for the main canals from which they are
taken, the following results are obtained:
Comparison of quantities of water furnished by main canals and laterals therefrom.
[Acre-feet per acre.]
' ' .. Average
Canal. Average for laterals
for Canal. for same.
* i
Pioneer ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 8.01 1. 41
Amity-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4.92 1.82
Pºke--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2.58 3.11
Pecos.; ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7. 90 3. 69
Bear River.-------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. S4 1.84
Modesto district --------------------------------------------------------------- 13. 18 5. 76
Turlock district---------------------------------------------------------------- 8.34 7. 69
Average ----------------------------------------------------------------- 7. 11 3. 67
Assuming that the laterals given fairly represent all those from the
canals named, less than 52 per cent of the water entering these canals
reaches the laterals. The figures given for the Lewis lateral are abnor-
mal, since this lateral shows a greater quantity delivered per acre than
30
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
does the main canal. There is probably some local cause for this. It
is not likely that the others can be considered as representative of
canals generally, but they show the conditions on the canals named.
FARMS.
The measurements of the quantities of water used on individual
farms are brought together in the following table:
Quantity of water wsed per acre on individual farms.

Water
State. Farm. Crop. used per
8. Cre.
Acre-feet.
Arizona --------------- Vance ----------------------------------------- Alfalfa, and barley 1.98
Do----------------- Arizona Experiment Station ... -- . . . . . . . . . ---. Mixed - - - - - - - - - - - - 5. 70
California ------------- Mººd to all consumers under Pioneer ... . . do ------------ 3, 19
itCh.
DO----------------- Sprott Orchard -------------------------------- Oranges and lem- 1. 55
OſłS.
Do----------------- Selected farms under Pioneer ditch - - - - - . . . . . Fruits ------------ 2. 00
Do----------------- Pumped water—average for four years on 25 |..... do ------------ 1. 32
farms—Lindsay Water Development Co.
Idaho ----------------- A. F. Long, 1889 ------------------------------- Mixed.----------- 2. 40
Do----------------- A. F. Long, 1900 -------------------------------|----- do ------------ 3.03
Do----------------- Edgar Wilson. --------------------------------- Orchard - - - - - - - - - 1. 48
Do----------------- C. G. Goodwin, 1900 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ixed ------------ 3.25
DO----------------- C. G. Goodwin, 1901 ---------------------------|----- O - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.32
Do----------------- N. C. Purcell, 1900----------------------------- Tºy and al- 2.43
8,118.
Nebraska. ------------. D. W. Daggett --------------------------------- Mixed -----------. 2.47
New Mexico - - - - - - - - - -. J. J. Hagerman, 1899 --------------------------|----- do ------------ 15. 44
DO----------------- J. J. Hagerman, 1900 --------------------------|----- do ------------ 9.80
Do----------------- J. J. Hagerman, 1901 --------------------------|----- do ------------ 12. 36
DO----------------- Average of 70 under Northern canal, N. Mexico|- - - - - do ------------ 2. 49
Utah ------------------ Cronquist ------------------------------------------ do ------------ 2.59
Washington . . . . . . . . . . . Maurice Evans --------------------------------|----- do ----------- 3.58
Do----------------- Lower Rattlesnake ranch - - - - - - - - - - - - ... . . . . . . . . . . . do ------------ 4. 60
Do----------------- Upper Rattlesnake ranch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Alfalfa. ----------- 3. I1
Do----------------- Jordan Orchard-------------------------------- Orchard . . . . . . . . . . 6.03
DO----------------. Dunn hopyard -----------------------, -------- Hops ------------- 3.43
Do----------------- R. D. Young ----------------------------------- Mixed . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 61
Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . .-- Sigman's ranch -------------------------------|----- do ------------ 3.38
Do ----------------. Webber's ranch -------------------------------|----- do ------------ 1, 92
California Gage Canal. N. P. Cayley - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -. Oranges - - - - - - - - - - 1.98
DO----------------- J. D. Carscaden --------------------------------|----- do ------------ 1. 20
Do----------------- Gulick Brothers -------------------------------|----- do ------------ 2.38
DO----------------- C. C. Quinn ------------------------------------|----- do ------------ 1.98
DO----------------- C. E. Kennedy ---------------------------------|----- do ------------ 2. 48
Average ---------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------- 3.98
Mr. Reed explains that the water used on the Hagerman farm in New
Mexico is used largely for ornamentation, and should not, therefore,
be included in the averages.
is 3.07 acre-feet per acre.
Excluding these, the average for farms
This is about 69 per cent of the average
quantity diverted per acre, showing a loss of 31 per cent between the
heads of canals and the place of use, on the assumption that the meas-
urements are representative, showing a possible source for expansion
by saving the losses.
These measurements differ so widely, even where conditions are
apparently uniform, that they serve to emphasize what has been
already mentioned—the possibility of future development by exercis-
ing economy in the use of water.
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR.
31
CROPS.
The earlier investigations on this subject were carried on with a view
to ascertaining the depth of water applied to the different crops in
actual practice. More recently experiments have been undertaken to
determine how much water should be used in the production of the
various crops in the different parts of the country in order that the
water shall be used most economically.
Quantity of water used in practice.—A large number of measure-
ments of the depth of water applied to different crops were made dur-
ing the years 1899, 1900, and 1901. These measurements are given in
the following table:
gy
Depths of water applied to different crops.

Number Depth of water applied.
Crop. Of * * s &
mentS. Maximum. Minimum. Average.
Alfalfa: ** Feet. Feet. Feet.
Idaho ------------------------------------------------ 4 3.93 2.04 3. 12
Montana--------------------------------------------- 1 ------------------------ 1. 30
Nevada ---------------------------------------------- 1 ------------------------ 6. 55
Utah------------------------------------------------- 2 3. 83 3. 19 3. 51
Washington.------------------------------------------ 1 ------------------------ 3.11
Total and average --------------------------------- 9 6. 55 1. 30 3. 39
Barley:
Arizona ---------------------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 1. 60
Montana --------------------------------------------- 6 1.98 . 85 1. 41
Wyoming -------------------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 1.90
Total and average --------------------------------- 8 1.98 - 85 1.49
Corn:
Arizona ---------------------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 2. 10
Wyoming -------------------------------------------- 1 ------------------------ 70
Total and average --------------------------------- 2 2.10 . 70 1. 40
Oats:
Idaho------------------------------------------------ 2 4.01 1.84 2.93
Montana--------------------------------------------- 11 6.00 . 57 1. 74
Wyoming -------------------------------------------- 2 1.64 1. 55 1. 60
tah ------------------------------------------------- 6 2. 70 .45. 1. 35
Total and average --------------------------------- 21 6.00 .45 I. 73
Orchard:
Arizona ---------------------------------------------- 1 !------------------------ I. 27
Idaho-----------------------------------------------. 3 3.06 1. 48 2. 11
Montana--------------------------------------------- 2 1. 50 1. 48 1.49
tah ------------------------------------------------- 1 ------------------------ 5. 59
Washington.------------------------------------------ 1 ------------------------ 6. 03
Total and average --------------------------------- 8 6. 03 I. 27 2.76
Peas:
Arizona ---------------------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 2. 40
Montana--------------------------------------------- 2 1. 10 . 35 . 73
Total and average ... -----. F - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 2. 40 . 35 I. 28
Potatoes:
Arizona ---------------------------------------------- 4 2. lº 2.00 2. 10
Nevada ---------------------------------------------- 2 8. 16 7. 48 7.80
Wyoming -------------------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 3, 63
Total and average --------------------------------- 7 8, 16 2. 00 3.94
~
32 $
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Depths of water applied to different crops—Continued.

Number Depth of water applied.
Crop. - oºms. $ * *
Iment.S. Maximum. Minimum. | Average.
Sugar beets: Feet. Feet. Feet.
Arizona---------------------------------------------- 2 2, 50 2, 50 2.
Montana --------------------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 1.46
Total and average------------------------------ .*.* * * 3 2.50 1.46 2. 15
Wheat:
Arizona ---------------------------------------------- 6 2. 50 2. 10 2.17
Montana --------------------------------------------- 3 2.00 .77 1.18
Nevada ----------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 14.42 8, 26 11.34
Utah ------------------------------------------------- 8 2, 26 . 63 1.42
Total and average --------------------------------- 19 14.42 . 63 2.68
Hops, Washington --------------------------------------- 1 ------------------------ 3.43
New-meadow, Idaho------------------------------------. 1 ------------|------------ 3. 32
Old meadow, Idaho. ------------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 2.38
Onions, Arizona------------------------------------------ 1 ------------------------ 6, 20
Peaches, Arizona ---------------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 3. 40
Strawberries, Arizona ----------------------------------- 1 ------------|------------ 6. 20
Tomatoes, Arizona--------------------------------------- 1 ------------------------ 4, 30
Watermelons, Arizona ----------------------------------- 2 3.30 3. 20 3.25
These measurements differ as widely as those given in the preceding
tables, but the averages show in a general way the relative quantities
of water used for the different crops included in the table. These
averages, for the crops which are generally raised, are repeated in the
following table, which also gives the season during which the crops
named require water. The season is found by taking from all the
statements on that subject which have been contained in reports to
this Office the first and last dates for each crop. Statements referring
to Arizona are omitted because irrigation continues throughout the
year in that Territory, and its seasons are peculiar to itself.
Depth of water wsed for different crops and the irrigating season for each.

Depth Depth
Crop. Of irri- Irrigating season. Crop. Of irri- Irrigating season.
gation. gation.
Feet. Feet,
Potatoes - - - - - - - - - - 3.94 | May 17 to Sept. 15. Sugar beets - - - - -. 2.15 July 13 to Aug. 17.
Alfalfa - - - - - - - - - - - 3.39 Apr. 1 to Sept. 22. Oats-------------- 1.73 May 22 to Aug. 20.
Orchard - - - - - - - - - - 2.76 Apr. 15 to Sept. 2. Barley - - - - - - - - - - - 1.49 June 12 to Aug. 1.
Wheat.... -- - - - - - - 2.68 Apr. 1 to July 26. Corn ------------- 1.40 July 24 to July 29.
The average depth given for wheat is undoubtedly too large, on
account of the excessive quantities used in Nevada. The season for
sugar beets, as given in the table, refers to Montana alone, and is too
short for States farther south. It should be extended at least to
September 1. Making these allowances, the table shows that in
general the most water is used in the production of those crops which
have the longest seasons. The statements made in this table are of
value as showing what crops can be raised with a given water supply.
The grain crops require the least water, and require it at a season of
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 33
the year when the streams supply the most. Orchards, potatoes,
alfalfa, and sugar beets require water during the season when the flow
of streams is at a minimum, and hence only small areas of these crops
can be raised without storing water. On the other hand, these
crops give much larger returns than the grain crops. The following
table gives the average returns per acre for the crops named in the
last preceding table:
Crop returns per acre.
Potatoes ---------------------------------------------------- $75. 44
Orchard ---------------------------------------------------- 53. 77
Sugar beets------------------------------------------------- 42.99
Alfalfa ----------------------------------------------------- 25. 36
Barley ----------------------------------------------------- 24. 82
Wheat------------------------------------------------------ 15.95
Corn ------------------------------------------------------- 15. 32
Oats-------------------------------------------------------- 15. 22
Dividing these into two groups, those requiring water late in the
season and those not requiring it then, gives average returns of $49.39
per acre for the late crops and $17.83 per acre for the early crops, a
difference of $31.46 per acre in favor of the late crops. Grouping
the crops in the same way and reducing the figures given for wheat to
agree with those given for oats, the late crops require approximately
double the depth of water required by the early crops. Leaving out
of consideration the cost of land and the labor required on the different
crops, a like quantity of water used on 1 acre of late crops will pro-
duce a value of $49.39 and used on 2 acres of early crops will bring a
return of $35.66, a balance of $13.73 in favor of using the water for 1
acre of late crops. Against this must be charged the cost of storing
the extra water. The portion of water which must be stored will vary
with the localities and with the seasons, but 1 acre-foot per acre is cer-
tainly a safe estimate. The average cost of reservoirs in the Cache ka
Poudre Valley, Colorado, as given in a previous bulletin of this Office,”
is $5 per acre-foot of capacity. The annual maintenance charges are
but a few cents per acre-foot, showing a good profit from the late
crops, leaving out of account the extra cost for the double area of land
required for the grain crops. The above figures show that it is much
more profitable to store a part of the flood waters of the early summer
for use on late crops than to extend the area of the early crops to the
limit of the water supply. In other words, where the late summer
flow of streams is now fully appropriated but there is an unused flood
discharge, storing the flood waters will be more profitable than build-
ing canals to bring the flood waters to new land. -
Jººperiments on the duty of water.—Investigations have been carried
on by this Office, in cooperation with several of the agricultural
a U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 92.
30620–No. 158—05—3
34 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
experiment stations, to ascertain how much water should be applied
to a given area of land in the production of a given crop, in order that
the best results shall be attained. -
The method has been to secure several plats of land which have a
uniform soil and to apply water in varying depths to the different
plats in the production of a given crop. Such work has been included
in the cooperative investigation in California, experiments being car-
ried on at Pomona and Chico. The results have not yet been reported.
The cooperative irrigation work with the Utah station consists almost
entirely of experiments along this line. The crops included are Italian
rye grass, Orchard grass, alfalfa, wheat, barley, corn, oats, potatoes,
carrots, onions, cabbage, and sugar beets. Plats of each crop are to
receive different quantities of water, receive water at different stages
of their growth, to have water applied by different methods, and are
to be cultivated at different times and with varying degrees of intensity.
In addition to the plat experiments at the agricultural experiment
station, arrangements have been made with farmers living in different
parts of the State to irrigate and cultivate their crops according to
plans made by the agents of this Office, the work being in a general
way similar to that at the experiment station, but done under field
conditions. Records are kept showing the time each plat or field is
watered, the depth of water received, the dates when it is culti-
wated, the yield per acre, and any other facts which are necessary to.
make the statement complete. The records for the work of 1904 have
been brought together, but one year’s work is not considered a suffi-
cient basis for definite conclusions. Therefore these records will not
be published until next year. Similar experiments were made in New
Mexico in 1904, and the report is given on pages 305-317. The experi-
ments seem to indicate that the product increases more rapidly than
the quantity of water applied to a certain point, after which the total
product per acre can be increased for a time by further additions of
water, but a point is finally reached where the total product per acre
decreases as the quantity of water applied is increased. This means,
of course, that the maximum product per inch in depth of water
applied is reached long before the point of maximum return per acre
has been reached. In the production of oats at the Utah station, for
example, it was found that the largest product per acre was secured
where water was applied to a depth of 30 inches, but the largest prod-
uct per acre-inch of water was secured when the depth was limited to
15 inches. In the production of wheat at the New Mexico station it
was found that the largest product per acre-inch was secured when
the depth of water was limited to 24 inches, but that the product per
acre continued to increase until 35.3 inches had been applied.
It is very evident, therefore, that where land is plentiful and water
is scarce it is poor economy to continue to apply increasing depths of
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 35
water until the product per acre has reached the maximum, when the
same water could be made to produce a much larger product by apply-
ing it to a larger area of land. If more labor were not required per
acre-inch of water, where the given amount of water is applied to the
larger area of land in the production of a given crop, it would seem
that the depth per acre should be so limited that the product per acre-
inch of water shall reach the maximum. But as a matter of fact more
labor is required when the larger area is used, for there are certain
field operations, such as plowing, sowing, and reaping, which cost
about so much per acre. It would appear, therefore, that neither the
largest product per acre of land nor the largest product per acre-inch
of water would prove most profitable to the farmer. The most profit-
able use of the water lies somewhere between these two extremes.
In some localities where water is abundant the economic use of water
will lead to the application of a greater quantity per acre than where
the water is scarce. It is only by careful experimentation that the
farmers of each district will be able to adjust the relations between
the quantity of the water and the quantity of land to be watered by a
given water supply so as to secure the largest net profit in return for
their own exertions.
The relative scarcity of water, as compared with the area of land
which could be irrigated were the supply sufficient, gives great impor-
tance to the work of this Office along the lines of conserving moisture
in the soil, so as to reduce the quantities which must be supplied by
irrigation. The high value of irrigated products and the limited water
supply in California make this work of especial importance there.
Canals have been cemented to avoid seepage losses; water is taken to
the fields in underground pipes, and in some sections is distributed
over the fields in pipes or hose. This Office is extending a step farther
the means of saving water by making experiments to determine what
methods of applying water and of cultivation after irrigation will
reduce to the lowest point the water requirements of crops and the losses
from evaporation. The experiments are still in progress, but some
results can be given. Water was applied by three different methods:
(1) Flooding the surface; (2) in furrows 3 inches deep; and (3) in fur-
rows 12 inches deep. Taking as a basis the quantity of water evapo-
rated under surface flooding, applying water in furrows 3 inches deep
brought about a saving of 13 per cent, while applying it in furrows 12
inches deep brought about a saving of 25 per cent.
LOSSES OF WATER FROM CANALS.
Since the beginning of this investigation measurements of the losses
of water from canals have been made in connection with the studies of
duty of water to compare the losses from canals and from irrigated
36
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
fields. The details of the measurements on any canal are of value
chiefly to the owners of the canal, by showing them the losses which
they sustain and where these losses occur, enabling them to determine
whether they can afford to make the expenditures necessary to improve
their canals. The averages, however, from measurements covering
a large number of canals are of general interest, since they indicate
something as to the amount of loss which must be reckoned with under
The following table brings together the measure-
ments made by this Office during the years which the investigation
average conditions.
has been conducted:
Losses from canals from seepage and evaporation.
Volume
carried (cu-
Loss per mile.
Name of Canal. * t- Date.
bic feet per Cubic feet
j per second. Per cent.
Arizona: -- r
Arizona ------------------------------------- 79.90 0, 70 0.88 June 26, 1900.
O - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 93.25 . 75 .80 || Aug. 4, 1900
O - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 113.00 . 54 .48 || Oct. 8, 1900.
Consolidated.-------------------------------. 124, 60 - 88 .70 || May 29, 1900.
Do -------------------------------------- 22.80 . 50 2.20 June 26, 1900.
Do -------------------------------------- 53.25 . 70 1.31 || Aug. 4, 1900.
(Xalifornia:
Callison Slough ----------------------------- 55.00 ||------------ 5.20 June 6, 1901.
Tipton irrigation district ... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 75.50 ------------ 6.80 May 28, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 48.70 ------------ 6.75 June 17, 1901.
Fine ditch ---------------------------------- 21.20 ------------ 11.33 May 24, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 31.90 ------------ 16.00 June 18, 1901.
Vandalia ditch ----------------------------- 16.00 ------------ 46.00 DO.
Do -------------- z - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16.00 ---------. -- 44.50 June 21, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 10.20 |------------ 64.00 || July 1, 1901.
Porter Slough ------------------------------- 97.60 |- - - - - - - - - - - - .80 June 1, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 3.70 ------------ 11.50 July 9, 1901.
Poplar ditch -------------------------------- 35.30 ------------ 6.25 June 12, 1901.
D0 -------------------------------------- 73.30 ------------ 3.25 || June 14, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 73. 30 ||------------ 2.84 DO.
Do -------------------------------------- 42.80 ------------ 9.50 June 27, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 26.90 ------------ 6.55 June 29, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 21.90 ------------ 7. 66 DO.
Plano ditch --------------------------------- 7.50 ------------ 16.00 || July 1, 1901.
Pioneer -----------, --------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45.00 |- - - - - - - - - - - - 2.14 || May 20, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 87.70 - - - - - - - - - - - - .46 May 31, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 27.70 ||------------ 1.45 O.
Do -------------------------------------- 37.20 ------------ 2.20 July 10, 1901.
Do -------------------------------------- 23.90 -----------. 1. 09 DO.
Pleasant Valley ditch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.60 ------------ 11.11 July 2, 1901.
O - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.90 ------------ 8.60 || Aug. 1, 1901.
South Tule ditch---------------------------- 7. 90 ------------ 2.80 July 3, 1901.
O - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.60 |------------ 2.50 Aug. 4, 1901.
Ditches in Santa Clara Valley---------------|------------|-----------. 6.00 | 1904.
Imperial—
Birch lateral---------------------------- 17.75 . 25 1.40 | 1904.
O - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 24.45 . 20 . 80 1904.
Beach lateral ----------------, ---------- 7. 12 .42 5.90 | 1904.
Dahlia ---------------------------------- 45.40 .94 2.07 1904.
Dogwood lateral .... -------------------- 22. 60 . 95 4.22 || 1904.
Holt lateral—
First Section ------------------------ 27.28 . 57 2.00 | 1904.
Second Section.---------------------. 12.92 . 31 2.40 || 1904.
Rose lateral—
First Section --------...--------------- 36. 55 . 75 2.07 || 1904.
Second Section---------------------- 24.54 . 26 1.05 || 1904.
Modesto ------------------------------------ 260. 00 1.70 . 65 | 1904.
Colorado:
Grand Valley, high line a............ ------. 139, 62 . 53 .38 July 10–12, 1901.
Lake ---------------------------------------- 456.33 2.23 .49 June 9, 1901.
Idaho, Raft River: Pierce-Keogh west ditch. - - - 4. 76 . 41 8. 61 1904.
a Main line of Grand Valley canal shows a gain.
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR.
icy
? Losses from canals from 8eepage and evaporation—Continued.
Volume LOSS per mile.
carried (cu-
Name of canal. big feet Per Cubie feet | Percent Date.
second). persecond. * *
Montana:
Middle Creek ------------------------------- 98.90 5.38 5.34 July 10, 1899.
West Gallatin. ------------------------------ 114.45 .98 .86 July 18–20, 1900.
Farmers'------------------------------------ 133. 10 2, 19 1.65 July 30, 1900.
Middle Creek ------------------------------- 63.04 1. 16 1.84 June 27–28, 1900.
Big ditch------------------------------------ 254. 47 2.96 1. 16 Aug. 9–13, 1900.
Republican --------------------------------- 120. 49 3.05 2.53 July 21–24, 1900.
Nebraska: Culbertson ... ----------------------- 80, 62 1.94 2.41 Aug. 7–8, 1894.
Oregon, Klamath County:
Adams ditches—
W ditch------------------------------- 16.99 , 29 1. 71 || 1904.
Old ditch ------------------------------- 18. 16 . 29 1. 60 | 1904.
Ankeny ditch------------------------------- 43. 98 .86 1.96 1904.
Do -------------------------------------- 43.41 1.21 2. 79 ; 1904.
Mitchell ditch ------------------------------ 3.93 . 53 13. 52 1904.
8,il.
Logan and Richmond ---------------------- 82. 10 1------------ 2.28 Average of 6.
Logan, Hyde Park, and Smithfield - - - - - - - - - 50.57 |... ---------- 2.65 Average of 8.
Bear River ---------------------------------- 279.34 4.02 1.44 June 25, 1901.
Westline-------------------------------- 138.59 .42 .30 June 25–26, 1901.
Corinne line ---------------------------- 118.94 - 82 .69 June 26–27, 1901.
West linea------------------------------ 319. 27 3.54 1. 11 Aug. 6–8, 1900.
Washington, Yakima Valley:
Snipes lateral.------------------------------- 63.00 .84 1. 33 1904.
South Branch lateral ----------------------- 16. 51 . 13 . 80 1904.
Wyoming:
Canal No. 2.--------------------------------- 89.65 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.00 July 9–11, 1900.
Do -----*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36.52 -----. ------ .94 Aug. 20–22, 1900.
Average ------------------------------|------------------------ 6. 76

a Includes what is given as main line in measurement of 1901.
The general average of all these measurements shows that 6.76 per
cent of the water entering the canals is lost in each mile of length, the
losses ranging from 0.3 to 64 per cent per mile. The heavier losses
occur in the small ditches flowing over gravel-bottom lands, while the
small losses occur in ditches which are so situated that they presum-
ably receive drainage from higher lands and those which carry muddy
water through a fine soil and therefore become silted.
Grouping the canals given in the foregoing table according to the
volume of water carried gives the following results:
Losses of water from canals by seepage and evaporation, by groups.
Percent-
No. age of loss
per mile.
Canals carrying 100 cubic feet per Second or more- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13 0.95
Canals carrying between 50 and 100 cubic feet per second - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -. 15 2.58
Canals carrying between 25 and 50 cubic feet per Second-...------------------...---- 15 4. 21
Canals carrying less than 25 cubic feet per Second----------------------------------- 24 11. 28
This table brings out very clearly the advantage of carrying water
in large canals rather than in several small canals, where this can be
done. Along a great many streams several canals parallel one
38 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
another for long distances. In such situations the carrying of the
water in one large canal would mean a very great saving of water.
The figures given in the foregoing tables are the results of a single
series of measurements in each case and are, therefore, liable to con-
siderable error, due to changes in the discharge of the canal during
the progress of the measurements or to conditions which are tempo-
rary. A much better measurement of the losses would be continuous
records of the flow at the upper and lower ends of the sections under
consideration. Such records were kept during the season of 1904 on
the Modesto and Turlock canals in California (see p. 116).
The records for the season are given in the following table:
Losses of water from Modesto and Turlock camals during the season of 1904.
Modesto canal:
Discharge for Season at head.------------------- acre-feet-- 90,795
Discharge for season at Waterford, 22 miles below head,
acre-feet --------------------------------------------- 76,717
Loss ------------------------------------- acre-feet. - 14,078
Percentage of loss -------------------------------------- 15. 51
Percentage of loss per mile------------------------------ . 71
Turlock canal:
Discharge at head, for season - - - - - - - * * * * * * * * * * * acre-feet-- 166,845
Discharge 22 miles below head.-------------------- do - - - - 136, 753
Loss----------------------------------------- do- - - - 30,092
Percentage of loss -------------------------------------- 18.04
Percentage of loss per mile------------------------------ . 82
The single measurement of the Modesto canal previously given
showed a loss of 0.65 per cent per mile, while the record for the sea-
son showed a loss of 0.71 per cent per mile, a very slight variation.
IRETURN SEEPAGE.
SOUTH PLATTE AND TFIBUTARIES.
The gain in the flow of streams, due to return seepage from the
irrigated lands lying along their courses, has been brought into great
prominence during the past few years in connection with discussions
of the use of interstate streams in irrigation. These, however, are
equally important on other streams, affecting the distribution of water
by public officials. In order that these officials may make a fair divi-
sion of the water, it is necessary that they know approximately how
much water will return to the stream along its course to supply ditches
heading on the lower sections. Measurements of return seepage have
been carried on on the South Platte and its tributaries in Colorado
for many years. The records on the Cache la Poudre extend back to
1885,” and on the South Platte to 1889.”
a Colorado Station Bul. 33. b Reports of the State engineers of Colorado.
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 39
During the season of 1903, in connection with the study of rights to
water from the Platte River and its tributaries in Colorado, Wyom-
ing, and Nebraska, measurements were made to determine the amount
of return seepage on the South Platte River in Colorado and Nebraska,
on the St. Vrain in Colorado, on the North Platte in Wyoming and
Nebraska, and on the Laramie in Wyoming. These measurements
are partially reported in Bulletin 147 of this Office, but are given here
more in detail. The following table shows the gains in the flow of
the South Platte River as measured in August, 1903, by Mr. C. E.
Tait, of this Office, and Prof. O. W. P. Stout, of the University of
Nebraska:
Return seepage to South Platte River, August 3–20, 1903.
[Cubic feet per second.]

Dis- Dis- Gain (+): Gain
Length} charge Diver. charge fºr | li (+) or
Section measured. Of at Inflow. * : OD1 at ... loss (–)
section. upper Sions. loºſer | [...] in ºper
stafion station. Section. mile
Miles.
Platte Canyon to City ditch. -----......... 5.25 91.85 - - - - - - - - 114.80 8.69 + 31.64 + 6. 04
City ditch to Littleton -------------------- 6.25 6.04 3.06 || 14.04 || 19. 37 + 24.31 + 3.89
Littleton to Denver ----------------------- 10. 50 35. 52 3.97 5. 69 46.36 + 12.56 + 1.19
Denver to below Clear Creek. - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.00 59. 18 53.66 16.34 122.66 + 26.16 + 3. 74
Below Clear Creek to below Brantner
ditch ------------------------------------ 7.00 | 122.66 . 74 156. 58 9. 20 i + 42.38 i + 6. 05
Below Brantner ditch to Brighton. - - - - - - - 7.25 4.75 . 00 13.00 26.81 + 35.06 i + 4.84
Brighton to Fort Lupton - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7. 50 26.81 3.86 44.33 5.09 + 18.75 i + 2.50
Fort Lupton to Platteville - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8. 50 9.99 .00 33. 69 1.97 + 25.67 + 3.02
Platteville to above St. Vrain River - - - - - - - 4. 75 1.97 .00 11.47 13.84 + 23.34 + 4.91
Above St. Vrain River to above Section 3
ditch ------------------- ºr * * * * = - - - - - - - - - - 7.25 13.84 || 96.74 90.99 58. 13 + 38.54 : + 5. 32
Above Section 3 ditch to below Big Thomp-
son River-------------------------------- 2.50 58.13 || 33.09 31.22 68.87 + 8. S7 + 3. 55
Below Big Thompson River to Evans -- . . . 2.50 68.87 9. 17 | 86. 12 6.73 —# 14.81 + 5.92
Evans to below Cache la Poudre River. - - - 6.50 6.73 34.22 || 33.33 61.15 + 53.53 + 8. 24
IBelow Cache la Poudre to Kersey- - - - - - - - - 2.00 | 61.15 . 00 . 00 93.31 + 32.16 +16.08
Kersey to above Bijou canal - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11.00 | 93.31 1. 34 10. 18 116.99 || + 32. 52 -i- 2.96
Above Bijou canal to below Putnam ditch. 8.00 116.99 .00 20, 56 117.99 || + 21. 56 + 2. 69
Below Putnam ditch to above FOrt Mor-
gan Canal ------------------------------- 16. 50 117.99 .00 142. 41 || 32.25 + 56.67 + 3.43
Below Fort Morgan canal to below Bijou
Creek------------------------------------ 8. 00 i 32.25 2.54 , 00 60.76 + 25.97 + 3.25
Below Bijou Creek to Fort Morgan........ 3.00 60.76 . 00 1.00 62.39 + 2.63 + . 88
Fort Morgan to Snyder-------------------- 11. 50 | 101.36 . 00 1. 33 146. 27 + 46.24 + 4.02
Snyder to Merino-------------------------- 18.00 146. 27 .00 151.93 29.10 | + 34.76 i + 1.93
Merino to Sterling------------------------- 14.50 | 29, 10 . 85 81. 20 22.67 || -- 73.92 + 5.09
Sterling to Iliff---------------------------- 10.00 22.67 16.49 64. 20 14.23 + 39.27 + 3.92
Iliff to Crook ------------------------------ 15.00 || 14.23 . 00 13.48 5.36 | + 4.61 | + .31
Crook to Sedgwick ------------------------ 17. 00 5. 36 , 00 1. 29 5.78 + 1.71 i + . 10
Sedgwick to Julesburg - - - - - - - - -----------. 15. 50 5. 78 - 00 .00 7.75 | + 1.97 + . 13
Total for Colorado------------------- 232.75 --------|----------------|-------- +727. 61 + 3. 30
Head of Western canal to Ogalalla - - - - - - - - 26. 50 91. 10 .00 || 11, 25 4.99 || – 74.86 — 2.82
Ogalalla to Korty-------------------------- 13.00 4.99 2. 72 . 00 .00 — 7.71 — . 59
Total for Nebraska - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39.50 --------|--------|---------------- – 82.57 | – 2.09
The last column of the table showing the gain or loss per mile is
valuable for the purpose of comparing the gains in different sections
of the stream. The largest return—16.08 cubic feet per second per
mile—is in the section immediately below the mouth of the Cache la
Poudre, the largest tributary of the South Platte. The canals head-
ing in the Cache la Poudre, as well as those heading in the Platte, irri-
40 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
gate large areas bordering this section of the stream, and seepage
water finding its way down the valley of the Cache la Poudre also
enters this section of the river. The next largest gain—8.24 cubic
feet per second per mile—is in the section immediately above that
showing the largest gain. This section lies just below the mouth of
the Big Thompson River, and a large part of this gain undoubtedly
comes from land watered by the Big Thompson. Similarly, the next
largest gain is in the section just below the mouth of Clear Creek.
The other sections showing the large gains are also near the mouths
of natural tributaries whose valleys are irrigated. The lowest rate of
gain is in the sections farthest down the river, where there is little irri-
gation and no tributaries. In the two sections in Nebraska, where
there is even less irrigation than in Colorado, the channel becomes
more sandy and broader. The river was entirely dry at Korty when
these measurements were made.
Measurements similar to those reported on page 39 have been re-
ported by the State engineers of Colorado covering the years from
1889 to 1902, with the exception of 1897. The results of these
measurements are given in the following table:
Gain in flow of South Platte River from return seepage.
[Cubic feet per second.]

© Dis-
Section. tance. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895.
Miles.
Platte Canyon to head of City ditch - 5.25 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27. 57 || 25. 32 18, 41 || 49.23 20. 21
|Head of City ditch to Littleton - - - - - 6.25 || 49.91 11. 73 5.2. 61 || 44, 63 || 23, 50 || 25, 59 55.23
Littleton to Denver - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10. 50 1.00 || 43.88 16. 20 59.61 || 41.27 118.92 || 117, 80
Denver to Brighton-...------------- 21. 25 26. 16 || 43. 30 78.81 – 13. 39 69.73 84. 30 13. 89
Brighton to Platteville- - - - - - - - - - - - - 16. 00 || 56, 31 78.00 { 51. 74 || 64. 37 65.91 65.01 || 134. 44
Platteville to Evans- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ..! 17.00 | 63.62 g 72.28 12.32 61.11 107, 46 44, 28
- Fº º* * * * * * * * * * * * 27. ; ſº 69 || 119 50 | 137.75 85.85 98.61 || 179.41
utnam ditch to Fort Morgan . . . . . 27. 50 f. 284. 11
Fort Morgan to Snyder............. 11. 50 188.58 l 50.58 51.80 ||-------- 113.89 || 158, 52 14.82
Snyder to Merino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.00 21. 53 79.73 |- - - - - - - - 34. 72 58.67 145.26
Merino to Sterling . . . . . . . . . ........ 14. 50 || 32.75 29.45 33.36 |... . . . . . 38, 76 46.80
Sterling to Iliff-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.00 4. 14.05 28.07 - - - - - - - - 24, 84 |} 43.80 16, 99
§ º $gº; s = * * *k................. 1 } % * * * * * * * * & º 'º º ºs º ºs º —13.07 --------|-------- – 48.05
rook to Sedgwick. --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17.00 l--------|-------- -
Sedgwick to State line. - - - - - - - - - - - - 15.50 --------|-------. } 3.31 --------|-------- 34. 17 —32. 89
Total.------------------------- 232. 75 || 422. 77 || 449. 21 602. 00 || 330. 61 572, 99 || 722. 56 942. 30
ſº Dis-
Section. tance 1896. 1898. 1899 1900 1901. 1902. 1903.
Miles
Platte Canyon to head of City ditch - 5.25 10, 18 1.21 72.93 || 33.96 21. 22 5. 04 31, 64
Head of City ditch to Littleton . . . . 6.25 || 14.76 26.44 60. 96 || 40. 17 | 11. 49 || 13. 24 24. 31
Littleton to Denver. . . . . . . . . ... ---. 10. 50 | 33.95 || 61.63 16.40 | 16. 22 || 35.63 || 24.90 12.56
Denver to Brighton - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21. 25 67. 29 || 49.66 124.01 70. 27 | 73. 29 || 48, 67 || 103. 60
Prighton to Platteville - - - - - - - - - - - - 16. 00 92.87 | 112.35 88. 79 || 56.08 || 130. 67 | 66. 24 44.42
Platteville to Evans - - - - - -......... 17.00 37.59 110. 97 111. 50 117. 10 || 138. 84 || 95.17 85. 56
|Evans to Putnam ditch - - - - - - - - - - - - 27. 50 87.99 || 160. 13 150, 38 || 79.14 182. 24 || 92. 23 139. 77
Putnam ditch to Fort Morgan . . . . . 27. 50 | 90. 61 | 94.62 97. 74 99, 79 || 90.89 117.28 85.27
Fort Morgan to Snyder . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. 50 52.79 || 37. 13 72, 63 | 83. 77 || 65.87 || 61.33 46.24
Snyder to Merino - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18.00 66. 21 | . . . . . . . . 93, 87 85. 54 || 97.04 || 80.35 34.76
Merino to Sterling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.50 32.60 - - - - - - - - 73. 73 || 62.03 47.00 97.17 73, 92
Sterling to Iliff--------------------- 10.00 21.36 . . . . . . . . 46. 19 5. 19 || 32.04 7, 27 39. 27
Iliff to Crook..... ------------------ 15.00 --------|-------- 69. 38 23.64 || 12. 12 29.83 4. 61
Crook to Sedgwick- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17.00 --------|-------- —17. 13 | –50. 69 } 3. 73 { , 10 1, 71
Sedgwick to State line............. 15.50 --------|-------- 41. 23 77.98 e 10, 67 1.97
Total.------------------------- 232.75 | 608. 20 || 654. 14 |1, 102.61 800. 19 || 941. 57 || 749.49 | 729.61
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 41
The table shows that there is no uniformity in the gain in any
section from year to year or in the stream as a whole. The amount
of return seepage depends on so many factors which vary from year
to year that it is not to be expected that there would be any uni-
formity or any gradual increase or decrease in the seepage returns in
any given section. The amount of water coming into the stream
from the lands bordering it in any section must depend primarily
upon the amount of water received by these lands, either in the form
of rainfall or irrigation. The amount of rainfall varies from year to
year without any fixed law, and the amount used in irrigation depends
upon the amount which can be secured for that purpose. In general,
then, larger returns will be expected in wet years than in dry years,
since in such years the lands receive more water from both irrigation
and rainfall.
The rate of flow of water through soils is extremely slow, and water
applied to land at some distance from the stream takes several years
to reach the stream, so that the entire effect of heavy irrigation may
not be shown immediately in the return seepage. This would tend to
decrease the variations in the return flow due to wet and dry seasons.
It is therefore practically impossible to establish any relation between
the quantity of water received by land and the amount of water which
will be supplied by this land to the stream. However, grouping these
measurements will help to minimize the effect of variations since these
will tend to offset each other. The measurements given cover fourteen
years. Dividing these into two seven-year periods gives the results
which are shown in the following-table:
Gain or loss in flow of South Platte River by seven-year periods.
[Second-feet.]


Before 1896. After 1895.
Section. Length.
tº. Total. | Per mile. Total. Per mile.
Miles
Platte Canyon to City ditch. ----------------------- 5, 25 28. 15 5. 36 25, 17 4. 79
City ditch to Littleton.----------------------------- 6.25 37.17 5.95 27, 34 4. 36
Littleton to Denver----------------------- ---------- 10. 50 56.95 5. 42 28. W6 2. 74
Denver to Brighton -------------------------------- 21. 25 43, 26 2.04 76. 68 3. 61
Brighton to Platteville----------------------------. 16.00 67.94 4.25 S4. 49 5. 28
Platteville to Evans. ------------------------------- 17. 00 57. 32 3. 37 99, 53 5. 85
Evans to Putnam ditch. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27, 50 119.90 4.36 127. 41 4.63
Putnam ditch to Fort Morgan. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27. 50 93. 34 3, 39 95. 17 3. 46
Fort Morgan to Snyder. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11. 50 25, 12 2. 18 59, 97 5. 21
Snyder to Merino -----------------. ---------------- 18.00 63. 35 3. 52 76. 30 4. 24
Merino to Sterling---------------------------------- 14. 50 32. 03 2, 21 64.41 4. 44
Sterling to Iliff------------------------------------- 10.00 16, 58 1.66 25, 22 2. 52
Iliff to Crook --------------------------------------- 15.00 —14.83 — .99 27. 92 1. 86
Crook to State line-----------------. ---------------- 32.50 | —21, 25 — . 65 13. 91 . 43
In some years the sections between measurements were not the same
as those given in the table, but included two or more of the sections
as given. In such cases the gain or loss in the larger section is
divided between the sections as they are given in the table in propor-
tion to the mileage. The results given in the table are shown graph-
42 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
ically in figure 1. In the figure the vertical scale represents gain in
cubic feet per second per mile, and the horizontal scale represents
Aºmº &nda
cºy Orch
Ahºeron
Aerver
&righton
Aºffèville
Ax/Yºann
40//º/,
Jºnyaer
Aſerino
S
§
£o.55
§
§ - Gºin g
s cubie Feer per second per / ſile.
S. Ne Rºse No fe Sw $40 e &
& Q &n Q § Q ºn $ § S. Kn
$º $º
:
§,
NS
*
SN
Š
§
;
§
§
.
:
§
:
SS -
FIG. 1.-Diagram showing return seepage to South Platte River for two seven-year periods, 1889–1895,
ser/ing
//iff
Crook.
3?aſe
A./ne.
f
and 1896–1903, excluding 1897,











TEVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 43
distance from the upper measurements at Platte Canyon. The hatched
columns show the gains in the first seven-year period, from 1889 to
1895. The solid columns show the gains in the second seven-year
period, from 1896 to 1903, excluding 1897. The difference in the
heights of the two columns for any section represents the increase or
decrease in the return waters for that section in the second seven-year
period over the return waters for the same section for the first seven-
year period. The diagram shows that between Platte Canyon and
Denver the return seepage was greater for the first seven-year period
than for the second.
Few diagrams connected with irrigation investigations are more
instructive than figure 1. The variation in the return seepage in the
different sections of the river reflects with surprising accuracy the
influences which modified return seepage during that time. Beginning
at the upper end and taking the section embraced in the 20 miles from
Platte Canyon to Denver, we find that the return seepage during the
first period was greater than during the second period, a decrease
instead of an increase in the quantity of water returning. This is
contrary to the general tendency on western streams, and there must
have been some special reason. What was it? There were two pre-
dominating causes. During the greater part of the first period there
was no law requiring protection of priorities and requiring the division
of water between irrigation districts. The Platte River was divided
into three districts, and the section between Platte Canyon and Denver
was in the upper district, and the two lower districts had no legal
means of compelling the irrigators in this section to respect their pri-
orities; hence those in district 3 were, during much of the year, able
to have an abundance of water and to use it generously. The result
was a large proportion returned as seepage.
Furthermore, in the earlier period the ditches irrigated the lands
nearer the streams. Much of this land was underlaid with gravel, and
a large percentage of the water taken out returned quickly to the
stream. During the second period the law providing for recognition
of prior rights on the lower part of the stream was enforced. The
quantity of water available in this section of the stream was greatly
reduced. Water had to be used with greater economy. The result
was a less volume of return seepage. Another contributing cause was
that the earlier ditches were extended, reaching farther back from the
stream and causing the seepage water to return lower down, probably
in some cases below Denver.
In the section between Denver and Evans we find a reversal of what
took place in the section between Platte Canyon and Denver. In the
upper section the return seepage was less in the second period. In
the lower section the return is far greater in the second period. The
following are the reasons for this. During the first period the lands
44 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
under some of the large ditches were not fully brought under irriga-
tion; hence the subsoil was not fully saturated and the amount of
water finding its way back into the stream was small. During the
second period the extension of the irrigated area and the filling up of
the subsoil had progressed far enough to materially increase the return
seepage rate.
Another factor in increasing the seepage flow was the law providing
for the recognition of prior rights in the middle district of the stream.
This gave more water to this section, and the use of this water pro-
duced more return seepage. Still another factor was the construction
of reservoirs. The building of the reservoir above Greeley filled the
subsoil of that town with seepage water and compelled the building of
a drain. This was all seepage water. Undoubtedly a great deal of it
passed on beyond the town of Greeley and found its way into the
channels of the Big Thompson and Platte, and the same action took
place from other reservoirs built during the latter part of the first
period and the first part of the second period. -
The sections between Evans and Fort Morgan show approximately
equal gains in the two periods. In these sections a large number of
ditches have been constructed for the purpose of collecting seepage
water for use in irrigation. This prevents this water from reaching
the river, and therefore it does not show in the measurements of
return seepage. This probably explains the fact that the volume of
water returned to the stream in these sections did not increase in the
second period as compared with the first.
When we come to the lower section of the stream, from Fort
Morgan to the State line, we find again a marked increase in the seep-
age rate during the second period. This grows out of the fact that
much of the land was not irrigated until during the first period. The
extension of the Fort Morgan and Platte and Beaver ditches, which
took place during the first period, did not result in completely satu-
rating the subsoil and bringing about the full effect of return seepage
until in the second period. In the district below Sterling there was
so little irrigation during the first period that return seepage was not
sufficient to overcome losses from evaporation, and we have there a
loss instead of a gain. The strengthening of the river's flow by the
increased seepage in the section above has, however, made it possible
to greatly extend irrigation in the region around Sterling, and the
reduction in the flow of the stream due to evaporation has been
changed into an increase in flow by the augmented return seepage
water during the second period. -
The following table gives the results of measurements made on St.
Vrain Creek in the fall of 1903 and also those previously made by the
State engineers of Colorado.
EEVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR.
45
Return seepage to St. Vrain Creek, Colorado, 1903.
[Cubic feet per second.]

Dis- Dis- re
Length charge Diver- |Chârgei Gain (+) Gaiºſ +)
Section measured. º sec- at up: |Inflow. ... [at º: 1 º: ) loss (–)
ion. persta- * | er Stå- 10SS (—). sº
tion. tion. per mile.
Miles.
Lyons to below Smead ditch . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.25 66. 56 0.00 33.77 33.59 + 0.80 +0.36
Below Smead ditch to below Oligarchy
itch ---------------------------------- 2, 50 31.84 .00 | 16.68 23.41 || -- 8.25 +3.30
Below Oligarchy ditch to below Niwot
ditch ---------------------------------- 2.75 23.41 .00 | 18. 24 4.41 — . 76 — . 28
Below Niwot ditch to above Left Hand -
Creek---------------------------------- 4.75 4.41 8.67 || 10.58 14.87 4–12. 37 +2. 60
Above Left Hand Creek to county line...| 1.75 17.40 6.25 .00 25.39 + 1.74 + .99
County line to above Boulder Creek .... 2.50 || 25. 39 3. 60 .00 | 40. 60 +11. 61 +4.64
Above Boulder Creek to bridge.......... 6.75 | 40. 60 .91 8. 68 46.97 | + 5.46 + .. 81
Bridge to mouth of Creek ............... 6. 50 38. 29 . 00 .00 42.00 + 3.71 + . 57
Total ------------------------------ 29.75 i--------|--------|--------|-------- +43. 18 +1.45
Whole stream:
October 17–19, 1900- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29.75 | 66.24 |... -----|--------|--* - - - - - +36.41 +1.22
July and August, 1900 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29.75 --------|----------------|-------- +28. 74 + .97
August, 1902------------------------- 29.76 --------|--------|--------|-------- +13.38 + .45
The measurements show a gain throughout the course of the stream
with the exception of one short section.
In the following table are brought together the measurements
of return seepage to the other tributaries of the South Platte, as
reported by the State engineer of Colorado and the Colorado Experi-
ment Station. The measurements for the Cache la Poudre from 1885
to 1895 are taken from Bulletin 33 of the Colorado Experiment Sta-
All the other measurements are from the reports of the State
tion.
engineers.
Return seepage to the other tributaries of the South Platte.
[Cubic feet per second.]
Di Flow at hºw Di dº t
IS- TOIn I Wer- flow 8. tº
Stream and date. tàInce. sº tributa- Sions. lower Gain.
" | Iſles. station
Cache la Poudre: - Miles,
October 12–15, 1885.-...----------------------------- 35. 127. 61 l- - - - - - - - 61. 40 153. 17 86.96
October 14–17, 1889. ------------------------- ----- 38.60 68.72 |.... ---. 157.80 9. 89 98.97
October 16–18, 1890. ------------------------------- 38. 60 80. 78 : - - - - - - - - 148, 85 | 32. 73 100.80
October 29–30, 1891. ------------------------------- 38. 60 97.58 5.88 122.27 60. 72 79.53
March 11-12, 1892--------------------------------- 34.85 65.02 1.65 21, 29 141. 49 96.11
October 5–8, 1892---------------------------------- 38. 60 || 62.92 - - - - - - - - 139. 28 || 31.69 108.05
November 9–11, 1893. . . . . . . . . -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38. 60 52.47 - - - - - - - - 90, 39 60.76 98.68
March 13–15, 1894--------------------------------- 38. 1 99.21 |........ 104. 60 76. 93 82.32
August 20–23, 1894 -------------------------------. 38. 10 || 268.07 || 10.33 316, 65 || 32.90 71. 15
October 9–14, 1895--------------------------------- 38. 10 66.47 4.69 || 72, 12 || 116.84 117, 80
1901 ---------------------------------------------- 38. 10 831.22 --------|--------|-------. 167. 30
1902 ---------------------------------------------- 88.10 i 304.00 --------|--------|-------. 119. 43
Big Thompson:
1897 ----------------------------------------------|----------------|--------|--------|-------- 64.08
1898----------------------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|---------------- 52.74
July 18–21, 1900 -----------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 51.85
September 8–18, 1900------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 27. 07
September and July, 1901 ------------------------|--------|--------|--------|---------------- 53. 65
July, 1902-----------------------------------------|--------|----------------|--------|-------- 42,09
46
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Return seepage to the other tributaries of the South Platte—Continued.

Dis. |Flow at º Di * t
1S- TOInn. lVer.- tiQW ºl. *
Stream and date, tance. ...º. tributa- sions. lower Gain.
t ries. station.
Little Thompson: Miles
1897 ----------------------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------- 10.63
1898----------------------------------------------|----------------|--------|--------|-------- 8. 89
September 15–16, 1900 ----------------------------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------. 22, 82
uly, 1901 ----------------------------------------|--------|----------------|--------|-------- 28. 24
August, 1902--------------------------------------|--------|--------|------- * | * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * 14, 73
BOulder Creek: f
1900 ----------------------------------------------|-------- 29.25 --------|--------|-------- 27. 60
August and September, 1901 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.68 ----------------|-------- 16. 19
September, 1902----------------------------------|-------- 18.29 |--------|--------|-------- 12, 48
South Boulder Creek: 1900. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.24 --------|--------|-------. 1.05
Clear Creek:
October 29 to November 17, 1900 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27.89 ----------------|-------- 15. 80
September, 1901 ----------------------------------|-------- 144.27 ------- --------|-------- 24. 24
September, 1902 ----------------------------------|-------- 72.42 --------|--------|-------- 8.78
Rear Creek:
October 27, 1900 ----------------------------------|-------- 24.06 --------|---------------- 15. 71
September, 1901 ----------------------------------|-------- 17.22 l--------|--------|-------- 18. 70
September, 1902 ----------------------------------|--------| .55 --------|--------|-------- 4.15
All of these streams are extensively used for irrigation and all show
substantial gains from seepage. The valleys of all these streams open
into the South Platte Valley, and undoubtedly a large part of the
return seepage enters the South Platte rather than the stream from
which the water was diverted. The volume of return seepage from
the lands watered by these streams is, therefore, larger than the figures
given in the table indicate.
The results given above are secured by making series of measure-
ments. During the season of 1903 an attempt was made to keep a
complete record of the diversions from the South Platte and its
tributaries. Records were kept by the water commissioners in coop-
eration with the agents of this Office. These records are more or less
complete, and in only a few instances do they include all of the small
ditches. Ditches which have such early rights that it is seldom neces-
sary for the water commissioners to regulate them, and those which
head on the lower sections of the streams and are supplied by seepage
and are therefore not regulated by the water commissioners, were not
included in the records of diversions. For the same season records of
stream flow were kept by the United States Geological Survey. From
the records of stream flow and diversions the following table has been
compiled. This table shows the average flow of the stream for each
month, the average volume of water diverted, and the difference
between the stream flow and the diversions.
REVIEW OF THE WORK of THE YEAR. 47
Return seepage to tributaries of South Platte.
[Cubic feet per second.]
Diver- Excess
Stream and date. - Flow. sions. of flow.
Clear Creek:
May, 1908--------------------------------------------------- * - - - - - - - - - - 249 193 56
June, 1908 ------------------------------------------------------------- 806 540 266
July, 1908-------------------------------------------------------------- 568 426 142
August, 1908----------------------------------------------------------- 218 105 113
September, 1908 ------------------------------------------------------- 124 63 61
October (21 days), 1903. ----------------------------------------------- 110 69 51
St. Vrain Creek:
June, 1908------------------------------------------------------------. 772 588 184
July, 1908-------------------------------------------------------------- 405 361 44
August, 1908----------------------------------------------------------- 135 146 —11
September, 1908 ------------------------------------------------------- 67 99 –32
Big Thompson River:
ay, 1903-------------------------------------------------------------- 259 220 39
June, 1908 ------------------------------------------------------------- 897 905 — 8
July, 1908-------------------------------------------------------------- 573 485 88
August, 1908----------------------------------------------------------- 169 150 19
September, 1903 ------------------------------------------------------- 95 65 30
This table shows considerable excess of flow over diversions except
in a few months. This, however, leaves out of consideration the small
ditches before referred to. In order to make the measurements on the
South Platte of value records of flow of these streams where they
enter the Platte should have been kept, since any excess in these tribu-
taries goes to supply ditches in the main stream. This would help to
account for the large excess of diversions over stream flow in the
South Platte from Denver to Julesburg. It is a fair assumption that
after the flood period in June the diversions by the small ditches not
included in the above records fully equal the excess of flow over
recorded diversions. The South Platte may, therefore, be considered
independent of these tributaries in the late summer. The following
table showing return seepage to the South Platte River during July
and August is based on this assumption and shows the gains in the
river for those months:
Return seepage to South Platte River, July and August, 1903.
[Cubic feet per second.]
Dis- DiS- |
* Percent-
* charge | Diver- charge . .
Section. at upper sions. at lower Gain. º Of
Station. station. gain.
South Platte to Denver:
uly ---------------------------------------------- 353 165 328 140 39.66
August ------------------------------------------- 217 146 108 37 17. 05
Denver to Kersey:
uly ---------------------------------------------- 328 631 192 495 150. 90
ust ------------------------------------------- 108 384 137 413 382. 41
Kersey to Julesburg:
uly ---------------------------------------------- 192 636 3 447 232. 81
August . . . . . ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = 137 302 130 295 215. 33
River as a whole:
July ---------------------------------------------, 353 1,432 3 1,084. 307. 08
August ------------------------------------------- 217 833 130 743 343.73
48 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The single series of measurements made during August showed a
gain of 730 cubic feet per second, while the records show an average
gain for the whole month of 743 cubic feet per second.
NORTH PLATTE AND TRIBUTARIES.
A series of measurements covering the North Platte River from the
Colorado-Wyoming line to Kearney, Nebr., was made during the
months of August and September, 1903. The results of these meas-
urements are given in the following table:
Return seepage to North Platte River, 1908.
ſcubic feet per second.]

Length *: #: G (+) Gain
ength Charge ivor. charge Gain (+)|(+) or
Section measured. Of at Inflow. º: at Or tºº
- section. upper lower loss (–). per
Station Station mile.
Colorado-Wyoming line to above Doug- || Miles. *
las Creek -------------------------------- 8.00 260. 22 0.00 0.00 216.90 — 43.32 – 5.40
Above Douglas Creek to above Sage Creek- 52.00 || 216.90 279.06 || 56.54 || 273.70 || –165. 72 | – 2.19
Above Sage Creek to Fort Steele - - - - - - - - - - 22. 00 || 273. 70 . 00 .00 232, 58 || – 41.12 || – 1.87
Fort Steele to Dickenson's ranch. . . . . . . . . . 21.00 232.58 , 00 .00 239.32 || -- 6.74 || -- .32
Dickenson’s ranch to below Medicine
Bow River------------------------------- 11.00 || 239. 32 | 18.05 .00 228.62 | – 28.75 | – 2.61
Below Medicine Bow River to below -
Sweetwater River . . . . .- * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 33.00 228. 62 33. 72 .00 271.92 || + 9.58 + .29
Below Sweetwater River to Alcova - - - - - - - 12. 00 271. 92 . 00 .00 275. 10 | + 3. 18 + .26
Alcova to Delaware Springs... ------------ 21.00 275. 10 . 00 .00 257.85 — 17.25 | – .82
Delaware Springs to below Muddy Creek. 36.00 257.85 | 15.28 .00 343.98 || -- 70.85 -ī- 1.97
Below Muddy Creek to Douglas-- - - - - - - - - - 40.00 343.98 . 90 .00 301.07 || – 43.81 | – 1, 10
Douglas to above Horseshoe Creek-------. 43.00 || 301.07 5, 60 5. 25 293. 53 – 7.89 || – . 18
Above Horseshoe Creek to Guernsey Can- -
YOI! - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16.00 || 293. 53 7.46 8.00 348.00 | + 55.01 || + 3.44
Guernsey Canyon to Whalen - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14.00 || 348.00 .00 .00 355.37 + 7.37 + .. 53
Whalen to Fort Laramie - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.00 355.37 .00 || 71.74 || 273.15 | – 10.48 || – 1.75
Fort Laramie to above Rawhide Creek- - - -] 9.00 | 273.15 7.73 || 42.49 || 315.67 || -- 77.28 + 8.59
Above Rawhide Creek to Torrington - - - - - - 8.00 | 815. 67 .00 3.28 || 235.49 — 76.90 – 9.61
Torrington to Wyoming-Nebraska line.... 12.00 || 235.49 .00 | 121.04 || 234.58 +120. 13 4-10.01
Total for Wyoming------------------ 864.00 --------|--------|--------|-------- — 85. 10 | — . 23
Wyoming-Nebraska State line to Mitchell
(Sept. 1-25) ------------------------------ 14.00 || 272. 30 21.26 203.20 | 158.40 | + 68.04 || -- 4.86
Mitchell to Gering------------------------- 10. 50 | 158.40 5.14 || 20. 54 || 273. 51 || --130. 51 | +12.43
Gering to Bayard. ------------------------- 18. 50 | 273. 51 .00 || 44. 78 204. 55 – 24. 18 — 1.31
Bayard to Bridgeport.--------------------- 13, 30 204. 55 .00 || 34.00 284.35 | +113.80 | + 8. 56
Bridgeport to Oshkosh - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45. 50 | 284.35 | 36.42 4.35 | 246.95 – 69.47 — 1. 53
Oshkosh to above Hayland canal . . . . . . . . . 30, 00 246.95 || 82.80 2. 12 276.43 | – 51.20 | – 1.71
Above Hayland canal to Paxton Bridge ... 24.00 || 276.43 32.15 44.68 499. 28 || 4-235. 38 || -- 9.81
Paxton Bridge to North Platte - - - - - - - - - - - - 34.00 || 499. 28 141. 10 || 119. 22 || 498, 11 || – 23.05 || – .68
North Platte to Gothenburg. ... - - - - - - - - - - - 36.50 || 498. 11 | 128.38 242.58 || 493. 67 || 4-109.76 || -- 3.01
Gothenburg to Lexington -...----...--..... 24.50 || 493. 67 .00 30. 17 | 298.71 –164.79 – 6.73
Lexington to Kearney ...... ---------...--- 36.00 298. 71 || 61.22 || 34.07 116. 24 || –209. 62 || – 5.82
Total for Nebraska - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 286.80 ----------------|--------|-------- +115, 18 |........
ºr-
Throughout the entire course of the stream there are alternating
gains and losses, the largest of both gains and losses occurring in the
section immediately above the Wyoming-Nebraska line. There is a
net loss of 85 cubic feet per second in Wyoming and a net gain of 115
cubic feet per second in Nebraska. The largest gain per mile on any
part of the stream is in the section between Mitchell and Gering in
Nebraska, where the land on both sides of the river is watered. The
next largest gain is in the section just above the Wyoming-Nebraska
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 49
line, where the land is under ditch. East of Gothenburg on the main
river very large losses occur, and these losses are known to continue
beyond Kearney, where the measurements were discontinued.
A series of measurements was made during 1903 on the Laramie
River also. These measurements extended from Woods Landing, near
the Colorado-Wyoming line, to the mouth of the river.
and losses are extremely small.
The following table shows the results of these measurements:
*
Return seepage to Laramie River, 1903.
[Cubic feet per second.]
Both
gains

Dis- Dis- Gain
Length charge Diver- charge Gain (+) (+) or
Section measured. of sec- at up- Inflow. sons at Or loss (–)
tion. per lower loss (–). per
station. station mile.
Woods Landing to below Sodergreen’s Miles.
T8DCD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.00 76.36 1. 80 62. 21 34.7 +18. 79 +3. 76
Below Sodergreen's ranch to Bacon’s
TanGD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.25 || 34.74 11.10 . 50 42.30 — 3.04 — . 72
Bacon’s ranch to below Cuba ditch . . . . . . . 5. 50 42.30 . 00 .00 || 45.66 + 3.36 + .. 61
Below Cuba ditch to above Sand Creek - - - ; 5.00 || 45.66 .00 .00 41.74 — 3.92 — . 78
Above Sand Creek to below Hutton ditch - 2.75 || 41. 74 .00 .00 42.39 + . 65 i + . 24
Below Hutton ditch to above Five-Mile
Creek------------------------------------ 4.00 42.39 . 00 . 00 44.92 || + 2.53 i + . 63
Above Five-Mile ditch to below Laramie. - 6.75 44.92 . 00 - 00 42.91 — 2.01 —- .30
Below Laramie to Fisher's ranch.... -- - - - - 4.00 42.91 . OO .00 45.35 | + 2.44 + .. 61
Fisher's ranch to Oasis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.00 || 45.35 .00 12.99 || 33.96 + 1.60 + .27
Oasis to above Little Laramie River. - - - - - - 6.25 33.96 .00 .00 31.34 — 2.62 — .42
Below Little Laramie River to below *
Boughton ditch ------------------------- 7.75 || 31.34 6. 34 .00 40.44 + 2.76 + .36
Below Boughton ditch to Union Pacific
Railroad bridge ------------------------- 2. 50 | 40.44 . 00 .00 || 42.88 + 2.44 + .98
Union "Pacific Railroad bridge to Cooper
Lake ------------------------------------ 3.00 || 42.88 . 00 . 00 46.85 + 3.97 +1. 32
Cooper Lake to Dunn's ranch. . . . . . . . ----- 4.50 i 46.85 .00 .00 || 42.35 — 4.50 — 1.00
Dunn's ranch to above Wyoming Devel-
opment Co.'s reservoir No. 2.- - - - - - - - - - - - 11. 50 42.35 . 00 .00 41. 20 ! — 1.15 — . 10
Below Wyoming Development Co.'s reser-
voir No. 2 to Dodge's ranch -...---------. 9.75 169.45 . 00 . 00 | 169. 27 . 18 || -- . 02
Dodge's ranch to Wyoming Development --
Co.'s tunnel ----------------------------- 8.25 | 169.27 . 00 .00 | 169. 79 + . 52 + . 06
Above Wyoming Development Co.'s tun-
Inel to below Same----------------------- 75 169.79 .00 159.71 || 10.37 + . 29 + .39
Below Wyoming Development Co.'s tun-
nel to Northrop's ranch ... ------------...- 14.00 | 10.37 , 00 3.00 5.91 — 1.46 — , 10
Northrop's ranch to below Combination
ditch------------------------------------ 7.00 5.91 . 00 3.53 5. 58 + 3.20 | + . 46
Below Combination ditch to Mullen’s
Tanch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.00 5. 58 . 50 6.49 2.00 + 2, 41 + .40
Mullen's ranch to Uva ----...-----------.. 7. 50 2.00 2. 18 . 00 6. 14 + 1.96 | + . 26
Uva to above Scisson's ranch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7.25 6.65 1. 87 2.03 9. 59 + 3. 10 + . 43
Above Scisson's ranch to Guernsey’s ranch. 10.00 9.59 . 00 8.44 4. 52 | + 3.37 | + .34
Guernsey's ranch to mouth of river..... -- 14.25 4.52 . 00 5. 38 8.82 + 9.68 + .68

During the season of 1903 records of the flow of Deer and Horse-
shoe creeks and the diversions from them were kept.
these measurements are given in the following table.
30620–No. 158–05—4
The results of
50
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Return seepage to Deer and Horseshoe creeks, Wyoming.


Gain (+) or
Discharge Diver- |Disgharge loss (–).
• Month. at UPPer | signs at lower
Station. Station. Acre Per
feet. Cellt.
Horseshoe Creek: Acre-feet, Acre-feet. Acre-feet.
April ------------------------------------------ ,932 2,282 4,670 + 2,020 | + 41
May ------------------------------------------ 8,977 8, 179 7,256 + 6,458 || + 72
June------------------------------------------- 4,218 8,037 3,772 || --11, 191 + 265
July ------------------------------------------- 1,045 2,382 719 | + 2,056 | + 197
August -------- ------------------------------- 518 375 + 555 + 164
Deer Creek:
April ------------------------------------------ 12, 200 721 10,067 — 1,412 – 12
May ------------------------------------------- 26,010 4,479 21,522 || – 00
June------------------------------------------- , 330 2,810 7,795 + 2,275 + 27
July ------------------------------------------- 485 1, 149 343 | + 1,007 || + 208
August ---------------------------------------- 80 368 ----------- 288 + 360
This table shows that a very large percentage of the water diverted
from these creeks returns in the form of seepage, so that the use of
their waters for irrigation does not materially decrease their contri-
bution to the flow of the North Platte.
METHODS OF PREPARING LAND FOR, IRIRIGATION.
During the past year a bulletin (No. 145) has been published describ-
ing methods of preparing land for irrigation. The demand for this
bulletin shows the need for information of this practical character.
Further information on this subject is included in the reports on irri-
gation in the Yakima Valley, Washington (pp. 267–278); in Modesto
and Turlock districts, California (pp. 93-139), and the Imperial Valley,
California (pp. 175–194). In sections of the arid regions where sage-
brush grows its removal is the first step in reclamation. The usual
method of removing sagebrush is by drawing over the land some heavy
beam or iron which will break down or pull up the brush. Railroad
rails are used for this, or heavy beams shod with iron and supplied with
handles so that they may be kept in position. The railroad rails are
sometimes bent into V-shape, and sometimes the base is notched to
make it take a better hold on the brush. After the brush is broken
down it is raked with horserakes made for the purpose, what has not
been pulled up is grubbed by hand, and the brush is then burned. In
some localities the brush is plowed out with gang plows. Single plows
will not do this work, as they are thrown out of line by the roots, but
heavy gang plows get enough hold on the ground to avoid this and
cut off the roots. This method is not so common as that described
first, and is not so easily available for the average settler as the first
method. The statements of the cost of removing sagebrush range
from $1.50 per acre to $5 per acre.
After the brush is removed the land must be brought to even slopes
with smooth surfaces in order that water can be run over it easily.
All kinds of scrapers and levelers are used for this, the most common
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR, 51
being made of plank set on edge, the lower edge being shod with iron
to make it cut into the soil. These, drawn over the surface, will
remove the soil from the high places and deposit it in the low places.
Where large quantities of earth have to be moved ordinary Scrapers
such as are used for railroad and similar work are used. The cost of
leveling land, after brush has been removed, varies, of course, with
the original roughness of the surface and with the plan of applying
water adopted, the reports from various sections giving it as from $1
to $15 per acre. The cost of laterals and division boxes also varies
with the contour of the country and with the method of applying
water. The total for the three items—removing brush, grading, con
struction of lateral ditches or checks—varied in the cases examined
from $3.50 to $35 an acre. Add to this the price of a water right,
from $10 to $20 an acre, and it is easily seen that the farmer under irri-
gation must have considerable capital to establish himself. It is also
manifest that with an outlay so large the farmer can not afford to
make many mistakes, either as to the tools or methods adopted, and
no work that this Office has undertaken has proved more useful than
the collection of information which will enable new settlers to do this
work cheaply and well.
METHODS OF APPLYING WATER.
The effect on the yield of crops of applying water by different
methods was tested in 1904 in a number of States. It is known that
the various methods of applying water to land are not equally suited
to all conditions and that what proves the best method in one place
may not be so in other localities. The studies of 1904 were to deter-
mine the factors which influence this adaptability. In general, it may
be stated that the check method is best adapted to light sandy soils
having a comparatively even slope of from 3 to 15 feet to the mile.
Fields having a steep slope should not be checked, since this requires
levees so high and so close together as to interfere with the profitable
use of farm machinery and also with diversified agriculture and rota-
tion of crops. The advantage of checking is that it permits an irri-
gator to handle a large volume of water, and the cost of application is
less than that of any other method. Its disadvantages are the removal
of the surface soil to form levees, farm implements can not be used so
conveniently and are frequently damaged in passing over high embank-
ments, and the first cost of preparing the land is greater than by
almost any other method.
The most common method of applying water in the arid region is
by flooding from small field ditches. It is suited to the irrigation of
all kinds of grain and grasses. It has the advantage of being cheap;
it is adapted to most crops; the soil is not disturbed, and the small
ditches used do not seriously interfere with the operation of machinery.
52 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
On the other hand, the labor of applying water to fields costs more
and is more disagreeable than by any other method. It is difficult to
control streams after dark or to distribute water evenly over fields in
the nighttime, and where water is not distributed evenly the best results
are not obtained.
Furrow irrigation is best for the irrigation of orchards and culti-
vated crops. The loss of water from evaporation is small. It per-
mits of the use of smaller streams of water to better advantage than
any other method. There is little displacement of the top soil, and the
surface soil is not soaked and does not tend to bake or become too
hard to cultivate. Its drawbacks are that land can not be watered
so rapidly as by the other methods, and porous soils are hard to wet
uniformly throughout the furrows. -
The basin method differs from the check method in having the
levees small and the basins much smaller than the checks. The use
of basins is confined for the most part to orchards, where a basin is
usually made for each tree. It has the advantage of allowing the use
of a large head of water on small tracts and requiring little time for
distribution. It produces an even watering on porous soils. It has the
disadvantage of leaving the surface soil saturated and liable to bake.
It requires considerable disturbance of the soil in forming the basins
and is likely to keep the roots near the surface. since the water is
applied there.
- IPUMIPING.
In the reports of pumping investigations carried on in different
sections the agents preparing these reports have used the units of
water measurement common in the sections studied. For purposes
of comparison these have been reduced to common units, which are
used in the following discussion. The discharge of pumps is usually
given in gallons per minute, but to reduce this to terms of depth on
land requires several computations. In discussing pumping for irri-
gation we have used the acre-foot rather than gallons per minute, and
in computing the cost of pumping water the unit foot-acre-foot is
used. This is secured by multiplying the number of acre-feet raised
in a given time by the number of feet the water is lifted. Acre-feet
is easily read in depth on land by dividing the number of acre-feet by
the number of acres to be irrigated. For purposes of comparison
with results from other pumping plants and for computing efficiency
the results are also given in terms of “water horsepower hours,”
1 foot-acre-foot equaling 1.375 horsepower hours. To compute the
efficiency of a pumping plant it is necessary to compare the power
developed by the engine with the power theoretically required to do
the work done. The former is the indicated horsepower, the latter
the water horsepower, and the efficiency is the ratio between the two.
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 53
CALIFORNIA.
The study of pumping in California during 1904 included the col-
lection of information as to plants in Santa Clara Valley, by Prof.
S. Fortier; the collection of information regarding plants throughout
the State, the testing of plants throughout the State, and tests of
typical pumps, by Prof. J. N. Le Conte.
A part of the land in the Santa Clara Valley is supplied with water
from streams which furnish water from January to March, but very
little outside of these dates. Other lands must be supplied from wells,
while some lands use both stream and well water. Copious winter
irrigation and intense cultivation through the summer have produced
crops on some orchards, while others are irrigated only during the
summer from pumping plants. Reports were received from 60 plants
in the Santa Clara Valley. The average lift reported is 66 feet; the
average cost of water per acre-foot is $4.38, and the average cost per
foot-acre-foot is 6.6 cents. The average depth of water applied to
lands watered by pumping plants is 1.13 feet.
The higher costs reported are for the smaller plants and those having
the smaller lifts. The report of Professor Fortier gives a compara-
tive statement of the cost of irrigating from streams and from pump-
ing plants. The average depth of water used under ditches is 2.22
feet, and stream water is sold for $2.10 per acre-foot, making a cost
of $4.66 per acre. Water is sold by the owners of pumping plants for
$13 per acre-foot, while the average depth is 1.13 feet, making the
cost per acre $14.69, or approximately $10 per acre more than stream
water. The average cost of pumped water for fuel and repairs is
given as $4.96 per acre, and fixed charges are estimated at $5.20 per
acre making the average cost of pumped water to owners $10.16 per
acre, or $5.50 greater than the average cost given for stream water.
The advantage of pumped water over stream water is that it can be
secured as needed, while stream water must be taken as it comes, and
the supply ordinarily lasts only from January through March.
The descriptions of pumping plants and data as to their operation
collected by Professor Le Conte have not been brought together and
reported upon. The report of Professor Le Conte (pp. 195—255) con-
tains field tests of 19 pumps and laboratory tests of 7 pumps. The
field tests show an average efficiency of 41.17 per cent for the plants
tested, the minimum efficiency being 26 per cent and the maximum 65
per cent. Eight plants using gasoline for fuel and varying in size
from 5 to 21 horsepower show an average cost of fuel per foot-acre-
foot of 4.5 cents. Three steam plants from 12 to 27 horsepower and
using crude oil for fuel show an average cost of 2.8 cents per foot-
acre-foot. The average size of gasoline plants is 10 horsepower, while
54 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
the average size of steam plants is 21.8 horsepower. The cost, there-
fore, varies approximately with the size.
The laboratory tests included the running of pumps at various speeds
with given heads and varying heads with given speeds. These tests
showed very clearly that for each lift there was a definite head at which
each pump worked most efficiently and, conversely, for a given lift a
certain speed of pump gave higher efficiency than any other speed.
A further test was made to determine the effect of the distribution of
the head between the 'suction and discharge, but the results showed
that within the limits within which centrifugal pumps may be run the
distribution of the head between suction and lift made practically no
difference.
NEW MEXICO.
The plan of the experiments at the New Mexico Experiment Station
included a comparison of the cost of irrigating with stream water and
with pumped water, but owing to the shortage of stream supply
it was impossible to carry out these experiments (see p. 308). The
experiments therefore included simply the keeping of a record of the
cost of supplying water to different crops with pumps. On one field
of alfalfa, which received water to a depth of 3 feet, the cost of pump-
ing water was $9.80 per acre. On another field of alfalfa, which
received water to a depth of 3.1 feet, the cost was $11.20 per acre.
The average cost on 4 plats of wheat was $3.70 per acre-foot. These
plats of wheat received different volumes, the experiments being car-
ried on in such a way that this cost can not be given on an acreage
basis. Corn was irrigated in the ordinary way, receiving 25 inches of
water, which cost $3.30 per acre-foot, making the cost $6.93 per acre.
Sweet potatoes received 17.62 inches of water at a cost of $4.86 per
acre. The general average of cost per acre-foot at the station was
$3.44. The lift is not given.
TEXAS.
Mr. Harvey Culbertson, of this Office, spent the season of 1904 in
western Texas, studying irrigation practice and giving advice to
beginners as to equipment and irrigation practice. A report of his
work is given on pages 319-340. In the last few years the shortage in
the water supply in the Rio Grande Valley has led to the putting in of
a large number of pumping plants in the vicinity of El Paso. The
valley at this point is underlain by 30 to 40 feet of fine sand under
which is a coarse gravel. Water is found throughout these sand and
gravel strata, and So far the supply has proven ample. Other pump-
ing plants are scattered throughout the territory visited by Mr. Cul-
bertson, and tests were made of a number of these plants. Seven gaso-
line plants varying in size from 2 to 7 horsepower showed a fuel cost
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 55
of 7.6 cents per foot-acre-foot. Nine gasoline plants varying in size
from 7 to 12 horsepower showed a cost of 7.5 cents per foot-acre-foot,
with gasoline at 14 cents per gallon. The average quantity of gaso-
line used per foot-acre-foot was 0.43 gallon and the average lift 35
feet. The average discharge of pumps per acre irrigated for 31 plants
was 10.54 gallons per minute.
Mr. Culbertson describes quite a number of storage reservoirs found
throughout the country visited and estimates that by the storage of
flood waters in the streams and the collection of storm waters in reser-
voirs very large areas might be reclaimed throughout this section.
Irrigation in the section of Texas lying to the east of the region
visited by Mr. Culbertson was studied by Mr. A. J. Bowie, jr., of this
Office. The district included in Mr. Bowie's report (pp. 347–507) lies
south of the line through Del Rio, San Antonio, and Port Lavaco, with
the addition of the Upper Nueces and Frio River valleys. In this sec-
tion the area irrigated is approximately 30,000 acres, about half of
which is in rice; corn, truck, and cotton occupy the next larger areas
in the order named. Onion culture by irrigation is attracting a great
deal of attention, but as yet no great acreage of this crop is reported.
Mr. Bowie found that the average depth of water used by pumping
plants was 2.67 feet; the average pump capacity per acre irrigated,
14.13 gallons per minute, and the pumps were operated 15.1 per cent
of the time. Part of this irrigated land is watered from artesian wells
and a part from pumped wells, the average cost for artesian wells is
reported as $57.77 per acre irrigated and $7.46 per gallon per minute
of discharge. The average cost of pumped wells is given as $14.79
per acre irrigated and $2.75 per gallon per minute of capacity of
pumps.
It is seen that the cost of artesian wells is much greater than that
of pumped wells, but in order that a comparison may be made the cost
of pumping machinery should be added to the cost of pumped wells.
The average cost of pumping machinery per acre irrigated is given as
$14.12 per acre. Adding this to the cost of wells, we have $28.91 as
the cost of wells and machinery per acre irrigated, against $57.77 for
artesian Wells per acre irrigated, the cost of artesian wells being almost
exactly double that of the others. The average annual cost of artesian
wells per acre irrigated is given as $8.63 and the average annual cost
of pumped wells and machinery, $6.13 per acre. These figures show
clearly that on an average the pumped wells are cheaper than artesian
wells, notwithstanding the fact that there is no fuel expense connected
with an artesian well. -
The following table shows the depth to which wells have been sunk
in various sections in the territory studied by Mr. Bowie.
56 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
#
Depth of wells in Teacas.
Location. Depth. Location. Depth.
Feet. * JFeet.
Victoria--------------------------------. 30–230 Moore ---------------------------------- 100
DeZ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 270 || Pearsall -------------------------------- 100–240
San Antonio ---------------------------. 160–1,005 || Derby ---------------------------------- 200
Beeville--------------------------------. 59–225 || Devine - - - - - - - T- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 110
UValde------------------------------ ---- 100 ||.
The cost of raising water per foot-acre-foot is given by Mr. Bowie
as follows:
Fuel cost of raising water in Teacas.
Fuel. COSt. | Fuel. CoSt.
Wood ----------------------------------- $0.0164 || All steam------------------------------- $0.0164
Coal ------------------------------------ .0198 || Gasoline.------------------------------. . 0754
Oil ---------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .0158 || Electricity ----------------------------- , 0351
This table shows that steam is by far the cheaper power, but the
steam plants are larger than the others, which accounts in part for this
difference. The extreme cheapness of both wood and crude oil in
Texas is, however, the chief reason for the better showing for the
steam plants. The above figures are for fuel cost, but labor is so
cheap in Texas that the advantage is still maintained when taking into
account the cost of attendance.
LOUISIANA.
Two of the large pumping plants used for rice irrigation in south-
west Louisiana were tested by Prof. W. B. Gregory (see pp. 509–544).
One of these plants was equipped with a simple noncondensing slide-
valve engine and centrifugal pumps, while the other was equipped
with compound condensing Corliss engines and rotary pump. The
fuel cost of raising water with the first plant was 2.4 cents per foot-
acre-foot, and with the more expensive plant 0.9 cent per foot-acre-
foot, the average for the two plants being 1.6 cents. This is very
much cheaper than the cost shown in any other reports to this Office.
This is accounted for by the large size of the plants and the cheapness
of crude oil, which is used for fuel in that vicinity.
ARKANSAS.
An experiment in pumping water for rice irrigation in Arkansas
was carried on in 1904 in cooperation between this Office and the
Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station. This experiment was for
the purpose of determining the character of the water supply, the cost
of pumping, and the feasibility of raising rice in this section. Water
was found at depths varying from 70 to 90 feet, and the supply is
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 57
apparently abundant, although only a few wells have so far been put
down. Water rose to within 27 feet of the surface. At the experi-
mental farm an 8-inch well was put down to a depth of 114 feet, at a
cost of $4 per foot, including pipe. The equipment consists of a 20-
horsepower boiler and 18-horsepower engine and a 4-inch centrifugal
pump, the entire cost of machinery being $858.58. This plant was
guaranteed to raise 470 gallons per minute, with a lift of 50 feet. The
lift at starting was 27 feet, and pumping seemed to lower the water
very little. The Fuller plant, in the same vicinity, equipped with a
25-horsepower engine, 35-horsepower boiler, and 6-inch centrifugal
pump, supplies water to 70 acres. The cost for machinery and opera-
tion for the first year was $3,147.50, or $45 per acre irrigated.
ECANSAS.
At the Fort Hays substation of the Kansas Agricultural College an
experiment in pumping water for irrigating farm crops was made in
1904 (see pp. 567–583). Fort Hays is on the high plains where it was
desired to determine both the extent of the water supply and the cost
of bringing it to the surface with pumps. The well was placed in the
valley of a small creek, near the bank, and water was struck at a depth
of 24 feet. The well was put down to a depth of 40 feet, the water
rising to within 24 feet of the surface. The well was made 13 feet in
diameter. A 4-inch centrifugal pump, costing $865.65, was used.
The water supply in the well was very limited and was drawn down
rapidly when the pump was run. A traction thrashing engine was used.
The cost of raising water per foot-acre-foot, including fuel, engineer,
and water tender, was 40 cents in 1903 and 30 cents in 1904. The
machinery was too large for the work to be done and was poorly oper-
ated, which accounts very largely for the high cost of pumping in this
locality. For these reasons the work in 1903—4 can hardly be taken as
a fair test of the cost of pumping in this locality. The rapidity with
which the water was drawn down in the well indicates that the water
supply in this section is quite limited.
Tests of wells at Garden City, where water is pumped from the
gravel at small depths, show that there also pumping lowers the water
very rapidly. At the Richter well, 1% miles west of Garden City, the
water was lowered 5 feet in one hour and fifteen minutes. At King
Brothers’ well one test showed a lowering of 17.8 feet in five minutes,
and another test showed a lowering of 17 feet in fifteen minutes.
COLORADO.
In the Cache la Poudre Valley in northern Colorado the water sup-
ply from the river has been so completely utilized that prices for water
rights in both ditches and reservoirs have become so high that a great
58 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
many have deemed it cheaper to pump water for irrigation than to
secure it from the stream. The extensive irrigation in this valley has
raised the ground water so that water is found very near the surface,
making pumping quite inexpensive. The wells reported on by Pro-
fessor Stout (pp. 595-608) range in depth from 4 to 30 feet, and water
was found at depths varying from 1.5 to 15 feet. The average cost
of wells reported on is $3.47 per acre served, the cost of pumps and
engines $6.25 per acre, making the entire equipment cost $9.72 per
acre, while ditch rights cost from $25 to $30 per acre. The average
fuel cost of pumping water with gasoline engines and centrifugal
pumps is given at 11 cents per foot-acre-foot, and with steam plants
using local coal for fuel 8 cents per foot-acre-foot. In most of the
wells the pump draws the water down very rapidly, but the wells
soon fill up when the pumping stops. The wells are in general quite
large pits, and it has been found necessary to put down pipes in the
bottom of these pits in order to secure a sufficient supply of water.
It is doubted whether the large pits are any advantage under these
circumstances, as it is probable that the pipes put in the bottom of
the pits would supply as large quantities if they were put down from
the surface without the pits. -
Pumps are being put in in the irrigated regions of the Arkansas
Valley also. Here, as in the Cache la Poudre Valley, the extension of
irrigation with river water has increased the cost of rights and raised
the ground water, the two influences combining to make the pumped
supply as cheap or cheaper than a supply from the stream. With
gasoline at 20 cents per gallon the cost per foot-acre-foot was found
to be 6.7 cents. The lift at Rockyford was 13 feet. At Lamar the
lift was 10 feet and the cost per foot-acre-foot, 9.8 cents.
Bringing together the results from all the territory where studies
of pumping were made we find that water is being successfully lifted
for irrigation up to 100 feet, and in some eases more than that. In
the following table the number of plants reported on for various lifts
in the different sections are shown:
Lifts through which water is being successfully pumped for irrigation.

Under 10, 10 to 15. 15 to 25. 25 to 50, 50 to 100.1%. Total.
California:
Le Conte -------------------------- 0 0 0 6 11 3 19
Fortier ---------------------------- 0 0 5 22 24 9 60
Arizona ------------------------------- 1. 0 0 5 0 0 6
Texas:
Culbertson ------------------------ 0 0 0 20 0 1 21
Bowie ----------------------------- 0 4 6 29 27 3 69
Tait ------------------------------- 1 3 1. 3 l 0 9
Louisiana: Gregory ------------------- 0 O 2 0 0 0 2
Colorado:
Stout ------------------------------ 3 6 7 3 0 0 19
Wright ---------------------------- 0 2 0 0 0 0 2
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 59
The larger number of plants reported on in California are lifting
water from depths varying from 50 to 100 feet. The lift of the plants
reported on in Arizona lie mostly between 25 and 50 feet. The same
is true of the plants in Texas, the largest number having lifts between
25 and 50 feet, although a large number of plants have lifts between
50 and 100 feet. The lifts in Louisiana and in Colorado are low. All
the plants reported on in Colorado are in irrigated sections where the
use of water has raised the level of the ground water almost to the
surface. - -
In the following table all the data contained in the reports regard-
ing the fuel cost of raising water are summarized. This is given in
terms of cost per horsepower-hour and cost per foot-acre-foot. The
results given from California and Arizona plants were secured by
careful tests. Those reported from Texas by Mr. Culbertson are
results of tests. Those reported from Texas by Mr. Bowie are very
largely made up from statements made by the owners of the plants
and are therefore less reliable than the other results. The results
from Louisiana were secured by tests, while those from Colorado are
largely based on statements of the owners of the plants. There seems
to be a general tendency to overestimate the discharge of pumps, and
this fact probably accounts in part for the lower costs shown for
Texas, although the cheapness of fuel and the large size of the plants
would tend to make this cost lower than in other sections.
Average fuel cost of pumping water for irrigation.
CALIFORNIA (LE CONTE).


Size. cºre. Cost per foot-acre-foot.
Num- 8 & Aver-
Type. ; Of # ( ºuil High A. High
plants. USef Ul igh- Wer- igh- Aver-
Y. ... “ºt Lowest. . . tº Lowest gº.
power). ...,
power).
Gasoline. --------------- 8 5.0–31.0 10. 0 || $0.059 $0.018 $0.037 $0.081 $0.025 $0.045
Steam, crude oil. - - - - - - - 3 || 12. 0–27. 0 21.8 . 024 .015 . 020 . 033 , 021 . 028
CALIFORNIA (FORTIER).
Gasoline---------------- 7 0.5–4.0 2.5 $0.191 $0.049 $0.103 $0.262 $0.067 $0.141
Do------------------ 6 4. 0– 7.0 5. 6 ... 103 .064 087 . 142 . 088 . 120
O- - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - 8 7. 0–10. 0 8, 7 . 060 , 0.29 . 039 . 082 . 037 - 053
Steam, crude oil - - - - - - - 6 2.0— 7.0 5.3 . 203 .081 . 111 . 279 . 111 . 152
Do------------------ 7 7. 0–10. 0 7.7 ... 100 .057 . 073 . 138 .078 , 100
Do------------------ 6 || 10. 0–12. 0 11.0 .072 .039 . 053 . 0.99 . 053 07.3
DO------------------ 7 | 12. 0–13. 0 12.4 . 057 . 037 .049 . 079 . 051 - 067
Do------------------ 6 13. 0–17.0 14.4 .065 . 032 . 047 . 090 .044 . 065
Do------------------ 6 || 17, 0–25.0 20. 0 . 074 . 024 .044 . 102 . 033 . 061
ARIZONA.
gºne * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 3 l, 0– 7.0 4.0 $0.076 $0.049 $0.063 $0.104 $0.067 $0.087
€8.I.O.
Wood--------------- 5 1. 0–33.0 10. 0 . 135 . 020 .074 , 186 . 028 - 102
Crude oil ----------- 1 ------------ 60.0 --------|-------- .024 ---------------- . 034



60
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Average fuel cost of pumping water for irrigation—Continued.
TEXAS (CULBERTSON).

Size.
Cost per water horse-
power-hour. g Cost per foot-acre-foot.
Num- * & Aver-
Type. ; #, (ºill High A High A
plants. UlSèIUl 1gh- Ver- 1gn- I * Ver-
j W. “... [Lowest ag. | “... Lowest. ...
power) horse- wº
' power).
Gasoline---------------- 7 2.0–7.0 4.4 $0.097 || $0.035 $0.055 $0.134 $0.048 || $0.076
Do------------------ 9 7. 0–21.0 11.5 .055 .027 . 041 . 0.75 . 037 .056
TEXAS (BOWIE).
Gasoline.--------------- 4 0.1— 0.4 0.2 $0.232 $0.152 $0.184 $0.320 || $0.210 $0.253
DO------------------ 6 .4— 1.0 ... 6 . 118 .058 . 093 . 163 . 080 . 128
Do------------------ 6 1.0– 2.0 1.5 . 072 . 039 , 054 . 099 .054 . 0.75
Do------------------ 6 2.0– 4. 0 3.4 . 072 . 050 .056 . 099 . 069 . 077
Steam:
Wood. -------------- 6 : 1. 0– 4.0 2.5 . 140 , 0.25 . 057 . 193 .034 .079
Do -------------- 7 4, 0- 7.0 5.2 . 070 . 006 . 029 , 0.96 . 008 . 040
Po -------------- 5 7.0– 12.0 9. 1 .046 .010 . 021 . 063 . 013 . 029
Do-------------- 4 | 12. 0– 25.0 18, 7 . 022 . 018 . 021 .031 . 025 . 028
Do-------------- 6 25.0– 40.0 34.4 . 040 . 005 . 017 .054 . 007 . 024
Do-------------- 5 40. 0–160.0 90.3 .009 .007 . 008 . 012 .010 . 011
Coal ---------------- 2 | 1.0– 12.0 4.3 . 066 .043 . 055 . 0.91 . 060 . 076
Do -------------- 2 | 12, 0– 25.0 13.9 . 038 .025 . 032 . 053 . 035 .044
190-------------- 2 25.0– 45.0 36.4 , 023 . 011 . 017 . 031 . 016 . 023
Do-------------- 3 || 45. 0–100.0 72.9 . 022 . 008 .014 .031 . 011 . 019
LOUISIANA (GREGORY).
Steam, crude oil........ 2 |250. 0–500. 0 || 375. 0 $0.017 $0.007 $0.012 $0.024 $0.009 || $0.016
|
COLORADO (STOUT).
Gasoline---------------- 9 1.0–5.0 2.9 $0.128 $0.041 $0.082 $0.176 $0.056 $0.111
Steam, coal.------------- 3 2.0–8.0 4. 5 . 073 . 039 . 058 . 100 .054 . 080
COLORADO (WRIGHT).
Gasoline---------------- 2 1.0–2.0 1.2 $0.074 $0.049 || $0.061 || $0.102 || $0.067 || $0.084
º




The fact most strongly brought out by this table is the great reduc-
tion in cost per unit of output with the increase in the size of plants.
There is some reduction in the labor of operating plants as the size
increases, and also in the first cost of plants per unit of area served.
This brings out the very great saving which may be brought about
through cooperation between adjoining farmers in putting in large
pumping plants to serve several farms rather than maintain individual
plants.
Reduced to a fuel basis rather than cost basis, the California results
show approximately one-half gallon of engine distillate used per foot-
acre-foot of water, while Mr. Culbertson reports from Texas the use
of 0.43 gallon of gasoline per foot-acre-foot.
REVIEW OF TELE WORK OF THE YEAR. 61
The tests of efficiency of the plants in California show that the aver-
age efficiency of the plants tested is 44.17 per cent. This efficiency is
the ratio between the indicated horsepower developed by the engine
and the horsepower theoretically required to lift the water actually
delivered through the observed distance. It is estimated that good
machinery properly operated will show an efficiency of about 65 per
cent. The causes for the poor showing made are given as poor con-
nections between engines and pumps, too large engines for the work
to be done, poor care of machinery, and, with gasoline plants, wasteful
use of gasoline; with steam plants, uncovered steam pipes and boilers.
Most of these causes of loss can be cheaply remedied by exercising
a little more care in the installation and operation of the machinery.
WINDMILLS.
The constancy of the winds on the great plains suggests the wind-
mill as a promising source of power for pumping water, and windmill
irrigation has had a successful development in the vicinity of Garden
City, Kans. Facts as to the cost of mills and pumps, and the areas of
land irrigated from them, were collected in this vicinity. One hun-
dred and seven mills, varying in diameter from 6 to 12 feet, were vis-
ited (pp. 589–592). The average discharges of the pumps operated by
these mills are shown in the following table. The second column
gives the average amount pumped in a day with a good wind. In the
third column are given the average discharges during twenty weeks,
which takes into account times when there was too little wind to oper-
ate the pumps:
Average discharge of pumps operated by windmills at Garden City, Kans.
Acre-feet per day.
Size of
mill. In good *::::ge
wind. weeks.
Feet.
6 0.034 0.010
8 . 080 . 024
10 . 170 . 050
12 . 270 .084
25 1. 200 . 386
The average area served by these mills is shown in the following
table:

Areas served by windmills of different sizes.
sº *:::: Minimum. Average.
Feet. Acres. Acres. Acres.
6 2. 50 0. 50 1.15
3. 50 .25 1.23
10 6. 00 1.00 3.08
12 12.00 1.00 5. 07
26 -----------------------. 8.00
62 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The approximate cost of mills of various sizes, the areas served by
these mills, and the acre cost of providing a water supply are given
in the following table: • ,
Cost of windmills.
Size of Area Cost per
mill. CoSt. served. 8,OI’C.
Feet. Acres. -
8 $90 1.23 $73, 17
10 120 3.08 38.96
12 150 5,07 29. 59
This table shows the great reduction in cost per acre served by using
large mills, but it also shows that with any mill the original outlay is
quite large when compared with the cost of ditches for supplying
water where water can be conveniently secured from streams.
The average annual cost of maintenance, including repairs, oil, etc.,
for 43 mills in the vicinity of Garden City, Kans., is given as $2.35
per acre irrigated by the mills.
A windwill does not furnish a large enough stream of water for eco-
nomical use in irrigation. It is therefore necessary to provide reser-
voirs for storing the water until enough is accumulated to furnish a
stream large enough for economical use. Forty-nine reservoirs stor-
ing water pumped by mills at Garden City were measured to deter-
mine the capacity ordinarily used with the mills. The following table
gives the approximate average capacities of the reservoirs used with
the mills of different sizes:
Capacities of reservoirs used with windmills.
Capacity
Of res-
eIVOlr.
Size of
mill.

Feet. Cub. feet.
6 400
y
8 3,400
10 4,000
12 11,000
The period during which these reservoirs will hold the discharge of
the pumps during good winds is shown in the following table:
Length of period reservoirs will hold discharge of pumps.

Size of Number
mill. of days.
Feet.
6 2.3
8 1.0
10 ... 6
12 1.0
It is probable that better results might be secured if larger reser-
voirs were built, so that larger streams might be used in applying -
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 63
e'
water to land. There is always waste in using a small stream, as a
large part of the water is absorbed by the soil or evaporated while it
is being spread over the land. The average cost of these reservoirs
is given as $60. This of course is only a rough approximation.
Taking the 12-foot mill as a basis, we have the following statement
of the cost of raising water with a windmill, not taking into account
the cost of the well and pump:
Cost of windmill irrigation.
Cost of mill------------------------------------------------ $150.00
Cost of reservoir - - - - - - - - - - - - * = * * * * gº º is sº sº se & sº as sm º ºs sº sº º ºs º sº * * * * * * * 60.00
Total cost-------------------------------------------- 210.00
Area irrigated --------------------------------------- 3.CrêS. . 5
Cost per acre----------------------------------------------- $42.00
ANNUAL COST.
Interest on investment, at 7 per cent- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $2.94
Depreciation, 10 per cent -------------------------------. - - - - - 4. 20
Maintenance------------------------------------------------- 2.35
Annual cost per acre------------------------------------ 9. 49
The average lift of water in the vicinity of Garden City is but 10 feet.
Where lifts are greater, the quantity of water raised by mills of the
same size will be proportionately decreased, and the area which can be
irrigated will of course be decreased in the same proportion. These
figures represent not necessarily good practice, but the average results
obtained under field conditions. It is probable that in most cases better
results than those shown can be secured, but the work this year has
been largely to secure a basis for future work by determining what is
now being accomplished with windmills.
The average cost shown above is high, and even under the best con-
ditions windmill irrigation is expensive, but it is not expected that
water will be raised in this way for general farm crops. The quan-
tities of water required for such crops and the low values of yields will
not justify any such expense. Only the irrigation of vegetables and
fruits and a small amount of forage is contemplated, and these are all
high-priced products. A part of the expense of pumping, on the
plains at least, may be charged to insurance against drought, since it
is intended to enable farmers to tide over dry years when they would
otherwise be compelled to abandon their ranches or buy food for them-
selves and work animals at exorbitant prices.
LAWS AND INSTITUTIONS.
The three-years’ investigation of the interstate water-right problems
on the Platte River, mentioned in the previous reports, has been com-
pleted, and the report is now in the hands of the printer. This inves-
64 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
tigation deals fundamentally with the rights to water and the laws of
the three States under which these rights have been acquired. Physi-
cal conditions, however, have such a marked influence upon the
enforcement of these rights that the investigation included, in addition
to the laws and court decrees governing water rights, measurements
of stream flow, diversions, and return seepage. It was deemed
advisable to include also something showing the results of irrigation
in the three States, and crop returns were therefore collected. In
order to discuss interstate questions intelligently, a preliminary study
of the legal systems of the several States was necessary. This dealt
with the methods of acquiring rights, methods of determining rights,
provisions for their enforcement, and the nature of rights.
The method of acquiring the right to take water from a stream in
Colorado consists essentially in providing the means of conducting the
water to the point of use and taking the water. The method in
Wyoming and Nebraska consists in making application to the State
authorities, receiving a permit to construct works and divert water,
putting the water to use, and submitting to the State authorities proof
of the construction of works and the use of the water. As the result
of these methods rights in Colorado are in the first place indefinite as
to extent or nature, while in Wyoming and Nebraska they are limited
by the terms of the permit granted by the public authorities. Since
rights are indefinite in Colorado it became necessary to provide for
their defining, and this is done by the courts under a special form of
procedure provided by law. This procedure takes the form of a con-
test between individual appropriators, the State being unrepresented
in the contest. As a result the courts have decreed rights to volumes
much larger than have been used, and in many cases larger than the
canals can carry. Under the administrative procedure in Wyoming
and Nebraska such excessive rights have not been recognized.
In each of the three States water is distributed by public officials,
the systems in the three States being essentially the same.
In each of the States priority is recognized, and in order that the
right may be maintained it is necessary that the use of the water be
continued; that is, no one can hold water unused or maintain his right
to water for a period of years without having put it to a beneficial use
or provided for its use by some one else. The courts of Colorado
have decreed to appropriators in that State rights to fixed quantities
of water, and these rights may be transferred from one party to
another, and the use to which the water is put and the place of use
may also be changed, provided others are not injured by the transfers.
In Wyoming an appropriator acquires a right to sufficient water for a
given area within a fixed limit of quantity, and this right may be
transferred under certain limitations defined by statute. Rights in
fºLVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 65
Nebraska are similar to those in Wyoming, with the exception that
the rights are inseparably attached to a particular tract of land
Neither Colorado nor Wyoming recognizes riparian rights, while
Nebraska recognizes them to a certain extent. Under the decisions
of the Nebraska supreme court lands acquired from the General
Government previous to 1889 have riparian rights, while those
acquired since that time have no such rights. Alongside of this
riparian right has existed the right to divert water from streams for
irrigation, and as between riparian rights and rights acquired by
appropriation, priority governs, as it does between different rights
acquired by appropriation. The riparian proprietor has not, how-
ever, the right to restrain diversions, but merely is entitled to dam-
ages occasioned by the diversion of water.
The differences in the nature of the rights in the three States are in
theory important. Under the Colorado doctrine, that the appropri-
ator has a right to a fixed quantity of water, any decrease in the needs
of the land or economy in use leaves the appropriator a surplus, which
he can apply to new lands or dispose of to others, while under the
Wyoming and Nebraska doctrine any surplus of water arising from
decreased use belongs to the State, to be disposed of in the same man-
ner as unappropriated water.
The recognition of the ownership of water, apart from any par-
ticular tract of land in Colorado, makes it possible for rights to
accumulate in the hands of those who hold them, for the purpose
of disposing of water to others rather than for their own use. To pre-
vent abuses of this right, the Colorado constitution provides that
county commissioners may fix rates which may be charged for the use
of water.
Each of the States recognizes priority as between appropriators
within its own limits, and the courts of Wyoming and Nebraska, as
well as of several other States and the United States courts, have
declared that priorities should be recognized regardless of State lines.
Assuming that priorities are to be recognized regardless of State
lines, we have rights differing essentially in their nature along the
same stream. If an appropriator from the South Platte in Colorado
does not need for the land which he has been irrigating all the water
to which he has a right he may apply the surplus to new lands or
transfer it to another party, while, under similar circumstances, the
Nebraska appropriator from the same stream must allow the water to
remain in the stream for later appropriators. The effect of this dif-
ference from an interstate standpoint is that improvements in practice
and the natural decrease in the needs of the lands now irrigated in
Colorado will not increase the supply of water for Nebraska since it
will be used upon new lands in Colorado. If the Nebraska doctrine
30620–No. 158–05—5
66 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
*
held in Colorado, this decrease in the needs of the lands in Colorado
would go to the stream to supply later rights whether they were in
Colorado or Nebraska.
However, physical conditions and the order in which rights have
been acquired make these distinctions in rights of little consequence
at present. The nature of the country along the North Platte in
Colorado is such that the use of water there can not be enlarged to the
injury of Wyoming appropriators from the same stream, and the same
thing is very largely true regarding the country along this stream in
Wyoming. There is very little land along the North Platte in Wyo-
ming which can be irrigated except in the region immediately above the
State line. There is a possibility of an increased use which would in-
jure appropriators in Nebraska, but the nature of the rights in these
two States is essentially the same, the appropriator in each State being
entitled to only sufficient water for a given area.
There are rights to water from the South Platte in Colorado earlier
than any rights in Nebraska sufficient to entirely exhaust the stream,
and the flow of the stream has in fact been entirely used in Colorado
for many years, while there is up to the present time very little irri-
gation along the South Platte in Nebraska. Measurements of return
seepage given on pages 48–50 show that the volume of water in the
lower section of the stream in Colorado is increasing year by year and
practically all the water received by appropriators in Nebraska, except
during floods, is return seepage water. As the volume of water in
this section of the stream increases, irrigation is being extended, and
this will in turn increase the seepage farther down, so that there is
every prospect that the supply in Nebraska will grow better.
Physical conditions are such that there is little likelihood of any
conflict between appropriators in the different States on the North
Platte and the South Platte, except in the immediate neighborhood of
the State lines. Here there will be the same opportunity for conflict
as there is between canals heading close together within the States.
At present there is no provision for the settling of such conflicts except
through the courts. Each State has officials charged with the distri-
bution of water within its limits, but none of these officials has any
authority outside of his own State. The interstate question on the
South Platte comes down then at the present time to a question of dis-
tribution. Provision should be made for some officials or boards with
interstate powers.
A study of the operations of the California irrigation district law
was made in 1904 by Mr. Frank Adams (see p. 96). Mr. Adams
made a study of the history and present conditions of the Modesto and
Turlock irrigation districts. These districts were originally organized
against strong opposition and have gone through unsuccessful attempts
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 67
to construct works and attempts to repudiate their bonds, and have
finally completed their works and begun operations. Modesto district
contains an area of 81,143 acres and has a bonded indebtedness of
$17.10 per acre. Turlock district has an area of 176,210 acres and a
bonded indebtedness of $6.81 per acre. The California district law
requires that the water of the canals belonging to the districts be dis-
tributed in proportion to the assessments paid. Town property as
well as farm property is subject to assessment, and a strict enforce-
ment of the law would place in the hands of those who had no use for
it the right to a large part of the water supply by the district canals.
In these districts no attempt has been made to enforce this law, but
the water is distributed in proportion to the acreage irrigated. A
system of rotation has been adopted, so that each irrigator receives a
good stream of water, the length of time which he receives this stream
being apportioned to the acreage irrigated. This system has so far
proven satisfactory, but its continuance will bring about strong oppo-
sition to the enforcement of the law when the demand for water
becomes so strong that every taxpayer in the district demands his
share. At the suggestion of Mr. Adams the districts have adopted a
system of records which will show the quantity of water received by
each farmer and the time when he receives it. These records will
form a basis for an intelligent consideration of a new system of dis-
tributing water when there is a demand for an enforcement of the law.
Mr. W. F. Bartlett, of this Office, was detailed for the season of
1904 to work in cooperation with the State engineer of Idaho. He
was commissioned water master for the Raft River, a stream which
rises in Utah and flows into Idaho. The State of Idaho enacted a law
in 1903 providing for the distribution of water by State officials, and
Mr. Bartlett's work was to make a study of the operation of this new
law from the standpoint of one charged with its enforcement. His
chief difficulty was one of detail. The law requires that appropriators
shall put in measuring devices and provides that in case they fail to do
so these shall be put in by the water commissioner and the costs
assessed against the ditch owners. Mr. Bartlett found a great deal of
opposition to the putting in of these boxes by the ditch owners and a
disinclination to pay the bills assessed against them when the measur-
ing devices were put in by the water commissioner. This state of
affairs compels the water commissioner to carry the cost of installing
the measuring devices for two or three months and take the chances of
his bills being disallowed by the county commissioners, and Mr. Bart-
lett points out the necessity of amending the law regarding this mat-
ter in such a way that either the State or the county will carry this
expense until it can be collected from the ditch owner. As above
stated, Raft River is an interstate stream, and the courts of both Utah
and Idaho have declared in favor of the recognition of priorities
68 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
regardless of State lines. There is here the same difficulty that exists
on the Platte River, that there are no officials with interstate powers.
In eonnection with a study of irrigation practice in the Imperial
Valley, California, Mr. Roadhouse, of this Office, made a study of the
organization of the mutual companies controlling the laterals which
supply this valley with water. The company owning the canal and
lands gives to each purchaser of land and water for each acre a share
of stock in the company controlling the lateral which will serve the
land purchased. The holders of this stock control the affairs of their
laterals, making assessments to cover the expenses of maintenance and
operation. This same plan of organization is in some instances
extended to the sublaterals, the water users organizing in this way for
the cleaning and general maintenance of their small ditches. The
same system is found in the Arkansas Valley in Colorado, where it
has proven very satisfactory. It puts upon the farmers the responsi-
bility for the condition of their own lateral ditches, thus removing
one very fruitful source of friction between the farmers and the canal
management. Mr. Adams recommends the same system for the
Modesto and Turlock districts in California.
A study of the laws of Montana has been made by Professor Fortier,
of this Office, and the report of his work is now in hand.
The operation of the irrigation laws of Nevada has been studied by
Mr. J. D. Stannard, formerly of this Office, and Mr. A. E. Chandler,
formerly State engineer of Nevada. •º
In November, 1904, at the request of the Department of Justice,
Dr. Elwood Mead was detailed to assist in protecting the interests of
the Government in the litigation over the water rights of the Arkansas
River, this being an interstate case of great importance to which the
Government is a party. This case is to determine the rights of irri-
gators in different States to the water of an interstate stream. The
principle established here will govern similar cases throughout the
arid region, and will have an important influence in shaping further
developments.
IRRIGATION IN THE HUMID SECTIONS.
RICE IRRIGATION.
The water used on several fields in the rice districts of Louisiana
and Texas was measured during the seasons of 1903 and 1904, and it
is found by comparing the results of these measurements with those
made in 1901 and 1902 that the tendency is to use less water than
formerly. It is found that a deep covering of water prevents the
proper warming of the soil by the sun’s rays and produces spindling
plants, which are easily blown down by the wind. In many places
REVIEW OF THE work OF THE YEAR. 69
the rice grown on levees and other high ground is better than that
on the lower parts of the fields, where the water stands continuously.
For these reasons the tendency is toward the use of less water. This
conforms to irrigation practice of northern Italy, where it is seldom
that the water covering is more than 2 or 3 inches deep. The follow-
ing table gives a summary of the measurements of the water used in
rice irrigation for four years:
Summary of results of measurements of the amount of water used in rice irrigation for the
years 1901, 1902, 1903, and 1904.

Depth Average
* & $º Rain- Total Evapora-' s . evapora-
Year. Location of station. à fall. depth. tion. Net depth..a Season.b tion per
e ; day.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. . . . Days. Inches.
1901 e . . Crowley, La. . . . . . . . . . . . 16.47 10. 04 26. 51 14. 47 12.04 63 0.
1901 c - -] Raywood, Tex . . . . . . . . . 19. 66 9. 15 28.81 16. 03 12. 78 : 71 . 226
1902d . . . . . . . . 99..... ---------| || || || 11.9% 39.7% 11.08 13.34 91 . 122
1902d - - Lake Charles, La - - - - - - 23. 6 | 7. 10 30. 74 11.63 19.21 77 . 150
1903. ... Estherwood, La. . . . . . . . 12.67 | 19.00 31.67 15. 69 15.98 98 . 160
1903. ...| Eagle Lake, Tex... . . . . . 7.37 || 13.46 20.83 9. 83 7. 56–11. 32 84 . 117
1904. ...| Estherwood, La. . . . . . . . 5.01 | 18.52 23.53 14.91 8.62 91 . 164
1904. ... Crowley, La . . . . . . . . . . . 5.44 20.54 25.97 13. 30 12.68 98 . 136
1904. . . . Nottoway, Tex. . . . . . . . . 14. 12 | 19.97 34.09 18.25 15. 84 119 . 153
Average - - - - - - - - - 13. 79 14.32 28. 10 * * * * * * * * * * *18.32 I.......... .162
}

§§º º ; º tºwere measured.
c U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 113.
d U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 133.
e Using the mean of No. 6.
Analyses of water used in rice ºrrigation.—Many of the streams along
the Gulf coast have so little fall that a slight lowering of the water by
pumping produces an inflow of salt water from the Gulf. This inflow
of Salt water begins long before the supply of fresh water is exhausted.
In 1902 a drought lowered the water level in the river and large quan-
tities of salt water were run on the rice fields in their irrigation. It
was found that young plants were killed by this salt water, but fields
which had made a good growth were benefited by its use. It was
feared, however, that the use of this salt water would bring about an
accumulation of salt in the soil which would prove harmful in the
future. The results of 1903 and 1904 have proved this fear to be
groundless. The heavy rains of those years have so thoroughly
washed out the salt that no difference could be observed between the
fields irrigated with salt water in former years and those which have
received none but fresh water. It is not considered advisable, how-
ever, to use salt water except in cases of extreme necessity.
A number of samples of water used for rice irrigation were analyzed
to determine their salt content. The results of these analyses follow.
70
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Water analysis for irrigation investigation.
[Parts per million.]

Labo-
rºy Location. SiO2. SO4. HCO3. Cl. Ca. Mg. R. Na.
O.
1873 || Halfway between Lowry sº
and Houckts, La. . . . . . . . 9. 0 263. 7 30, 3 } 1,846.0 46.4 || 110.9 35.7 | 1,048.0
1874 Center of Grand Lake,
- La ---------------------- 8. 0 327.2 30.3 2,237.5 52. 1 || 146.7 32.2 | 1,259.9
1875 | Sea, side of Mermentau
dam -------------------. 6.8 1,799.2 146.7 12,396.0 297. 1 832.4 231.4 6,886.4
1876 || Lower end of Grand
Lake, La --------------- 8. 0 363.9 33.3 || 2,535.4 46.4 | 162. 9 53.6 1,434.7
1877 | Upper side of Mermen- -
Ul Cl8lDD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7. 0 979. 6 95.4 8,552.0 222. 1 || 591.8 | 165. 7 || 4,566.4
1878 Center of Lake Arthur,
la---------------------- 11.6 247. 2 27.2 1,704.0 42, 1 || 105.2 38.8 961. 9
1879 || Mermentau Bayou, Mer-
mentau, La ------------ 14.0 87.7 27.2 781. 0 27. 9 46.7 21.5 429.7
1880 | Upper end of Grand
Lake, La --------------- 8.2 290, 1 30.3 | 1,974.9 52.9 || 126.2 32.2 1, 110.0
1881 Center of Mud Lake. - - - - - 10.8 966. 3 99.2 6,557.0 | 171.4 || 439.4 129.6 3,908. 3
1882 Merm ent au Ba you,
mouth Bayou Quene
de Tortue -------------- 15.2 90.7 36. 3 710. 0 22.9 44.3 14.2 398. 2
Bayou Quene de Tortue
at Lichtenstein plant:
1885 6 feet ----------------- 12. 0 197. 0 15.1 | 1,455.5 50.0 98.2 29.4 781. 5
1886 20 feet ---------------- 10.6 193.7 18.2 | 1,349.0 41.4 82.9 29.4 763.0
1883 || Well, sec. 10, T. 11, R. 7 - . 15.4 101.0 | 284, 6 57. 0 46.4 19.4 3. 1 100. 2
1884 English Bayou ... . . . . . . . . 18.0 9. 0 39, 4 14.0. 5, 7 6, 5 2. 6 7.5
From J. A. Myers, Guey-
dan, La.:
2024 4 feet ----------------- 6, 7 4.0 24.2 80, 0 8. 6 5.7 4.2 39.6
2025 21 feet ---------------. 6. 5 3.5 24.2 80.0 6.4 5.4 4.0 42.7
Labo- Hypothetical combination. *
ratory Location. -
No. Ca (HCO3)2. CaSO4. | MgSO4. | MgCl2. NaCl. KCl. SiO2.
1873 || Halfway between Lowry
and Houckts, La........ 40.2 124.1 220. 1 264. 5 || 2,664.0 | 68.1 9. 0
1874 Center of Grand Lake, La. 40.2 143.5 282.4 356.5 || 3,201.8 61.5 8.0
1875 | Sea, Side of Mermentau
8.DD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 194.8 846.8 1,502.0 2, 103.6 || 17,500. 5 || 441.7 6.8
1876 || Lower end of GrandLake,
8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 44.2 120. 7 348.4 368.5 3,646.0 102.4 8.0
1877 | Upper side of Mermentau
aſſi - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 126.7 648.7 652.1 | 1,824.5 ſ 11,604.7 316.3 7.0
1878 Center of Lake Arthur, La. 36. 1 112.9 209. 4 249.5 2,444.4 74.1 11.6
1879 || Mermentau Bayou, Mer-
mentau, La ------------. 36, 1 64, 6 5.2. 6 143.1 | 1,079.3 || 41.0 14.0
1880 | Upper end of Grand Lake,
La ---------------------- 40.2 146.2 233.6 314.3 || 2,820.8 61.5 8.2
1881 Center of Mud Lake. - - - - - - 131.7 472. 3 791. 1 696.5 9,932.2 247.4 10.8
1882 || Mermentau Bayou, mouth -
Bayou Quene de Tortue. 48.2 37.4 80, 4 111.5 | 1,012. 0 || 27.1 15.2
Bayou Quene de Tortue
at Lichtenstein plant:
1885 6 feet------------------ 20. 1 153. 0 111.3 300. 1 | 1,986. 1 56.1 | 12.0
1886 20 feet----------------- 24.2 95.4 167. 1 195.7 1,939.1 56.1 10.6
1883 || Well, sec. 10, T. 11, R. 7.... 187.9 |----------|----------|--------- 89.4 5.9 15.4
1884 English Bayou. ... -- - - - - - - 23.1 !---------- 11.2 --------- 19, 1 5.0 | 18.0
From J. A. Myers, Guey-
dan, La.:
2024 4 feet------------------ 32.1 2.4 2.9 20. 2 100. 7 8.0 6.7
2025 21 feet.---------------- 25.9 |---------- 4.4 14.2 108.5 7.6 6.5


These analyses were made under the direction of Mr. J. K. Hay-
wood, chief of the insecticide and water laboratory of the Bureau of
Chemistry of this Department.
ing the interpretation of these analyses says:
A letter from Mr. Haywood respect-
The approximate quantity of the various salts, especially sodium chlorid, which
are injurious to rice has not, to my knowledge, been determined. It is well known
that rice can stand more Sodium chlorid than most crops, but how much more I am
IREVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR 71
unable to state. I can therefore only give you interpretations based on the action
of irrigation waters upon crops in general, and for this purpose will divide the
waters into those that I am reasonably sure are very poor, those that are surely
good, and those which under some circumstances might be good and under other
circumstances bad.
I would say that the salt content of waters 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1880,
1881, 1885, and 1886 is such that they would be pretty sure to cause trouble in a
comparatively short time. Waters 1883, 1884, 2024, and 2025 could be used, espe-
cially in a moderately humid climate, without any fear of damage to crops. Waters
1879 and 1882 could very likely give good results in a moderately humid climate and
on a light, loose soil, but in a very dry climate or upon a heavy clay soil they might
cause damage in the course of time.
You of course understand that the above remarks only apply to these waters as
they would be used in general irrigation practice. What effect the rains, which are
to be expected in a climate like Louisiana, would have upon relieving the evil con-
ditions caused by such waters as I have indicated as “poor’’ above, I am unable to
State.
On the Mermentau River an attempt has been made to improve the
water supply by damming out the salt water during the times the
river is lower than the water in the Gulf and holding up the fresh
water when the flow is toward the Gulf. The dam on the Mermentau
was completed during the season of 1904, and to its existence is attrib-
uted the saving of the crop, as salt water entered the other streams so
early as to make it impossible to secure sufficient fresh water for the
complete irrigation of the rice.
The construction of this dam has called attention to the need of laws
for the assessment of the cost of such works against those benefited.
As originally planned, the Mermentau dam was to be paid for by
voluntary subscription, but, as is usual in such cases, a number of par-
ties benefited have refused to contribute to its cost. The estimated
cost was greatly exceeded, and it was found impossible to raise the
money by voluntary subscriptions. An appeal was made to the legis-
lature of the State of Louisiana, and an act passed which created a
board of commissioners for the Mermentau levee district, authorizing
the following taxes: A tax of 2.5 cents per sack of rice raised by
means of water from the Mermentau and its tributaries, and a similar
tax on cotton, sugar, fruit, etc.; a tax of 10 mills on all property sub-
ject to taxation for levee purposes, the tax not to exceed 2.5 cents per
acre on all lands subject to irrigation within the levee district, and $50
per mile for all standard-gauge railroads within the district.
Common carriers were prohibited from receiving or removing
produce on which the taxes were not paid. The law authorized the
board of commissioners to issue bonds to the amount of $200,000 to
be used for work done or in the purchase of levees, locks, and dams
within the district. A commission was appointed, but has never
met. An injunction has been granted enjoining the board from per-
forming any of the functions or exercising any of the powers con-
72 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
ferred upon it by law, or in any way attempting to carry into effect
the provisions of the law. It would seem that some general law pro-
viding for the organization of districts similar to irri ation or drain-
age districts in other States would be preferable to such special laws
as this. In such districts in other States only the tax on land is
levied and only such a tax is considered good security for the bonds
issued. The passage of such a district law, under which the cost of
dams to keep out the salt water and other improvements could be
equitably assessed against the lands benefited, would greatly promote
the rice industry by putting within the reach of those communities
a convenient means of raising money for the construction of these
works.
The success of rice growing in Louisiana and Texas has led to
experiments in its culture in other sections, particularly in the State
of Arkansas. This State contains large areas of level prairie lands
which have not been successfully farmed with other crops. They are
very wet during the spring, but during the late summer and fall are
very dry. For several years farmers in the vicinity of Lonoke have
been experimenting with rice, and during the season of 1904 this
Office, in cooperation with the Arkansas Experiment Station, con-
ducted an experiment in the vicinity of Lonoke to determine the
possibility of profitably raising rice on the prairie lands. Ten acres
were broken up and prepared for planting, a well was dug, and a
pumping plant purchased and installed.
An 8-inch well was sunk on the experimental plat. Water was
struck at a depth of 70 feet and the well penetrated the water-bearing
strata 44 feet, making the total depth of the well 114 feet. The water
rose to within 27 feet of the surface and was lowered but little by
pumping, showing that there is a good supply at this depth. The well
cost $4 per foot, including casing and strainer, making the total cost
$456. The pumping plant consisted of a 20-horsepower boiler and an
18-horsepower throttling center-crank engine and a No. 4 centrifugal
pump. These, with all the accessories, cost $858.59. The shed cover-
ing the pumping machinery cost $90, making a total cost of $1,404.59.
Eight acres were planted and watered. Owing to the wet spring a
part of this land was seeded so late that part of the crop did not mature,
and part of that which did mature did not fill properly. The crop from
3 acres was not thrashed, and that from 5 acres was poorly thrashed,
owing to trouble with the machinery. The average yield estimated
from the part of the crop which was thrashed was 64.6 bushels per
acre. Those in charge of the experiment are of the opinion that in
irrigating the rice some mistakes were made, accounting in part for
the poor yield. It is hoped that a continuation of the experiment
through another year win give more satisfactory results.
Mr. W. H. Fuller has put in a pumping plant for the irrigation
REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 73
of rice near Carlisle, Ark. Mr. Fuller has a 10-inch well 140 feet
deep, a 6-inch centrifugal pump, operated by a 25-horsepower engine,
and a 35-horsepower boiler. The cost of Mr. Fuller's plant was as
follows: --
Cost of pumping plant of W. H. Fuller.
Pumping plant and accessories and well------- s - - - - - - - - - - - - $1,782. 35
Rice binder------------------------------------ * = * * * * * * * * 135.00
Total investment ----------------------------------- 1,917.35
The annual expense for pumping plant, including fuel, oil,
repairs, and attendance.-------------------------------- 405. 40
Field expenses, including plowing, seed, seeding, harvesting,
thrashing, etc.------------------------------------------ 804. 75
Interest on investment------------------------------------ 134. 21
Total ---------------------------------------------- 1, 344. 36
This pumping plant served 70 acres during the season of 1904.
The investment therefore amounted to $27.39 per acre, and the annual
expense was $19.21 per acre. The plant is considered sufficiently
large to serve 100 acres, and on this basis the investment is $19.17
per acre, and the annual expense $13.44 per acre. The yield of 70
acres planted in 1904 was 5,225 bushels, or 74.6 bushels per acre.
The cost of raising 1 bushel of rice was therefore 26 cents.
CRANBERRY IRRIGATION.
In cooperation with the Wisconsin Experiment Station, this Office
in 1904 worked to determine the relations of frost to water conditions
in the cranberry marshes of Wisconsin. The United States Weather
Bureau has established stations in the cranberry-growing region for
the purpose of predicting frosts, and this Office is at work to deter-
mine the measures of protection needed when frosts occur.
The experiments of the past year included treatment of the soil,
drainage, and irrigation. It was found that on land which was well
sanded temperatures remain much higher during cold nights than over
undrained sections of bogs. This was strikingly illustrated during
the month of August. Over the undrained bogs the temperature
went to freezing or below, while on the sanded places it was nowhere
less than 34°F. above, as will be seen by the following table:

Temperatures over ordinary bog and sanded plats during August, 1904.
* Day of Ordinary | Sanded
month. bog. plats.
o F. o F.
2-------- 32. 0 43.0
8-------- - 26. 0 34.0
22-------- 30.5 40.0
23-------- 30.0 37.0
26-------- 32.0 36.5
30-------- 28.5 37. 0
74 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The following table, giving hourly temperatures on drained and
undrained bogs during the night of August 22–23, shows the effect of
drainage in preventing frost:
Temperatures over drained and undrained bog.

Drained Ordinary
Hour. plat. bog.
o F. o F.
9.30 p.m. ------------ 42, () 33.5
10.30 p.m. - - - - - - - - - - - 39.5 33.3
11.80 p.m. - - - - - - - - - - - 38, 0 31.5
12.30 a.m.------------ 37. 5 30, 0
1.30 a. m. ------------ 36. 3 29, 7
2.30 a.m.------------- 35. 5 32.5
\ 4.30 a.m. -----------. 34. 0 38.5
While sanding and draining tend to keep up the temperature over
bogs, the only sure protection against frost is flooding. Where vines
are flooded they are apt to be injured unless the water is drawn off
quickly when the temperature rises. Hence effective frost protec-
tion requires such control of the water supply as will permit of the
Quick flooding of vines when cold weather sets in and the quick and
complete removal of water when it ends. The work of this Office is
being directed to working out the proper arrangement and size of
supply and drain ditches to accomplish this result.
The water for flooding cranberry marshes is secured principally
by storage, and this storage is accomplished chiefly by building dams
or dikes across the slope to hold the water from larger areas of marsh
above. These dams are usually constructed of peat, taken from the
adjacent bog, and sand when it can be found within hauling distance.
A dam of this kind 18 feet wide at the base, 10 feet wide at the top,
and 4.5 feet high, was constructed at an expense of $3.95 per running
rod. This dam later had a sand facing put on it at an expense of
approximately $2 per running rod. A part of the peat used in the
construction of the dam was taken from the inside of the reservoir,
but it was found that removing the peat greatly increased losses from
Seepage.
The slope of the marshes is naturally slight, and the reservoirs
created by building dikes across the slope are shallow, and there are
great losses from evaporation. The loss from this cause during June
and July, 1904, amounted to 13.82 inches, or a lowering of the water
level during the season of between 1 and 2 feet. This large evapora-
tion from a reservoir having an average depth of not more than 2 or
3 feet means the loss of a very large proportion of the total supply.
The growing of vegetation within the reservoir is considered by some
as a protection against this loss, but it is probable that the water
given off by the leaves is equal to that which would be lost from an
open-water surface. Increasing the depth of reservoirs decreases the
BEVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE YEAR. 75
percentage of loss by evaporation, but in the sandy soils of this
region it is apt to increase the losses by seepage. Some practical
method of checking seepage losses will be of great help to water stor-
age in the cranberry districts.
IRRIGATION IN PORTO RICO.
In the southern and southeastern portions of the island of Porto
Rico irrigation is necessary to the raising of crops, and in many sec-
tions irrigation systems can be installed at a small outlay. In those
sections irrigation will doubtless soon become an important factor in
agriculture.
In the greater part of the island the rainfall is ordinarily sufficient
for crops, but almost every year there is a period when the growth of
crops, especially vegetables, fruits, and sugar cane, is checked by lack
of sufficient rainfall. In cooperation with this Office the Porto Rico
Experiment Station is testing irrigation on a part of the station farm
at Mayaguez. This farm had previously been irrigated, there being
remains of a diverting dam and of ditches covering the land. In 1904
experiments were made in the irrigation of sugar cane, grapes, toma-
toes, eggplant, celery, cabbage, melons, and other truck crops.
Ground has been prepared for the irrigation of lowland rice. Thirty
or forty acres will be irrigated when the system is completed. Several
sugar growers on the island have signified a desire to cooperate in
experiments in the irrigation of sugar cane, and during the coming
year such experiments will be carried on.
PüBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON -
2 . . . IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. -
} NöTÉ.-Publications marked with an asterisk (*) are not available for distribution.
*Bul. ~36. Notes on Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. Pp. 64.
Bül. 58. Water Rights on the Missouri River and its Tributaries. Fp. 80.
Bul. 60. Abstract of Laws for Acquiring Titles to Water from the Missouri River
22 ~ and its Tributaries, with the Legal Forms in Use. Pp. 77.
tº Bul, 70. Water-right Problèms of Bear River. Pp. 40.
*Bul. 73. Irrigation in the Rocky Mountain States. Pp. 64.
Bul. : 81. The Use of Water in Irrigation in Wyoming. Pp. 56.
Bul... 86. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 253.
Bul. 87. Irrigation in New Jersey. Pp. 40.
- Bul. 90. Irrigation in Hawaii. Pp. 48.
Bul. 92. The Reservoir System of the Cache la Poudre Valley. Pp. 48.
, Bul. ’96. Irrigation Laws of the Northwest Territories of Canada and of Wyoming.
Pp. 90.
Bul. 100. Report of Irrigation Investigations in California. Pp. 411.
Bul. 104. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 334.
*Bul. 105. Irrigation in the United States. Pp. 47.
Bul. 108, Irrigation Practice among Fruit Growers on the Pacific Coast. Pp. 54.
Bul. 113. Irrigation of Rice in the United States. Pp. 77.
- Bul. 118. Irrigation from Big Thompson River. Pp. 75.
Bul. 119. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1901, Pp. 401.
Bul. 124. Report of Irrigation Investigations in Utah. Pp. 330.
Bul. 130. Egyptian Irrigation. Pp. 100.
- Bul.131. Plans of Structures in Use on Irrigation Canals in the United States. Pp.
2. t 51. -
Bul. 133. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1902. Pp. 266.
Bul. 134. Storage of Water on Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson Rivers. Pp. 100.
Bul. 140. Acquirement of Water Rights in the Arkansas Valley, Colorado. Pp. 83.
Bul. 144. Irrigation in Northern Italy. Part I. Pp. 100.
Bul, 145. Preparing Land for Irrigation and Methods of Applying Water. Pp. 84.
Bul. 146. Current Wheels: Their Use in Lifting Water for Irrigation. Pp. 38.
Bul. 147. Report on Drainage Investigations, 1903. Pp. 62.
Bul. 148. Report on Irrigation Investigations in Humid Sections of the United States
- in 1903. Pp. 45.
Bul. 157. Water Rights on Interstate Streams. Pp. 116.
FARMERS’ BULLETINs.
Bul: 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. Pp. 27.
Bul. 116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. Pp. 48.
- Bul. 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. Pp. 40.
Bul. 158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Pp. 28.
‘Bul.187. Drainage of Farm Lands. Pp. 40.
III C
-, -º-º-º:
º º:
- º
ENGIN. LIB, º º #: %
§§ º £º § º º;-
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ſº; office of ExPERIMENT STATIONs, *—
i’: 2°. $. *:::.. * * * Ž, *: es
2 … . . A T. A. C. TRUE, DIRECTOR.
Jº - - * .* .*: * A -> * -
㺠* * } * .* *
#i º "ºº- sº. * : \" * * s • .*
... * ...’ . * x Y ** * -W
# * . . . . . . . ANNUAL REPORT
. . . . . . .” -- * k
*3. * < * * ,- * OF 2 * # •
#IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
gºtiv Lu L 4– - 2
; : INVESTIGATIONS. 1904 j
$ 3 - 'Aº X DI 9 it 9 "...
3 * : * ***
, -’. 3. ^ - +,
2. _Y UNDER THE DIRECTION OF ... ". .
- .* }. A - •rº-
*.*, *-- . ELWOOD MEAD, .." . . .
* * * ... " CHIEF OF IRRIGATION ANI) I) RAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS,
• . * * ** ** *
§ * * * *...
- .3 × * **
§§ Ş * --> *-*--------
$º “, --& *~~
§ 3. * *... *
º: • & .
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§3. * * * * * * SEPARATE NO. 4:
º * † 2 * l º e º
& **ś * * X* .*
3ººk ; *
* * ...,
*,
zºº; 3.5 *... •.
; : IRRIGATION IN KLAMATH COUNTY, OREGON.
§ - R. . - By F. L. KENT, Assistant Agriculturist, Oregon Agricultural College.
º 3. ‘. . . * (In cooperation with Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.)
§ºirºgation. INVESTIGATIONS IN THE YAKIMA VALLEY.
§ - was HINGTON, 1904.
§º. 8 ' ' ' '. By O. L. WALLER, Irrigation Engineer, Washington Agricultural Ex-
§ º §§ -- * .-. e * º * &- v. * -
§ . . periment Station. (In cooperation with Washington Agricultural *
º “ . . . . . Experiment Station.) 2.
-
sº, IRRIGATION CONDITIONS IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, +.
º; 3 IDAHO, 1904. Af
ãº. Sº, º By W. F. BARTLETT, Agent and Expert.
º * ---
|
x * j, - *: f +. •4. *
5.g. * * * **. • *-- - - --------------
*...* -
*...* ºr , -, -, x
... ºz * *
... . . [Reprint from Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
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3.3.
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:* - . . . . . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1905.
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--- SEPARATES FROM OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONSBULLETNNº.
-- & --> * * }. * s * *.*** * º: - º
* - SEPARATE No. 1. . . ... ...'", º º
, - ºr * t *x X- * *** * * * ..., % . *...*.*.*.*.* -
Review of the Irrigation Work of the Year 1904. By R. P. Teelee. Pp. J-75 ºgº :
&e w * * - , ~ * .*.*.*.*: º
.* - • * * * *...* :. § §
SEPARATE No. 2. sº. - ºf ãº
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& g * ~~ g e --- º A * -. -sº ." ºrº, Fº
Irrigation in Santa Clara Valley, California. By S. Fortier. Pp. 76–91,x_*.s.º. : º
* --- * * © º - ~~~~ *** * * * A3... *::: * $, -
^, Mechanical Tests of Pumping Plants used for Irrigation. By J. N. Le Conté. º :
** § :* -e ºf Y §:
#;
--- 195—255. - * I'...º.
**. & J r * -, * - *~. * *; 3.
** ^ - *r A { Tº gº.
.* * SEPARATE No. 3. * - - , , , º º
* , ; The Distribution and Use of Water in Modesto and Turlock Irrigation Districts,Caº
ifornia. By Frank Adams. Pp. 93-139. . . . . ºº
* Relation of Irrigation to Yield, Size, Quality, and Commercial Suitability of Fruits: 3:
By E. J. Wickson. Pp. 141–174. * - - 3 -º
Irrigation Conditions in Imperial Valley, California. By J. E. Roadhouse: º
175–194. <-- * ~...~" . . . ."
**
SEPARATE No. 4. ~ & A "* * '3 ×* 3:
*- Y. º , º, *- .***
Irrigation in Klamath County, Oregon. By F. L. Kent. Pp. 257–266. * † ºs
Irrigation Investigations in the Yakima Valley, Washington, 1904, By O.J. Waller. **ś
Pp. 267–278. ~ - . . . . . º.
Irrigation Conditions in Raft River Water District, Idaho, 1904. By W. F. Bartl
Pp 279–302. – . . . . . . *
4° SEPARATE No. 5.
* *
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Irrigation Investigations at New Mexico Experiment Station, Mesilla Park, 1964.º.
By J. J. Vernon. Pp. 303–317. * - - - - -ºº:
Irrigation Investigations in Western Texas. By Harvey Culbertson. Pp. 319-34º
Pumping Plants in Texas. By C. E. Tail. Pp. 341–346. , sº
* - *~.. sº
-º-º: ^ > * : * > . . , 'º'
" ; ** SEPARATE No. 6. 3. º * : *%
Irrigation in Southern Texas. By Aug. J. Bowie, jr. Pp. 347–507; . . . . .”g: ;
SEPARATE No. 7. -** º żº
***, * . .x2,
~, Rice Irrigation in Louisiana and Texas in 1903 and 1904. By W. B. Gregory, P: , º,
^. - 509–544. - ... - sº-ºº:
* Rice Irrigation on the Prairie Land of Arkansas. By C. E. Tait. Pp. 545–565: …;
A. " " -
& " xxx
,-- 2:...sº : ?," :
* * - T -º- " -ºº: *
SEPARATE No. 8. *- \s. . . . . . *s
r’ſ * º, x. ". . ;
-Irrigation Experiments at Fort Hays, Kansas, 1903 and 1904. By J . G. Haney. Pp: º º
567-583. ~~ * * 3:
Irrigation near Garden City, Kansas. 1904. By A. B. Collins and A.-E. Wrightº:
- Pp. 585–594. . . **, *.
Pumping Plants in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas. By O. V. P. Stout. Pp.:595=3; 3
608. *~ ~~~ &- . . . . $2.
sº Irrigation near Rockyford, Colorado, 1904. By A. E. Wright. Pp. 609-628. ºf
ax The Irrigation and Drainage of Cranberry Marshes in Wisconsin. By A. R. jº
Pp. 625–642. *. ~ y , -º-;
* SEPARATE No. 9. - * <
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Whitson. …;
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Report of Drainage Investigations, 1904. By C. G. Elliott. Pp. 643-743.
II. C. *


U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
840
ZZ 5 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS,
º, A. C. TRUE, DIRECTOR.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
ELWOOD MEAD,
CHIEF OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
SEPARATE NO. 4:
IRRIGATION IN KLAMATH COUNTY, OREGON.
By F. L. KENT, Assistant Agriculturist, Oregon Agricultural College.
(In cooperation with Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.)
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS IN THE YAKIMA VALLEY,
WASHINGTON, 1904.
By O. L. WALLER, Irrigation Engineer, Washington Agricultural Ex-
periment Station. (In cooperation with Washington Agricultural
Experiment Station.)
IRRIGATION CONDITIONS IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT,
IDAHO, 1904.
By W. F. BARTLETT, Agent and Expert.
[Reprint from Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
e-ºrsºsº
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º
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Nº.
.* WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,



1905,
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director.
E. W. ALLEN, Ph. D., Assistant Director.
IRRIGATION AND DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS.
ELwooD MEAD, Chief.
C. G. ELLIOTT, in Charge of Drainage Investigations.
S. M. WoodwarD, in Charge of Irrigation Investigations.
R. P. TEELE, Expert in Irrigation Institutions.
C. J. ZINTHEO, in Charge of Farm Mechanics.
SAMUEL FoRTIER, in Charge of Pacific District.
F. C. HERRMANN, Evpert in Irrigation as Related to Dry Farming.
II
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*
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$
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CONTENTS.
Page.
IRRIGATION IN KLAMATH COUNTY, OREGON. By F. L. KENT----------------- 257
Losses from Adams ditches-------------------------------------------- 259
Losses from Ankeny ditch -------------------------------------------- 260
Losses from Mitchell lateral------------------------------------------- 260
Duty of water-------------------------------------------------------- 261
N. S. Merrill’s 38.5-acre tract of alfalfa- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 261
N. S. Merrill’s 5-acre tract of alfalfa- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 261
William Ball's 40-acre tract of alfalfa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 261
William Ball’s 95-acre tract of alfalfa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 262
Ankeny & Cantrell's 118-acre tract of alfalfa- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 262
Ankeny & Cantrell’s 110-acre tract of alfalfa- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 262
Evaporation --------------------------------------------------------- 263
Analyses of soil and water -------------------------------------------- 264
Soils ------------------------------------------------------------ 264
Irrigation water-------------------------------------------------- 264
Practice in alfalfa growing ------------------------------------------- 265
* IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS IN YAKIMA VALLEY, WASHINGTON, 1904. By O. L.
WALLER --------------------------------------------------------------- 267
Seepage-------------------------------------------------------------- 268
Cost of preparing land for irrigation ----------------------------------- 268
Duty of water------------------------------------------------------- 273
IRRIGATION ConDITIONS IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, IDAHO, 1904. By
W. F. BARTLETT-------------------------------------------------------- 279
Conditions which govern the control and division of water- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 279
Tributaries to Raft River ----------------------------------------- 279
The manner in which the duties of the water master are affected by the
nature of water titles and the State irrigation laws - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 281
Provisions for water commissioners and water masters - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 281
Difficulties encountered in installing measuring devices - - - - - - - - - - - - - 282
Defects of the present law as applying to this district - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 283
Water titles------------------------------------------------------ 285
Attitude of the irrigators------------------------------------------ 285
Status of the Almo Water Company ------------------------------- 287
The water supply ---------------------------------------------------- 289
Seepage.--------------------------------------------------------- 291
Duty of water -------------------------------------------------------- 292
Interstate questions -------------------------------------------------- 295
Conclusions---------------------------------------------------------- 299
ILLUSTRATION.
Page
FIG. 40. Plan of farm of M. E. Robinson, showing contour levees-- - - - - - - - - - - 263
IRRIGATION IN KLAMATH COUNTY, OREG.
By F. L. KENT,
Assistant Agriculturist, Oregon Agricultural College.
The nature of the work in Klamath County, Oreg., during the sum-
mer of 1904 may be briefly summarized as follows:
Determination of losses by seepage and evaporation on Adams
ditches, the Ankeny, and the Mitchell lateral; the duty of water on
38.5-acre tract and a 5-acre tract owned by N. S. Merrill, a 40-acre
tract and a 95-acre tract owned by William Ball, a 118-acre tract
by free flooding and a 110-acre tract by checks, both owned by Ankeny
and Cantrell; comparison of labor required in different methods of
irrigating; determination of evaporation from Adams ditch for one
month; collection of samples of soil and irrigation waters for analysis;
collection of data relative to alfalfa growing, and photographing irri-
gation works and haymaking appliances.
Irrigation has been practiced in Klamath County for a considerable
time, the property of the Klamath Falls Irrigation Company, com-
monly known as the Ankeny ditch, having been built in 1884, and
that of the Little Klamath Ditch Company, locally known as the
Adams ditch, having been built in 1885. Each of these systems has
been enlarged to more than twice its original water-carrying capacity.
The first-named system is now supplying water to about 4,000 acres,
but could easily be enlarged to cover about 10,000 acres, which area of
land lies within easy reach. Under this system water is sold on the
basis of $2.50 per California miner’s inch, each user taking about 1
inch for every 2 acres. The water supply is taken directly from Kla-
math Lake and distributed along about 16 miles of main ditch.
The Little Klamath Ditch Company (Adams ditch) takes its water
supply from Little Klamath Lake by a channel recently cut through
about 4 miles of tule growth discharging into White Lake, thence
through a deep cut of about 1 mile into the Lost River Valley. Here
two branches about 8 miles in length supply about 5,000 acres on the
south side of Lost River, while the greater portion of the water pass-
ing through the cut is flumed across Lost River and distributed by
means of two main ditches of about 32 miles total length to about
8,000 acres. Under this system water is delivered to users at the rate
of $1.50 per acre for the season.
30620–No. 158—05—17 257
258 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
That portion of the water which is not flumed across Lost River
belongs to a stock organization known as Van Brimmer Ditch Com-
pany, which operates about as follows: There are about 5,000 acres
under the ditch, each acre of which represents one share. On May 1,
1903, when the ditch property was purchased from Van Brimmer
Brothers, the originators of the system, the sum of $5 per share was
paid in for the purchase of the property. The cost of maintenance is
to be assessed pro rata per share, and it is estimated that this item will
amount to less than 25 cents per share annually, which assumption is
warranted by the results of the past two growing seasons.
On Sprague River the canals of the North Fork Irrigating Company
and the Sprague River Irrigation Company, each cover about 2,000
acres. These ditches are about 12 and 11 miles long, respectively,
including the principal laterals. They are both stock concerns, the
shares being held by the water users.
On Wood River prairie, which lies to the northward of Klamath
Lake, some 3,000 to 4,000 acres are irrigated from the mountain
streams fed by the snows of Crater Lake Mountain (Mount Mazama)
and other high mountains. Here, as on Sprague River, the water is
very cold (54°F. observed at 2 p. m., July 7) and is used mainly for
the irrigation of wild grasses. It is doubtful if simpler irrigation
engineering problems can be found anywhere than those of the Wood
River prairie. The whole area slopes uniformly toward the south
with a fall of 3 to 5 feet per mile. Wood River and smaller streams
have such very low banks that the water may be diverted at almost
any point. The uniformity of the surface, and the ease with which
the soil is worked, make it possible, as reported, with three horses on
a plow and six on a road machine to construct between 4 and 5 miles
of “surface ditch” in a day. And the system of applying the water
is quite as simple. As one user expressed it, “there is no system;
water is simply led out on the higher lands and allowed to flood those
of a slightly lower level. The water is generally turned on to wild
meadows about June 1 and left on from four to six weeks.”
Under the Ankeny and Lost River systems, the principal crop grown
is alfalfa, although wheat, oats, and barley are largely grown. Alfalfa
yields 4 to 5 tons of hay per acre per season, there being two cuttings.
Wheat yields, per acre, 20 to 30 bushels; oats, 30 to 50 bushels, and
barley, 40 to 60 bushels. Two and sometimes three irrigations per
season are applied to alfalfa, the first about May 15, and the second
about July 15. Grain usually gets but one irrigation, and that about
* June 15 to 30. Irrigators estimate that about the same amount of
water is applied at each irrigation.
In addition to the systems already mentioned considerable irrigation
is done with the water of springs. The Griffeth and Bord water
wheels on Lost River each furnish sufficient water to irrigate 250 acres,
IRRIGATION IN KLAMATH COUNTY, OREG. 259
and Mr. F. J. Bowne, of Bonanza, upper Lost River Valley, has this
year (1904) installed a steam pumping plant designed to supply water
for the irrigation of about 1,800 acres.
Some idea of the climatology of the region may be gained from the
Weather Bureau reports, as furnished by voluntary observer Marion
Hanks, near Klamath Falls, and given in the following table:
Precipitation near Klamath Falls, Oreg.

Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.
|
Im. Im. Im. Im. Im. Im. Im. Im. Im. Im. | Iºn. Im. In.
1901--------- 5.30 | 1.85 1. -----|------|------|------- Trace. Trace.} 1.63 0.90 | 1.29 2.29 . . . . . . . .
1902. . . . . . . . . Trace. 2.50 0.50 | 1.17 || 0.50 | 0 Trace. 1. 75 || 0 . 85 . 79 3.20 11. 26
1903......... 3.90 | Trace. 1.18 . 20 - - - - - - 1.93 | 0 ||-------|-------|------|------ 1. 36 - - - - - - - -
1904. ........ 1.00 || 4. 60 | 3, 62 . . . . . . .45 .75 --------------|-------|------|------|------|--------
Monthly temperature averages, Klamath Falls, Oreg.

Year. Jan. | Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.
o F. o F. of. o F. o F. of. of. o F. o F. of o F. of. of.
1901--------- 25. 2 || 31.3 : 37.6 || 43.7 || 54.8 57.2 68. 1 j 70 54.6 51.9 40.8 || 32.6 47.3
1902--------- 30.2 37.8 38. 6 45.2 52.8 60.7 63.2 68.3 64 47.4 38.4 || 33.3 48.3
1908--------. 31, 6 26.8 || 37.8 45.8 |. - - - - - 63.4 65.1 ! --------------|------ !------ 33.8 - - - - - - - -
1904. . . . . . . . . 27.2 30.8 35.3
47.3 || 58 5g .....I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I. * * * * * * * * * * * * s : * * * * * * * *
In the Wood River region the average temperature is somewhat
lower and the precipitation somewhat greater than near Klamath Falls,
while in the Lost River region the average temperature is higher and
the annual precipitation rather less. The Sprague River section very
closely resembles the Wood River region as to temperature and pre-
cipitation. The whole area is above an elevation of 4,200 feet, conse-
Quently summer frosts are quite liable to occur.
The work discussed below was carried on during the months of July
and August. A very unusual rainfall during the first ten days of the
month of July interfered with the work, as the Ankeny ditch was
injured to such an extent that it supplied no water to users for more
than a week. An unusual amount of spring rain delayed plant growth
and threw the irrigation periods considerably later than usual. In fact
the July rains furnished so much water that several growers deemed
it unnecessary to irrigate their grain crops, hence it is probable that
the duty of water, as indicated by these investigations, is higher than
would ordinarily be the case.
LOSSES FROM ADAMS DITCHES.
The seepage and evaporation losses from the Adams ditches were
measured July 15 and 16, 1904. The old ditch has a fall of 1.8 feet
per mile and the new ditch a fall of 0.7 foot per mile. The results of
the measurements are given in the following table.
260 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Losses from Adams ditches.
[In cubic feet per second.]
OLD DITCH.
Discharge 600 feet below Lost River flume - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16, 99
Diversions --------------------------------------------- 1. 37
Discharge 6 miles below upper measurement - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13. 89
15, 26
Loss in 6 miles----------------------------------------- 1. 73
Percentage of loss -------------------------------------- 10. 24
NEW DITCH.
Discharge 300 feet below Lost River flume - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18. 16
Discharge 8 miles below -------------------------------------- 15. 88
Loss in 8 miles----------------------------------------- 2. 28
Percentage of loss -------------------------------------- 12. 55
LossES FROM ANKENY DITCH.
The losses from the Ankeny ditch were measured twice during the
season. The ditch was built on a grade of 1 foot per mile. For the
first mile the ditch follows a very rocky and, in places, steep hillside,
where much of the loss doubtless occurs. August 9 the velocities
were measured by the use of floats and August 20 by the use of a cur-
rent meter. The results of these measurements are as follows:
Losses from Ankeny ditch.
[In cubic feet per second.]
AUGUST 9.
Discharge 200 feet below power plant -------------------------- 43. 98
Diversions ------------------------------------------- - - 2.00
Discharge 6.5 miles below upper station------------------ 36. 38
38. 38
Loss in 6.5 miles --------------------------------------- 5.60
Percentage of loss -------------------------------------- 12. 73
AUGUST 20.
Discharge 200 feet below power plant-------------------------- 43.41.
Discharge 6.5 miles below upper station------------------------ 35. 57
Loss in 6.5 miles --------------------------------------- 7.84
* Tercentage of loss -------------------------------------- 18.06
LOSSES FROM MITCHELL LATERAL.
The losses from the Mitchell lateral of the Ankeny ditch were
measured August 9. For a large part of the distance between the
points of measurement this lateral was overgrown with sweet clover,
alfalfa, etc., while in other places occasional gopher holes allowed
considerable water to escape. It doubtless represented as unfavorable
IRRIGATION IN KLAMATH COUNTY, OREG. 261
conditions as would be found on any of the laterals of the Ankeny
system. The results are as follows:
Losses from Mitchell lateral.
[In cubic feet per second.]
Discharge one-half mile below head gate- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. 92
Discharge 1% miles below upper station ------------------------ 3. 12
Loss in 1% miles---------------------------------------- . 80
Percentage of loss -------------------------------------- 20
DUTY OF WATER.
The field work of 1904 was limited to the months of July and
August, and therefore it was not possible to secure complete records
of the water used during the season. The plan followed was to
determine the quantity used in a single irrigation and from this esti-
mate the quantity used during the season. e
N. S. MERRILL's 38.5-ACRE TRACT OF ALFALFA.
This field was irrigated July 24–28. The water was measured over
a Cipolletti weir and the depths recorded by an automatic register.
The total amount was 20.09 acre-feet, giving an average depth over
the 38.5 acres of 6.27 inches. In the opinion of Mr. Merrill, who
applied the water, this was about the usual quantity he has been in
the habit of applying at each of the two irrigations annually given
this field. The check system was used, this being the method usually
followed among the water users in the Lost River Valley.
N. S. MIERRILL’S 5–ACIRE TRACT OF ALFALFA.
This field was irrigated July 28–30. The water was measured over
the same weir used in the preceding measurement. At one point the
water broke over the check levee and a considerable amount ran on to
other lands, and there was fully 6 inches of water in parts of some of
the checks twenty-four hours after the water was turned off. The
results are, therefore, considerably higher than would normally be
obtained. The measurements show that 8.77 acre-feet of water was
used, giving an average depth of 1.75 feet.
WILLIAM BALL’S 40-ACRE TRACT OF ALFALFA.
This field was irrigated July 17–21. Owing to the delay in getting
water into the main ditch this field did not receive irrigation which it
should have had about the middle of June and had received no water
prior to this time. The field received 29.29 acre-feet, giving a depth
of 8.78 inches. -
262 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
WILLIAM BALL's 95-ACRE TRACT of ALFALFA.
This field was irrigated July 23–27. It had received the usual irri-
gation in June. The field received water from two laterals, the total
amount supplied to the two being 47.83 acre-feet, giving a depth of
6.05 inches,
ANIKENY & CANTIRELL’S 1 18-ACRE TRACT OF ALFALFA.
This field was irrigated August 8–11. The water was applied by free
flooding and was supplied by two laterals. The total amount received
was 48.46 acre-feet, giving a depth of 4.92 inches. The comparatively
small quantity necessary to irrigate this field was due to the large head
used and to the fact that the alfalfa had made considerable growth
since cutting, thus lessening evaporation. However, some of the high
spots received no water, and it is probable that the irrigation was not
Quite heavy enough.
ANIKENY & CANTIRELL’S 11 O-ACRE TRACT OF ALFALFA.
This field was irrigated August 14–18. It received 54.2 acre-feet,
giving a depth of 5.92 inches. The water was applied by the check
system.
These two fields belonging to Ankeny & Cantrell furnish data for
comparison of the cost of irrigating by the check system and by free
flooding. Applying the water by free flooding required two men and
a team for one day; and plowing furrows and otherwise preparing
ditches for the distribution of water, the services of two men for five
days were required to apply the water, and the days were very long.
Allowing $2.50 per day for each man and $2 for the team, the cost of
spreading the water on the 118 acres amounts to $32, or about 27 cents
per acre. In applying water by the check system practically no prep-
aration was required before turning on the water, and one man work-
ing five days was easily able to attend to the handling of the water for
110 acres. Taking the same wages as before, the cost would amount
to $12.50, or a little more than 11 cents per acre. This does not take
into account the cost of checking the land, which depends to a consid-
erable extent on the slope. Mr. N. S. Merrill, who is a firm believer
in the check system, estimates that his checking has cost him about
$10 per acre, but he has some land upon which the check levees are
not more than 1 rod apart with a fall of 1 foot between checks.
Mr. J. F. Adams, who has superintended a large amount of check
construction, says that one man with a “Buck scraper” and a 4-horse
team can construct about one-fourth mile of checks per day for a 3-inch
fall, and such a working outfit is worth about $5 per day. On this
basis, using as an example the 80-acre field of Mr. M. E. Robinson, a
sketch of which accompanies this report (fig. 40), the cost of construct-
ÍRRIGAffon IN Ki,AMATH COUNTY, ÖREG. 263
ing the check levees would amount to about $60. The cost of locating
the levees would probably amount to $20 additional, making the cost
of putting in the checks about $80, or about $1 per acre in this par-
ticular case. This is an ideal field for the application of the check-
ing system, although there are other checked fields of equal area in
the Lost River system which have a less amount of levee work. To
the above estimate should be added the cost of putting in twenty gates,
two for each levee, although in many cases canvas, manure, or dirt
dams are used in the laterals instead of gates. The manure or dirt
dams are not to be recommended, as they require too much labor.
A peculiar feature of the practice of water users under the Adams
and the Ankeny ditches is their attitude toward the use or nonuse of
the checking system. Ankeny & Cantrell are practically the only
users of checks under the Ankeny ditch, and they propose to decrease

SU/APLY D/7 CA/
SU/AAAY //7C//
FIG. 40.—Plan of farm of M. E. Robinson, showing contour levees.
and perhaps eliminate their checked area, while practically all of the
users under the Adams ditch follow the check method. The lands
covered by these two ditches approach within less than 10 miles of
each other, and to a close observer there appears to be no particular
difference in the character of the soils, except perhaps the presence of
a little more sand and a trifle less clay in the region served by the
Adams ditch.
EWAPORATION.
In the absence of a regular evaporation pan, a pan 13 by 9 inches
and 9 inches deep, inclosed in a wooden framework suitable for prop-
erly floating the pan, was placed in the Adams ditch on July 24 and
filled to a depth of 7 inches. The evaporation by seven-day periods
was as follows: First period, 2.5 inches; second period, 3.125 inches;
third period, 2.5 inches; fourth period, 2 inches; next three days,
0.875 inch. Total for thirty-one days beginning July 24, 11 inches.
264 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
ANALYSES OF SOIL AND WATER,
SOILS.
The samples of soil were taken to determine the effect upon the
soil of the continued growing of alfalfa irrigated from the waters of
the Adams ditch. The claim had been set up that the waters of this
ditch carried a considerable amount of organic matter by reason of
the water slowly passing through a considerable area of tule growth
before reaching the ditch; hence its use would tend to build up the
land irrigated therefrom. Sample A was taken from virgin soil
which had never been irrigated. Sample B was taken from a field
which had been growing alfalfa continuously for nine years, having
grown just one grain crop prior to being seeded to alfalfa. The sam-
ples were taken about 150 feet apart and represented apparently
exactly the same original soil conditions. -
The results of the analyses are as follows:
Analysis of soil irrigated by Adams ditch.
[Determinations made by F. E. Edwards, Oregon Agricultural College.]

- Sample A Sample B
Constituent. (virgin (nine years
soil). in alfalfa).
Per cent. Per cent.
0.43 0.41
Potash (K29) ------------------------------------------------------------------ e w
Line (CaO)-------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.56 .98
Magnesia ( É? * = tº tº º º º ſº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *-* - * * * * * * * * * * * * * . 11 . O5
Phosphoric acid (P2O5) -------------------------------------------------------- . 09 . 085
Nitrogen.----------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. 66 . 177
These analyses would seem to show that the soil is built up by grow
ing alfalfa under the irrigated conditions already described, but
whether the increase in the nitrogen content is due to the character of
the irrigation waters or to the growing of the alfalfa on the land is
not determinable in this case.
IRIRIGATION WATER.
The waters of Lost River, which are used at the F. J. Bowne pump-
ing plant, come from a large number of springs. An analysis of this
water with reference to its use both for boiler and irrigation purposes
gave the following: -
Analysis of waters of Lost River, Oregon.
[Determination by A. L. Knisely, Oregon Experiment Station.]

Grains * Grains
Constituent. ºi * per Constituent. . . er
gallon. * gallon.
§ *ś, * < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * # 3 0. # §§ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 77.5 4. 56
*SO4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - tº €2
Na2CO3 . . . . . . . . . .------------. l jº || Aj } tº º sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 5.2 S 30
K2COs -------...-------------. 3. 7 -22 || SiO2-------------------------- 22.9 2.24
MgCO3-----------. ----------- 93 5.43
IRRIGATION IN KLAMATH COUNTY, OREG. 265
The following analyses, made by A. L. Knisely and F. E. Edwards,
of the Oregon Experiment Station, give an idea of the composition of
the irrigating waters furnished by the Ankeny and Adams ditches:
Analysis of waters from Ankeny and Adams ditches.
Parts per million.
1.
Constituent. Little 2 3 4 5
Klamath| Adams. Ankeny. Adams. Ankeny.
Lake.
Total solids (110°C.) ------------------------------- 307 467 128 369. 6 174.4
Qºşanie matter------------------------------------- 76 93 ---------- 80 60
Silica (SiO2) ...------------------------------------- 34 16 37 45 40
§diºloride (Načij............................ 50.9 75.4 50.9 23 11.5
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.8 137.8 25 148.4 31.8
Sodium sulphate ºº::g ) -----------------------------------|-------------------- 35. 5 42. 5
Calcium carbonate ( ãº) as sº s sº as a sº s º ºs ºs e º as sº sº * * * * * * * * 125 107.5 - - - - - - - - - - 38 35. 2
Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.7 ---------- 63.4 ----------
Nitrogen (N). -------------------------------------- 8.4 9. 3 6.2 --------------------
Iron and alumina (Fe2O3+Al2O3).---------------------------|---------- 50 ---------- 2.9
|


For grains per gallon use the divisor 17.12.
Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are from samples taken in 1903, and 4 and 5 from
samples taken in 1904. Nos. 2 and 4 were taken at practically the
same points and seasons of the year, namely, about August 1, at which
time the ditches were carrying an average quantity of water, and the
same may be said of Nos. 3 and 5. No. 1 was taken for the purpose
of determining whether any considerable change took place in the
composition of the water used by the Adams ditch by reason of pass-
ing through the tule growth and White Lake. The results seem to
indicate an increase in both organic matter and soluble salts, particu-
larly Sodium and magnesium carbonates.
PRACTICE IN ALFALFA GROWING.
Several growers were interviewed under each of the two systems
previously referred to, the results indicating that there was no essen-
tial difference in the methods followed under the two systems. In the
matter of preparing the ground, it is the practice to grow grain for two
or more years after clearing away the sagebrush before sowing to
alfalfa. The seeding is uniformly done with a press drill, and as a
rule no “nurse crop” is used. When such a crop is sown, barley
seems to be preferred. Eight to 10 pounds of seed per acre is the
amount usually sown, although one grower recommended 20 pounds,
and another regarded 6 pounds, or even less, as being sufficient if it
can be evenly applied.
The time for seeding has quite a range, some preferring to sow early
in April. Others consider June 1 to 15 as the proper season. One of
the oldest and most successful growers says he has had excellent results
from sowing during the latter part of February. If the seed is sown
early, that is, prior to May 15, it will not as a rule require irrigation
266. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
to start a vigorous growth. Two irrigations are usually given the
fields, but there is a growing Sentiment in favor of three applications
of water, and it is the opinion of the writer that the latter practice will
soon become general. With three irrigations they would come about
four weeks apart, beginning usually about May 15.
The first cutting usually takes place about July 1 and yields 2 to 2.5
tons of hay per acre. The second cutting usually takes place about
September 15 and yields 1.5 to 2 tons per acre. From four to six
weeks’ fall pasture is usually obtained after the removal of the second
cutting. The renewal of an alfalfa field is usually recommended after
seven to nine years of growth, although some well-cared-for fields
seemed to be in prime condition at twelve to fourteen years of age.
Treatment similar to that given new land is recommended before
reseeding to alfalfa.
In the opinion of some of the most successful growers, more damage
is done by the use of too much water and imperfect drainage than from
the use of too little water. Especially is this true under the checking
system. It certainly does not take an experienced eye to see that there
is much waste of water under each of the ditch systems which have
been discussed.
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS IN YAKIMA VALLEY,
WASHINGTON, 1904.
By O. L. WALLER,
Irrigation Engineer, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station.
In the Yakima Valley there are thousands of acres of land along the
rivers, bottom lands or river bars, composed of such materials as a
very rapid stream would deposit, principally coarse gravel with very
little soil over the surface. Such lands under present methods of
spreading require very large quantities of water at a wetting and very
frequent wettings. In some instances 1 cubic foot per second is used
on 10 acres, and rarely does a second-foot serve more than 30 acres.
These lands are supplied from small private ditches that in most in-
stances have been in use many years. They were the first appropria-
tions from the stream, taken when water was abundant. The supply
being so plentiful, there was no need of careful distribution. The
drainage through the underlying gravel being perfect, there was no
fear of alkali, and slovenly methods of spreading have always obtained.
The writer has in mind one instance where the land was so stony it
could not be plowed, no attempt was made to level, the sagebrush was
grubbed, the seed was scattered broadcast, and the water run over as
best it could be. When seen the farmer was cutting a fair crop of
alfalfa hay.
Under other conditions these wasteful methods would not only dam-
age the lands themselves, but would materially shorten the water sup-
ply. On these river-bar farms, however, no damage is done; on the
other hand, these great, deep gravel bars act as a reservoir to hold
back enormous quantities of water used early in the season. The
canals heading farther down are beneficiaries, since this stored water
returns slowly to the streams and keeps up the supply during months
when there is a shortage. This would largely compensate if the same
methods were not continued through the months of short supply.
During these months they really waste water enough from tho already
scant supply to water three or four times the area of all the lands so
wastefully served. This of course limits the reclaimed acreage lower
down the valleys. If the water could be carefully and economically
used on these gravelly lands from July on, they might materially aid
in the solution of storage problems. -
267
268 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The seepage waters from the irrigated lands under the Indian canals
and from the Sunnyside lands from the middle of July on, supply the
major part of the water used for power and irrigation at Prosser.
Measurements taken the latter part of August showed something
over 20 per cent as much water returning to the Yakima River from
Union Gap to Prosser as was used at that time for irrigation between
the two points. This return water for the future will likely be all
that will be required for irrigation and power purposes at Prosser.
SEEPAGE.
Some seepage measurements on Sunnyside laterals show surprisingly
small losses. Observations on 25,060 feet of Snipes Mountain lateral,
an extremely well-silted channel, carrying 63 cubic feet per second
showed only one-fourth of 1 per cent per 1,000 feet, or 1 per cent of .
the amount carried for every 4,000 feet. The velocity in this lateral
is slow and the sediment precipitated is mostly very fine sand and silt.
The water always runs muddy.
Three-fourths of a mile of the Sunnyside Supply, a lateral carrying
9.25 second feet, showed too small a loss to be worth considering. The
upper end of this lateral was well scoured, deep down into the hardpan,
the water ran muddy, and nearly the whole stretch was lined with fine
silt. ©
Of the South Branch, a lateral carrying 16.51 second feet, 1.29 miles
showed a loss of only 1 per cent in the entire distance, and this loss
was due largely to evaporation. The gradient was extremely flat, the
channel wide, the water much spread out over side berms and silt bars.
The water ran muddy; silt was deposited in profusion. The gaugings
were made about noon with the mercury 103°F. in the shade.
COST OF PREPARING LAND FOR, IRRIGATION,
The cost of preparing land for irrigation in the Yakima and Natches
valleys is dependent on the strength of the Sagebrush growth, the
character of the soil, the work of the wind, evenness and slope of the
surface, relative proportion of ditch and flume, checks and drops and
other timber structures. As these conditions vary greatly throughout
the valley there must be quite a wide difference in expense accounts.
Through personal interviews and correspondence considerable data,
based on actual experience, were secured. Some are given below.
We cleared 340 acres of sagebrush in the Kittitas Valley and put it in grain last
spring. We used very heavy double-gang plows, each drawn by six large mules,
putting the plows right into the Sagebrush. We set the plows to turn a very deep
furrow, thus getting well down on the roots of the sage and giving the plow such a
firm grip that the heaviest Sage would not cause it to jump or dodge. The plows cut
the sage cleanly and on the large brush raised and threw them to one side rather
than covered them. This work we had done under contract at $3 per acre, 5 acres
IRRIGATION IN YAKIMA VALLEY, WASH. 269
being an average day's work. It cost us $1.50 per acre to pick and burn the brush,
and 75 cents per acre to harrow and drill in the grain.
We experimented with walking plows and found that they would not work at all,
as they could not be kept in the ground; we also tried very heavy single-riding
plows, but found that they did not take grip enough to prevent their dodging side-
ways when they encountered heavily rooted clumps of sage. The heavy gang plow
will cleanly remove any sage that it is possible to get the motive power through or
over. We found the mules much preferable to horses, as they were steadier, easily
clambered through, around, and over the Sage, and did not skin their legs like horses.
The sage was the ordinary sagebrush of this locality, in some places quite dense
and heavy, often shoulder high, in other places it was small and scattering with a
thick growth of white or yellow sage. We did not grub except here and there a
clump of unusually large brush that it would have been impossible for mules to
climb over or straddle. (By straddle I mean the dodging of the brush by a mule
going on either side of it.) We found by plowing very deeply that the plows stood
up to the brush much better, did not dodge or jump, and more effectively removed
them. The plows did not clog to any extent. The brush was bent over by the
frame of the plow, and when the roots were cut by the plowshare they sort of kicked
themselves free and rolled out on top of the ground. We afterwards picked them by
hand and burned them. The total expense of grubbing by hand on the entire tract
was $14. Certainly the gang plow is the cheapest and best device for clearing sage-
brush land.
The land was fairly smooth and was not blown into hummocks. It settled very
evenly and was not graded after first watering. The wind did not trouble us in the
least at any time; it never does in Kittitas County. It sometimes caused a little
bother in haying, making stacking a little troublesome, but does not interfere with
seeding in any way. The water caused no trouble and washed no gullies.
The land cleared was SW. 3, sec. 19, T. 17 N., R. 20 E.; the W. 3 of NW. #, sec.
30, and the W. § of E. 3, sec. 30, same township and range.
J. E. FROST.
ELLENSBURG, WASH., December 6.
I can not give the information so much in detail as you would probably like. The
cost per acre of improving my land in the lower Sunnyside Valley (NE. 4 NW. 4,
sec. 11, T. N., R. 23 E., W. M.) was as follows:
Cost per acre of preparing land for irrigation.
Clearing and burning brush----------------------------------- $5.00
Leveling, building head ditches, seeding and watering first time- 15.00
Seed, 16 pounds of alfalfa, at 15 cents per pound---------------. 2. 40
3 pecks of wheat, at 60 cents per bushel------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .45
Lumber for head ditch, checks, and lath for spouts------------- 2. 00
Total -------------------------------------------------- 24.85
The wheat and alfalfa for first year paid cost of irrigation, about $1.50 per acre.
The cost of building flumes, if irrigation is from flumes only, would be about $4 to
$5 per acre for good, substantial, flumes laid on the ground. Head ditches, count-
ing labor of building, checks, spouts, etc., would be somewhat cheaper, about $2 to
$3.50 per acre, but they are more expensive to maintain and operate.
These figures are for rough, sandy soil, with a good slope. Flat, sandy land would
cost more to level. Smooth, rolling land would cost less.
The brush was what we would call heavy, the larger being 3 to 5 feet high and 3
to 6 inches through at the ground; probably 6 to 10 clumps to the square rod.
The brush was first railed by dragging a 12-foot length of 60-pound railroad iron
270 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
across and back over the same strip in opposite directions, thus forcing the brush
both ways. This required four strong horses. As the soil was rather sandy volcanic
ash, this effectually loosened and pulled up three-fourths of the brush. The loosened
brush was then raked into windrows by a brush rake, The process left everything
flattened and easy of attack with the grubbing hoe.
This land was gently rolling, with some few wind-formed hummocks from 1 to 2
feet high around the sagebrush, which were almost entirely leveled by the railing.
This land was carefully graded the first time and required no additional work after
the first watering. It sloped so gently that the water did not wash or cut deep
gullies. The soil is a light, sandy loam about 60 feet deep with occasional streaks of
hardpan.
- Ross K. TIFFANY,
Chief Engineer, Washington Irrigation Company.
Mr. J. T. Brownfield reported as follows on 20 acres near Prosser
(NE. #, NE. 4, sec. 4, T. 25, R. E., W. M.):
Grubbing and burning was contracted at $2.50 per acre. The balance of the work
by myself.
Plowing, ten days with 2 horses.
Harrowing, three times, five or six days.
Leveling, ten or eleven days with a scraper and straightedge, using four horses.
Planting, 4 acres of potatoes, one and one-half days, 32 sacks of potatoes, $20; 3
acres of onions, two days with planter, $3 for seed; 2 acres of pumpkins, two hours
with hoe, 2 pounds of seed, $2; 5 acres of grain, wheat, and oats, 10 bushels of seed,
$12, one-half day to sow and harrow, 2 acres not in; 4 acres of corn, carrots, beans,
parsnips, tomatoes, etc., seed, $5, and one day required to plant, using hoe and
planter. Ditches for watering are included in the above estimate.
We use a railroad rail to loosen sagebrush and think it the best. Some, however,
use plowshare steel drawn out sharp and bolted to a heavy piece of timber. This
gives weight enough to pull up the brush. The field is then raked, grubbed, and
raked again. The most satisfactory tool for collecting the brush is a rake with
heavy iron teeth, mounted on wheels and operated by a lever like the common self-
dump hay rake. It takes from 4 to 6 horses to pull one of these, but they do the
work thoroughly.
This land was about an average of the country, neither hilly nor rough; some
draws to fill and some knolls to take off. The soil is too heavy to blow into drifts;
consequently it was easily leveled.
This land was planted to hoed crops so that it might be regraded at the end of the
season and before finally seeding to grass. To protect the land from washouts and
gullies considerable care must be exercised when water is first applied and until the
ground is thoroughly settled.
The soil here is a heavy gray or black loam with gravel under and big bowlders
on top and bed rock under the gravel at 3 to 7 feet deep. There is more or less
alkali in places which comes to the top and forms a white crust, but the drainage is
good and will help to get the alkali out of the ground.
Neil Campbell, on 80 acres of alfalfa near Wapato, E. # of NW. #
and W. # of W. 4, sec. 28, T. 11, R. 19, reports $13.50 per acre for
all expense, exclusive of laterals, head ditches, and furrowing.
The sagebrush on same would average from 2 to 3% feet high and
would average about 3 feet apart. To loosen it he used a heavy piece
of timber faced on ground side with an 8-inch piece of steel beveled on
the edge; that is, the piece of steel would have about the same bevel
IRRIGATION IN YAKIMA VALLEY, WASH. 271
as a wood chisel. Holes were drilled through this, through which
3-inch bolts were inserted to hold it to the timber, which should be 10
to 12 feet long and 16 inches square. To this four horses are hitched.
It is dragged over the sagebrush and back, loosening and breaking
most of the clumps. The rake consists of a piece of timber 12 feet long
and 8 inches square, with 2-inch holes bored through about 12 inches
apart; into these are put oak teeth, and shafts or long handles are
attached. These are placed over the hind gear of a wagon between
standards. The rake is then chained to the wagon. One man drives
and another holds the shafts of the rake, and when he wishes to clean
the rake of brush he bears down on the shafts, lifting the rake clear
above the brush, leaving it in windrows or piles; after this fires are
started, which are followed by the plow, and what sage is left, which
will be considerable, is grubbed out and picked by hand. This was
not hilly land, but had numerous little hummocks. For getting same
-in shape for irrigating a steel scraper was used which required four
horses to operate. This moves dirt rapidly. One man can operate it
and with a little experience can make a nice, even grade for irrigating.
The land was graded and seeded to alfalfa before water was applied.
One inexperienced in grading should water and regrade after first
irrigating and before seeding to secure an even surface.
The land here slopes so gently that the water can be applied by the
furrow system without danger of washing or cutting gullies. The
soil is clay liberally mixed with gravel. *
Mr. H. J. Postma, in the Moxee Valley, furnishes the following
itemized list of labor expended in preparing the land and planting 20
acres of potatoes (this land is the E. # of NE. # of the SE. #, sec. 36,
T. 13 N., R. 19):
Two days railing, 2 men and 6 horses; two days raking, 1 man and
2 horses; after railing it was grubbed, eight days grubbing, 1 man;
4 days burning; plowing, twelve days, 1 man and 3 horses; one day
harrowing on 6 acres, 2 horses, 1 harrow; leveling, four days for 1
man with 3 horses, two days for 1 man with 4 horses; planting, six
days for 1 man and 2 horses; ditching, six days for 1 man and 1 horse;
seed, 13,500 pounds of potatoes, at $6 per ton, $40.50; 300 lath tubes
and a little flume, $18.
The sagebrush on this land averaged about 2 feet high, but was
thickly distributed over the land. The land was cleared by using a
16-foot railroad rail bolted to a piece of timber so that the edge of the
rail stood like a scraper. Bolted to this timber and extending back
for 2 men to stand on were 2 planks. Six horses pulled this machine
over the Sage and back, pulling up much of it and breaking down
some. The work was done in the spring when the ground was moist.
After this the brush was raked into windrows and burned. The land
was comparatively even, showing but few wind hummocks. There
272 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
were a few draws where the filled earth settled considerably, but pota-
toes were planted on these so that the land could be regraded before
seeding.
The soil is a rather heavy sandy loam underlaid with hardpan which
in places comes quite close to the surface. This hardpan softens by
watering and is freely penetrated by alfalfa roots.
Mr. Jones A. Aves, near Wapato, put in 20 acres by his own labor
during the spring of 1904. He estimated the cost of grubbing and
plowing at $3.50 per acre, or $87.50; leveling, $1 per acre, $25. The
sagebrush on this land averaged 3 to 4 feet high and pretty well cov-
ered the ground. It was easily grubbed when the ground was wet.
The young and willowy brush was plowed out, but the ranker growth
was grubbed. The big, coarse brush lifted the doubletrees and forced
the plow out of the ground. It is best first to use a breaker, consist-
ing of two railroad rails 12 feet long bolted together. This, hauled
over and back, will break off and pull up most of the brush, after which
the plow will usually complete the work. Before plowing, however,
the loosened brush must be raked and burned. When the grubbing
hoe is entirely relied upon, one-half to three-fourths of an acre is a
day’s work for 1 man.
The soil is from 1 to 4 feet deep and is underlaid with gravel, is of
a yellowish-brown color, and very easy to work. The surface being
quite even very little leveling was required. This farm was on the
Yakima Indian Reservation, which has only a gentle slope, so that the
water rarely washes out gullies. The subsoil being coarse gravel,
large quantities of water were required the first season or until the
ground was well settled.
Arthur Belliveau reports the following expenses incurred in clearing
40 acres and planting it to potatoes in the Moxee Valley:
Cost of clearing 40 acres and planting potatoes.
Grubbing, raking, and burning Sagebrush, at $2.50 per acre - - - - - - $100
Plowing, at $2 per acre ---------------------------------------- 80
Four days' scraping with 2 teams and 2 men, at $6 per day - - - - - - - 24
Leveling, 1 man and 2 teams, eight days, at $5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40
Planting, sixteen days, 3 men and 1 team, at $5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 80
Seed, 17 tons, at $6 per ton ------------------------------------ 102
Ditching, eight days, 1 man and 1 horse, at $2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16
442
Average cost per acre, $11.05.
Mr. John Michels on 340 acres of reservation land reports a cost of
$31.50 per acre for improvements. One hundred and eighty acres
of this was seeded to alfalfa at a cost of $40 to $45 per acre. Cost of
grubbing and burning was $2.50 per acre and plowing $2 per acre.
IRRIGATION IN YAKIMA VALLEY, WASH.
273
DUTY OF WATER,
That group of ditches diverting water from creeks the flow of which
is either all covered by decrees or else the entire flow used, was
reported last year and consequently will be omitted from this year's
investigations.
The lands covered by this group amount to about
41,000 acres cultivated and some 24,000 acres under ditch but unculti-
vated, and will remain covered with Sagebrush until more economical
methods in the use of water shall release some of that now wastefully
applied, to be used on these fertile and valuable lands.
A very considerable part of the water used on these lands is covered
by court decrees, and in most instances the decrees protect an extensive
and wasteful use so out of proportion to the needs of the land that in
some instances through the rise of alkali they have become worthless
except as reclaimed by expensive drainage.
The following tables show the result of measurements made in 1904.
In some cases continuous records were kept and in others single
measurements were made:
Ditches in Kittitas County.
Acres
irrigated.
Depth applied.
Discharge
Dis-
May.
June. July. Aug.
Sept.
Yakima River:
Bull Ditch Co......... --
Cascade Canal Co
Ellensburg Water Co
Ellison & Bruton - - - - - - -
Andrew Oleson. . . . . . . . .
West Side Irrigation Co - .
teanneway River:
H. H. -
Costa & Caldrin
Cosetti Brothers. --- - - - -
West Fork.... - - - - - - - - - -
East Fork---------------
Swauk River - - - - - - - - - - -
Tanum Creek: Tanum Ditch
. Knight-----------
Masterson ditch ... - - - - -
Tomas ditch------------
J. S. Dysart.------------
Heider & PeterSOn... - - -
Goodwin & Mosher.....
William Krueger - - - - - - -
Contratti... -------
Gabrial Gandolph......
John Granslina. -------.
Frank Amosso. ---------
Banka & Contratti------
Fnches
Pnches. Inches
Inches
Inches.
* * * * *-* *-s º
* * * * * * *
* * * * * *-s º
* * * * * * *
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sº tº º ºr * * *
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sº tº * * * * *
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* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * it sº º sº sº is nº sº.
* * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * *
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* * * * * * *
30620–No. 158–05—18
Total. Date charge
Cu. ft.
Inches €7° SéC.
ſjuly 13 27.7
* * * * * * *-*. \Aug. 8 27
...] Aug. 3 || 21.5
* - º ºs ºs ºr & Aug. 12 8. 27
* * * * *-* * * July 14 4.25
* = E *-* = * = ---do - 1. 70
* * * * * * * * * * -do --- 1. 40
dº tº E & sº ºn tº July 13 17.6


274
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Ditches heading in the Natches River.

Acres
irrigated.
May.
Northwestern Water a n d
Light Co-------------------
TJnion ditc
City ditch
Old Schanno
New Schanno
Broadgage
Fruitvale
Yakima Valley Irrigation Co.
Basketfort Ditch CO ..........
Schules & Rodenback (up-
tº e º e º sº º sº sº º ºs ºr sº * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
as wº, º e º sº sº wº we ºs º ºr tº tº * * * * * *
tº s sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
The Powell Ditch CO .........
The Fortune Ditch CO
John Foster
Foster Natches Irrigation Co.
Natches Valley Irrigation
Co." ------------------------
Leach & White - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Long & McCormick
Morrissy
Friend & Jacobson
Chapman & Shearer
Friend & Jacobson
Nelson & Jacobson
The Kelley ditch
The Denton & Lowrey
The Clark ditch
& s º ºs ºs º º sº a gº º sº * * * * * * * * * * *
gº tº ºn e s sº º ºn
tº sº º sº sº sº as ºn º ºs º a sº tº E * * *
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* = * ºr sº s =
tº e º ºs ºg sº º ºn tº as s is sº &
gº º sº º is ºs tº tº gº sº º ºs º ºs
W. S. Carmack
Harry Griffen
W. S. Stevens.................
Frederick & Beck
James Beck
James Markel
George Johnson
Z. H. Benton
R. S. and C-------------------
From Big Rattlesnake Creek:
McDaniels, Williams & Abel-
Mile Creek: Abel, Johnson &
McDaniels
* * * * gº tº gº º sº e º sº.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
tº ºn tº ºn tº sº ºf s = º e = < * * *
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Inches.
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* * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
Depth applied. Discharge,
Dis-
June. July. Aug. Sept. Total. Date. charge.
Cu. ft
|Inches.|Inches.|Inches. Inches, Inches per sec.
ii.25 | ii. 75 | is 50 || 6.7i | 55.5 |I|III.
25 24.5 !-------|-------|-------|----------|--------
iá.75 | iſ iş.25 |..I.I.I. 66.5 |...I.I.I.I.I.I.I.
ið ‘’’’’ 9.2 |... i2.55 || 5i ...I.I.I.I.I.I.I.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * i & sº tº sº sº as sº Aug. 25 5.9
* * * * * * * | * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * Aug. 26 3.7
º tº gº sº ſº º ºs 8.i
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * I & sº º sº, sº as tº - - - -CIO - - - 10
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ----do --- 12.7
* * * * * * * : * * * * * * * : * * * * * *s as I am s m = * * * : * ºn as a s = * ----do --- 1.7
33.5 23.75 22.5 ! 30.5 ! 126 |..........l........
..I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I..] june 30 | i.2
as sº is s a tº sº I ºf sº º ºs º is s : ºn sº e s sº sº e i & = * * * * * : * * * * = sº e ----do --- 3.7
II.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.'ſ june 30 | 2.i
II.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I june 30 || 8.6
* * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * : *e ---do -- 5.9
i3.25 | iſ 25 | ii. 75 | ii. 5 || 63.5 |..........I.I.I.I.
9 7.5 10 9 40 ----------4--------
º tº . * * * * * 4.2
* * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * I gº º is a sº * * * * * * * * * * - - - -CIO - - - 5.7
as sº sº s sº º º f = * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * *----|-------|----do --- 3.9
7.5 || 7.75 || 7.5 || 33.25 | 68.3 |I|III.
ge º sº, º sº sº a rº -------|-------|-------|-------| Aug. 20 5
s sº º ºs sº * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * ----do --- 1.2
a April, 4.25 inches.
IRRIGATION IN YAKIMA VALLEY, WASH.
275
Canals heading in the Yakima River in Yakima County.

Depth applied. Discharge.
ša |
irrigated, Dis-
May. June. July. Aug. | Sept. Total. Date. charge.
!
i Cu. ft
Inches.|Inches.|Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches per Sec
Selah & Moxee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,500 9.00 9.25 9.75 9.75 9.00 46.50 ...... . . . . . . . . . . . .
Taylor------------------------ 1,775 -------|------- 9.00 . . . . . . . |- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Fowler ----------------------- 1,250 7.75 | 12.75 14.00 13.50 | 18.00 | 66.00 ..................
Granger ---------------------- . 100 -------|-------|-------|------- |-------|-------------------------
#;":::::::::::::::::::::} 8,000 || 3.12| 7.12|10.75 8.75 7.00 |40.00 ..........'........
New Reservation.... -- - - - - - - - 1,400 | 1.50 | 19.25 |37.25 |26.50 39.75 |129.50 ..................
Old Reservation.............. 4,943 9.50 17.75 || 17.75 |. . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '------------------
Toppenish ditch-------------- 1,080 -------|--------------|--------------------- July 6 19. 10
Gilbert ----------------------- 2, 17.00 15.75 15. 13 | 11.00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ...
Perry Cleman ... - - - - - - - - - - - - - 640 --------------|-------|-------------- |- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
McDonald.------------------- 580 . . . . . . . !--------------|- - - - - - - - - - - - - - '-----------------|--------
Bright & Hutton ... ----...--- 120 l.------'--------------|------- |- - - - - - - - - - - - - - |July 6 2.70
Reard ------------------------ 100 ---------------------|---------------------------------------
Freeman --------------------- 115 ------ --------------|-------------------------------|--------
Moody & Pardin. -----...----- 128 ---------------------'-------------------------------|--------
Henry Beddoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 -------------------- ------- is sº is as * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is e = * * * * * * * * *
Milner ----------------- 150 -------------- |---------------------|------- ------------------
Jellison & Heaton . . . . . . . . ---- 180 -------|------- |- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
P. Queen --------------------- 170 -------------- '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - !-------------- |..................
J. L. Craib-------------------- 420 -------|------- | ------ |- - - - - - - -------|------- '- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Rirkwood, Bebee, Bailey,
Bakey, Martin & Milton-... 425 |--------------------- * * * * * = as --------------------------------
Hatch ditch ------------------ 600 --------------------- !-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - July 6 11. 20
Sunnyside Canal - - - - - - - - - - - - - 32,000 || 11.60 12.30 10.70 | 12.30 11.30 aſ 3.00 '..........}........
Prosser Falls Land and Irri- |
gation Co------------------- 1,300 6.84 7.10 7.57 | 6.90 5. 10 lb.47.69 . -----...--------.
N. P. Irrigation Co., Kional-------------|--------------'-------------- |- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
N. P. Irrigation CO., Kenne- } }
Wide------------------------ 3, 500 | 19.00 18. 75 17.75 | 18.25 ------- |*6. 50 ----------|--------
j | |
a March, 0.49, April, 5.74; October, 8.5. b April, 4.84; October, 7.16; November, 2.18. c April 7.

The Toppenish, Hatch, Kirkwood, P. Queen. J. L. Craib, and Free-
man ditches are all on the Yakima Indian Reservation and cover lands
that have been under cultivation for some time and should require
hardly as much water as the Gilbert.
partly supplied by Subirrigation.
The soil is fairly deep and is
The Perry Cleman, McDonald, and Bright & Hutton ditches, sup-
plied from a slough, are also on the Yakima Indian Reservation, but
cover new lands.
August 1; the Bright & Hutton get none after July 15.
The first two named get very little water after
The soil
under these ditches is 3 to 4 feet deep and is underlain with gravel.
The Beddoe, Milner, Moody, Pardin, Read, Jellum, and Heaton
ditches extend from Wapato down the river 4 or 5 miles.
The reser-
vation lands supplied by these ditches have 3 to 4 feet of soil and a
gravel subsoil, are very low, scarcely rising above high water, and on
account of the coarse gravel subsoil must be affected by the high
waters in June and July.
The ditches receiving water from the Natches River cover low bot-
tom lands, old river bars, with little or no soil above and a deep gravel
subsoil.
}
These lands use the maximum amount of water and always
will until better methods of distribution come into use.
The ditches
276 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
are dug in the gravel, and as the waters of the Natches are exception-
ally clear, no silt is precipitated. After flowing long distances in such
rivers it is distributed into laterals, head ditches, and long furrows
of the same kind of materials. With the limited force in the field it
was impossible to measure all the water carried by these ditches dur-
ing the season, but one or more measurements of most of them were
made and a careful estimate of the acreage secured. The ditches and
canals referred to are named as follows: Fruitvale, Old Schanno,
Schuler and Rodenbach, John Foster, Foster Natches, Broadgage,
Basketfort, Scott Ditch Company, Powell Ditch Company, Fortune
Ditch Company, Leach & White, Long & McCormick, Morrissy,
D. A. Ball, W. S. Carmack, James Beck, James Markel, George
Johnson, Friend & Jacobson, Chapman & Shearer, Nelson & Jacob-
son, Harry Griffen, W. S. Stevens, Frederick & Beck, Z. H. Benton.
The excessive use of water and lack of drainage in the Natches Val-
ley is shown particularly on the north side by a small waste creek near
Shearers. This creek carries the waste waters from a number of
canals supplying lands on higher benches and slopes. When measured
in July it was discharging 14 cubic feet per second, and was sufficient
to successfully irrigate 1,400 acres of land. -
The upper Schuler & Rodenback, the Denton & Lowery, and the
Clark ditches water land on the first bench. The soil under these
ditches is from 4 or 5 to 20 feet deep, and should not require large
quantities of water. However, the drainage is good and the large
amounts used seem to do little damage. The above lands generally
are conditioned about the same as those under the Wapato, on the
opposite side of the river. -
The soil under the ditches heading in the Yakima River, in Kittitas
County, is much the same. It is heavier than much of that in Yakima
County, is all underlain with gravel, and under present methods of
distribution requires very large quantities of water. The water is car-
ried in open ditches and distributed through furrows, in many instances
as much as 20 to 30 feet apart, requiring a large and long watering to
thoroughly wet between the furrows.
About Ellensburg more water is used than by the West Side Irriga-
tion Company, on the opposite side of the river. The soil under much
of the West Side canal is deeper.
The Ellensburg Water Company and the Bull ditch cover very
stony lands throughout most of their courses. Marshy and alkali
lands, however, are slowly telling the story of overwatering.
Mr. R. P. Tjossem, under the Bull ditch, has already reclaimed a
72-acre tract of black alkali land by deep underdrains. He commenced
work as an experiment, but its marked success has called the attention
of his neighbors, whose lands must soon be drained or abandoned.
Only the lands underlain with hardpan seem to be affected. Wherever
IRRIGATION IN YAKIMA VALLEY, WASH. 277
*
there is a deep gravel subsoil with an absence of hardpan the under-
drainage is good. º
The lands under the ditches heading in the Teannaway are pretty
well watered by heavy snows, and consequently require less irrigation
than those at lower levels farther down the Yakima River. The soil
is deeper than about Ellensburg. Timothy hay is the leading crop.
Single gaugings were made on the Knight, Masterson, Thomas, and
Dysart ditches July 14, 1904, showing an average duty of 1 cubic foot
per second to 62 acres. Such a duty for the middle of July would
point to a very high mean duty for the irrrigation season.
The ditches gauged cover about 43 per cent of the lands receiving
water from the Teannaway, and the quantity used may fairly be taken
as a mean for the entire valley.
The Taylor, Fowler, Granger, Hubbard, and Moxee canals take
water from the Yakima River above North Yakima and supply low-
lying lands. Some of the lands under the Taylor ditch are subirri-
gated. The depth to water in the wells is considerably affected as the
irrigation advances, and in some instances the water becomes brackish.
Under this ditch the water is distributed by flooding. Two irriga-
tions are generally considered enough for a crop. This is an old
ditch, appropriates 2,100 inches of water, uses no measuring device,
and every man takes and uses to the limit of his desires. The gaugings
from July 1 to August 17 show a duty of 80 acres per cubic foot per
second. - •
All except the Taylor are on the east bank of the river and irrigate
lands in the Moxee Valley immediately east of North Yakima.
The damaging effects of overwatering, or possibly it would be better
to say lack of drainage, are frequently seen in this valley. Here the
soil is underlaid with hardpan along which the surplus water from the
upper levels follow and ultimately comes to the surface, depositing
black alkali. The 80-acre hopyard of Mr. Hiscock was in the line of
this seepage and very much damaged. He put in extensive under-
drains and has been very handsomely paid for the undertaking from
the increased profits. On August 1, 1904, the outlet drain from the
yard discharged 3.7 second-feet, at least enough to irrigate 370 acres
of land.
Results under the Washington Irrigation Company’s canal, the
Sunnyside, show very marked improvement.
In 1900 they used no measuring boxes. Since that time practically
every service has to be supplied with a Cipolletti weir, and during the
season of 1904 the company employed a man to keep the weirs in order
and to see that the farmers made proper use of the water supplied and
that waste was cut off. From the old régime of using and wasting all
the water they wanted to the present one of plenty but none to waste,
the company has met and overcome many difficulties, but through all
278 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
#
of it there has been rigid fairness. The results of 1904 show com-
mendable progress, at least when it is remembered that the 75-acre duty
secured for the season is based on measurements made at the intake
and that the water was distributed through 50 miles of main canal and
about 300 miles of laterals.
Of the canals irrigating bench lands, where the soil may be con-
sidered deep and where the conditions correspond fairly well to those
under the Sunnyside, only those of the Yakima Valley Irrigation Com-
pany and the Selah Valley Company secured a higher duty, and in both
instances the supply canals were much shorter and the system of
laterals much less extended. -
The water duties in Washington have been extremely low and that
on the low gravel bars is yet, but the uplands show marked improve-
ments. Men are studying conditions; are anxious to protect their
own lands from expensive drainage enterprises and alkali deposits.
While many men believe that the more water the more grass is a
true saying, they are wondering how many years their lands will stand
that kind of abuse and still raise grass. The alkali wastes along the
Ahtanum and a few similar spots well distributed throughout the
Yakima Valley stand as reminders of what was once the finest grass
fields in the State but now covered with salt grass, greasewood, and
ponds of water. For many years men did not know the cause of such
desolation and financial loss. They were even slow to believe that the .
raising of the water table had anything to do with it, but people have
been reading the best literature on irrigation, have been observing,
and are becoming more careful in the use of water.
IRRIGATION CONDITIONS IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT,
IDAHO, 1904.
By WILLIAM FRANCIS BARTLETT,
Agent and Expert.
CONDITIONS WHICH GOVERN THE CONTROL AND DIVISION OF
WATER.
The drainage area of Raft River and its tributaries is comparatively
small, comprising all told 410,000 acres. From the standpoint of size
and the area reclaimed by its waters Raft River has relatively little
importance in the irrigable area of Idaho. From the standpoint of
problems involved in the control and distribution of its waters, prob-
ably no stream in Idaho presents more serious complications. If the
difficulties met with were purely physical, it would be a simple matter
to overcome them. In diverting water from Raft River and its tribu-
taries no very difficult engineering obstacles need be encountered.
However, few water users have had the benefit of engineering advice
or assistance in laying out their ditches, which are in poor condition,
due in most cases to an excessive grade. But the condition of ditches
has been a minor factor in the control and distribution of water.
Raft River water district of water division No. 2, State of Idaho,
includes Raft River and its tributaries between a line running east and
west through the center of township 13 south and the Idaho-Utah
State line, and between ranges 22 and 28 east of Boise meridian.
TRIBUTARIES TO RAFT IRIVER,.
The South Fork of Raft River rises in Utah among the Raft River
Mountains, 15 miles south of the State line. The North Fork rises in
Idaho on the eastern slope of the Goose Creek Mountains and flows
south into Utah, where it meets the South Fork. The junction of
these streams forms the main river, which flows north over the State
line through a canyon, and for 6 miles farther flows through a narrow
valley skirting the southeastern border of Almo Valley. The river
then turns abruptly east and again enters a narrow strip of land
hemmed in on both sides by lava hills and high mesas to emerge 6
miles farther on into Raft River Valley, through which it takes a
direct northerly course, emptying into the Snake River 45 miles by
section lines north of the Idaho-Utah State line. Raft River Valley
279
280 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
varies in width from 2 to 15 miles, between the Black Pine Mountains
lying to the east and high lava hills rising in the west. No tributaries
flow from these hills to Raft River except little torrents in the early
spring. The river receives its entire supply from the drainage of the
mountains along the southern border of the State and the Goose Creek
Range, in which Almo Creek has its source. Almo Creek is to-day
the most important, and in fact the all-important, tributary to Raft
River in the Raft River district. From Goose Creek Mountains it
takes a generally easterly course and 15 miles from its head empties
into Raft River about 5 miles north of the Idaho-Utah State line.
Four other streams that at one time were tributaries to Raft River
rise on the northern slope of the Raft River Mountains in Utah and
flowing north empty or at one time did empty into Raft River in
Idaho, anywhere from 4 to 10 miles north of the State line. These
streams are Clear, Six Mile, One Mile, and George creeks, the waters
of which are usually all used for irrigation before reaching the main
channel of the river.
The rights to water from Raft River and its tributary, Almo Creek,
were adjudicated in 1893 in the district court for Cassia County. This
decree has proved anything but satisfactory. This is mainly due to
the provision in the decree for a measuring device. The wording of
the decree is as follows: “Each appropriator, under and by virtue of
this decree, is hereby required to build and maintain a box at the head
of his ditch 16% feet long with three-eighths of an inch fall to the rod,
with a head gate so arranged as to take the amount of water to which
he is entitled under this decree.” How was a man who never meas-
ured water in his life to know how to “so arrange his head gate as to
take the amount of water to which he is entitled under this decree”?
How wide and how deep should his box “16% feet long with a three-
eighths of an inch fall to the rod” be in order “to take the amount to
which he is entitled under this decree”? Unless the water user is
familiar with the use of Kutter’s formula in figuring out proper cross
sections he is as much at a loss to know how to measure the exact
amount of water diverted from the stream as he was before the decree
was rendered. It is needless to say that Kutter’s formula is not a
household word on Raft River.
The order of the court, after describing such a box for measuring
water, further states: “And every person is prohibited and enjoined
from taking any water from said river or its tributaries at any time
except through such a box and as authorized by this decree.” The result
has been that although the water users were not learned in hydraulic
formulas or accustomed to their application, they were ready to take
every advantage of a decree such as the above and put in boxes 16#
feet long with a three-eighths inch fall to the rod of any depth and
width they chose and so arranged their head gates as to take almost
IRRIGATION IN RAFT RIVER water DISTRICT, IDAHO. 281
any quantity of water they wished. Who was to say whether they
were taking too much or too little, since they complied with the order
of the court to the letter, so far as they understood it, and the water
master knew no better how to measure water than the water user
diverting it? This particular paragraph in the decree of the court has
been the great stumbling block which has delayed the inaugurating of
a proper system for the measurement and distribution of water for
Raft River and Almo Creek. To-day many of the water users insist
upon the box measurement as prescribed in the decree and refuse to
put in weirs. The water master can only endeavor to persuade the
water user to place a standard weir in his ditch; he can not compel
the adoption of the weir as a measuring device, for there is the decree
always held up before him and no statute nor direction of water master
or water commissioner or State engineer has availed to overcome its
defects. The result of this state of affairs has been that water masters
have assumed an arbitrary way of guessing at the volume of water
each user was entitled to and allowing the appropriator to take only
that volume. The fact that both the water master and the water user
were conscious that neither could measure water accurately was a con-
stant source of friction, especially during the lower stages of the river,
when the water became scarcer each day and more necessary to the
farmer. Charges of gross favoritism against the water master and
countercharges of theft of water against the water user were of daily
OCCUUPI'êIn Ce.
THE MANNER IN WEHICH THE DUTIES OF THE WATER MASTER
ARE AFFECTED BY THE NATURE OF WATER TITLES AND THE
STATE IRRIGATION LAWS.
Such was the condition of affairs when the irrigation law of 1903
took effect. The passage of this law could in no way affect the decreed
priorities on any stream in the State, but the provisions of the bill for
dividing the State into three water divisions (sec. 13) and for the
appointment of a water commissioner for each water division (sec. 17)
have been a long step forward in helping to solve the many complex
questions arising on both decreed and undecreed streams. These pro-
visions are important, since through them the services of a man may
be secured whose duty it is to establish administrative measures
according to law for the proper control of the water districts under
his charge.
FROVISIONS FOR, WATER, COMMISSIONERS AND WATER MASTERS.
The water commissioners are appointed by the governor, with the
consent of the senate. The law provides that one of the water com-
missioners first appointed shall hold office for a period of six years,
282 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
one for four years, and one for two years, but that after the expira-
tion of the first terms each commissioner appointed shall hold office
for six years, or until his successor shall have qualified.
Such water commissioner shall possess such theoretical knowledge of the science
of hydraulics as will enable him to supervise the construction of Such measuring
devices as may be necessary to place in any ditch, canal, or stream for the proper
measurement of water. He shall be acquainted with the streams of his district and
shall be capable of instructing the water master who may be placed in charge of such
streams in all matters in relation to the distribution of the water of such streams in
accordance with the priorities of the rights of those using such waters.
The water commissioner must give bond in the sum of $5,000.
The water masters for the water districts within a division are
appointed by the water commissioner of that division. Each water
master holds office for one year, or until his successor is appointed,
and may be removed for failure to perform his duty as water master
upon complaint made to the water commissioner in writing. He must
give bond in penal sum of $500.
DIFFICULTIES EN COUNTERED IN INSTALLING MEASURING
DEVICES.
The first water master appointed on Raft River by the water com-
missioner after this new law went into effect had had no training or
experience in hydraulics. He was, however, a conscientious worker
and endeavored to the best of his ability to divide the water in an
equitable way. As an experiment, he placed several weirs in different
ditches along Almo Creek, with the consent of the water users.
Unfortunately, these so-called weirs in no case met the conditions
necessary for a measuring device. When in the season of 1904 a
proper weir was set to meet the conditions necessary to make the weir
an accurate measuring device, the water master of that season was
told he did not know his business, and was threatened in every way
for placing in the canal a weir with the correct dimensions. When it
came to measuring the water over the new weir the difference in dis-
charge between the two measuring devices was so marked that vigor-
ous objection was made by the water users, and after the weir was set
it was pried up with crowbars and the water allowed to run under the
weir board. The penalty for this offense under the new law is a fine
not to exceed $100, or imprisonment in the county jail not to exceed
six months, or both fine and imprisonment.
As it was the desire of the State engineer and the water commis-
sioner to help the water users to understand the new rulings and
requirements and to straighten out the difficulties met with with as
little friction as possible, it was thought best not to prosecute the
offenders. The new State irrigation law was still on trial. Much
opposition to its operation in various districts was shown, and, in
order to spare it from open political antagonism, as was threatened in
IRRIGATION IN RAFT River water DISTRICT, IDAHO. 283
some sections of the Raft River water district, the water master’s atti-
tude had often to be more conciliatory than he personally deemed
best. \
DEFECTs of THE PRESENT LAw As APPLYING TO THIS DISTRICT.
The weakest point in the new law encountered by the water master
on Raft River in the season of 1904 was the same as the weakness of
the old law, and is found in section 31, which reads as follows:
SEC. 31. The appropriator of any of the public waters of the State shall maintain,
to the satisfaction of the water commissioner of the district in which such appropri-
ation is made, a substantial head gate at the point where the water is diverted, which
shall be of such construction that it can be locked and kept closed by the water
master or other officer in charge; and such appropriator shall construct and main-
tain, when required by the water commissioner, a rating flume or other measuring
device as near the head of such ditch as is practicable, for the purpose of assisting
the water master in determining the amount that may be diverted into said ditch
from the stream. Plans for such rating flumes or other measuring devices shall be
furnished by the State engineer. It shall also be the duty of those taking water
from a stream whose waters have been allotted to place at suitable intervals on said
stream, under the direction of the water commissioner of the division in which such
stream is situated, suitable measuring devices, so that the flow of such stream may
be properly measured. If any user or appropriator of public waters that may or
may not have been allotted should neglect or refuse to put in such head gates or
measuring devices as will provide for the proper distribution of said water according
to the rights of the several parties entitled to the use thereof, after ten days' notice
to do so by the water commissioner, it shall be the duty of said commissioner to put
in such head gates, flumes, or measuring devices at the expense of the county where
the expense is incurred, and said water commissioner shall make up a sworn state-
ment of the cost of such head gates, flumes, or measuring devices, which shall be
presented to the board of county commissioners at their first regular meeting after
the performance of such work, and said county commissioners shall present a bill of
costs to the owners of said ditch or ditches: Provided, That if the owner of any suéh
ditch shall refuse or neglect for ten days after the presentation of such bill of costs
to pay the same, or any other charge made against such ditch or owner thereof
under the provisions of this act, the water commissioner shall order the head gate of
such ditch closed and locked until such charge or charges shall be paid.
The weakest point in this section is embodied in the clause which
makes it obligatory upon the water commissioner to put in head gates,
flumes, or measuring devices, should the user or appropriator neglect
or refuse to do so after ten days’ notice, and to present the bill of
costs to the board of county commissioners, who in turn present the
bill of costs to the owner of the ditch or ditches in which the head
gate, flume, or measuring device has been placed by the water com-
missioner, with the provision— -
That if the owner of any such ditch shall refuse or neglect for ten days after the
presentation by the county commissioners of such bill of costs to pay the same, or
any other charge made against such ditch or the owner thereof under the provisions
of this act, the water commissioner shall order the head gate of such ditch closed
and locked, and such head gate shall remain closed and locked until such charge or
charges shall be paid. -
284 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The water commissioner of water division No. 2 has a large number
of water districts in his division. It can be readily understood that
he has hundreds of ditches in these new districts which need head
gates and proper measuring devices. To impose upon him personally
the carrying of these bills for lumber and other materials necessary
for the construction of head gates and measuring devices and the cost
of labor for their construction and installation is out of all reason.
He would have to be an incipient millionaire to bear the first expense
and would have, besides, to run the risk of having his bill disapproved
for some unforeseen reason by the board of county commissioners,
after perhaps carrying the bill for three months before that body
meets to pass upon it. .
The intent of this section of the law is obvious. It was meant to
enable the water commissioner to enforce the law in regard to putting
head gates and measuring devices in ditches by depriving refractory
persons of the use of water until such head gates and devices were
provided. But this penalty can not be imposed until the bill for the
cost of material and labor has been passed upon and approved by the
board of county commissioners, and they in turn present the bill to the
owner of the ditch in question, who still has ten days of grace to pay
the bill after presentation. The whole process could easily involve
three months' time in the Raft River water district, almost the length
of the irrigation season. -
A water master hardly feels justified in incurring bills of this nature
at the expense of the water commissioner or himself, for in sparsely
populated districts like Raft River labor is not always easy to obtain,
and in most cases for both material and labor cash must be paid.
But neither the water commissioner nor water master has authority
to draw upon the funds at the disposal of the county commissioners,
except through the customary process of presenting a sworn state-
ment of expenses incurred, at the regular meeting of the board, which,
in Cassia County, is at the end of every quarter, or three months.
The water master of the Raft River water district for the irrigation
season of 1904 was an agent of the irrigation and drainage investiga-
tions of the United States Department of Agriculture, who undertook
the charge through the request of the State engineer and the water com-
missioner of division No. 2. He was versed in hydraulics and accus-
tomed to the use of the current meter for measuring the discharge of
streams and ditches and used one the entire season to properly regu-
late the distribution of water. Only a few of the water users on Almo
Creek questioned the accuracy of measurements made with the current
meter, but they were the men who questioned every measuring device
and preferred to trust to their own guess at the amount of water flowing
in streams and ditches rather than depend upon recognized standard
measuring devices.
IRRIGATION IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, IDAHO. 285
WATER, TITLES.
The decreed rights to water from Raft River and Almo Creek range
in dates from 1871 to 1887. The total amount of water decreed from
these streams is 142.34 cubic feet per second, or 7,117 miner's inches.
This is divided among thirty individuals. The largest total appro-
priation is by the Keogh Brothers, or the Raft River Land and Cattle
Company, of 44.9 cubic feet per second, or 2,245 miner's inches, the
dates of their priorities ranging from 1871, the date of the oldest right
on the river, to 1883, one of the later rights.
The next largest right under the decree is that of the Durham Land
and Cattle Company, which is entitled to 22.22 cubic feet per second,
or 1,111 miner's inches, with rights dating from 1872 to 1884.
Eleven other rights decreed to water users on Raft River proper
amount to 2,001 miner's inches or 40.02 cubic feet per second; the
largest individual right equals 536 miner's inches and the smallest 40.
Two rights included in these eleven, comprising 330 miner's inches,
have been abandoned.
The decreed rights from Almo Creek include a total of 35.60 cubic
feet per second, or 1,760 miner's inches, divided into various-sized
allotments among sixteen different parties to the decree, the largest
individual amount being 200 inches and the smallest 50 inches, the
dates of priority ranging from 1878 to 1885.
ATTITUDIE OF THE IRIRIGATORS.
On assuming the duties of water master in Raft River water district
for the season of 1904, after having been duly called to such duty on
April 15 by a signed petition from two water users on Raft River, the
water master’s introduction to the water users of his district was in
the form of a threat of an injunction from the water users of Almo
Creek, restraining him from exercising any jurisdiction over that
particular section of the Raft River water district.
Almo Creek, as has been said, is the principal tributary to Raft
River in this district, and under the terms of the decree is recognized
as a tributary until June 15 of each year. According to the judg-
ment rendered by Judge Lyttleton Price in the Raft River contempt
case, “the water flowing in Almo Creek up to that time each year is
Raft River water and is intended to be dealt with and awarded and
distributed as such.” Judge Price also says:
From the commencement of irrigation each year to June 15, priorities of right
must be recognized and enforced between all parties to the decree, those resident on
Raft River and on Almo Creek alike in all respects. After June 15 each year prior-
ities of right on Almo Creek are to be recognized and enforced as between residents
on Almo Creek only, regardless and irrespective of the dates of the rights of resi-
dents on Raft River.
286 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The decree of the district court is explicit, but the water users of
Almo Creek wished to have the Raft River decree reopened and Almo
Creek set aside as a separate and distinct water district for the entire
irrigating season of each year instead of from June 15 each year as
the decree specifies. They thought that to serve an injunction on the
Raft River water master restraining him from exercising jurisdiction
over the stream would be the first step in legal proceedings. On
April 19 the water master was informed that an injunction would be
served against him within a few days and that he might as well not
waste his time inspecting that section of the district. Howeyer, the
water master was obliged to follow out the orders of the court speci-
fied in the decree and instructed the representative of the Almo Water
Company to put in a proper measuring device at the head of their
canal; and those who divert water directly from Almo Creek were
also instructed to put in measuring devices, the Cipolletti weir being.
suggested as the best one. The water users, having been advised by
lawyers not to recognize in any way the authority of the Raft River
water master, refused at that time to heed any instructions from him.
The earliest rights on Raft River are held by Mr. J. M. Pierce and
the Keogh Brothers. Their farms are adjacent and are situated at the
lower end of the Raft River district. The Pierce ranch has a water
right for 10.72 cubic feet per second, or 536 miner's inches, dated
from 1871. The Keogh Brothers hold rights for 10.1 cubic feet per
second, or 505 inches, dating from 1871; 16 cubic feet per second, or
800 inches, dating from 1879; 2.4 cubic feet per second, or 120 inches,
dating from 1881; 6.4 cubic feet per second, or 320 inches, dating from
1882, and 10 cubic feet per second, or 500 inches, dating from 1883—a
combined quantity of 44.9 cubic feet per second, or 2,245 inches.
Lying immediately above these two large ranches are five smaller
ranches. Their water rights are all of later dates—1884, 1886, and
1887. Their combined rights amount to 18.60 cubic feet per second,
or 930 inches.
Above these ranches are the holdings of the Durham Land and Cattle
Company, which extend for 7 miles up the river. This land is entitled
to 22.22 cubic feet per second, or 1,111 inches, with priorities dating
from 1872 to 1884. Above this ranch are located three small ranches,
whose combined water rights amount to 4.1 cubic feet per second, or
205 inches, all dating from 1882.
It will be seen that the earliest rights are attached to land lying at
the very lowest extremity of the Raft River district. The owners of:
these rights have naturally guarded them jealously, and friction has
always existed between owners of the two larger ranches and the own-
ers of the smaller ranches lying immediately above them.
To judge whether the river had a sufficient amount of water to fill
the 1884 rights or only enough to satisfy the 1883 rights was the task
IRRIGATION IN RAFT BIvER water DISTRICT, IDAHO. 287
of the water master, who at best could make an approximate estimate
only, as there was no measuring device in the river to gauge the amount
of water flowing therein. This decision was of vital importance to the
possessors of 1884 rights. With the conviction that the water users
above them on the stream, both on Raft River and Almo Creek, were
taking more water than they were entitled to, while the water master
at times was allowing a greater supply of water than was necessary to
pass their head gates to supply the rights below them without allowing
them a drop, the farmers with 1884 and later rights felt that they were
“between the devil and the deep sea.”
On the other hand the water master was often found fault with by
the larger ranch owners for not satisfying their rights before favoring
the later ones. The friction caused in the division of water on the
lower end of the river resulted in the farmers seeking outside advice
in regard to reliable measuring devices. Weirs were placed in several
ditches. One was set for the Keogh Brothers by the then State
engineer, Mr. Mills. Mr. F. M. Langford, a holder of an 1884 right,
who from his theoretical knowledge of hydraulics and his practical
experience is the best informed man on the river in regard to the flow
of water in streams and ditches, helped set two or three other weirs,
and an endeavor was made to measure accurately the water on the
lower end of the river. However, weirs were not placed in all ditches,
and the uncertainty as to the quantity of water received by those
ditches where the old measuring box was still in use was a cause of
continual dissatisfaction.
In 1904 the farmers on Raft River proper showed a willingness from
the start to accept the recommendations of the water master and to
place in their ditches what measuring devices were necessary or to
repair those that needed alteration. However, much dissatisfaction
has been felt by these men because, while they are entirely willing to
have the water decreed to their lands measured by the most accurate
measuring devices which can be made, the Almo Creek water users
still continue to have their water measured to them by guess or
through useless measuring devices.
STATUs of THE ALMo watRR company.
The Almo Water Company is composed of all the parties to the
Raft River decree who derive their water supply from Almo Creek
and its tributaries, with the exception of one man near the mouth of
the creek who controls 140 inches of water. This company has com-
bined all the decreed rights into one common right, irrespective of pri-
orities. To those members of the company who are parties to the
decree are given shares in the Almo Water Company on the basis of
14 shares to 200 inches of decreed water. The Almo Water Company
owns 100 shares, according to a statement made by Mr. Harold King,
288 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
whose father, Mr. Thomas O. King, is a party to the Raft River
decree and entitled to 180 inches of water from Almo Creek, with a
priority of 1880. These shares, however, can not be sold by the com-
pany as a company, but shares can and have been sold by the share-
holders of the company to farmers who have no decreed rights from
Almo Creek. These farmers are outside of the Raft River decree and
are entirely dependent upon the water company for their water sup-
ply. If the water company were dissolved, the farms which have
been built up by men who own shares in the Almo Water Company,
entitling them to a certain amount of water from the company’s ditch,
but who are not parties to the decree and have no legal rights to water
from Almo Creek, would be left without water and ruined. As has
been said, there are 16 water users on Almo Creek who are parties to
the Raft River water decree and are also members of the Almo Water
Company, but besides these individuals water is supplied from the
Almo Canal to at least 10 other individuals who have no legal water
rights.
The Almo Water Company is not an incorporated company; it has
no legal standing. At the same time the members of the Almo Water
Company claim their company is not subject to taxation even in the
face of the law, which reads as follows:
The following property is exempt from taxation: All irrigating canals and ditches
and water rights appurtenant thereto, when the owner or owners of said irrigating
canals and ditches use the water thereof exclusively upon land or lands owned by
him, her, or them: Provided, In case any water be sold or rented from any such canal
or ditch, then, in that event, such canal or ditch shall be taxed to the extent of such
sale or rental.
Article XV, section 1, of the constitution of Idaho reads as follows:
The use of all waters now appropriated, or that may be appropriated for sale,
rental, or distribution; also of all water originally appropriated for private use, but
which after such appropriation has heretofore been, or may hereafter be sold, rented,
or distributed, is hereby declared to be a public use, and subject to the regulation and
control of the State in the manner prescribed by law.
Section 2 of the same article reads:
The right to collect rates or compensation for the use of water supplied to any
county, city, or town, or water district, or the inhabitants thereof is a franchise, and
Can not be exercised except by authority of and in the manner prescribed by law.
In distributing water from the Almo canal, each owner of a share
or shares is given water according to the number of shares owned.
Two shares may represent an “irrigating stream” for two hours; 20
shares, for twenty hours; or when the water supply is low and water
becomes scarce in the canal, 2 shares may represent only the use of an
“irrigating stream” for one hour, and 20 shares the use of an irrigat-
ing stream for ten hours. The water in the canal is divided, distrib-
uted, and rotated at the discretion of a committee of three members of
IRRIGATION IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, IDAHO. 289
the water company, who hold their positions by election. The water is
not measured in any regular way, but is distributed in “irrigating
heads” determined by the private water master the company appoints
for that purpose.
The members of the Almo Water Company claim that under the
Raft River decree certain of their members are entitled to specific
amounts of water from Almo Creek with various dates of priority
from 1878 to 1885, and that if through methods of economical rota-
tion of the water to which their canal company is entitled they can
increase the irrigable area of their community by selling or renting
the surplus water gained by the practice of rotation, that they should
be and are entitled to dispose of the water decreed to members of the
company in a way to obtain its highest efficiency.
The water users on Raft River who are parties to the decree and who
divert water from Raft River proper have an entirely opposite opinion
as to the rights of the Almo Water Company to dispose of any surplus
water by renting or selling it. Their contention is that if the parties
to the Raft River decree on Almo Creek can not put all their water to
beneficial use upon the land to which the findings of fact made the
same appurtenant, the Almo users have no right to sell the excess to
be conveyed to other lands, but must turn it back into the stream
and allow it to go to the next appropriator. The decree reads:
It is further considered, ordered, adjudged, and decreed that when the waters
--- appropriated are not needed for useful and beneficial purposes, all water shall be
turned into the stream and allowed to go down to the next appropriator.
The water users on Raft River proper further contend that in every
case where water is sold and delivered from the Almo Water Com-
pany’s canal it is conveyed farther away from Almo Creek than it
would be if applied to the lands designated in the findings of fact
when the decree was rendered, and that by so conveying the water of
Almo Creek away from the lands adjacent to it, the appropriators
below are deprived of the benefits of return seepage to the stream
which they formerly enjoyed when the water of Almo Creek was
applied to the lands to which it was legally made appurtenant.
THE WATER SUPPLY.
On April 8 the water master set a gauge rod graduated to feet and
tenths in Raft River under Mr. F. M. Langford’s bridge, and a daily
record of gauge heights was kept by Mr. Langford until June 19.
Frequent measurements were made with the current meter at the
bridge to determine the discharge of the river at that point for differ-
ent gauge heights. This point was selected for its convenience both
for keeping a record and for determining the quantities available for
the holders of later priorities.
30620–No. 158—05—19
290 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
A summary of results of observation from April 8 to June 19 are
given in the following table: -
Discharge of Raft River at Langford bridge.

Average Highest || Lowest dis-
Date. daily is discharge charge in Tº:
charge. in month. month. º
Cubic feet | Cubic feet | Cubic feet
per second. per second, per second. Acre-feet.
a 75.3 5 38
April * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : y 2, 3
*y--------------------------------------------------. 98.6 142 72 6,053.2 .
June -------------------------------------------------- b 72.8 112.5 38 2,788.3
a 23 days. b 19 days.
The amount of water necessary to fill all decrees below the Langford
bridge is 59.22 cubic feet per second, or 2,961 inches. The number of
acres actually irrigated below this point is 2,196. Reference to the
table will show the average daily discharge for April, May, and June
to have been in excess of the amount necessary to fill the decrees below
the bridge. But the water supply in Raft River during the irrigation
season of 1904 was considered by the irrigators much in excess of the
average.
On May 1 a gauge rod was set in Almo Creek near the footbridge
opposite Mr. G. W. Clark’s house. This point was below all diversions
from Almo Creek and half a mile above the junction of Almo Creek
and Raft River. Mrs. Clark very kindly kept a daily record of gauge
heights from May 1 to June 25. However, owing to the fact that at
high water Almo Creek overflows its banks above Mr. Clark’s house
and floods his fields, making temporary channels through them, the
gauge heights above 2.4 feet are not to be depended upon. Having
made due allowance for this condition in calculating the discharge for
different gauge heights, the following table represents very closely the
flow of Almo Creek at this point for the months of May and June:
Discharge of Almo Creek below all diversions.

Average Hi hest - Lowest
Date. daily dis- discharge | discharge º
| charge. in month. in month. -

Cubic feet | Cubic feet | Cubic feet
per second. per second. per second. Acre-feet.
46 75 9 2,847
June .................................................. a 41 70 I 2,008
a 19 days. §
Raft River above its junction, with Almo Creek was measured three
times during the season. On April 9 it was discharging 34 cubic feet
per second; on May 31, 47 cubic feet per second; and on June 8, 32
cubic feet per second. By July 16 no water was flowing across the
State line from Utah into Idaho. The flow from Reed Springs, which
IRRIGAtton IN RAF'ſ River water pistſtroT, IDAHO. 291
comes into Raft River from the east between the State line and Almo
Creek, was the main supply of Raft River after the middle of June.
On May 13 a gauge rod was set in Almo Creek above all diversions,
and arrangements were made with Mr. W. E. Johnston, a possessor
of one of the oldest rights on the creek, to read the gauge rod daily.
Mr. Johnston read the rod daily for about one week, when the Almo
Water Company ordered him to stop keeping records.
The object of keeping a daily record above all diversions on Almo
Creek and below all diversions was to determine the amount of return
seepage from the irrigated fields to the creek, and the information
might have been of great value to the people of Almo. The measure-
ments made below the diversions showed that not less than 35 cubic
feet per second, enough to satisfy all their decrees, was passing down
river up to June 15. If measurements throughout the season of the
supply above all diversions had been made it would have helped to
determine in a more satisfactory way the effect of irrigation along
Almo Creek on the supply lower down.
SEEPAGE.
The following table shows the gains and losses from seepage and
evaporation in 25% miles of Raft River, from the mouth of Reed
Springs to the head of the Pierce-Keogh west ditch, indicated by
measurements made August 7 to 9:
Seepage measurements on Raft River.
i Distance rºs LOSS (—)
Date. No. Station. from sta- º: Orgain (+)
per mile.
Cubic feet | Cubic feet
Miles. per second, per second.
August 7...| 1 || Mouth of Reed Springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ----|-- . . . . . . . . . . 2. 15 ------------
Do . . . . . 2 | Ford near county bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. 00 –0. 05
DO..... 3 # mile below Old Tom Gwin ranch house - - - - - - - - 6 2. 74 + . .25
August 8--| 4 || 100 yards below Murray bridge - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9 2.51 — . 07
DO . . . . . 5 : The Narrows - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13 7. 48 +1. 24
DO ----- 6 || Stockade corral, Bull ranch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 6. 74 — . 18
August 9-.] 7 || Langford bridge. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 5. 61 — .38
DO ----- 8 || Kirk bridge -------------------------------------- 23 3. 38 — . 74
Do - - - - - 9 || At head of Pierce & Keogh ditch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25; 2. 45 — . 37
In the first 10 miles the flow remained about the same. At the
Narrows the amount of water in the river was found to be almost
three times that at the station 4 miles above. At this point two lava
hills on opposite sides of the river approach to within one-quarter of
a mile of each other. Although not apparent as an outcrop, a ledge of
rock beneath the surface of the bed of the river probably extends
across it and forces all the water to the surface. Some farmers on
the river contend that springs rising in the bed of the river at this
point cause the increase in flow. If there are springs they are not
perceptible.
292 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
In the 6 miles below the Narrows the river loses only 1.13 cubic
feet per second, but between stations 7 and 8 it loses 2.23 cubic feet
per second, and in the next 2% miles loses 0.93 cubic foot per second.
There were no ditches diverting water from the river during these
measurements and the sky was clear. The temperature during the
three days ranged between 75° and 80° F. during the hottest part of
the day. s - 3.
Seepage measurements were made also on the Pierce-Keogh west
ditch on July 20. This ditch is 4% miles long and was chosen as typ-
ical of the ditches on Raft River, none of which is in good condition.
For twenty-four hours before measurements with a current meter
were commenced the discharge measured at the head of the ditch over
a 6-foot weir was 4.23 cubic feet per second. This was the discharge
over the weir at the time gaugings were made. The first gauging
was made 1 mile below the weir and the discharge at this point was
found to be 4.76 cubic feet per second. The first mile of ditch was in
foul condition, in some places deeply scoured, in others the flow of
water was retarded by growing willows or great clots of earth which
had fallen from the banks. Two miles below the weir the discharge
amounted to 4.10 cubic feet per second. The bed of the section above
this point consists of very sandy soil. Three miles below the weir the
discharge was 3.96 cubic feet per second. The section above this
point was bordered by meadow land on both sides of the ditch, the bot-
tom of which was lined with a very soft, fine mud, averaging 0.3 of a
foot in depth. The last measurement was made 4 miles below the
weir, the discharge amounting to 3.52 cubic feet per second. The last
section of ditch has an uneven grade. In some places it is scoured to
gravel and in others the grade is so slight that sediment has collected
in long stretches on the bottom of the ditch. Disregarding the meas-
urement at the weir the total loss in 3 miles of ditch was 1.24 cubic
feet per second. The greatest loss occurred in the second mile of
ditch, which is built through very sandy soil. The next section, which
was lined with fine mud, gave comparatively no loss. Considering
the poor condition of the ditch, the loss of 1.24 cubic feet per second
did not seem surprising. *
DUTY OF WATER.
Forage crops, such as wild or native hay and alfalfa, are the prin-
cipal crops irrigated from Raft River and Almo Creek. Some grain
is grown, but only in small patches of from 1 to 25 acres. In Almo a
little fruit and some garden truck are raised. The study of the duty
of water from Almo Creek was altogether prohibited by the attitude
of the irrigators. Upon Raft River two farms were chosen where
accurate records could be kept of the amount of water used in the
irrigation of two tracts of alfalfa. One tract comprises 31.82 acres
IRRIGATION IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, IDAHO. 293
belonging to Mr. Langford, and the other 39.25 acres, owned by
Mr. J. M. Pierce. - *
Mr. Langford's alfalfa field had received no water during the irri-
gation season, which lasts from April 1 to October 1, for two years
previous to the season of 1904. His crop was a failure both years,
but most of the plants lived, owing no doubt to the supply of moisture
stored in the ground by the overflow of the river in the early spring,
during which an adjacent field was flooded. The alfalfa plants were
scattered over this field in bunches 2 or 3 feet apart. These bunches
were unusually large and the stalks rather coarse.
A gauge rod was set in the ditch supplying this field, and measure-
ments made of the discharge at the upper edge of the field. Mr. Lang-
ford kept a record of the gauge heights, reading the gauge morning
and evening while water was being applied. The first irrigation the
tract received in the season of 1904 was on May 29 and 30, when an
average of 3.16 cubic feet per second was applied. On June 5 the
next irrigation was begun, and it lasted for eight days in succession,
the flow averaging 2.98 cubic feet per second. In all, 59.71 acre-feet
was applied to this tract of 31.82 acres, which is the equivalent of a
depth of 1.88 feet over the irrigated area. Several sharp showers of
short duration fell over this field during July, and on July 5 a heavy
rain storm, amounting to 14 inches in ten hours, proved of additional
benefit to the alfalfa.
The first crop from this field yielded 80.8 tons and the second crop
25.3 tons, the total of 106.1 tons giving an average of 3.33 tons per
acre for the entire tract. The field is a rather uneven, rolling piece
of ground, but special care was taken to lead the water to all parts of
the tract by a sufficient number of laterals or field furrows. The soil
in this tract consists of a very fine volcanic loam of great richness.
Considering how comparatively thin this stand of alfalfa was, the yield
proved to be large.
Mr. Pierce’s alfalfa field, containing 39.25 acres, is a very level tract
of an irregular shape. The main supply ditch which runs north
divides at the upper extremity of the field into two streams, one skirt-
ing the western border and the other the eastern border of the field.
These two ditches have been run on commanding ridges and water the
tract lying between them from both directions. Mr. Pierce has laid
out an excellent system of laterals in this tract, and consequently the
entire area is very easily watered. A gauge rod was placed in the
supply ditch above the point where it divides into two streams, and
Mr. Jesse Pierce kept a record of the gauge heights at all times this
tract was irrigated. Measurements were made at the gauge rod to
determine the discharge at that point for different gauge heights.
Irrigation of this tract was commenced June 8 and continued every
day until June 30. The amount of water applied varied from 4.8
294 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
cubic feet per second to 1 cubic foot per second, the average for the
twenty-three days being 2.57 cubic feet per second. The total amount
applied during this period was 117 acre-feet. The next irrigation
occurred July 7 and 8, and averaged 3.5 cubic feet for forty-eight
hours, giving a total of 13.86 acre-feet. The third and last irrigation
occurred from July 16 to 22, inclusive. The average amount applied
daily during these seven days was 3.76 cubic feet per second. The
total amount was 52.11 acre-feet. The total amount applied to this
tract during the thirty-two days water was running was 182.96 acre-
feet, an average of 4.66 acre-feet per acre.
The alfalfa in this field was three years old and of excellent quality.
The first crop was cut when in three-quarters blossom and yielded 104
tons, the second crop yielded 76 tons, the total giving an average of
4.59 tons to the acre. It will be observed that this is close to being 1
acre-foot per ton per acre.
A comparison of the amount of water applied to crops upon Mr.
Langford’s and Mr. Pierce's fields is of interest. Mr. Langford could
not have used any more water on this particular tract of alfalfa if he
had wanted to. It was not to be had. He was obliged to be satisfied
with one irrigation. On the other hand Mr. Pierce possessed an earlier
water right and he used as much water as he deemed his crops needed.
Both fields were supplied with a sufficient number of laterals to serve
the crops to advantage, but the Langford field was harder to irrigate
than the Pierce field on account of its contour, which has a very even,
smooth surface, and so received a more uniform supply of water over
its entire area. The surface soil of the Langford field is deeper and
more retentive of moisture than that upon the Pierce field, which has
also a very open subsoil. This in part accounts for the higher duty
of water obtained by Mr. Langford.
It must be stated that Mr. Langford’s success with this alfalfa field
is very exceptional for Raft River. The average duty of water is
low, taking Raft River as a whole. Calculating the amount of water
passing the Langford bridge from April 8 to June 19, inclusive, and
adding to it the various amounts used by the farmers below that point
between June 19 and August 1, as given by the water master’s report,
the total for the season amounts to 13,185 acre-feet. This amount was
applied to the cultivated area comprised in the Burrows, Oleson, Keogh,
and Pierce ranches, which is estimated at 2,196 acres. This would
give a duty of water of 6 acre-feet to the acre, or during the season
the entire area received enough Water to cover it 6 feet deep. Aside
from this must be taken into account the fact that during February,
Raft River overflowed its banks and submerged large areas of culti-
wated land, especially on the Keogh ranch, which helped wonderfully
to raise the ground-water level under the whole ranch. -
IRRIGATION IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, IDAHO. 295
The showing Mr. Pierce makes is also much above the average.
Probably no man on Raft River gives so much time and intelligent
attention to the irrigation of his crops as Mr. Pierce. Other irriga-
tors on the river could imitate him to advantage in supplying their
fields with a sufficient number of laterals to supply water with the
greatest economy to every part of the irrigated area. A great fault
with most irrigators on the river is their tendency to make the water do
all the work. Instead of taking time and trouble to plow a sufficient
number of laterals for an efficient service of the field they attempt to
force the water over too great distances, often overinrigating the
upper portions of a field and not supplying enough water to the lower
ends.
INTERSTATE QUESTIONS.
‘. . Raft River is an interstate stream. The North Fork, or Junction
Creek, rises in Idaho and flows into Utah. The South Fork, which is
the main river, rises in Utah, as do the tributaries, George, One Mile,
Six Mile, and Clear creeks. Before the settlements were established
along the tributaries of Raft River the waters of these streams emptied
into Raft River in Idaho. Now they seldom do. The water is gen-
erally exhausted for irrigation before it can reach the main river
channel.
The claim is made by the water users on Raft River in Idaho that,
with but few exceptions, all the farms in Utah along Raft River or its
tributaries were located subsequent to the farms on Raft River in
Idaho. The correctness of these claims will have to be determined in
the courts, as will the rights to the use of water from Raft River and
its tributaries, as between the irrigators in Utah and those in Idaho.
Along the South Fork are located four ranches comprising in all
about 620 acres, with possibly 450 acres actually irrigated with the
waters of South Fork. Three Government surveys have been made
through this valley, but none has been accepted. The owners of the
farms hold their land through squatters’ rights. The valley of the
South Fork where these ranches are located is very narrow. The
farmers have taken up their land in strips of a quarter of a mile in
width, including in places both sides of the creek. These fields have a
pronounced slope toward the creek and are hemmed in on each side of
the stream by high mesas running parallel with it. Wild hay, timothy,
alfalfa, and grain are the crops grown here. The oldest ranch on the
South Fork was settled in 1881, the next in 1882, and the other two in
1886. The feeling of the ranch owners is best expressed by Mr. John
Lind, one of the four. He claims that the water users on South Fork
had never considered the subject of prior rights on Raft River in Idaho
until two years ago, when summons was served upon him and his
296 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
neighbors by the sheriff to defend themselves against a lawsuit insti-
gated by the Keogh Brothers over the rights to the use of water from
Raft River and its tributaries. The suit is still pending. Mr. Lind
claims he has used the water of Raft River for twenty years without
any protest from users with prior rights in Idaho, that the oppor-
tunity to protest against his using water has gone by, and that by
right of constant use of water for beneficial purposes for twenty years
he can not now be deprived of the use of the water nor subjected to
curtailment of its use on account of prior rights in Idaho. Mr. Lind
claims with others that irrigation of the narrow strips of sloping land
bordering the river is a positive benefit to irrigators below, as the
valley serves as a reservoir holding water back until late in the season
when the seepage augments the flow of the stream when most needed.
Mr. Lind further states that the farmers in Idaho do not appreciate
the real reason why of late years water has become so scarce. He
claims the water supply was much greater some years ago, before
large bands of sheep were driven into the valley and grazed upon the
surrounding hills and mountains. Before their advent the vegetation
on the hills and the underbrush on the mountains held the winter
snows much longer and conserved the water supply. Now the herbage
is eaten away by the sheep, and sheep herders have been responsi-
ble for forest fires, and therefore the physical conditions have changed
and the water pours off in great floods two months earlier in the spring
than formerly. Mr. Lind thinks, such physical conditions must be
taken strictly into account in justly settling the present claims to the
prior rights between water users of Raft River in Utah and Idaho.
George Creek is the first stream rising in Utah to enter Raft River
in Idaho. This creek is bordered with farms from the mouth of the
canyon from which it emerges in Utah to the State line. There are 15
farms, aggregating 2,810 acres, receiving water from George Creek.
Probably half of this area is under cultivation. Water rights in this
stream have never been adjudicated, although suit was brought by
Mr. Yost, the earliest settler on the creek, against all other junior
settlers in order to adjust his claim against them. He claimed the
right to the flow of the entire creek at all seasons. The suit resulted
in Mr. Yost getting a decree from the district court in Boxelder
County, Utah, giving him the right to one-third of the entire flow of
George Creek during the whole year. The rights to the use of any
part of the remaining two-thirds of the stream were not determined.
The fourteen other appropriators on the creek mutually agreed to
divide the water among themselves by allotting a certain number of
shares to each person. The largest number of shares held by one
person is 40 and the smallest 5. All the water in the creek is rotated,
Mr. Yost getting the use of the entire creek for three days out of
nine. The other settlers rotate the water the remaining six days
IRRIGATION IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, IDAHO. 297
•,
among themselves according to a basis of shares arranged among
themselves. Fifteen shares equal one-third of two-thirds of the
whole stream for thirty-six hours, regardless of the amount of water
in the creek.
The George Creek farmers have been made a party to the suit the
Keogh Brothers brought against water users on Raft River in Utah
to determine the question of prior rights on the tributaries as well as
on the main river. It was claimed in the spring of 1904 by the farm-
ers living on George Creek that their stream was no longer a tribu-
tary to Raft River and had not reached the river for seven or eight
years. This may possibly have been the case up to the season of
1904, although irrigators on Raft River in Idaho dispute the state-
ment. This season George Creek emptied considerable water into
Raft River between June 1 and June 20. On June 11 six streams
supplied from George Creek discharged into Raft River near each
other. They were all measured with a current meter near the points
where they entered the river, and the total discharge was found to
amount to 16.46 cubic feet per second, or 823 inches. It can not be
denied that the rights below the mouths of these streams coming from
George Creek were greatly benefited by this supply at that time of the
Sé8,SOIl.
Water from One Mile and Six Mile creeks did not reach Raft River
during the season of 1904. These creeks are small, as their names
imply, and supply water to only six small ranches bordering on the
State line. It is contended that these two creeks were tributaries of
Raft River before water was diverted from them for irrigation, and
the settlers on these creeks have been included as defendants in the
suit of the Keogh Brothers. Rotation is practiced by the users of
water from these creeks. No water rights have ever been adjudicated
on either stream.
Clear Creek is the largest of all the tributaries of Raft River rising
in Utah. It heads in the Clear Creek Range, which is a spur of the
Raft River Mountains. Its watershed lies almost altogether on the
northern slope of the mountains. The snow melts gradually in the
hills and high water in Clear Creek generally occurs about the middle
of June, or one month later than high water in Almo Creek. Clear
Creek emerges from a canyon 13 miles south of the State line. The
distance from the State line to the point where the creek formerly
emptied into Raft River in Idaho is approximately 20 miles. Before
this season only rough measurements had ever been made of the dis-
charge of this stream. On June 6 it was measured with a current
meter at the mouth of the canyon. The discharge at this point was
112.84 cubic feet per second, or 5,642 inches. Two weeks later the
creek was flowing nearly 7,000 inches at this point. Four farms bor-
dering on Clear Creek aggregate about 2,600 acres, all lying in Idaho,
298 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The largest ranch comprises 2,000 acres, about 600 of which are under
cultivation. This ranch and another comprising 160 acres are irrigated
by ditches which head in Utah. Two other farms, comprising 320
acres, divert water from Clear Creek in Idaho. Besides these farms
there are three small farms, comprising about 120 acres, lying in Utah
between the State line and the mouth of Clear Creek Canyon.
After having considerable trouble among themselves relative to an
equitable division of water from Clear Creek, the water users in Utah
and Idaho made a written agreement among themselves as to how the
water should be divided. This agreement was taken into the district
court of Boxelder County, Utah, before Judge Hart, then presiding,
and he signed the mutual agreement previously made between the dif-
ferent appropriators from Clear Creek. No copy of this agreement
could be procured by the writer, although Mr. Louis Sweetzer, the
former manager of the Sweetzer Brothers & Pierce ranch, claimed to
have a copy, which he promised to lend to him. The copy was, how-
ever, mislaid. Mr. J. M. Pierce, a former joint owner of the ranch,
is the authority for the statement that Sweetzer Brothers & Pierce
were entitled, according to the agreement, to 600 inches of “first
water,” that Mr. Naff was entitled to 300 inches of “second water,”
and Sweetzer Brothers & Pierce were entitled to 800 inches more of
“third water.” Mr. Pierce could not recall the amount of any other
allotment, and as none of the other water users possessed copies of the
agreement, it is impossible to state what amounts they are entitled to or
the basis of division, although all claim the right to an inch to the
acre. This agreement was understood to govern only those rights to
diversions heading in Utah whether irrigating land in Utah or Idaho.
It could not apply to rights in ditches heading in Clear Creek in Idaho.
Before water was diverted from it for irrigation Clear Creek was an
important tributary of Raft River. It was claimed in 1904 by old
settlers on Raft River that Clear Creek had not reached Raft River for
a great many years. Some said fifteen years, others seven or eight.
However, it is certain that not enough water from Clear Creek has
reached Raft River in late years to be of any benefit to the users on the
river. By the first of June this season Clear Creek had begun to rise
rapidly and by June 6 was discharging 5,642 inches at the mouth of the
canyon. All of this water was diverted for the ranches on Clear Creek
up to June 10. After that date water commenced to flow in Clear
Creek channel below Frank Burrows's ranch, the lowest on the creek,
and was diverted from the channel by an old ditch to the old N. Bar-
tholomew ranch, now owned by Mrs. Annie Oleson. The quantity of
water below all diversions on Clear Creek increased during the next
week to 500 inches, and what part of this was not used on the Oleson
ranch was going to waste in the Sagebrush. Upon examination of
the bed of the old channel it was found to be obstructed by slidings
IRRIGATION IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, IDAHO. 299
from its banks and choked by the thick growth of brush and weeds,
and it was apparent that if the stream was turned down the old chan-
nel no appreciable amount of water would reach Raft River. Owing
to thess conditions the water master determined to turn the water into
Raft River 7 miles above the mouth of its old channel. On June 22
the water master with the aid of four men dammed Clear Creek 13
miles above the Oleson farm, and turned its waters into an old disused
ditch and 300 feet farther on emptied into the Kirk ditch. From this
point the water was carried 2 miles in the Kirk ditch to its nearest
point to Raft River, just south of the Kirk house, where a ditch 100
feet long was dug and 525 inches of Clear Creek water was emptied
into Raft River above the farms of Keogh Brothers & Pierce. This
extra supply was of great benefit to the water users of Raft River at
this time of the year, especially as Almo Creek was supplying hardly
any water to Raft River. -
By many of the farmers on Raft River who have been to Clear Creek
during high stages of water it is contended that the users on Clear
Creek turn what water they can not consume into the sagebrush to
prevent its reaching Raft River. This contention seemed to be borne
out by an examination of the physical conditions existing along Clear
Creek during the season of 1904. There is no doubt that water from
Clear Creek is wastefully used by the farmers along the stream, much
to their own damage. One ditch, supplying the Sweetzer Brothers &
Pierce ranch, with a measuring box supposed to be set to carry 600
inches of water was, by actual measurement, on June 6, carrying 1,271
inches. On one farm a 40-acre patch of alfalfa was being watered by
five streams, none flowing less than 50 inches, and the alfalfa was then
yellow from overinrigation. In the Raft River decree water is awarded
to the appropriators from “Raft River and its tributaries.” Although
the water users on Clear Creek were not made parties to the decree at
the time it was rendered, it is contended by many that the Raft River
water master can exercise jurisdiction over Clear Creek in Idaho to
prevent the extravagant use of water and stop its deliberate waste.
Clear Creek water users contend that their stream is no longer a trib-
utary to Raft River, and the Raft River water master has no jurisdic-
tion over it. This is a question which will eventually have to be settled
by the courts.
CONCLUSIONS.
The first need of the Raft River water district is the installation of
a uniform standard measuring device in every canal or ditch diverting
water from Almo Creek or Raft River. The Cipolletti weir is the
one recommended.
To insure the use of uniform measuring devices, section 31 of the
irrigation law should be amended. The obvious intention of the sec-
300 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
gºg
tion is to enable the water commissioner to enforce the law relative to
the construction of head gates and measuring devices in canals and
ditches, but by failing to provide for the payment within reasonable
time of the bills for their construction when through the refusal or
neglect of the irrigators the water master has been obliged to place
them himself, it leaves the burden of the expense upon the water
master or water commissioner. If the water user must eventually pay
for them, why should he not be made to stand the costs at once? He
could be given a reasonable notification of, say, fifteen or twenty days
to put in his head gate or measuring device, and then if he neglects
or refuses to do so, let the law provide that he pay the cost of the head
gate or measuring device installed by the water master within ten
days, on penalty of being deprived of the use of water until the bill is
paid.
The immediate determination of the rights of the Almo Water Com-
pany is imperative. Before the law, excess water over and above what
the owners of decreed rights can put to a beneficial use belongs in the
stream to be used by the next appropriator or for further appropria-
tion. Idaho is one of the few arid States which have embodied in their
laws a provision for the legal transfer of water rights. This is found
in section 11, House bill 146, and reads as follows:
SEC. 11. That any person owning any land to which water has been made appur-
tenant either by a decree of the court or under the provisions of this act may volun-
tarily abandon the use of such water in whole or in part on the land which is receiving
the benefit of the same, and transfer the same to other land. Such person desiring
to change the place of use of such water shall first make application to the State engi-
neer, stating fully in such application the reasons for making such transfer. Such
application shall describe the land the use of the water on which is to be abandoned,
and shall describe the land to which it is desired to have such right transferred, and
if such water is to be conducted to such land through another canal or lateral or from
a different point of diversion than the one described in the license or decree of the
court confirming such right, such facts shall be fully set out in such application, and,
if the State engineer shall require it, a plat showing the location of such land and
ditches or canals or points of diversion shall be furnished by such applicant, and upon
receipt of such application the State engineer shall examine the same and shall, pro-
vided no one shall be injured by such transfer, issue to such applicant under the seal
of his office a certificate authorizing such transfer, which certificate shall state the
name of the applicant and shall contain a copy of the license or an abstract of the
decree confirming the right to the use of water upon the land from which it is desired
to transfer such right and a description of the land to which such right is transferred.
And a fee of one dollar shall be paid the State engineer by such applicant for such
certificate of transfer issued by him, and such application and certificate shall be
recorded by such State engineer in a book kept for that purpose, and a notice that
such transfer has been authorized shall be sent by the State engineer to the water
commissioner of the district in which such land is situated, and such water commis-
sioner shall notify the water master of the stream furnishing water for the irrigation
of such lands of the transfer of such use, and such water master shall not thereafter
divert onto the lands, the water for which has been so abandoned, any of such water,
but shall divert such water from such stream so that it may be used on the lands to
which such right has been transferred.
IRRIGATION IN RAFT RIVER WATER DISTRICT, IDAHO. 301
Under the regulations adopted by the board of irrigation, an appli-
cant for a transfer of water or point of diversion must present his
petition and affidavit upon a form which will be furnished from the
State engineer's office, have the same indorsed by two users of water
from the same stream who are not interested in his lands or water
rights, and who are not related to him in any way, and reported upon
by the water master of his stream. He must also, at his own expense,
publish a notice (a form for which will be supplied) for thirty days in
some newspaper published in the county where his point of diversion
is located, naming a place and date where objections, if any exist,
may be publicly presented against the granting of such certificate of
transfer. Proof of publication of such notice must be presented by
the applicant to the officer before whom the hearing is had, at the time
and place specified in the notice. If no reasonable objections are
offered why the certificate of transfer should not issue, and none is
known to the officer, the water commissioner, or his authorized agent,
will certify his approval of the application, which will then be for-
warded to the State engineer for his action.
The provision in the regulation of the State engineer's office for a
public hearing upon the merits of the application for the transfer of a
water right gives all those who may be affected by the transfer the
right to present their side of the case before final action is taken by
the State engineer. Under the provisions of this law it is probable
that some adjustment of the complications which have grown out of
the selling and renting of water by the Almo Company might be
effected. It is possible that the holders of decreed rights in Almo
Creek by economical use of the water decreed to them, even when the
amount of their decreed rights is limited to the legal allowance of an
inch to the acre, might spare some small parts of their decreed quan-
tities and so save the farms which have been developed by irrigation
with water bought or rented from the Almo Company. After these
farms have their rights established by legal transfers, then the excel-
lent system of rotation in use of all the water diverted from Almo
Creek can be practiced without question as to legality or objections
from water users in the lower part of the district.
Since Raft River in the Raft River water district derives its entire
supply from Utah watersheds, the question of the early adjudication
of all water rights on the tributaries of Raft River rising in Utah and
the enforcement, if possible, of the principle of priority of rights
from the source of the streams in Utah to the end of the Raft River
district in Idaho, regardless of the State line, are of importance to
the water users of Raft River in Idaho. As conditions exist to-day,
the water users in Idaho are unable to protect themselves against the
wasteful use of water in Utah; but as soon as the headwaters of the
river and its tributaries in Utah can be brought under the legal
302 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
administration which the State engineer of Utah is establishing in
accordance with recently enacted laws, the waste and extravagance
which so directly affect the Idaho irrigators can be prevented.
It might be said that if the water users on Raft River would take
some pains to clean out their ditches and laterals and keep them clean
from end to end, the service from the amount of water let in at their
head gates would be much higher. In a valley like Raft River, where
the temperature gets extremely high in the summer months, evapora-
tion from water surfaces is high. When water in ditches is retarded
by a growth of weeds or by the forming of pools in the uneven sections
of the ditch, the loss from evaporation is much greater than when the
water is kept running at a uniform velocity down a uniform grade.
Ditches with a grade causing a scouring of the bottom to gravel also
contribute to a heavy loss through percolation. Many ditches with
these defects may be seen on Raft River and Almo Creek. The Almo
canal has been cut to a depth of 20 feet below the surface of the
ground in one place by the action of the water.
As land susceptible of irrigation becomes more scarce, the attention
of home seekers will be attracted to just such valleys as Raft River,
where the amount of water in the stream seems to be overabundant
compared with the amount of land under cultivation along its banks.
If a system of rotation in use of all the water in the river could be
arranged, as has been successfully accomplished on many streams,in
Idaho without infringing upon the rights of early appropriators, the
service of the supply could be enormously increased. Since upon
Raft River proper there are only ten appropriators, it would seem a
simple matter for them to arrange among themselves an equitable
system of rotation whereby an inestimable benefit could be derived by
all concerned. The hitch lies with the possessors of the earliest
rights. They can see no benefit to themselves in the inauguration of
a system of rotation. As progress is made toward a more just and
systematic administration of Raft River, and when better and more
scientific methods of irrigation are practiced, and more thought is
given to obtaining a higher duty from the available water supply, and
less attention is given to instituting lawsuits to protect water rights,
Raft River and Almo Creek may be made to support between three
and four thousand people instead of only three or four hundred, as is
the case to-day. -
*śications OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON . .
i. i. º. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. . . .
ºf". A. < . * ..?
§ $º º t . . ; 3 * > i. . . º ** * º g * g º ſº
§ º; Ngºi-Publications marked with an asterisk (*) are not available for distribution.
º fºul. 36. Nötes on Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. Pp. 64.
§ ****, * *.* * *. * * º & * . º * *
§ ºf Buí. , 58, Water Rights on the Missouri River and its Tributaries. Pp. 80.
º ; * Bui. . 60. Abstract of Laws for Acquiring Titles to Water from the Missouri River . .
gºº. . . . and its Tributaries, with the Legal Forms in Use. Pp. 77.
ºuj; ;0. Water-right Problems of Bear River. Pp. 40. & *
§ºul: º3. Irrigation in the Rocky Mountain States. Pp. 64.
sº ºul. ... 81. The Use of Water in Irrigation in Wyoming. Pp. 56.
§*: º Bül. 86. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 253.
ºn Bül; 87. Irrigation in New Jersey. Pp. 40.
*::::::Hul. 90. Irrigation in Hawaii. Pp. 48. **
****, Bül. 92. The Reservoir System of the Cache la Poudre Valley. Pp. 48.
*... ºr
tº ; : Bul. ~96. Irrigation Laws of the Northwest Territories of Canada and of Wyoming.
*
º, ºr . . Po. 90
X. Sº, . . . p; 9U,
*
**
§ Bul, 100, Report of Irrigation Investigations in California. Pp. 411.
§ 3–3. Bul, 104. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 334.
§ºbul. 105. Irrigation in the United States. Pp. 47.
§: Bul.108, irrigation Practice among Fruit Growers on the Pacific Coast. Pp. 54.
sº Bul. 113. Irrigation of Rice in the United States. Pp. 77.
... ... … Bul. 118; Irrigation from Big Thompson River. Pp. 75.
sº ... Bul. 119. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1901, Pp: 401.
º • Bul. 124. Report of Irrigation Investigations in Utah. Pp. 330.
jº Bül. 130, Egyptian Irrigation. Pp. 100.
: . . . . Bul, 131. Plans of Structures in Use on Irrigation Canals in the United States. Pp.
gº.-- sº 51. - * *
g º: , Bul. 133. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1902. Pp. 266. 3-
*:: . . . . Bul. 134. Storage of Water on Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson Rivers. Pp. 100.
... g. Bul. 140. Acquirement of Water Rights in the Arkansas Valley, Colorado. Pp. 83.
sº 3. - Bul. 144. Irrigation in Northern Italy. Part I. Pp. 100.
s ***. Bul. 145. Preparing Land for Irrigation and Methods of Applying Water. Pp. 84.
㺠. Bul, 146. Current. Wheels: Their Use in Lifting Water for Irrigation. Pp. 38.
º, ſº Bul. 147. Report on Drainage Investigations, 1903. Pp. 62.
* º J -- -sa *. -*** * > wº * . * º sº g º * >
* - 3% Bul. 148. Report on Irrigation Investigations in Humid Sections of the United States
ºf … • - in 1903. Pp. 45.
*::::::- %. 3. *. tºº *
s: sº ; : *-Bul. 157. Water Rights on Interstate Streams. Pp. 116.
s: & *. - ºn #. . Y. ** * * *
ź, - . . --- FARMERS’ BULLETINs. *.
gº .. Bul: 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. Pp. 27.
º- Bul. 116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. Pp. 48.
* ..." ... Bul. 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. Pp. 40. ar
º; , Bul. 158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Pp. 28.
§ 2. Bul. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. Pp. 40.
*
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ANNUAL REPORT
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*RRIGATION AND DRAINAGE .
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sº INVESTIGATIONS, 1904, -
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* , º, ELWOOD MEAD,
sº SEPARATE NO. 5: r
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º, IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS AT NEW MEXICO EXPERIMENT
§º station, MESILLA PARK, 1904.
& "-
** *g *r * re * -- - e
:* : . . . By J. J. VERNoN, Professor of Agriculture, New Mexico Agricultural
& ... -- * * **
:*:::: 2y, 2 " . . . . College.
; gº r. ." $ y Y. In e 3 J •r r * -r r *- t
§º, IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS IN WESTERN TEXAS.
§: i. Jº By HARVEY Cribertsos, Agent and Expert in Pumping Investigations.
º: :-- ** , --> *:
§ PUMPING PLANTS IN TEXAS, -.
§§§ 3. ... * * .
§§ ‘. 3 * , By C. E. Tait, Irrigation Engineer.
3.
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º, - , GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
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SEPARATES FROM OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONSBūfīsīš
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SEPARATE No. 1, . ' . . . .* --
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Review of the Irrigation Work of the Year 1904. By R. P. Teele. Pp. 1-7
> SEPARATE No. 2. 3. sº
Mechanical Tests of Pumping Plants used for. Irrigation. By J. N. LeConte;
195—255, f - * : * ~ *
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The Distribution and Use of Water in Modesto and Turlock Irrigation Districts; da º
ifornia. By Frank Adams. Pp. 93–189. . * ~ * ...; y
Relation of Irrigation to Yield, Size, Quality, and Commercial Suitability
By E. J. Wickson. Pp. 141–174. -. ‘. . . . .
Irrigation Conditions in Imperial Valley, California. By J. E. Roadhouse,
175–194. * - . . . ."
SEPARATE No. 4. “- -
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Irrigation in Klamath County, Oregon. By F. L. Kent. Pp. 257–266. , * > *
Irrigation Investigations in the Yakima Valley, Washington, 1904. By O. L. Waller.º.º.º.
Pp. 267–278. - * * …º
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Irrigation Conditions in Raft River Water District, Idaho, 1904. By W. F. Bartletº
Pp. 279–302. ** - - - - - $º
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Irrigation Investigations at New Mexico Experiment Station, Mesilla Park, Ig º
By J. J. Vernon. Pp. 303–317. - s . . .:*:::::sº
Irrigation Investigations in Western Texas. By Harvey Culbertson. Pp. 319-340:*:
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Pumping Plants in Texas. By C. E. Tail. Pp. 341–346. . . ** < * , ..º.º.
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Rice Irrigation in Louisiana and Texas in 1903 and 1904. By W. B. Gregory. Pp: *ś
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Rice Irrigation on the Prairie Land of Arkansas. By C. E. Tait. Pp. 545–565. ºes:
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Irrigation Experiments at Fort Hays, Kansas, 1903 and 1904. By J. G. Haney: Pº
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Irrigation near Garden City, Kansas, 1904. By A. B. Collins and A. E. Wright,
Pp. 585–594. - ‘. . . . . . . .º.º.
Pumping Plants in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas. By O. V. P. Stout. . Pp. 595 º
608. t -- . . . º.º.º.
Irrigation near Rockyford, Colorado, 1904. By A. E. Wright. Pp.-609-638.
The Irrigation and Drainage of Cranberry Marshes in Wisconsin. By A. it,
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84.1
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
z/SoFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS,
A. C. TRUE, DIRECTOR.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
ELWOOD MEAD,
CEIIEF OF IRRIGATION AND DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS.
SEPARATE NO. 5:
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS AT NEW MEXICO EXPERIMIENT
STATION, MESILLA PARK, 1904.
By J. J. VERNoN, Professor of Agriculture, New Mexico Agricultural
College.
IRRIGATION INVESTIGA TIONS IN WESTERN TEXAS.
By HARVEY CULBERTSON, Agent and Expert in Pumping Investigations.
- PUMPING PLANTS IN TEXAS.
By C. E. TAIT, Irrigation Engineer.
~,
[Reprint from Offiee of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1905.
OFFICE OF EXPERIMIENT STATIONS.
A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director.
E. W. ALLEN, Ph. D., Assistant Director.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
ELwooD MEAD, Chief.
C. G. ELLIOTT, in Charge of Drainage Investigations.
S. M. WooDw ARD, in Charge of Irrigation Investigations.
R. P. TEELE, Expert in Irrigation Institutions.
C. J. ZINTHEO, in Charge of Farm Mechanics.
SAMUEL FoRTIER, in Charge of Pacific District.
F. C. HERRMANN, Expert in Irrigation as Related to Dry Farming.
II
CONT ENTS.
Page.
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS AT NEw MEXICO ExPERIMENT STATION, MESILLA
PARK, 1904. By J. J. VERNON - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------------- 303
Duty of water on alfalfa in New Mexico - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 303
Soil ------------------------------------------------------------- 304
Equipment ------------------------------------------------------ 304
Labor ----------------------------------------------------------- 304
Methods of irrigation --------------------------------------------- 305
Cost of irrigating alfalfa with pumped water-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 308
Cost of irrigating wheat with pumped water- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 311
Plan------------------------------------------------------------- 311
Field notes ------------------------------------------------------ 312
Results ---------------------------------------------------------- 313
Cost of irrigating corn with pumped water - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 313
Cost of irrigating sweet potatoes with pumped water- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 315
Meteorological conditions --------------------------------------------- 316
Temperature of well water --------------------------- ---------------- 316
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS IN WESTERN TEXAs. By HARVEY CULBERTSON - - - 319
Introductory--------------------------------------------------------- 319
El Paso.-------------------------------------------------------------- 321
Trans-Pecos---------------------------------------------------------- 322
Pecos artesian wells -------------------------------------------------- 323
Pecos Valley irrigation ----------------------------------------------- 324
Monahans’ Wells ----------------------------------------------------- 325
Concho, San Saba, and Llano rivers ----------------------------------- 325
Cost of irrigation ----------------------------------------------------- 329
Economical operation of pumps ----------------------------------. 331
Some statements of crop production in Texas- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 333
Methods of irrigation ------------------------------------------------- 334
Storage of flood waters------------------------------------------------ 335
Points in building storage dams ----------------------------------- 337
Size of reservoir ---------------------------------------------- 337
Land to be irrigated ------------------------------------------ 337
Windmill power ----------------------------------------------------- 338
Alkali--------------------------------------------------------------- 339
PUMPING PLANTS IN TEXAs. By C. E. TAIT- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 341
Plant owned by W. J. Alderson, near Katy- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 341
Plant owned by John Cope, jr., near Katy----------------------------- 342
Plant owned by A. E. Dorn and L. E. Rector, near Katy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 342
Plant owned by J. C. Rexroat and J. H. Chapman, near Brookshire- - - - - 343
Plant owned by John Gasner, near Brookshire - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 343
Plant owned by W. J. Mettler, near Stilson - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 343
Plant owned by M. B. Sapp, near Stilson - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 344
Plant owned by Hill-Brown Rice Land and Irrigation Company, near
Stilson------------------------------------------------------------- 344
Plant owned by D. M. Caffell, near Stowell - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 345
Plants owned by the Texas Land and Irrigating Company, near Stowell. - 345
Prices --------------------------------------------------------------- 346
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page
Fig. 41. Plat of field A. --------------------------------------------------- 303
42. Plat of field B --------------------------------------------------- 303
43. Plat of wheat field - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------------------- 3.11
44. Chart showing precipitation in Texas- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - •- - - 319
45. Chart showing evaporation in Texas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 320
46. Map of trans-Pecos Texas----------------------------------------- 322
47. Map of Concho, San Saba, and Llano rivers- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 325
48. Strainer --------------------------------------------------------- 341
IV
IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS AT NEW MEXICO EXPERIMENT
STATION, MESILLA PARK, 1904.
By J. J. VERNoN,
Professor of Agriculture, New Mexico Agricultural College, and Agriculturist of the
Experiment Station.
DUTY OF WATER ON ALFALFA IN NEW MEXICO.
The study of the duty of water on alfalfa reported here consisted of
experiments in applying different quantities of water to different plats
which received the same treatment in other respects, and in applying


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FIG. 41.—Plat of field A.
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like total quantities of water to different plats %2//0% A/27 /2
but watering the plats at different intervals of
time, the object being to determine the quan- &/o// J A/37 //
tities of water which will produce the largest
crops, and whether a given water supply will
do the most good when applied in frequent | 6/22/2 2 A/27/2
light irrigations or in heavier less frequent
applications. º
Two fields that had been in alfalfa for a l 6/22/23 A/3/ 5.
number of years were selected for this experi-
ment, two fields being selected for the reason Fig. 4%–Plat of field B.
that there was no single field upon the station farm large enough for
the experiment. The arrangement of the plats in both fields is shown
in figures 41 and 42.
303
304 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
SOIL.
The soil of both fields was loamy and as nearly uniform in character
as any field to be found upon the station farm. The surface of the
soil in both fields was fairly even, but the surface of field. A sloped so
rapidly that in order to control the water a number of cross borders
were thrown up. Even then the water settled to a greater depth on
the lower end of each section than on the upper end. The stand of
alfalfa on both fields was good, but not first class.
EQUIPMENT.
The equipment for pumping consisted of a 20-horsepower side-crank,
slide-valve steam engine and a 20-horsepower semiportable steam
boiler; one 6-inch centrifugal pump, which was placed upon the sta-
tion well, described in Bulletin 45 of this station, and one centrifugal
pump, which was placed upon the new station well. The engine and
boiler mentioned above were used until July 1, when they were replaced
by a modern 30-horsepower center-crank, slide-valve steam engine and
a 40-horsepower semiportable steam boiler.
The equipment for measuring and controlling the water consisted of
a trapezoidal (Cipolletti) weir and hook gauge. The weir was con-
structed according to plans given in Part I of Bulletin 86, Office of
Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The last 100
feet of the ditch leading to the weir was made as wide as the weir
itself. The fall below the weir was at all times greater than the
specified requirements. The water entering the several plats was con-
trolled by gates.
After making a few runs it was found that the quantity of water
discharged over the weir remained very constant when pumping, and
therefore no other device for measuring the water was used through-
out the season. The distance from the pump to field A was 1,204.5
feet, and to field B 950.5 feet. No allowance was made for loss by
Seepage and evaporation from the ditches, as it is believed that a com-
paratively small amount of water was lost by seepage for the reason
that the soil is very heavy and the ditches had been cemented well by
river sediment. This same equipment was used in the investigations
into the cost of pumping upon various crops discussed later.
IABOR.
While all the experimental work was in charge of competent assist-
ants, one in the field and one at the pumping plant, Mexican laborers
were employed in applying the water and in distributing it over the
fields.
IRRIGATION AT NEW MExICO ExPERIMENT STATION. 305
METHODS OF I.R.R.IGATION.
The method of irrigation used in this experiment was that com-
monly known as the check system. Heavy borders were thrown up
around each plat, and where necessary, in order to better control the
water, cross borders were added. The water entered each plat at the
upper end, spread out over the second section, and so on to the end of
the plat. The distribution of the water was left very largely to the
judgment of an expert Mexican irrigator, who was instructed to give
each section its proper share of water. The growth of the alfalfa was
not equally good upon all sections, but this difference might have been
due to a variation in the amount of water applied or to a variation in
the character of the soil of the different sections of each plat. Except-
ing the first and last crop, the alfalfa was cut regularly every four
weeks just before the irrigations were given. The last crop grew very
slowly for the reason that the nights were cool, and considerably more
than four weeks were therefore required to produce this cutting.
Field A was divided into eignt plats, numbered from 1 to 8, and
these were thrown into two groups. Plats 1, 3, 5, and 7 formed one
group and plats 2, 4, 6, and 8 formed the other group. The plats of
each group received the same treatment except for irrigation.
Field B was also divided into eight plats, numbered from 9 to 16,
and arranged in two groups. Plats 9,11, 13, and 15 formed one group
and plats 10, 12, 14, and 16 formed the other group.
All of the plats in field A received water enough to cover them to a
depth of 6 inches during every four weeks, 3 inches being applied to
plats 1, 3, 5, and 7 every two weeks and 6 inches being applied to plats
2, 4, 6, and 8 every four weeks. All of the plats in field B received
water to a depth of 10 inches every four weeks, 5 inches being applied
to plats 9, 11, 13, and 15 every two weeks and 10 inches being applied
to plats 10, 12, 14, and 16 every four weeks.
The alfalfa was cut a sufficient length of time before the irrigations
for it to cure and be removed from the field. Each plat was weighed
separately. As nearly as possible the hay on all the plats was cured
to the same degree of dryness, and every crop was removed from the
field in good condition with the exception of the fourth, which was
rained upon after it was cut. In order to irrigate at the proper time
this crop was hauled in while it was still wet and was thrown into
small windrows in the corral, where it was allowed to remain until
dry. It was then gathered up and weighed. Under these circum-
stances there was an unavoidable loss of leaves, which, however, was
probably about equal on all the plats.
The record of each group for the season is given below:
Group 1 received sufficient water to cover it to a depth of 3 inches
every two weeks. §: It was irrigated April 4 and April 18, May 2 and
30620–No. 158—05—20
306 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
May 17, and the first crop was cut May 25, giving a growing season
of 51 days, and having received 12 inches of water. The second crop
was irrigated May 30 and June 13, and was cut June 24. The grow-
ing season for the second crop was therefore 30 days, and the land
received 6 inches of water. The third crop was watered June 27 and
July 11, and cut July 22, having a growing season of 28 days, and
receiving 6 inches of water. The ‘fourth crop was watered July 25,
and August 8, receiving a total depth of 6 inches, and was cut August
19, having been growing 28 days. The fifth crop was watered August
22, September 5, and September 19, receiving 9 inches of water, and
was cut October 20, after growing 62 days. This group received dur-
ing the season of 197 days water to a depth of 39 inches, and yielded
five crops, the average total yield for the group being 2.59 tons per
3,CI’é.
The plats forming group 2 were irrigated every four weeks, and
received enough water to cover them to a depth of 6 inches at each
irrigation—that is, they received the same depth of water as the plats in
group 1, but received it in less frequent, heavier waterings. The first
irrigation of this group was one month later than the first irrigation
of group 1, because it was originally planned to irrigate this crop with
river water. River water was not available, and it was later decided
to irrigate the group with well water, applying the same depth of
water as on group 1, but applying it at longer intervals. The first
crop was watered May 2 and cut May 25, giving a period of growth
of 23 days. The second crop was watered May 30 and cut June 24,
after a growing period of 30 days. The third crop was watered June
27 and cut July 22, having a growing period of 28 days. The fourth
crop was watered July 25 and cut August 19, haying a growing period
of 28 days. The fifth crop was watered August 22 and September 19
and cut October 20, having a growing period of 62 days. The total
depth of water received by this group was 36 inches, and the yield
was 2.36 tons per acre, 0.23 ton per acre less than the yield of group 1,
which received about the same depth of water, but received more fre-
quent waterings. A part of this difference is due to the late watering
of group 2, the first crop on group 1 being much heavier than that on
group 2.
Groups 3 and 4 received the same depth of water, except for the
first crop, group 3 receiving 5 inches every two weeks, and group 4 .
receiving 10 inches every four weeks. Group 3 was watered April 4,
April 18, May 2, and May 17 for the first crop, receiving at each irri-
gation water enough to cover it to a depth of 5 inches. The first crop
was cut May 25, after a growing period of 51 days. The second crop
was watered May 30 and June 13 and was cut June 24, having a grow-
ing period of 30 days. The third crop was watered June 27 and July
11 and was cut July 22, having a growing period of 28 days. The
IRRIGATION AT NEW MEXICO ExPERIMENT STATION. 807
fourth crop was watered July 25 and August 8, and was cut August
19, having a growing period of 28 days. The fifth crop was watered
August 22, September 5, and September 19, and was cut October 20,
after a growing period of 62 days. The total growing season was 197
days, the total depth of water received was 65 inches, and the average
yield 3.28 tons per acre.
Group 4 received 10 inches of water every 4 weeks. It was watered
May 2 for the first crop, and was cut May 25, after a growing period
of 23 days. The second crop was watered May 30 and cut June 24,
having a growing period of 30 days. The third crop was watered
June 27 and cut July 22, after growing 28 days. The fourth crop
was. watered July 25 and cut August 19, after a growing period of 28
days. The fifth crop was watered September 19, receiving 20 inches,
and was cut October 20, the growing period being 62 days. The total
growing period for the five crops was 171 days, the total depth of
water 60 inches, and the average yield 3.17 tons. This yield was 0.11
ton per acre less than that of group 3, which received about the same
depth of water in more frequent waterings.
In each field there is a very slight advantage in yield in favor of the
more frequent waterings. As between the two fields, the field receiv-
ing water to a depth of 10 inches during four weeks showed a
decidedly larger yield than the field receiving a depth of 6 inches dur-
ing the same time, the average increase being 0.75 ton per acre. The
field notes show that the field receiving only 6 inches of water in four
weeks frequently showed the need of water, while the other field did
not at any time appear to be suffering for water.
The following table gives the details as to the areas and yields of
the different plats by groups:
Yields of alfalfa on ea perimental plats.

Field A.
Group 1. Group 2.
Plat Plat Plat Plat Plat Plat Plat Plat
No. 1. No. 3. No. 5. No. 7 | No. 2. No. 4. No. 6. | No. 8.
Area------------------------- acres...| 0, 1891 0. 20. 0.2282 0.2450 0.1889; 0.2211| 0.22S6 0.2450
Yield, May 25, first cut . . . . pounds. - 120 150 180 320 80 82 164 143
Yield, June 24, second cut. . . . do. . . . 10S 150 178 290 96 100 202 150
Yield, July 22, third cut- - - - - - do. . . . 120 210, 216 290 90 108 250 162
Yield, Aug. 19, fourth Cut . . . . do. . . . 158 226, 140 410 152 222 340 240
Yield, Oct. 20, fifth cut... - - - - do. . . . 278 88s 448 486 306 422 464 438
Total for season . . . . . . . . do.... 784. 1, 124 1, 162. 1,796 724 934, 1,420, 1,133
Pounds per acre -------------------- 4, 145.955,099. 815, 092.027, 330. 103,832. 614, 224, 336,211.554,624. 49
Tons per acre------------------------ 2.07 2. ; 2. 06 3.67 1.91 2. 11 3. 10 2.31
Average tons per acre for group . . . . 2. 59 2. 36
308
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Yields of alfalfa on ea perimental plats—Continued.

Field B.
Group 3. Group 4
Plat Plat, Plat Plat Plat Plat Plat Plat
No. 9, No. 11. No. 13. No. 15. No. 10. No. 12. No. 14. | No. 16.
Area. ------------------------- & CreS 0.2170 0.2067| 0, 1905 0.1750 0, 2180 0, 2052 0, 1945 0.1747
Yield, May 25, first cut....pounds.. 220 180 202 220 204 258 367 230
Yield, June 24, second Cut---- do. . . . 90 228 220 350 183 168 231 90
Yield, July 22, third cut...... do. . 310 358 326 208 264 300 226 218
Yield, Aug. 19, fourth Cut . . . . do. . 254 270 320 472 308 256 344 430
Yield, Oct. 20, fifth cut. . . . . . . dO. 188 282 248 202 216 245 256 197
Total for season . . . . . . . . do. 1,062 1, 268 1,316. 1, 452 1, 175 1, 228 1,424; 1,165
Pounds per acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,891. 756,134. º 908,148,297. 145,389,915,984. #. 321.346,657. 07
Tons per acre------------------------ 2, 44 3.06 3.45 4.15 2. 70 2.99 3. 66 3.34
Average tons per acre for group . . . . 3.28 3, 17
The table shows great variation in yields from the different plats
receiving the same treatment, but the averages fully justify the con-
clusions previously stated, that there is a decided increase in yield
from the use of the larger quantities of water on field B.
COST OF IRRIGATING ALFALFA WITH PUMPED WATER,
The original plan included not only the determination of the cost of
growing alfalfa by pumping, but also a comparison of the cost of pro-
ducing alfalfa by means of river water and well water. Two fields of
about equal size were selected, containing 3.4 and 3.14 acres respec-
tively. They will be called fields C and D. Both fields were to have
received the same treatment throughout, one to be irrigated with well
water and the other with river water. But, on account of the river
going dry, the field that was to have received the river water, after
remaining idle for upward of one month, was irrigated with well water
the remainder of the season. The irrigations were given to both fields
at such times as the crops seemed to need it.
No definite amount of water was to be applied, but the quantity
applied was measured, and so far as possible the irrigation of both
fields represented the common usage of alfalfa growers in the valley
except that clear water was used. An expert Mexican irrigator was
placed in charge of the distribution of the water and was instructed
to irrigate according to the common practice in the valley. An irri-
gation was given immediately after each crop was removed from the
field.
The soil of field C was somewhat lighter than that of field D, the soil
of field D being a heavy clay. Although the fields are not strictly com-
parable, in order to secure anything like accurate results in cost of
IRRIGATION AT NEW MEXICO ExPERIMENT STATION. 809
&
applying the irrigation water, the cost of harvesting, and the cost of
storing, it was necessary to use the whole of a given area for the test.
The surface of both fields was fairly even, but both slope too rapidly
for the proper distribution.
The equipment used and the labor employed in these experiments
were the same as for the experiments previously described. Field C
was 130.5 feet from the pump and field D 701 feet. The check system
of irrigation was employed.
The alfalfa was cut when it was from one-third to full bloom. When
thoroughly wilted it was raked into small windrows and allowed to
finish curing. On the third or fourth day after cutting it was bunched,
hauled in, and stacked.
The following table shows the dates on which the fields were irri-
gated, the depths of irrigation, the dates of cutting, and the yields,
reduced to an acreage basis:
Dates of irrigation, depth of irrigation, dates of cuttings, and yields.
FIELD C.
Date of Depth of | Period of Yield per
Cut. irrigation. irrigation. | Date of cut. | growth. 8,0Ie.
!
Inches. Days. 07? S.
First-------------------------------- May 25........ 5.85 June 9 - - - - - - - - a 15 0.39
Second ----------------------------- {#:... };}ruly 14........ 35 | , 51
Third------------------------------- July 21........ 5.63 August 16- - - - - 33 . 89
Fourth ----------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - {\#. }}}october 20.... 65 . 50
Total -------------------------|---------------- 35.42 ---------------- 148 2. 29
FIELD D.
* April 1-------- 6. 81 § 4
First-------------------------------- April 25- - - - - - - ##|}May 20........ 49 0.27
Second ----------------------------- {{...} :#}ſune 29....... 40 | . 51
Third------------------------------- {{#ii...] }}}Augusts...... 40 .96
Fourth ----------------------------- August 18-- - - -* 2.65 || October 13 - - - - 66 . 87
Total ----------------------------------------- 37.46 ---------------- 195 2.61


aAlfalfa had made some growth before water was applied, as a result of rain and of irrigation the
previous year.
The following table shows the date, the number of hours run, the
amount of fuel consumed, the cost of pumping, the cost of applying
the water, and the total cost for each irrigation, for each cut, and
for the season. The cost of pumping includes coal at $5.50 per ton
and the wages of an engineer at 20 cents per hour.
310
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Cost of pumping and applying water.
FIELD C.
* Cost of
* * * * Time Cost Of S v Total
Cut. Date of irrigation. TUIIl. Fuel. pumping. *ºs COSt.
B. m. | Powmds. *.
First ----------------------------. May 25. ----------- 9 00 1,609 $6.22 $0.68 $6.90
Second {} une 14----------- 8 44 1,495 5, 87 . 66 6, 53
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * July 9–11. - - - - - - - - - 11 32 1,592 6, 70 .86 7, 56
Third { uly 21------------ 8 40 1, 860 5.41 , 65 6. 12
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * August 19. . . . . . . . . 9 19 1,060 4. "7 . 70 5.47
Fourth--------------------------- August 24–25. ----. 7 14 1,046 4.32 .54 4.86
Total.-----------------------|-------------------- 54 29 8, 162 33.35 4.09 37, 44
FIELD ID.
* April 1–2- - - - - - - - - - 9 40 1,907 $7.17 $0.73 $7.90
First ----------------------------- {# 26----------- 5 23 941 3. 67 .41 4.08
Second § 24------------ 8 10 1,450 5, 61 . 61 6. 22
* * * * s = e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * June 9------------ 6 27 1,205 4. 61 . 48 5. 09
Third July 8–9-...-------. 7 24 1,067 4.41 . 55 4.96
* = tº º 'º - º & º 'º º & E * - E * * * * * * * * * * *-* - July 20. ----------- 4 41 651 2. 72 . 35 3. 07
Fourth August 11–12. ----. 7 40 1,218 4.91 . 60 5.51
as º ºs º ºs ºs s sº e º 'º sº is sº sº º ºs e º sº tº sº º sº sº º ºr August 18-- - - - - - - -| 3 45 478 2.05 . 28 2. 33
Total.-----------------------|-------------------- 53 20 8,917 35. 14 4.02 39. 16


The following table shows the cost of irrigating, the cost of harvest-
ing, the total cost, the cost per acre, the total yield, and the yield per
acre for each cut and for
the season:
Cost of irrigation and harvesting and yields.
©
FIELD C.
Cost of Cost Of Cost per | Total Yield per
Cut. irrigating.harvesting. Total cost. ºrë. yield. 8,OI'ê.
# Pounds. Toms.
First ------------------------------- $6.90 $1.01 $7.91 $2.32 2,409 0.35
Second----------------------------- 14.09 1.66 15. 75 4.63 3,125 . 46
Third ------------------------------ 6. 12 1. 48 7. 60 2.24 5,431 . 80
Fourth ----------------------------- 10.33 1. 28 11.61 3.42 3,084 .45
Total for Season. ------------- 37.44 5.43 42.87 12. 61 14,049 2.06
FIELD D.
First ------------------------------- $11.98 . 87 $12.89 $4. 12 1,715 0.27
Second----------------------------- 11.31 1.25 12.56 4.01 3,215 . 51
Third ------------------------------ 8. 03 2.03 10.06 3.21 6,022 .96
Fourth----------------------------- 7.84 1.64 9.44 3.02 5,424 . 87
Total for SeaSOn-......... ---- 39. 16 5. 79 44.95 14.36 16,376 2.61


IRRIGATION AT NEW MEXICO EXPERIMENT STATION. 311
Cost of growing alfalfa and value of product.
Field C. Field D.
Alfalfa in stack:
Cost of irrigation--------------------------------------------------------------- $37, 44 $39. 16
Cost of mowing, raking, bunching, and drawing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 42 5. 79
Land tax” --------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.84 1. 7
Total.------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44. 70 46.65
Alfalfa baled, on board cars:
Cost of irrigation -------------------------------------------------------------- 37. 44 39. 16
Cost of mowing, raking, and bunching. -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.06 1.98
Cost of baling at $1 per ton ---------------------------------------------------- 7.02 8. 19
Hauling to cars ---------------------------------------------------------------- 2.46 2.87
Land tax” --------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.84 1. TO
Total cost -------------------------------------------------------------------- 50. 82 53.90
Value of crop at $15 per ton. ------------------------------------------------------. 105.37 122.82
Total profit ------------------------------------------------------------------ 54. 55 68.92
Net profit per acre -------------------------------------------- --------------- | 16. 04 21.95
a The land tax was based on a value of $20 per acre at a tax rate of $2.70 per $100.
COST OF IRRIGATING WIBIEAT WITH PUMPED WATER.
PLAN.
The data on the cost of pumping water for the purpose of irrigating
wheat were secured in connection with experimental work in soil
moisture, which was carried on in cooperation with the soil physicist.
/2
Af
| &oºo / | &rodo.2 E. &oo/O J. * 4.
FIG. 43.—Plat of wheat field.
There were twenty plats of wheat of about one-tenth acre each, all
of which were irrigated alike up to the time of heading (fig. 43). They
were irrigated on January 5 to produce germination, on April 19,
*

312 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
when growth began, and on May 18, at which time the wheat began to
head. After heading they were divided into four groups, the first
three containing six plats each and the last one containing two plats,
which were irrigated as follows: Group 1 was irrigated every week
after heading; group 2, every two weeks; group 3, every three weeks,
and group 4, not at all. Water was applied to a depth of 6 inches at
each irrigation up to and including the one given at heading time.
Thereafter the irrigation was variable, as shown in the tables which
follow. It is probable that if the land had been quite level, less water
would have been required to properly irrigate each plat. The con-
dition of the land was, however, typical of the valley, lands seldom or
never being in as good condition for the irrigation of wheat as they
are for alfalfa. -
The soil was variable, ranging from a rather heavy, sandy loam on
the west side to a heavy adobe (clay) on the east. The groups of plats
were selected so as to counteract this variability in the soil conditions,
as will be seen by reference to the diagram. The surface of the land
was rather uneven. The land was plowed to a depth of about 5 inches
on December 8 and 9, 1903, and thoroughly pulverized and leveled by
means of a rectangular frame made of 2 by 12 inch lumber set on edge.
The same equipment and labor were used as that in the experiments
described in full on page 304. *: *
On December 22, 1903, 2 bushels of wheat were sown per acre, 1.5
inches deep. A press drill was used, and the drills were 8 inches apart.
The variety sown, Algerian White (station No. 410), has very large
kernels, and for this reason 2 bushels were sown per acre instead of
1.5, the amount used with other varieties.
The check system of irrigation was used.
The wheat was cut on June 25, 1904, and was shocked and allowed to
dry for a week or ten days, after which it was hauled to the machine
and thrashed, the crop from each plat being kept separate and the
Quantity of straw and grain from each being recorded. The total time
the crop occupied the ground was 186 days––from December 22, 1903,
to June 25, 1904—while it made nearly all of its growth above the
ground between April 19 and the time of ripening, or 67 days.
FIELD NOTES.
April 1. Good stand on all plats. Rabbits pasturing on south tier
of plats.
May 1. All plats appear about alike. Effects of pasturing by rab-
bits practically overcome.
May 18. Beginning to head.
May 25. Heads well out; beginning to bloom.
June 1. Beginning to fill. .
June 8. Watery stage; grain nearly full size.
IRRIGATION AT NEW MEXICO ExPERIMENT STATION. 313
June 15. Milk stage; grain full size.
June 22. Dough stage; grain full size.
June 22. Dough stage; ripening.
June 25. Ripe enough to cut.
IRESULTS.
The folk»wing table shows the depth of water applied before and
after heading time, the total quantity applied, the yield per acre of
straw and grain, the acre-inches of water required to produce 1
bushel of grain, the number of hours of pumping, the quantity of
coal consumed, the total cost of pumping for each group, the cost of
pumping per bushel of grain, and the cost of pumping per acre for
each group:
Cost of pumping water for the irrigation of wheat and yields of grain and straw.
|
Group 1. a Group 2. b Group 3. c. Group 4.d
| —t-
t Depth of water applied before heading - - - - - - - - - - - - - - inches. - 18 18 18 18
Depth of water applied after heading. . . . . . . . . . . . ...... do---- 17.3 11.2 : 6 ----------
Total depth of Water applied - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - do---. 35.3 29.2 24 18
Yield of grain per acre ------------------------------ bushels-- 18 16.6 15.1 10.6
Yield of straw per acre ------------------------------ pounds.. 1,947 1,901 1,450 1,207
Acre inches of water per bushel of grain - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.96 1.76 1. 52 1. 70
Number of hours of pumping ---...--------------------------. 16h 15m 11h 51m 9h 51m 2h 32m
Fuel Consumed-------------------------------------- pounds-- 2, 135 1,766 1,456 363
Total cost of pumping, per tºp sº sº º ºs m º gº º ºs º ºs e = * * * * * * * * * -s as sº * * * * $9.11 $7.22 $5.98 $1.50
Cost of pumping, per bushel of grain, including fuel and
engineer ---------------------------------------------------- . 51 . 51 .46 . 49
Qost per acre-------------------------------------------------- 10.61 8.41 6.96 5. 21
Value of grain per acre at $1.20 per bushel.................... 21. 60 19.92 18. 12 12.72
a Irrigated once each week after heading.
b Irrigated every two weeks after heading.
c Irrigated every three weeks after heading.
d Not irrigated after heading.
The table shows that the largest yield was secured from the group
receiving the greatest depth of water, but the largest return in pro-
portion to the water applied was secured from group 3, which received
the next to the least depth of water. Comparing group 1, which gave
the largest yield per acre, and group 3, which gave the largest yield
per unit of cost of pumping, an increased expense of $3.13 was offset
by an increased yield of 3 bushels of grain, worth $3.60, a little more
than enough to pay the increased cost.
COST OF IRRIGATING CORN WITH PUMPED WATER.
The data upon which is based the following discussion of the cost of
pumping water for the irrigation of corn were obtained in connection
with a fertilizer experiment, which was carried on in cooperation with
the Bureau of Chemistry, of this Department. The field covered an
area of about 1.43 acres. All the plats were irrigated alike, and water
was applied when the crop seemed to need it, five irrigations being
given during the growing period of the crop. The first irrigation
314 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
º
was given on May 19, 1904, to produce germination; the second was
given on May 28; the third on June 22; the fourth on July 13, and
the fifth on August 4.
The soil was a heavy loam. The surface of the land was even but
sloped rather too rapidly to secure an even distribution of water on
all parts of the land. Several cross borders were thrown in, which
assisted in preventing the water from settling to the lower ends of the
plats. The land was plowed on May 12 and 13 to a depth of about 5.
inches, and was then disked once and harrowed three times with the
Acme harrow. Lastly, it was smoothed with the smoother heretofore
described under “Wheat.”
The corn was drilled with a 2-horse planter on May 18 to a depth of
from 2 to 2.5 inches. The kernels were dropped 16 inches apart in
the row and the rows were 3 feet 8 inches apart.
The corn was hoed once between June 1 and June 6, and plowed
June 30 and again July 23. The check system of irrigation was
employed.,
The corn was cut and shocked on September 16, when it was begin-
ning to show signs of maturing. It remained in the field until Novem-
ber 26, when it was hauled in, weighed, and immediately shucked, the
weight of stover and grain being recorded. The total period of growth
was 120 days, from May 18 to September 16. If the corn had been
allowed to stand in the field until fully ripe, the time the crop occu-
pied the land would have been somewhat lengthened. *
The following table shows the number of hours of pumping, the
Quantity and cost of coal consumed for each irrigation, the cost of
engineer, the cost of applying the water, the total cost of operating,
the cost per acre, and the average yield per acre of stover and grain:
Cost of pumping water for the irrigation of corn.

Depth of | Time of C Cost of
irrigation. irrioro - - 1. ost of Cost of ge Total
Date of irrigation * Pºp COa. fuel. engineer. º cost.
Inches. II. m. Pounds.a
May 19.-------------------------- 6, 18 4 00 600 $1.65 $0.80 $0.30 $2.75
May 28--------------------------- 4.50 2 55 437. 5 1, 19 . 58 . 21 1.98
June 22-------------------------- 4.63 3 00 450 1.25 . 60 . 22 2. 07
July 18--------------------------- 6.05 3 55 587. 5 1.54 . 78 . 29 2, 61
August 4-------------------------- 3.86 2 30 375 1.01 . 50 . 19 1, 70
Total ---------------------- 25, 22 16 20 2,450 6, 64 3.26 1.21 11.11
a Estimated from long runs.
Reduced to an acreage basis the cost of pumping and applying water
was $7.77 per acre. The yield was 31.9 bushels of grain and 6,521
pounds of stover per acre. The grain brought 90 cents per bushel at
the time of husking, making a return of $28.71 per acre in addition
to the value of the stover.
IRRIGATION AT NEW MEXICO EXPERIMENT STATION. 315
COST OF IRRIGATING SWEET POTATOES WITH PUMPED WATER.
A field of 1.1 acres near the pump was selected and planted to sweet
potatoes in order to determine the cost of pumping water on this crop.
The irrigation was given as the crop seemed to demand it.
The soil was a heavy clay and not well adapted to growing sweet
potatoes, but this was about the only land available for the work.
The land was plowed to a depth of about 6 inches, thoroughly pul-
verized, and immediately thrown into ridges ready for planting. The
same equipment was used and the same labor employed as heretofore
described.
The plants were set out on June 13, 1904. The plants were located
at the water line about halfway up the sides of the ridges, and the
roots were pushed into the mellow soil with a wedge-shaped stick.
An irrigation was given within two hours after the plants were set.
Cultivation was given between the ridges twice before the vines
covered the middles, and one hand-hoeing was also given. After the
vines had matted between the rows they were lifted from the ground
once in order to check their tendency to reot at the nodes.
The furrow system of irrigation was used, the water being run
between the ridges until the furrows were about half full.
The potatoes were harvested November 1 to November 8, 1904. In
harvesting, the vines were first removed from the surface of the ridges
and raked into the middles. A small plow was run along each side of
the row and then through the middle, the potatoes not removed by the
plow being dug out with forks. The potatoes were placed in piles and
covered with the vines, which were removed in the morning and
replaced at night. After remaining in the field to cure for two or
three days, the crop was hauled in, weighed, and sorted.
The following table gives the dates of irrigation, the depth of water
applied at each watering, the time of pumping, and the quantity of
fuel used:
Cost of irrigating sweet potatoes with pumped water.

No. Of s
tº e * Time of | Fuel con-
* Date. * s
* 8, Quantity. pumping. stºne.
Acre-inches. H. m. | Pounds.a
1 June 18--------------------------------------------------- 4. 28 2 38 357
2 July 28--------------------------------------------------- 5. 34 3 17 448
8 August 5------------------------------------------------- 3. 50 1 35 214
4 || August 16 ------------------------------------------------ 4, 50 1 55 260
Total (4) ------------------------------------------- 17. 62 9 15 1,279
a Fuel estimated,
The total period of growth was 124 days, the yield of unsorted
potatoes was 10,100 pounds, or 9,182 pounds per acre. The total cost
of pumping was $5.35, or $4.86 per acre. The sweet potatoes sold for
1.75 cents per pound, giving a return of $160.69 per acre.
316 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS.
The table following shows the mean temperature, relative humidity,
wind velocity, and precipitation for the growing season of 1904, and
compares these conditions for an average of the years 1898–1903, inclu-
sive, and the year 1904: tº
Meteorological conditions for the year 1904.

Mean | Relative | Wind ve- --
MOnth. tempera- humid- |locity per Rainfall.
ture. ity. hour.
o F. Per º; Miles. | Inches.
April---------------------------------------------------------- 57.5 13. 9.9 |----------
May----------------------------------------------------------- 68.0 I8. 0 9.5 0.05
June ---------------------------------------------------------- 76.9 25, 1 9, 9 . 70
July ---------------------------------------------------------- 78.8 32.8 9, 1 1.36
August-------------------------------------------------------- 77.3 43.8 7.1 1. 24
September ---------------------------------------------------- 70, 8 57.6 7.0 4.02
October ------------------------------------------------------- 60. 2 55.7 6.8 1. 52
Average for 6 years, 1898–1903, from April to October,
inclusive----------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 69.95 42.8 7.37 8. 30
Average, 1904, April to October, inclusive.............. 69,90 35, 2 8.5 8. 39
NoTE.—The above table was supplied by Prof. J. D. Tinsley, station meteorologist.
TEMPERATURE OF WELL WATER.
There is a more or less common impression that the temperature of
the well water in the neighborhood of Tucson, Ariz., is so low as to be
harmful to plants. Records of the temperature of the water as it
comes from the well and after it is spread on the field were kept
throughout the season of 1904. The averages of these daily records
are given in the following table:

Average temperature of air and water.
Air at water at Air in water in Ayerºe
Plat. {- * IſlSO IIl
ditch. ditch. field. field. Water.
o F. o F. o F. o F. o F.
1--------------------------------------------------- 81 66. 2 81.2 70, 8 4, 6
2--------------------------------------------------- 80. 5 | . 64.5 80, 8 68.5 4.
3--------------------------------------------------- 81. 7 65.3 82 70.3 5
4--------------------------------------------------- 81. 5 64. 1 81.1 68.4 4.
5--------------------------------------------------. 81.6 64. 9 82. 1 68. 5 3.
6--------------------------------------------------- 80. 3 64. 3 80.2 67.2 2.
7--------------------------------------------------- 82.6 64.7 82.7 68. 1 3.
8--------------------------------------------------- 82 65.9 82.7 68.2 2.
9--------------------------------------------------- 85.5 64.3 85 67.3 3
10--------------------------------------------------- 86. 2 64.6 86. 5 70.5 5.
11--------------------------------------------------- 83. 1 64. 5 83.8 68 3.
12--------------------------------------------------- 82.4 65. 1 82.9 70, 6 5.
13--------------------------------------------------- 82.2 65. I 82. 5 69 3.
14--------------------------------------------------- 85.2 64. 2 85.7 67. 8 3.
15.------------------------------------------- * - - - * * * * 83. 1 65.6 83. 5 69.8 3.
16--------------------------------------------------- 82.8 65.2 82.9 69.5 4.
Average --------------------------------------|--------------------|----------|---------- 3.
IRRIGATION AT NEW MExico ExPERIMENT STATION. 317
As shown by the table the average rise in temperature between the
well and the field was 3.9°F. So far no harmful effects have been
observed from the use of this water. In fact the temperature of this
well water is higher than the temperature of the river water in many
places.
The following table compares the temperature of the well water
used in these experiments with that taken from streams in the State of
Utah on the same dates. ' This table shows that the temperature of the
well water in New Mexico is on an average of 7°F. higher than that
of the river water of Utah:
Comparative temperatures of irrigation waters.
f
3 New
Date. | Utah. Mexico.
| o F. O F.
June 13 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47 69.8
June 27 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55 67
July 11 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61 67.5
July 26----------------------------------------------------------------------------- | 64 63. Tº
August 8 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64 65. 1

IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS IN WESTERN TEXAS.
By HARVEY CULBERTSON, Agent and Earpert.
INTRODUCTORY.
The accompanying charts of the rainfall and evaporation in Texas
illustrate quite well the climatic conditions as affecting the growth of
vegetation (figs. 44 and 45). The extreme west, with its 9 inches of
rainfall and 80 inches of evaporation, shows the need of almost con-
tinuous irrigation for successful crop production. In that very dry
air it is found necessary to give a crop of alfalfa two irrigations.
C/a/7 jhow/22
AAC/A/ZA7%2/////7Zºº.45.
z EóverJø/2 tº Eover 30%
// Z , 43 ... / 3% - 23 ...
//z lllllllll ... ſo ... W. Lilliſi. . 20 -.
// N , 33 ... / RS Z5 -.
/... [Hill||Over/2//7.
FIG. 44.—Chart showing precipitation in Texas.
Going eastward the rainfall increases and the evaporation decreases,
the rainfall reaching 50 inches in the eastern part of the State.
Between the two extremes a distance of about 750 miles intervenes.
In the extreme west 25 to 40 acres of grazing land is required to fur-
nish a rather scant subsistence to one beef animal. No farming is
attempted without irrigation until a point about 350 miles eastward is

319
320 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
reached, and there is no reasonable assurance of fair crops until nearly
500 miles is reached, except in some sandy localities or under special
local conditions. There have been some calls for irrigation enterprise
as far as 600 miles eastward from the extreme western part of the
State. -
While the rainfall chart shows the amount of lainfall in different
parts of the State, there is one important condition it does not show.
That is the distribution through the growing season. Even with a
rainfall of 25 to 30 inches good crops require that a large part of it
fall in the growing season and an especially fair amount of it in the
Nſ|Hºoºº Yº
º #e OA'ſ tº- g
ſ i//V/D/A/Vſ ºc->
N
/VA: §: |i
|
§§
A/Ax/CO §§
2. Tºlkirk
S
Sº,
\ d
VS) [Tº
--&ºi=
W-
º
N
C//4AP7 J//OP4///VG { |
AAA2247/OW/W7/A5.
loo:902e-J//? Nzo-ooºoer y/r
%90-32" . . . ||loo-so" -
E66-zo' . . . [T]ae/ow 3o:
FIG. 45.-Chart showing evaporation in Texas.
warm months. Where rainfall is very heavy at times, with long
intervals between, the conditions are unfavorable. The rainfall
records given indicate a shortage in west central Texas during the
months of July and August, with good supply in May, June, and Sep-
tember. Hence, nearly all the irrigation in this portion of the State is
in July and August.
The following record of rainfall at Abilene, Tex., furnished by
G. W. Eddy, weather observer, will be interesting. It gives the
monthly rainfall for a period of 18 years. It shows a variation in
annual rainfall from 15.71 inches to 35.30 inches, with an average of








IRRIGATION IN WIESTERN TEXAS. 321
24.50 inches. This is fairly representative of a large section of which
it is fairly central. San Antonio and Amarillo are not greatly different.
Monthly and annual precipitation at Abilene, Tea.

Year. Jan. | Feb. Mar. Apr. May. || June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. *
- Im. I'm Im. Im. In I'm In In Im. I?, In. In. In
1885-----------|------|------|------|------|------|-------|------|------|------ 2.61 || 0.23 0.98 |........
86----------- 0.11 || 0.61 2.47 | 1. 67 || 0.33 || 3.38 | 1.48 2.03 4, 17 2.24 . 65 Trace 19. 14
1887-...------. 06 | 1. 21 .03 || 2.45 3.95 || 3.26 2.71 1, 10 2.64 4.77 . 87 | 1. 24.63
1888----------. 76 2, 40 | 1. 16 5.16 3.63 2.79 .46 4.08 .05 2.00 4.80 3.29 30.58
1889. . . . . ... --. 2, 74 2.62 | 1.07 . 71 || 2.93 6.36 | 1.80 | . 21 3.03 ; , 1.22 2.54 | Trace. 25.23
1890----...---. . 33 | 1.81 | . 14 || 9.80 | 2.69 .65 2.10 2.11 || 5.19 .97 || 2, 10 | . . 61 28.50
1891----------- 2.11 . . 76 | 1.79 | 1.95 | 1.83 || 2.04 || 1. 10 2.03 . 64 . 60 . 12 2.60 17. 57
1892----------. . 30 | 1.04 || 2.59 | 1.68 6.12 | 1.34 | 1.41 3. 58 | 1.85 6.03 .45 2.09 28.48
1893. ---------. . 51 | . 33 . 66 . 28 5.78 .98 } . 52 || 3.36 2.30 .03 | 1.00 . 52 16. 27
1894----------. 1, 24 | . 75 | 1.66 | 1. 23 6.49 3.30 | . T9 6.79 , 54 1.17 | Trace. .43 24.39
1895----------- 1. I5 2.32 . 15 2.30 | 1.96 || 8.40 || 4.63 1. 27 | 3.95 4.13 || 2.38 2.66 35. 30
1896........... 1.44 | . 78 . 14 | 1.11 . . 70 2.17 | 1.68 1.54 4.14 4, 18 . 38 || 2.48 20. 74
1897---...----. 1.28 . 02 || 4.02 . , 74 || 4.73 3.90 2.00 | 1.87 2.89 1.32 .01 . 52 23.30
1898. . . . . . . . . . . .75 | 1.08 | 1.41 | 1.78 || 2.60 4. 55 | 1.46 | 1.94 || 3.44 Trace .98 || 2, 14 22. 13
1899..... . . . . . . . 51 | . 01 . 2.96 || 4.02 5.45 | 1.38 . 10 .44 2. 2. 36 || 3. 24 23.41
1900...... -----. .92 | . 53 | 1.54 || 5.43 4.11 . 30 2. 59 2.11 9.65 4.39 . 24 . 30 32.11
1901----------- . 03 | 1.44 | . T2 . .98 || 7. 17 | Trace. . 28 .. 81 1.81 . 61 | 1.50 . 36 15. 71
2----------- 09 | .31 2.25 . 86 6.68 1.00 7.82 . 06 3. 13 2.00 2.46 . 39 27.05
1908----------. 1. 51 || 4.07 || 2, 31 49 1.99 || 3.87 1.29 1. 67 8.64 .42 .05 . 22 26. 53
Average. .88 | 1.23 1.34 2.31 || 3.76 2.99 1.97 2.04 3.25 | 2, 19 | 1.22 | 1.28 24.50
EL PASO.
Commencing in the western part of the State, El Paso has the first
irrigation system. The Franklin ditch was built in 1889. It takes
water from the Rio Grande and covers about 40,000 acres. Little
land is irrigated, the area varying with the water supply, which is usu-
ally very small. Irrigation enterprises farther up the river in New
Mexico get credit for taking part of the supply. Owing to the uncer-
tainty of the supply of water in the river in the last few years over
twenty-five pumping plants have been installed to furnish water when
the river does not give sufficient. These pumps are of various sizes,
discharging 150 to 1,200 gallons per minute. The water is pumped
from wells which are about 50 to 60 feet in depth. The valley is under-
laid with a stratum of gravel varying in thickness up to 23 feet, as far
as tested, and this gravel bed and 30 to 40 feet of fine sand above it is
full of water. The surface 10 to 15 feet is soil of a sandy nature. So
far the supply of water seems to be ample for all demands. There is
some question as to the source of supply. When there is water in the
river the underground water rises, but the quality of the water next
to the hills on the Texas side of the river is much better than it is in
the middle of the valley, indicating an underground supply from the
mountains. Present indications are favorable to the putting in of a
great many more pumps. Pumps raising 500 gallons a minute or less
have but one 6 or 8 inch well to draw from, while the larger pumps
have two or three. Some of them would raise water cheaper to have
more, for when the wells are furnishing a large amount the water is
lowered so much that the expense of pumping is greatly increased.
80620–NO. 158—05—21
322 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
From the tests made every 5 feet increase in lift increases the cost of
fuel for pumping 1 cent for each 10,000 gallons pumped. The prod-
ucts grown are alfalfa, fruits, corn, and garden trick. Excellent
prices are realized. Alfalfa hay, baled, is usually worth about $15
per ton.
A short distance below El Paso, on the American side of the Rio
Grande, there are three old Mexican ditches, which together water
about 3,000 acres, and at various points along the river between El
Paso and the mouth of the Pecos there are ditches watering small
3.T63.S.
TRANS-PEC0S.
That part of the State between the Rio Grande and Pecos River is
known as trans-Pecos Texas (fig. 46). It is semiarid, the average
~
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FIG. 46.-Map of trans-Pecos Texas.
rainfall for the western part being about 9 inches; for the eastern part
about 12 inches, while it is subject to very long periods without any
rain. It is a stock country, supporting twenty to twenty-five animals
to the section, and no effort is made to grow anything without irriga-
tion. Water is available for the irrigation of only a small part of it.
The southwest part of it has a mountain range 5,000 to 10,000 feet
high that seems to be a feeder to a portion of it. There are some
good streams in the mountains, but they disappear on reaching the
plain. In this plain some large springs appear, furnishing water for
irrigation. The Santa Rosa Springs, not far from the Pecos River
and about 20 miles south of the Texas and Pacific Railroad, furnish






IRRIGATION IN WESTERN TEXAS. 323
water for 600 acres. Near Fort Stockton are the Comanche Springs
with water for 3,000 acres. Ten miles west of these are the Leon
Springs with water for 1,000 acres. Not nearly all the water from these
springs is used for irrigation.
Not far from the head of Toyah Creek a large spring appears,
coming out of an opening 9 feet wide and flowing about 4 feet deep.
About 200 feet from this spring is Phantom Lake, into which this
water flows and all disappears. The lake has no visible outlet. Part
of the water is taken from the short stream for irrigating about 600
8,OI’éS.
Toyah Creek originates in a large spring, the waters of which irri-
gate nearly 3,000 acres. Some 6 or 7 miles below is Saragosa Springs,
irrigating 700 acres. Farther down is the Santa Ysabel Spring, irri-
gating 250 acres, and another, the Collier and Love Spring, irrigating
250 acres. The irrigation under these systems is largely for wheat
and forage for stock. -
South of Kent station, at one of the ranch houses of the Reynolds
Brothers, is a spring irrigating 10 acres. All kinds of fruits and
garden truck are grown. Near the mouth of Toyah Creek is a lake
covering nearly 2,000 acres at low water and increasing to 3,500 acres
at high water. Joining this lake on the west are the Hackberry
Springs. They are in a section or more of marsh land. The springs
proper are 20 to 50 feet across and 15 to 20 feet deep. It is proposed
to put a ditch through these springs and secure a quantity of water
for irrigation. Other springs supply water for small, isolated areas
scattered through the trans-Pecos country. For the above facts in
regard to the springs and irrigation from them we are largely indebted
to Major Bomar, a civil engineer living in Barstow.
PEC0S ARTESIAN WELLS.
In the town of Pecos and immediate vicinity are about 80 artesian
wells. They are used largely for irrigating gardens and for domestic
purposes. No general irrigation is attempted. The soil is what is
locally known as gyp. The wells have a force sufficient to raise water
25 feet above the surface in a pipe. The following is the log given by
a well digger:
(1) 18 to 20 feet, gyp.
(2) 20 to 35 feet, quicksand.
(3) 40 to 80 feet, white-looking clay. *
(4) 80 to 225 feet, alternating layers of gyp and sand.
(5) 225 to 235 to 250 feet, gray-colored greasy clay.
(6) Strata of gyp cobble.
(7) Just above the water, 6 to 7 feet gray sandstone.
The depth of wells in the town of Pecos is 235 to 285 feet; 2.5 miles
north of Pecos, 90 feet. Seven miles southeast a well close to Toyah
324 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
{
Lake just flows at the level of the lake. This artesian belt, so far as
prospected, is about 10 miles long by 2 miles wide and all on the west
side of the Pecos River. In a well 5 miles west of Pecos, 485 feet
deep, the water stands 28 feet below the surface.
The Dixie Irrigation Company proposes the development of an irri-
gation enterprise on the west side of the Pecos River at this point, but
the work has not progressed far.
PECOS WALLEY IRRIGATION.
The Pecos River supplies water for irrigation in New Mexico and
Texas. The volume of water varies with the season. In one of its
flood times an engineer estimated its discharge at 41,000 cubic feet per
second. The quality of the water is good when there is a good sup-
ply in the stream, but when it is very low the water is charged with
common salt. There are three large irrigation enterprises in Texas
that take water from Pecos River. The Barstow Irrigation Company
has a charter calling for 1,020 cubic feet per second, but so far only
about 200 cubic feet per second has been used, irrigating about 8,000
acres. The company has about 65 miles of main and lateral ditches.
The main ditch is 30 feet wide on the bottom and capable of carrying
water 6 feet deep. The crops grown are peaches, pears, grapes, canta-
loupes, alfalfa, cotton, and forage for stock. The conditions for fruit
production seem very favorable, and the time the products go on the
market is quite advantageous. Five hundred acres have been planted
to grapes, and 5-year-old vines have been doing well. The varieties
grown with most success are the ones grown in California, the Muscat
of Alexandria being the one in the lead. Cotton, under an intelligent
system of cultivation, is giving satisfactory results. The first water
contracts of the original company call for 40 acre-inches of water per
acre in ten distributions at $1.25. Later contracts give 25 acre-inches
at $1.75 per acre, and 40-acre water rights are sold for $600.
The Pecos River Irrigation Company has a canal on the west side
of the river heading about 28 miles below Pecos. It is about 12 miles
long and was designed to irrigate 20,000 acres. Only a small area of
land has been watered, because the river supplies very little water.
The Grand Falls Irrigation Company takes water from the east side
of the river 18 miles south of Monahans station and a few miles below
the head of the canal of the Pecos River Irrigation Company. It
covers 30,000 acres and irrigates 6,000 to 8,000 acres. The quality of
the water when the river is at a fair stage is good, but when the river
is low it becomes considerably affected with common salt. The com-
pany contemplates water development for increased supply at low
stages of the river. The crops grown are mainly alfalfa and cotton,
with some forage. A beginning has been made in fruit growing,
IRRIGATION IN westERN TEXAs. 325
especially grapes. The company contracts to furnish 12 acre-inches
per acre, or sufficient to produce a crop, at $1.25 per acre. Sales of
improved land with water have been made at $50 to $100 per acre,
while surrounding land is worth $5 to $10 per acre.
The method of irrigation under both of these systems is flooding for
everything. Much of the land is cultivated by Mexicans, who get
about one-third of a bale of cotton per acre where a good farmer will
get a full bale.
MONAHANS’ WELLS.
At Monahans the Texas Pacific Railroad Company has wells 60 to
70 feet deep. A train load of water is taken every day to western
points. A good many windmills in the village pump from bored
wells. The soil is very sandy and fruit trees grow well where well
irrigated. -A peculiar feature of this region is the sand hills. These
are 4 miles from the railroad wells and are over 150 feet above Mona-
hans and 200 feet above the water in the wells. In some localities in
these sand hills water can be had by scraping the sand away with the
hand. Formerly there were small lakes in the sand hills.
CONCHO, SAN SABA, AND LLANO RIVERS.
These rivers are all tributaries of the Colorado River on its west
side (map, fig. 47). As sources of water for irrigation they are
d I N tº
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FIG. 47.-Map of Concho, San Saba, and Llano rivers.
excellent. The quality of water is good and the supply is constant.
Neither dry nor wet weather seems to affect the supply from the







326 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
springs from which they rise. The streams have their floods from
the excess of water running off the surface, but the large springs that
give the normal supply keep their regular flow.
On the North Concho, above Sterling, are three ditches. The upper
one, or Kellis ditch, has been in operation fifteen years and irrigates
80 acres. It is a private system and cost thirty days’ work for the
owner with his four boys. It has been maintained in the same way.
Grains, corn, cotton, sorghum, melons, and sweet potatoes are raised.
Of some things two crops are grown per year. Wells in the low val-
ley are 10 to 15 feet deep. These enter a bed of gravel which underlies
the valley.
Next below is the McGee canal, owned by four or five persons. It
irrigates 140 acres. Four and five crops of alfalfa are grown per year
and yield 5 tons per acre. Johnson grass yields 3 tons per acre. Con-
siderable areas of garden products are grown. Another dam below
this has just been put in. It supplies water for 80 acres.
At Grass Valley are two ditches, together irrigating 250 acres. Cot-
ton is grown under the upper one and feed crops under the lower one.
On the South Concho are five dams diverting water for irrigation,
three of them owned by Mr. Metcalf. The lower one is near San
Angelo. The ditch is rated by the owner as carrying 5,000 gallons per
minute, and each of the other ditches at 6,000 gallons per minute.
Together they irrigate about 1,000 acres. The Bismark farm has a
ditch irrigating about 600 acres. On this place irrigation has been
carried on for thirty years. This long-continued irrigation and culti-
vation has apparently had no bad effect upon the fertility of soil except
for the growth of grain. This may be largely accounted for by the
soil running together from irrigation and baking harder than formerly.
Including the irrigation plant of the Twin Mountain farm there are
five irrigation enterprises, all private, within 18 miles of San Angelo.
A variety of products is grown. There is considerably more grain
grown under these systems than was observed elsewhere. Probably
one-third was cotton, with corn and Johnson grass coming in with fair
areas. Near San Angelo there are several gardens. Irrigated lands
are held at $30 to $50 per acre, except near San Angelo, where they
are held much higher. Surrounding lands without water sell for $5
to $10 per acre.
At Christoval, on the upper South Concho, is another ditch carrying
5,000 gallons per minute, with over half as much more going to waste.
The area irrigated is 600 to 800 acres, largely in cotton and corn. On
Cole Creek, a branch of South Concho, above Christoval, is a small
ditch, carrying about 500 gallons a minute, irrigating 75 to 100 acres.
At Knickerbocker on Dove Creek, another branch of the South
Concho, there are two ditches, one on each side of the creek. About
1,200 acres are irrigated on the east side and 600 acres on the west side.
IRRIGATION IN westERN TEXAs. 327
At this place Johnson grass seemed to be in the lead in acreage,
cotton coming in as a close second. Alfalfa yields 5 tons per acre,
cotton 1 to 1% bales, corn 30 to 75 bushels, sweet potatoes 300 to 500
bushels per acre. One steam pump was put in this season to help out
the water supply on one farm.
At Sherwood, on Good Spring Creek, another branch of the South
Concho, there are three dams and ditches. In all about 800 acres is
irrigated. The products grown are about the same as given above,
except that there is more sorghum and Milo maize. Some extra large
yields of cotton were reported. Some irrigation began in this vicinity
in 1876.
Indications point to large seepage losses in the ditches in the Concho
irrigation systems. Nearly all the irrigated land has a gravel bed
underneath, which facilitates seepage losses, but the water gets back to
the creek quickly and increases the supply for those below. One
ditch was reported as losing half its water in 4 miles.
The San Saba River, getting its supply from springs, furnishes a
large amount of water for irrigation. The principal ditches are near
Menardville, about 75 miles above the mouth of the river. The
Kitchen ditch, irrigating about 850 acres, heads about 6 miles below
Menardville. The Noyes ditch, irrigating 2,000 acres on the South
side of the river, heads 4 miles above Menardville. The Sieker ditch
heads about 1 mile below the town on the north side of the river and
waters about 200 acres. Above Menardville the Petmarcey ditch
covers a small area. There are a number of large springs about 50
miles below Menardville that come out of the hills considerably above
the valley land. One of these springs, flowing about 3,000 gallons per
minute, is known as the Sloan spring. Irrigation began from Some of
the springs thirty-five years ago and there is now something over 500
acres irrigated from them. Less than one-half the water is used even
during the months of heaviest irrigation. There are two springs east of
San Saba irrigating about 60 acres. Cotton, corn, Johnson grass, and
alfalfa are the principal products grown under all these ditches. One
report of cotton yield was given as 3 bales from 18 acres of dry
land and 9 bales from 6 acres of irrigated land. Besides these
ditches, there are thirteen pumps irrigating about 1,500 acres. Under
ordinary circumstances these pumps are run only ten or twelve hours
a day. The pumps are all centrifugal; eleven of them use steam
power, two of them gasoline engines. There are one 10-inch, three
8-inch, six 6-inch, one 5-inch, and two 4-inch pumps.
On the Llano River and its tributaries near Junction twenty-two
ditches and springs were used in irrigating about 1,600 acres. Five
parties pump water, irrigating 500 acres. The Llano Irrigation and
Ditch Company has a newly made ditch near Junction, and is irrigating
this first year about 500 acres. There are about 5,000 acres accessible.
#
328 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
At the company’s diverting dam nearly all the water is taken from the
river, 10,000 gallons per minute at the time it was visited; a large
part of this was going back into the river some distance below the
junction. In the 4 miles between this diverting dam and the town of
Junction the river had increased to 22,000 gallons per minute. Some
other good streams and springs come into it a short distance below.
The impression gained from measuring the river at Junction and exam-
ining it at Llano was that nearly 50 per cent of the stream was lost by
seepage in about 75 miles. Forty to 50 miles of the bed of the river
is granite rock and sand. -
Seven miles below Junction is a 40-acre tract of alfalfa supplied
with water by water power. The field has been cropped continuously
for fifteen years, and is still as fine a field of alfalfa as one ever sees.
The pump runs ten months in the year. The owner claimed that by
beginning early and getting the ground full of water before the grow-
ing season began he got better crops, and with the full capacity of the
pump was able to irrigate and keep in good condition a considerably
greater area than he could by beginning irrigation with the growing
SeaSOD.
The ordinary irrigating season on the three rivers mentioned covers
about three months from the gravity ditches and two months from the
pumps. The apparent common source of water supply for these
streams is strikingly illustrated by an example on Clear Creek above
Menardville. Within a short distance, at the head of this creek, about
5,000 gallons per minute comes out of springs. A ditch is taken out
carrying a part of this water for irrigation. When the water is shut
out of this ditch for cleaning there are two springs, one a mile away
and the other 1% miles, that lessen their flow of water. These springs
are in separate ravines. When the water is let into the ditch the
regular flow comes again. There is an outcropping of perforated rock
that seems to underlie this section and forms an easy means of water
flow from one place to another and renders storage dams in this section
out of consideration.
The Colorado River below the mouth of the Concho is the source of
a considerable water supply for irrigation by pumping. The differ-
ence between low water and extreme high water is about 50 feet. At
present between the mouth of the Concho and the mouth of the San
Saba there are seven pumps, irrigating about 1,400 acres. One of
these pumps is a 12-inch centrifugal, delivering 5,000 gallons a minute,
raising the water about 50 feet at low water in the river. This pump
is near Big Valley post-office. The others are near Indian Creek and
Regency. There are plans for the installation of quite a number of
pumps during the coming year, some being already under way.
In the vicinity of Brownwood, on the Pecan Bayou, seven pumps
are in operation, irrigating about 800 acres. Of the larger ones two
IRRIGATION IN WESTERN TEXAS. g 329
are on the Smith-Jenkins farm and another is on the Swindon-Pecan
farm; two small ones are operated for garden work. Cotton is the
principal crop irrigated in this portion of the State.
COST OF IRRIGATION.
Circumstances vary so much that any exact figures are not to be con-
sidered. On the one hand are the large springs coming out above the
land to be irrigated where the maintenance of a short ditch is all that
is required. This would not exceed $1 per acre for the year. On the
other extreme is the pumping plant, raising water say 75 feet and using
18 or 20 cent gasoline, at a cost of more than $10 per acre. To the
fuel cost must be added the care, wear, and tear, repairs, expenses,
etc., all of which vary. It might be safely placed in this case at $3
per acre, making the cost of getting the water to the land more than
$14 per acre per year. A number of pumping plants have contracts
to furnish water to neighboring lands at $5 to $7 per acre. The aver-
age conditions of central and western Texas, where the water is pumped,
are fairly represented by the $7 rate where gasoline engines are used
for pumping. Where steam is used with wood for fuel at $2 per cord
the cost is less. All kinds of prices were found for gasoline used to
run engines, ranging from 12 to 20 cents per gallon. In a number of
places the fuel cost of pumping where gasoline engines are used was
placed at $1 per acre where gasoline was 16 cents and over.
The use of gas generators producing gas from crude petroleum with
gasoline engines has shown some good results on tests of a few days'
length. J. A. Smith, of El Paso, after making a four-day test found
that with crude oil at 3 cents per gallon he could run his engine for
$1 per day, of ten hours, pumping about 900 gallons a minute. A
comparative test showed that $4 per day was required with gasoline
at 17 cents per gallon.
At Mesilla Park, N. Mex., with crude oil at 5% cents per gallon, and
gasoline at 20% cents, the fuel cost of running ten hours on crude oil
was $3.05, and $6.65 for gasoline. This last test was made by the
officers of the agricultural college. While these tests seem highly
favorable to the use of crude oil actual experience shows considerable
doubt on the advisability of using it, the difficulty coming from all
parts of the engine becoming so dirty and the generator itself becom-
ing so filled with the hardened refuse as to cause very frequent and
long delays. A prominent user of crude oil for gasoline engines, in
California, recently made the statement in writing to your agent that
he did not know of any generator that could be called a full success
with the heavy oils having an asphaltum base, as have most of the
crude oils of Texas and California.
It seems to be the usual custom in Texas to have quite a large plant
for the area of land to be irrigated, so that they run only ten or twelve
330 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
hours a day, and then have intervals between irrigations. The first
cost is greater than would be required if smaller plants were used,
necessitating a greater amount to be added to the cost of irrigation for
fixed charges. There is possibly in some instances greater economy
in handling the water in larger quantities, but it must be confessed
that frequently much water is wasted with the large plants.
The cost of irrigation from ditches taking the water from running
streams ordinarily does not exceed $2 per acre per year. This expense
comes largely from the cost of keeping up a diverting dam and cleaning
ditches. Most of the ditches are owned by individuals or by partner-
ships in which the owners do the maintenance work, hence there is
very little actual cash outlay. Where stored water is used the cost
per acre ordinarily runs higher, the cost of a well-built dam being much
more than the ordinary cheap diverting dam that is in general use.
Comparatively, only a small amount of irrigation is done with stored
water. In most localities it would be a more sure source of supply
and the water would be of a better quality. A number of pumping
plants were tested to determine exactly the expense of pumping. In
the following table giving results of these tests all the pumps are cen-
trifugal except the last one, which is a high-duty steam Corliss engine
fly-wheel pump. It was put in under a guaranty and worked better
than guaranteed. It is placed in the table for the purpose of compar-
ison to show the difference in high-grade machinery and the ordinary
machinery in common use in pumping. The power for all the pumps
in the table except the last two is the gasoline engine. The next to
the last in the table is a company pump. It is run with steam, using
wood for fuel at $2 per cord, mostly oak wood:



Tests of pumping plants.
- Lift.
Rated * º Size Pump- || Cost Cost
Name. ºº: pºwer used of pi. | Total || “...Per | Pº. ºë.
Pº. requir- in 10 pump Suc- || Dis-, ei. min- acrº- |foot, 1
engine. ed., hours tion. charge. tion ute. foot. foot.
Galloms. Im. Ft. in. Feet. Feet. Gallons
M. S. Cody ------------- 6 3. 8 5 3 20 11.5 31.5 252 || $1.50 $0.048
H. Jensen.------------- 13 9 18 5 24 16 40 464 2.76 . 069
H. L. Ament ----------- 6 3.3 8 3 || 15 15. 5 30. 5 226 2.65 . 0.87
T. T. Cook... -- - - - - - - 7 - - 16 8, 5 12.5 6 || 23 17. 5 40. 5 431 2. 23 .055
Frank Heath........... 10 6.8 10 5 || 24 14 38 368 2. 05 .054
George Pendell - - - - - - - - 20 12.9 15 6 21 11 32 832 1. 38 . 043
W. C. Billingsley....... 13 6.2 12.5 5 20 9.5 29.5 431 2. 21 .075
B. S. Brown & Son . . . . . 6 2.9 5.8 3 23 15. 5 || 38, 5 152 2. 89 . 0.75
W. A. George - - - - - - - - - - 12 7.4 7. 5 4 22 13. 5 || 35, 5 431 1.31 .037
Julius T. POrcher ...... 12 8.5 12.5 5 24 14 38 464 2.05 .054
Charles Hopf----------- 10 11.1 16.6 6 || 23 15 38 676 1.86 . 049
Edward Monwer.... --- 13 5 10.5 5 || 20 10.5 ! 30.5 338 1.86 . 061
J. S. Porcher - - - - - - - - - - - 15 9.2 15 5 22 11 33 576 1, 98 . 060
J. A. Smith------------- 28 16 32.3 6 || 21 12 33 990 2.48 .075
Do ----------------- 28 16 b 40 6 21 12 33 990 . 66 . 020
Mesilla Park (1904) .... 22 20.3 b 54.4 6 || 23 1 15.25 || 38.33 | 1,089 . 80 . 021
Do ----------------- 22 20, 8 || C 34.2 6 24 7 | 15.25 | 39.83 | 1,082 2. 39 . 060
Do ----------------- 22 21.3 32.9 6 || 25 15.25 | 40.25 | 1,096 2. 37 .059
T. J. Majors. ----------- 10 3 12 3 --------------- 33 190 4.42 . 134
Big Valley Co. (steam). 125 | 120 (d) 12 -------|-------- 49.5 5,000 .99 ,020
Chase Nursery Co., Riv-
erside, Cal., high-duty
pump (Steam) --------|--------|--------|--------|------|-------|-------- 247 l... ----. 1. 24 , 005
a Computed on an efficiency of 50 per cent. c Coal oil at 14 cents.
b Crude Oil at 3 CentS,
d4.6 cords of wood at $2 per cord.
IRRIGATION IN WESTERN TEXAS. 331
The first point to be noticed in the table is the rated horsepower of
the engines as given by the agents selling them, and the next the
actual power used to pump the water, as shown in the next column.
The rated horsepower of some of them was raised when it was found
that quite a large amount of gasoline was required. This was done to
make a better comparison. Some of them make a very good showing
by comparing the rated horsepower with the gasoline used in 10 hours.
One gallon of gasoline per horsepower in ten hours is recognized as
about the best result that can be reached. The comparison shows that
a few plants approach this, and that several of the engines use 2 gal-
lons of gasoline for 1 horsepower that is actually required.
The suction or distance of the water below the pump was obtained
with the vacuum gauge, except in the last three cases. All of these
pumps were drawing water from wells except the third and second
from the last, which were pumping from streams. Two examples are
given of the use of crude oil—one from J. A. Smith of El Paso,
and one from Mesilla Park, N. Mex. Making a comparison of the
final results as shown in the last column, the crude-oil tests make a fine
showing. The actual results, however, are not so good. There is
more delay and much cleaning required. For the larger engines, if
one is prepared for gasoline and crude oil, the experienced persons in
the use of crude oil claim considerable expense saved in fuel by its
use. The engine required regular and systematic cleaning.
The last column contains the summary of the tests. The figures
show the cost of raising 1 acre-foot 1 foot with gasoline at 14 cents
per gallon. At some places it was only 12 cents, at others 17 cents,
and at Mesilla Park it was nearly 20 cents, but for the purpose of
comparing the relative efficiency of the different outfits the number of
gallons used in ten hours was taken, and valued at 14 cents per gallon.
The Big Valley Company makes a good showing in its steam outfit,
raising 1-acre-foot 1 foot for 2 cents, which is less than half the cost
with gasoline outfits. But this is done with wood at $2 per cord,
which is cheap. The last one, the Chase Nursery Company, of River-
side, Cal., shows the possibilities of high-grade machinery. In all the
calculations for final results in the last column only fuel expense is
considered.
ECONOMICAL OPERATION OF PUMPs.
One source of loss in the steam plants which everywhere impressed
the writer was uncovered steam pipes and the tops of boilers and boiler
domes. In a few instances steam pipe 75 to 100 feet from boiler to
pump was exposed the whole length.
As to gasoline engines, some of the agents complained that the
engineers would not turn off the fuel sufficiently to make an economical
showing. Much fuel can be saved by being careful on this point. As
332 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
\.
soon as the engine becomes well heated by running ten or fifteen min-
utes the supply can be cut off very much. As soon as the engine is
well heated, turn off the supply very slowly until the engine shows a
loss of motion, then turn on a little more.
show such low records could undoubtedly be improved with some
other vaporizers.
Some of the engines that
It will be observed that some of the engines are so much larger than
is required that a loss is experienced from that source.
Near El Paso
a loss is undoubtedly experienced from drawing the water so low in
the wells. One or two more wells for some of the plants would most
likely result in economy. The water level would not go so low, which
would make a shorter suction. From actual test, a suction of 25 feet,
as shown by the vacuum gauge, will cause the water to break at El Paso.
A number of pumping plants were visited, but not tested. The fol-
lowing table contains the statements of their owners as to sizes, capac-
ities, and areas served:



Pumping plants not in list of pumps tested.
Post-Office. Owner. Kind of pump. Size. , Power. º ãº.
tº * Inch. Gallons. | Acres.
Brownwood .... --- Smith-Jenkins, etc....] Centrifugal.--| 12 | Steam .......... 4,000 300
Do-------------|----- do---------------------- do -------- 10 ----- do ---------- 3,000 150
DO-------------|----- do---------------------- do -------- 3 ----- do ---------- 200 10
Do------------- Swinden pecan farm - - - - - - - do -------- 8 |----- do ---------- 1,600 150
* * * * * * * * * * * * * T. J. Majors-----------|-----do -------- 3 | Gasoline........ 190 15
Indian Creek. . . . . . E. W. Plahn ... --...--|-...- do -------- 8 : Steam . . . . . . . . . . 1,600 300
Brown Wood - - - - - - - N. A. Perrie. . . . . . . . ---|----- do-------- 4 ----- do ---------- 400 35
D0------------- Gran Ford - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - do -------. 6 |----- do ---------- 900 |........
DO------------- Mr. Cross-------------, ----- do ------------------- do -------------------- 60
Do------------- T. H. Windham.... - - - - - - - - do -------- 6 |----- do ---------- 900 75
Regency----------- Jeff Young ------------ Plunger ------|------|----- do ----------|----------|--------
Do------------- James Lindsey. . . . . . . . . . . . . do --------|------|----- do --------------------|--------
D0------------- Mr. Perkins-----------|----- do --------------|----- do ----------|----------|--------
Big Valley......... Mr. Ezzel ------------...---- do ------------------- do ---------- 600 35
DO------------- Big Valley Co- - - - - - - - - Centrifugal.--| 12 |..... do ---------. 5,000 500
Goldthwait. . . . . . . . Mr. Randolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . do -------- 8 |----- do ---------- 1,600 200
San Saba. . . . . . ----- O. B. Kirkpatrick- - - - - - - - - - do-------- 6 - - - - - do ---------- 900 45
D0------------- John Jackson. . . . . . . . . Plunger. -----|--|--|--|----- do ----------|---------. 5
DO------------- C. L. Dunbar. . . . . . . . . . Centrifugal. - - 8 Steam - - - - - - - - -. 2,500 200
D0------------- Thomas Hawkins. . . . . . . . . . do -------- 4 || Gasoline. . . . . . . . .400 50
DO------------. Robert Ellis........ ---...-- do -------- 6 Steam - - - - - - - - - - 900 100
DO------------- Mr. Nash--------------|----- do -------- 4 ----- do ---------. 400 75
Menardville - - - - - - - M. Bethel ...----------|----- do -------- 8 |----- do ---------- 1,600 130
O - - - - - - - - - - - - - J. M. Stewart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do -------- 6 |----- do ---------- 900 90
DO------------- J. C. MaxWell-........!-- - - - do -------- 8 ----- do ---------- 1,600 180
Do------------- Mack Reynolds .......]..... do-------- 5 |----- do ---------- 700 65
DO------------- Decker Brothers - - - - - - - - - - - do -------- 6 ----- do ---------- 900 100
0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Doctor DOrr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do --------------|------------------|----------|--------
Fort McKavett ....] W. L. Placker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . do -------- 6 | Steam - - - - - - - - - - 900 125
O - - - - - - - - - - - - - L. L. Ball -------------|----- do -------- 10 Gasoline. . . . . . . . 3,000 200
Junction - - - - - - - - - - George Bellerly.... ---|----. O - - - - - - - - 5 | Steam . . . . . . . . . . 700 150
O - - - - - - - - - - - - - M. C. Lindholm . . . . . . Plunger ------|------|----- do ---------- 800 120
DO------------- B. B. Kinney --...- ... [- - - - - do --------|------|----- do ---------- 900 . . . . . . . .
DO------------- A. S. Etheridge . . . . . . . Centrifugal... 6 - - - - - do ---------- 900 125
Do------------- Mr. Scagg-------------|----- do -------- 4 | Gasoline. . . . . . . . 400 40
DO------------- M. C. Blackburn. . . . . . . . . . . do -------- 4 Water power ... 400 50
Abilene - - - - - - - - - - - J. M. Ingle------------|----- do -------- 4 Steam . . . . . . . . . . 400 40
El Paso.------------|-----------. . . . . . . . . . . . . About 15 ------|------------------|-----------------.
pumps, but
no special
data.
IRRIGATION IN weSTERN TEXAs. 333
SOME STATEMENTS OF CROP PRODUCTION IN TEXAS.
The figures given below are those that seemed to have good back-
ing as stated by conservative men. Some of them are considered to
be full average results for a number of years. Some of them are
average results for a whole ditch system. *
At El Paso nothing is attempted by way of crops without irrigation.
Mr. J. A. Smith gave the yield of alfalfa at 5 to 6 tons per acre, aver-
age price about $12 per ton. A large part of the irrigation in that
vicinity (about 30 pumps) is for garden stuff, sweet potatoes, melons,
tomatoes, and chili, with all kinds of returns up to $300 per acre,
fruits giving the largest returns. Grapes from mature vines bring
$300 to $400 per acre. Mr. Coffin in 1903 sold the pears from 25
acres for $7,150.
At Barstow the yield of alfalfa is placed at 5 tons per acre, with
prices ranging from $12 to $15 per ton; cantaloupes, $60 per acre;
grapes, $75 to $150 per acre; cotton under good conditions, 1 bale to
the acre. The fiber of this cotton is said to be specially good.
At Sterling, J. M. Kellis has irrigated for over fifteen years by a
gravity ditch from a constant stream. Oats yields 40 to 60 bushels,
with a crop of corn following the oats; corn yields 50 to 60 bushels per
acre; cotton yields 1 bale per acre. In this locality little effort is
made to grow regular farm crops without irrigation. For the McGee
ditch 5 to 6 tons of alfalfa per acre at $10 is reported; 1 bale of cot-
ton is given for this section. Considerable garden truck for local
markets brings larger returns.
At Knickerbockers, Mr. Stephens reports yields as follows: Corn,
30 to 75 bushels per acre; sweet potatoes, 300 to 500 bushels per acre;
alfalfa, 4 to 6 tons per acre; cotton, 1 to 1.5 bales per acre.
At Sherwood cotton yields were reported at 1 to 2 bales per acre;
other crops as at Knickerbockers.
B. Metcalf, of San Angelo, reported cotton yields at 1 bale per acre;
sweet potatoes at 400 to 500 bushels per acre; alfalfa, 4 to 5 tons per
acre; Johnson grass, 2 to 3 tons per acre. t
J. M. Ingle, of Abilene farm, near Putnam station: Corn, 80
bushels per acre; cotton, 700 pounds per acre; onions, 450 bushels per
81CI'ê.
H. C. Ezzel, of Big Valley, reported melons, $125 to $150 per acre;
cotton, 1 to 1.5 bales per acre. Cotton without irrigation averages
about one-fourth to one-third bale per acre.
Mr. Ballard, of Big Valley, gave approximate results as follows:
Before pump was put in it was a very scant living for himself and
family. The first year under irrigation, though irrigation started late
in the season, he was able to pay his share of the first cost and the
334 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
annual expense, had a much better living, and paid $600 on debts, all
from 30 acres irrigated.
At San Saba, W. C. Miller secured only 3 bales of cotton from 18
acres of unirrigated land. On irrigated land he secured 9 bales from
6 acres. Thomas Hawkins gave the average increase of yield from
irrigation as three-fourths bale of cotton. T. A. Sloan rented his
irrigated land (irrigated from a large spring above the land) on shares
and got $15 per acre rental.
At Menardville, under the Kitchen ditch, corn yields 40 to 70
bushels per acre; cotton, 1 to 2 bales. ^
At Junction, M. C. Blackburn gave average yields of alfalfa at 5
tons per acre on a 40-acre field that had been in alfalfa continuously
for fifteen years.
Near Brownwood, on the Pecan Bayou, are five pumps drawing
water from reservoirs in the creek. There are two 3-inch pumps, one
8-inch, one 10 inch, one 13-inch, also the Brownwood city pumps
drawing from them. One of these pumps is irrigating 300 acres of
cotton. The owner claimed that in the best of crop years the irri-
gated land produced at least double and often produced four times the
average yield of unirrigated lands. -
METHODS OF IRRIGATION.
The method of irrigation in common use in western and central
Texas for grain, Johnson grass, and alfalfa is flooding by means of
borders to confine the water. The distance between the borders varies
as the head of water to be used. When heads of 1,500 to 2,000 gal-
lons a minute are available the borders are placed 60 to 75 feet apart,
and less as the quantity of water is less. In the Pecos Valley this
method is used for everything, such as corn, cotton, orchards, and
vineyards. In most places the common method for cultivated crops
is the row system. In the cultivation of the crops the earth is thrown
up to the row, which makes a border out of every row. All the water
that these furrows will safely carry is turned in for fifteen to thirty
minutes, all the loose cultivated soil on top getting a good wetting.
It runs together compactly and, if a clay soil, bakes very hard. It
leaves the soil in condition for the largest possible evaporation. On
new land full of vegetable matter or on quite sandy land very fair
results are obtained. Old land or stiff clay land shows more the evils
of this system of irrigation. By this method the Mexican irrigators
in some localities produce only one-third of a bale of cotton per acre
where good farmers get a whole bale. Where there is considerable
slope to the land the water runs rapidly over, and the results are very
little better than no irrigation. This method as generally practiced
requires an irrigation every two weeks.
IRRIGATION IN WIESTERN . TEXAS. 33.5
A method practiced on the Rio Grande at El Paso for strawberries
and garden stuff has many points in its favor. The ground is thrown
up in ridges, as if for planting sweet potatoes. It is then leveled down
about halfway and a row of seeds or plants put in near each edge of
this leveled-down ridge. The water is run in small streams in the
furrows between the ridges. The water must run for several hours
in these furrows. In this way only a small portion of the surface soil
gets wet. Plenty of water goes under the ridge to wet the roots.
This method leaves the ground in fine shape for the best of cultivation.
STORAGE OF FLOOD WATERS.
The possibilities of irrigation by the storage of flood water are very
large. The floods in the numerous rivers of the State, causing great
destruction of property, indicate an abundance of water. Hundreds
of farms in each of a great many counties could be irrigated and
produce an abundance where now the farmer gets a scanty subsistence.
A little has been done in this line. Perhaps the largest storage of
water for irrigation purposes is at Wichita Falls. There are dams for
storage of water for city supply in Abilene, Brownwood, and Cisco,
each indicating the possibilities in this line. There are some reservoirs
that have been contemplated for some years—one of these near Abilene,
one near Brownwood, and one on the San Saba River—that have been
fully surveyed and estimates made. The one near Abilene, on Elm
Creek, is to hold 13,000,000,000 gallons of water and irrigate 30,000
acres. The drainage area is 147 square miles. The one near Brown-
wood, on Pecan Bayou, is to hold 11,000,000,000 gallons and irrigate
30,000 acres, and drain 750 square miles. This drainage area is ample
for several such reservoirs. The engineer gave the necessary capacity
of the wasteway as 40,000 cubic feet per second, and the estimated
cost $200,000. The reservoir in the San Saba River, as proposed, is
to be made by a concrete dam where the bottom and sides of the stream
are solid rock. This system when complete is to have a series of
reservoirs below the main ditch. The stream is one that flows the
year round, as well as being subject to great floods. The drainage area
is very large. The scheme provides for the irrigation of 40,000 acres,
and the estimated cost is $600,000. The plan provides for a spillway
with a capacity of 40,000 cubic feet per second. Each of these sys-
tems has a fine body of land under it. Each should increase the
annual yield of products fully $500,000 when fully developed.
To show the possibilities for whole counties, take the counties of
Shackelford and Haskel. The first has one stream with 200 square
miles of drainage area, one with 100 square miles, one with 75 square
miles, one with 40 square miles, one with 30 square miles, two with 20
square miles each, two with 15 square miles each, and four with 5 to
336 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
10 square miles each. All of these when developed would irrigate
80,000 acres and ought to give an annual increase in value of farm
products of over $1,000,000. Haskel County has one stream with a
drainage area of 300 square miles, two with 100 square miles each, one
with 90 square miles, two with 75 square miles each, or altogether 740
square miles of drainage area. The average rainfall is nearly 24
inches in this locality. If 15 per cent of the rainfall goes into the
streams it would allow the storage of water ample to irrigate 80,000
acres and increase the annual income for the county over $1,000,000.
The people of this section estimate that over 60 per cent of the rain-
fall goes into the streams from this rolling land. The lowest estimate
made was 40 per cent. The estimate of 15 per cent is considered safe
for land quite rolling or hilly. For level or sandy land it would be
less. With this bright outlook for the different localities, and their
possibilities under irrigation, it seems very difficult to interest capital
to develop them. . There are, however, thousands of places where
small dams can be placed in ravines. These the individual farmer can
develop during the months of fall and winter when other work is
slack. The land has good clay subsoil, and the stockmen have abund-
antly proven with their earth tanks that water can be held in storage
in a small way. Last winter one man living 10 miles from Albany
made up his mind that he would at least have a good garden. He
said he had been raising cattle and horses for twenty-five years and
starving all the time, meaning that he had no vegetables. He put in
a dam in a small ravine. In July he had as fine a garden as one ever
sees, and that in a community where the drought was so severe that
corn had not reproduced the seed. The dam was about 15 feet high
in the low part of the ravine and 12 feet wide on top. The length on
top was 200 feet; the outlet pipe was through the bottom. To get
water on the garden it was necessary only to open the valve. The
area draining into it was about 75 acres. In ordinary years it will
give the water necessary for several acres.
Mr. Harvey, near Butler, put in two small dams the past winter.
When the reservoirs are full of water the two will cover about 1.5
acres, probably about 5 feet deep. He had irrigated 10 acres up to
the 1st of September. His increase in cotton would about pay the
whole cost the first year. He was so well pleased that he was plan-
ning to put in one to irrigate 80 acres.
There are two reservoirs near Richmond—one owned by Mr. Hall and
one by Mr. Wilcox. These are larger. One of them cost about
$1,500. Full particulars were not obtained.
From the numerous inquiries in this line the indications are that
irrigation areas in Texas may be largely increased in the near future
by the making of small reservoirs. Every acre put under irrigation
IRRIGATION IN WIESTERN TEXAS. 337
in this way will produce as much as 4 or 5 acres not irrigated in the
drier parts of the State. The increase in valuation of land under irri-
gation for growing farm crops is rated at $25 to $40 per acre. Hence
labor put into an irrigation system practically brings double returns,
first in the sale of increased crops, and, second, in the selling value of
the land.
PoſNTS IN, BUILDING STORAGE DAMs.
The excessive rainfall coming in such a short time makes it impera-
tive that provision be made for large volumes of waste water to get
away without overflowing the dams and washing them out. The top
of the dams should be from 3 to 6 feet higher than the bottom of the
overflow wasteway, and the wasteway two or three times as wide as
the stream when at its flush. In most soils the slope of the dam on
the side next to the water should be not steeper than 2 feet horizontal
to 1 foot vertical; on the other side not steeper than 1% to 1. To
prevent washing, some dams are sodded over with Bermuda grass and
others are riprapped. In many places a core of some especially good
clay is put into the middle. With a small dam made of clay this would
not be necessary. The surface soil on the site of the dam should be
removed in order to make a tight joint between the natural earth
and the embankment. Surface soil should not be put on the side of
the embankment next to the water.
SIZE OF RESERVOIR.
If an attempt is made to store all the water that may flow the res-
ervoir should have capacity to hold 75,000,000 to 100,000,000 gallons
of water for each square mile of land draining into it, the amount
depending largely on whether the drainage area is quite rolling, rather
flat, or Sandy. Very little water would come off of sandy land.
LAND TO BE IRRIGATED.
The amount of land that can be irrigated safely in ordinary culti-
wated crops will be about 1 acre for each 500,000 gallons capacity in
the reservoir. This gives fair allowance for seepage and evaporation.
This would give four irrigations 3 inches deep. The amount of water
required to cover 1 acre 1 inch deep is about 27,000 gallons; 3 inches,
81,000 gallons; four irrigations, 324,000 gallons. As is frequently the
case, if the floods come in May or June and the water is used in July and
August the above allowance for seepage and evaporation is too large.
If alfalfa is to be irrigated the allowance should be increased to at
least 750,000 gallons per acre.
30620–No. 158–05—22
338 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
WINDMILL PoweR.
The State of Texas has almost every possible condition in depth of
wells. In a few places water can be had at 10 feet, and in different
places at every depth down to 400 feet. To pump from these greater
depths for irrigation, with any thought of competing in products with
other localities, is out of the question. Where, however, fresh vege-
tables are properly appreciated water may be drawn from consider-
able depth in order to have them. The depth from which water may
be drawn and produce a profit depends very largely on local condi-
tions. There are points where garden products are sold at three to
five times what they bring at other places. There are many places
where water may be had in sufficient quantity at depths less than 100
feet, where irrigation from wells would be very desirable. It is the
custom where wells of large producing capacity are found to do the
pumping by steam or gasoline engine power. Where the supply is
rather limited the windmill is used. To use the windmill successfully
storage reservoirs are necessary. The two or three months of irriga-
tion occur in the time of least wind. If there was as much wind dur-
ing the irrigating months as in the others even then not over one-fourth
of the year's pumping could be utilized. As it is, certainly not over
one-sixth is used. To meet this difficulty storage is resorted to. The
following table will give some idea of the water that may be pumped
by a windmill, the size of earth tank or reservoir to hold it, and the
number of acres it will irrigate. The speed is assumed at thirty strokes
per minute:
Quantity of water pumped, size of tank or reservoir, and area that may be irrigated by
'windmills.
In One year ;§ º
Pumped [*. Area it to hold year's
Water per stroke. iñº º ... williºri supply.
hours. half time gate.
e Area. Depth.
Gallons. Galloºms. Acres. || Acres. | Feet.
1 pint------------------------------------------------- 5,400 972,000 2 # 6
1 quart ----------------------------------------------- 10,800 | 1,944,000 4 J. 6
# gallon ---------------------------------------------- 21,600 3,888,000 8 2 6
# gallon ---------------------------------------------- 32,400 5,832,000 12 2 9
1 gallon ---------------------------------------------- 43,200 7,776,000 16 2 12
The horsepower of different sizes of modern-geared windmills, rated
in a wind of 15 miles per hour, is as follows:
Horse-
power.
8-foot--------------------------------------------------- ** * * * * 0.35
10-foot------------------------------------------------------- . 65
12-foot------------------------------------------------------- 1. 10
14-foot------------------------------------------------------- 1. 65
IRRIGATION IN westERN TEXAs. 339
While these figures represent the horsepower of mills in a 15-mile
wind it is rare that a mill is given even one-fifth of that amount of
work to do. It is desirable that they should run in light winds.
Generally they will accomplish more in that way than if arranged to
pump a large quantity. The chief point of interest, however, to the
irrigator is that by the storage of the water during the windy part of
the year, when usually no irrigation is done, the area of land that can
be irrigated is increased several times over what can be secured with-
out storage. This calls for earth tanks. These tanks for clear well
water require special treatment to have them hold water. Flood
water running into a tank carries with it plenty of sediment that has
the effect of making the tanks nearly water-tight. The clear water
from wells in most places seeps away quite rapidly. To make them
hold the bottoms and sides are well tamped when wet (better when
water is over it). This should be repeated every year or two in many
places. Complaints were frequently met of reservoirs having held
well for a time and then commencing to leak.
The large amount of underground water within a reasonable dis-
tance of the surface makes the Staked Plains a place where windmill
power for irrigation has room for large development. The winds
probably are stronger and more constant than in any other part of the
State. With ample tanks to hold the water over to the irrigatin
season a large part of these plains can be irrigated. -
ALKALI.
The presence of alkali in some localities led to a number of requests
for aid in freeing the soil from its injurious effects. All haye
observed that alkali appears on the surface in dry times and none is
seen after a wet period. The first rain that comes dissolves it and
takes some of it down into the soil as far as the moisture goes. More
rain takes it down farther. If there is sufficient rain and a subsoil
that will let it down the rain will soon carry all the alkali out of reach.
Such, however, is not the condition in localities where irrigation is a
necessity. The rains cease when the alkali has been carried down only
a short distance; dry weather begins, evaporation from the surface
goes on, and in a short time all the rainfall is evaporated. The water
goes into the air and leaves all the alkali on or near the surface. This
suggests that if water enough is applied and there is drainage under-
neath to let it down the alkali can soon be taken out. Hence, in prac-
tice, tile drains are put in alkali soils and water applied sufficient to
cause the water to run through the tiles. All the water that goes
through the soil and out through the drains takes with it some alkali.
It is necessary to keep the water applied only until enough alkali has
been washed out to permit a good growth of vegetation. That will
340 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
take more or less time, according to the amount of alkali and the con-
dition of the soil. Some alkali soils are very close and permit only a
very slow movement of the water, and considerable time will be
required to do the work. Such tenacious soils will improve in con-
dition when the alkali is taken out. . These conditions determine to
some extent how near to each other should be the lines of tile. Thirty-
three feet is as far apart as they should be to get the alkali out in a
reasonable time. They should be at least 3 feet deep, and with suffi-
cient fall to allow the water to run freely in them. The ordinary
regulations for tile drainage are all applicable for alkali drainage.
The same process applies to all kinds of alkali or salt.
PUMPING PLANTS IN TEXAS
By C. E. TAIT,
Assistant in Irrigation and Drainage Imrestigations.
PLANT OWNED BY W. J. ALDERSON, NEAR KATY, TEX.
The equipment of this plant consists of a 25-horsepower engine, 9
by 12 inch cylinder, a portable boiler, and a 5-inch vertical centrifugal
pump belted to the engine. The pump is submerged 14 feet in a 6 by
6 foot pit with 2-inch cypress curbing. The lift at starting is 48 feet.
The well has 8.25-inch casing with strainer made of perforated pipe
wrapped with wire and gauze (fig. 48). Eight rows of 1-inch holes
FIG. 48.-Strainer.
were drilled around the pipe in which the vertical distance between
holes was 4 inches. One-half-round sticks were then placed between
the vertical rows of holes and secured by wrapping with No. 12 gauge
wire with a pitch of 0.5 inch. Wire gauze is placed over this and
soldered. The one-half-round sticks and wire wrapping hold the screen
at a slight distance from the surface of the pipe and the entire area of
the holes is available. When this plant was visited the owner was
placing additional length of strainer at the top of the first strainer,
after which the well casing was to be withdrawn enough to expose the
entire strainer. This was done because it was believed that the upper
portion of the water-bearing stratum would be in contact with the
new strainer and increase the supply to the well.
The fuel used was oil. The water was used to irrigate 100 acres of
rice.

341
342 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
*
PLANT OWNED BY JOHN COPE, JR., NEAR KATY, TEX.
Mr. Cope has a 35-horsepower portable engine; a 5-inch vertical
centrifugal pump belted to the engine with quarter turn in belt. The
pump is in a pit, submerged 2 feet. The lift at starting is 33 feet.
Oil is used for fuel. The well has 8.25-inch casing with 75 feet of
strainer like that used on the well of W. J. Alderson, just described.
At first only 35 feet of strainer was used, but in order to increase the
supply of water 40 feet of strainer of a smaller diameter was tele-
scoped below by the use of the sand bucket. The pit is 6 by 6 feet,
curbed with 2-inch cypress. The water is used on 86.5 acres of rice.
During the first irrigation of the season about 5 acres per day is
covered. The water in the well is drawn below pump to an unknown
depth. It usually requires over a week for it to regain its original
level.
PLANT OWNED BY A. E. DORN AND L. E. RECTOR, NEAR KATY, TEX.
This plant consists of a center-crank 75-horsepower engine with two
66-inch band wheels running at 170 revolutions per minute, a 100-
horsepower stationary return-flue boiler, and two 5-inch vertical cen-
trifugal pumps. Each pump is connected to two wells in the same pit,
one of the wells in one pit being 220 feet deep with 40 feet of strainer
and the other 100 feet deep with 35 feet of strainer. In the other pit
one well is 150 feet deep with 35 feet of strainer and the other 80 feet
deep with 15 feet of strainer. The engine is placed between the two
pumps, and belts extend in opposite directions from the two band
wheels on the engine to the pumps. The distance between centers is
50 feet; the size of pulleys on the pumps 12 inches. One pump is sub-
merged 6 feet and the lift at starting is 50 feet. The owners believe
that very little was gained by sinking two wells so near together in
the same pit. If the two pumps are used alternately the water in one
well rises while the other one is being drawn upon. The water is used
on 170 acres of rice.
The strainer used consists of well casing having 0.5-inch holes and
wound with galvanized iron or copper wire with a pitch suitable to the
coarseness of the sand and gravel in which the strainer is to be used.
The wire instead of being round is of a special form so that the spaces
in the winding are smallest at the outside, and any particle entering
will easily pass through and not wedge in to clog the slot (fig. 48).
The water enters at any point and travels to a hole in the casing,
thereby increasing the usefulness of the strainer.
§ {} - -
TPUMPING PLANTS IN TEXAS. 343
PLANT OWNED BY J. C. REXR0AT AND J. H. CHAPMAN, NEAR
...' BROOKSHIRE, TEX.
This plant consists of a 45-horsepower engine, cylinder 10 by 15; a
60-horsepower stationary engine burning wood, and a 93 pitless pump
with 60 feet of shafting and 3 impellers in water. The well has 10-inch
casing, is 93 feet deep, and has 35 feet of strainer. When the well was
first used the strainer filled up with sand to a depth of 12 feet. This
was removed by the use of the sand bucket. The lift at starting is 5.5
feet. The estimated discharge is 350 gallons per minute.
The pump requires no pit and consists of a head supporting a shaft
which is dropped into the well casing. The shaft carries impellers,
similar to an auger, which rotate at high speed in small stationary
cylinders. These cylinders are “lined up” with the shaft and not
with the well casing.
The water is used on 76 acres of rice. In 1904 water was first
applied on July 26. The rice was at this time about 18 inches high
but very thin and could hardly be seen for weeds. The field was
mown and when water was applied the weeds were killed, leaving a
fair stand of rice.
PLANT OWNED BY JOHN GASNER, NEAR BROOKSHIRE, TEX.
Mr. Gasner has a 54-horsepower gas engine and a 5-inch vertical
centrifugal double-suction pump. The lift at starting is 52 feet. The
well is 137 feet deep, and has 10-inch casing with 47 feet of strainer.
The pump was placed in a pit 6 by 6 feet, curbed with 2-inch cypress.
A 6-inch pump was at first used, but it was thought that the 54-horse-
power gas engine did not furnish enough power to run it and when
the plant was visited the owner was replacing the 6-inch pump by a
5-inch. A 32-horsepower traction engine had been used in sinking
the well and this engine was tried with the 6-inch pump. The owner
believes it furnished more power than the 54-horsepower gas engine.
When using oil for fuel 0.1 gallon per horsepower hour was required,
and when using distillate 0.125 gallon per horsepower hour was
required.
Mr. Gasner expects to irrigate 210 acres of rice and had made two
other 10-inch wells, one 142 feet deep and the other 152 feet deep.
Both had 45 feet of perforated pipe without any wrapping.
PLANT OWNED BY W. J. METTLER, NEAR STILSON, TEX.
Mr. Mettler has a secondhand sawmill engine, with 12 by 20 inch
cylinder, running at 120 revolutions per minute, 72-inch band wheel;
a secondhand sawmill stationary boiler using 60 pounds steam pres-
sure; and a 93-inch pitless pump with 10-inch pulley and 30 feet of
Qº is
344 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
shafting. The well has 10-inch casing and is 450 feet deep, having a
strainer of perforated pipe wound with wire. The cost of the well
was $1,485, or $3.30 per foot. The cost of engine, boiler, pump, and
fittings was $1,100. Total cost of plant was $2,585, or $17.83 per acre.
At first irrigation the plant waters about 8 acres in twenty-four hours.
The lift at starting is 12 feet. The estimated discharge is 350 gallons
per minute. When this plant was visited the engine was running at a
varying speed on account of the improper working of the governor.
Water is used on 145 acres of rice. -
PLANT own ED BY M. B. SAPP, NEAR STILSON, TEX.
Mr. Sapp has an 18-horsepower gas engine, a 4-inch vertical centrif-
ugal pump, and a well 400 feet deep, with strainer of perforated pipe
wrapped with wire. The lift at starting is 15 feet, the estimated dis-
charge 400 gallons per minute.
Mr. Sapp has another plant, consisting of a 35-horsepower second-
hand engine, a secondhand stationary boiler, and a 6-inch vertical
centrifugal pump. Oil is used for fuel. The lift at starting is about
15 feet, the estimated discharge 700 gallons per minute.
PLANT OWNED BY HILL-BROWN RICE LAND AND IRRIGATION
COMPANY, NEAR STILSON, TEX.
This plant consists of a 25-horsepower gas engine and a 6-inch ver-
tical centrifugal pump. It requires 1.75 barrels of gasoline per day
for fuel. The lift at starting is 13 feet, and the pump is submerged 7
feet. The water, together with that from another plant belonging to
the company, is used on 250 acres of rice. The engine runs at 210
revolutions per minute, and when visited was exploding each revolu-
tion. The cost of the plant was about $2,500.
The company has another plant, consisting of a 35-horsepower engine,
a portable boiler, and a 6-inch vertical centrifugal pump with double
discharge. The well has 10-inch casing, 240 feet deep. The estimated
discharge is 450 gallons per minute. The lift at starting is 14 feet and
the pump is submerged 26 feet. 7.
The pump is a variation of the vertical centrifugal pump, which is
placed in a steel pit 30 inches in diameter. An auger is placed at the
bottom of the steel pit, and before the pump is placed in it the pit is
lowered into the ground around the well casing by the jet process of
sinking wells. The casing is then cut off inside and the pump is then
lowered to the bottom of the pit. The bearings on the shaft are
inclosed in and held by a 4-inch pipe. The pump has two discharge
outlets on opposite sides of the center. At first the pit was utilized
as a discharge pipe, but it was found that some wells would fill it with
sand and cover the pump. Water or oil is put into the 4-inch pipe
PUMPING PLANTS IN TEXAS. 345
inclosing bearings to lubricate the shaft. The pit is designed to be
used where quicksand prohibits the sinking of an ordinary pit for
centrifugal pumps. . .
PLANT OWNED BY D. M. CAFFELL, NEAR STOWELL, TEX.
Mr. Caffell has a 16-horsepower traction engine, steam pressure 130
pounds, speed 220 revolutions per minute, and a pitless pump with 30
feet of shafting. The band wheel on engine is 42 inches in diameter
and is belted to a 14-inch pulley on a jack shaft. The jack shaft car-
ries a 30-inch band wheel, which is belted to a 10-inch pulley on pump
shaft. If there were no slip in the belts this arrangement would give
the pump a speed of 1,980 revolutions per minute. Eight barrels of
oil is required for fuel in twenty-four hours. The water is used on
90 acres of rice. The well is 310 feet deep and at times gives an
artesian flow. The estimated discharge of pump is 500 gallons per
minute. The pump requires no pit, and is similar to the pump belong-
ing to Mr. Rexroat, except that the impellers rotate in the well casing
instead of in small stationary cylinders. The speed must be very high
and the impellers are usually badly worn by the well casing, which is
sometimes crooked.
PLANTS OWNED BY TEXAS LAND AND IRRIGATING COMPANY,
NEAR STOWELL, TEX.
Well No. 3 belonging to this company is fitted with an 8.25-inch pit-
less pump and an 18-horsepower traction engine, which runs at 200
revolutions per minute. The band wheel on the engine is 40 inches in
diameter, the pulley on the pump shaft 8 inches in diameter. The
well is 540 feet deep, and has 91 feet of strainer made of perforated
pipe covered with woven-wire gauze. This well gives salt water, but
when used with that from other wells the water does not damage rice.
The estimated discharge is 250 gallons per minute. A vacuum pump
was first used on this well, but it was unsatisfactory.
Well No. 4 is fitted with a pitless pump and is 210 feet deep. Well
No. 5 is fitted with a centrifugal pump and is 180 feet deep. Both
of these pumps are run by a 45-horsepower engine, 10 by 16 inch
cylinder, with a speed of 150 revolutions per minute. The band
wheel on engine is 48-inch, and the pulley on the pump 8-inch. The
estimated discharge of well No. 5 is 200 gallons per minute. The cen-
trifugal pump has not been satisfactory and will be replaced.
Well No. 1 is fitted with a 6-inch vertical centrifugal pump. Well
No. 2 is fitted with a pitless pump. Both of these pumps are run by
a 40-horsepower engine, 10 by 14 inch, speed 200 revolutions per
minute. The band wheel on engine is 40-inch, the pulley on the pump,
8-inch. Steam for both engines is supplied by two portable boilers.
- > s
&- ** *...
346 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904. ... .º
Steam for the engine is piped a distance of 360 feet. The pipe is laid.
on the surface of the ground, is wrapped with tar paper, and the
whole boxed. It is found that this gives a great loss. The two boilers’
require 30 barrels of oil per twenty-four hours. ar ... •
The five wells of the company supply water for the irrigation of 540.
acres of rice. All of the wells are flowing at certain seasons of the
year, but after pumping has continued for a time the water level in
the wells is drawn about 20 feet below the surface. s
PRICES.
A pit for a centrifugal pump made near Katy, Tex., is claimed to
have cost $3,000 on account of the trouble given by quicksand. The
pit was begun in 1903, but was not completed until 1904.
A pit for a vertical centrifugal pump was made near Stilson, Tex.,
which cost $500. It was the intention to make the pit 27 feet deep, but
quicksand was encountered and the work was given up when it was
lowered to a depth of 20 feet.
The price charged for sinking 8-inch wells at Katy, Tex., is $4 per
foot, with pipe and strainer furnished by the well driller. When two
wells are made at the same place, the price is reduced to $3.75 per foot.
The price charged for sinking wells and furnishing the casing and
strainer at Stilson, Tex., is $3 per foot. It was not learned whether
the amount of strainer is limited in these or not.
Mr. W. H. Weller, near Brookshire, Tex., has had six wells made
on his farm, but none furnished enough water to make pumping worth
the while. Pumping plants are operating successfully on all sides of
his farm. The first well was made by a well driller who guaranteed
to make a well that would supply 600 gallons per minute, for which
he was to receive $600 and $1 for each additional gallon per minute.
A second well driller made five wells under the same agreement, with
no better results. The best of the six wells furnished only about 100
gallons per minute.
Four-inch vertical centrifugal pumps sell for $68 to $80 in Houston.
Pitless pumps with 20 feet of shafting cost $250 for 8.25-inch wells
and $275 for 93-inch wells. Each additional 10 feet of shafting costs
$25 for 8.25-inch wells and $27.50 for 93-inch wells.
Six-inch pumps with steel pits and all fittings cost $378 in Houston,
Tex., the pump alone costing $125.
The strainer when wound with iron wire costs $4 per foot for the
93-inch size and $2.70 per foot for the 6-inch size. When copper wire
is used $1.50 per foot is added.
º s r &
# *; *_{... . .
š ºš’’. . . . . . º ^s • .
§. PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON
gº º IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE.
§ *Notº–Publications marked with an asterisk (*) are not available for distribution.
sºul. 236, Notes on Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. Pp. 64.
§ §uſ. 38. Water Rights on the Missouri River and its Tributaries. Pp. 80.
§ **- * } **
*S
3. * -** *
sº #uiº, 60. Abstract of Laws for Acquiring Titles to Water from the Missouri River
:: *
º gº 3. *. *. & * : º tº: ge
*ś ... and its Tributaries, with the Legal Forms in Use. Pp. 77.
§ ‘....Buk Y9. Water-right Problems of Bear River. Pp. 40.
*, * * * * *y-, *, *. * { * ge
*śBulº.78; Irrigation in the Rocky Mountain States. Pp. 64. ,-
# , º $ -º-, * : * ~~~~ --- * ; wº te •º g * tº
§ ºul. 81. The Use of Water in Irrigation in Wyoming. . Pp. 56.
sº : Bul: 86, The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 253. -
*** -...---e. " . …?" * * º *
gºal. 87. Irrigation in New Jersey. Pp. 40.
**. *.
*
ºs, Bul. 90. Irrigation in Hawaii. Pp. 48.
i.
;3. SBul. 92. The Reservoir System of the Cache la Poudre Valley. Pp. 48.
§: sº l, 96. Irrigation Laws of the Northwest Territories of Canada and of Wyoming.
sº _2 - Pp. 90. --
º * ... Bul...100. Report of Irrigation Investigations in California. Pp. 411.
§: -Bul: 104. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 334.
sº: “Bul: 105, Irrigation in the United States. Pp. 47.
** * Bül. 108. Irrigation Practice among Fruit Growers on the Pacific Coast. Pp. 54.
ź. º: Bul. 113. Irrigation of Rice in the United States. Pp. 77.
fº. Buł. 118. Irrigation from Big Thompson River. Pp. 75.
sº. Bul. HI9. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1901, Pp. 401.
sº. --Bul, 124. Report of Irrigation Investigations in Utah. Pp. 330.
º: Bul: 130. Egyptian Irrigation. Pp. 100. ~x-
* , ºr Bul. 131. Plans of Structures in Use on Irrigation Canals in the United States. Pp.
º, . . . . . 51.
º: ul, 133. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1902. Pp. 266. *
*> # Bul. 134. Storage of Water on Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson Rivers. Pp. 100.
sº -
šs _*Rul. 140. Acquirement of Water Rights in the Arkansas Valley, Colorado. Pp. 83.
sº Biłł. 144. Irrigation in Northern Italy. Part I. Pp. 100.
*
****
3.
+3*
** * *
... r *…*
;
*
***
*:::::: .* BüI, 145. Preparing Land for Irrigation and Methods of Applying Water. Pp. 84.
r *
º Bul. 146. Current Wheels: Their Use in Lifting Water for Irrigation. Pp. 38.
*:::::... Bul. 147. Report on Drainage Investigations, 1903. Pp. 62.
% £º ‘Bul, 148. Report on Irrigation Investigations in Humid Sections of the United States
ºr ... -- in 1903. Pp. 45. ** *
º Bul. 157, Water Rights on Interstate Streams. Pp. 116.
*...**-K. - J. - &
# = sº - brº FARMERS’ BULLETINs.
... sº, **,
* **
*::: : evº,
*
º, Bul. 116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. Pp. 48.
gº. Bul. 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. Pp. 40.
& Bučiš8. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Pp. 28. -
*::: Bul. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. Pp. 40.
*w.” rº. ~
ºful. , 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. Pp. 27.
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SEPARATES FROM OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT.STATIONSBULiFTſN No.º.
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*. ~, *s 3: _^*. t ** * -: ~ …” y * * “, s: < * N. :
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* i Y *:: se “ ** *} ** º, §: .# ***'. sº §§
} Review of the Irrigation Work of the Year 1904. By R. P. Teele, Pp. Tºš. sº
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* %. */ - !, & * …, x, ** * * * *
• *, Irrigation in Santa Clara Valley, California. By S. Eortier. Pp. 76–91. ºf ſº ºft.
* . § º ry ; A: sº. &
* Mechanical Tests of Pumping Plants used for Irrigation. By #, N. Le Conte. Čºp, l, , "
* . t * * r;". ſº
195—255. 3. , * > . . . . . . . . . . .
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sº. ^, Uſ ºv. . P. #3 *
*- f SEPARATE NO. 3. ^, -- sº * : #. ... *.8%
A.
* ^ *. • * & * ... • ~$325.
The Distribution and Use of Water in Modesto and Turlock Irrigation Districts, Căl-3%
ifornia. By Frank Adams. Pp. 93–139. * *, J. : … . . . .
Relation of Irrigation to Yield, Size, Quality, and Commercial Suitability. of Fruits. . . .
By E. J. Wickson. Pp. 141–174. , * * ' ' ' - 2,
** **s,
.** J -:
Irrigation Conditions in Imperial Valley, California. By J. E. Roadhouse. Pp. . . . .
<, - S ** * $ * 2, “ ; : * *.*
175 194. & \ º A ' ... * 23 º- A 3.
i. { --- * *. £ 3 º,
t SEPARATE No. 4. * , ' ' ' - a * *
~, ** ... “A ; : *%.
Irrigation in Klamath County, Oregon. By F. L. Kent. Pp. 257–266. . . "... f
Irrigation Investigations in the Yakima Valley, Washi ngton, 1904. By O; L. Waller. &e
Pp. 267–278. ^ . . ~ * - . . . .
Irrigation Conditions in Raft River Water District, Idaho, 1904. By W. F. Bartlett, ',
Pp. 279–302. * 3. -º-,
SEPARATE No. 5, gº .. * A.
Irrigation Investigations at New Mexico Experiment Station, Mesilla Park, 1904. . .
By J. J. Vernon. Pp. 303–317. ~ * . . . .
Irrigation Investigations in Western Texas. By Harvey Culbertson. Pp. 319-340. >
Pumping Plants in Texas. By C. E. Taiu. Pp. 341–346. - * *
§
*
*
2 * *~ * , .* s:
SEPARATE No. 6. - T - ** `- : * ~ *
te tº * * * g & * -- § 3. 3) * s
, Irrigation in Southern Texas. By Aug. J. Bowie, jr. Pp. 347–507. w * *
S. Ç. *~. * A- N--
_j. * * re- * . * *
SEPARATE No. 7. 4.- - - - . . .
Rice Irrigation in Louisiana and Texas in 1903 and 1904. By W. B. Gregory. Pp. ... .
509–544. $ * -- sº .
Rice Irrigation on the Prairie Land of Arkansas. By C. E. Tait. Pp. 545–565. ºf
*= 3.
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SEPARAfE No. 8. . . . . . . . . )
# ^- ^ rº. --- º, ** . *,
Irrigation Experiments at Fort Hays, Kansas, 1903 and 1904. By J. G. Haney. Pp.
567–583. * * -- , ºr - " . .
Irrigation near Garden City, Kansas. 1904. By A. B. Collins and A. E. Wright... . .
Pp. 585–594. * --- - ,
Pumping Plants in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas. By O. V. P. Stout. Pp. 595-5. ... # a .
... 608. , * - . . . . . . . . .”
Irrigation near Rockyford, Colorado, 1904. By A. E. Wright. Pp. 609–623. & lsº f
The Irrigation and Drainage of Cranberry Marshes in Wisconsin. By A. R. Whitson, º, §
Pp. 625–642. ) #. $2 * $ ſ º : º º
{ ºf . * ~ * * ** # . *
* *—- SEPARATE No. 9. ` * . . . . . . . . . .
* ~~ A. § *y ** 4* \. *: & ſ
Report of Drainage Investigations, 1904. By C. G. Elliott. Pp. 643-743. . . . . . º
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ENGINEERİive
LIBRARY
& -2 &
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, & 6 ° 9
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS,
A. C. TRUE, DIRECTOR.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF 4.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINA (+E
INVESTIGATIONS, 1904, #
TONDER THE DIEECTION OF
ELWOOD MEAD,
CHIEF of IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs.
SEPARATE NO. 6:
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.
By AUG. J. BowTE, Jr., Agent and Expert in Pumping Investigations.
[Reprint from Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1905.
OFFICE OF EXPERIMIENT STATIONS.
A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director.
.E. W. ALLEN, Ph. D., Assistant Director.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
ELwooD MEAD, Chief.
C. G. ELLIOTT, in Charge of Drainage Investigations.
S. M. WooDwARD, in Charge of Irrigation Investigations.
R. P. TEELE, Earpert in Irrigation Institutions.
C. J. ZINTHEo, in Charge of Farm Mechanics.
SAMUEL ForTIER, in Charge of Pacific District.
F. C. HERRMANN, Expert in Irrigation as Related to Dry Farming.
II
* *.
4× $.
3 - Zºe - $3,
C O N T E N T S.
Page.
District included in report ------------------------------------------------ 347
Rainfall in Texas--------------------------------------------------------- 347
Uses of land and acreage-------------------------------------------------- 349
General topography ------------------------------------------------------ 351
Soil --------------------------------------------------------------------- 352
Water supply ------------------------------------------------------------ 352
Rivers---------------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - * * * 352
Lakes --------------------------------------------------------------- 354
Wells---------------------------------------------------------------- 354
Artesian districts----------------------------------------------------- 355
Springs -------------------------------------------------------------- 356
Dams---------------------------------------------------------------- 357
Method of boring wells ----------------------------------------------- 357
Strainers----------------------- ---------------------------------- 358
Cost of boring---------------------------------------------------- 362
Fuel--------------------------------------------------------------------- 364
Water conduits in use ---- ----------------------------------------------- 368
Wooden flumes ------------------------------------------------------ 369
Wooden pipe -------------------------------------------------------- 370
Concrete construction------------------------------------------------- 372
General conditions of labor ----------------------------------------------- 372
Detailed description of irrigation plants - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 373
Cuero --------------------------------------------------------------- 373
Victoria ------------------------------------------------------------ 377
Creeks----------------------------------------------------------- 382
San Antonio --------------------------------------------------------- 384
San Antonio Sewage ---------------------------------------------- 396
San Antonio River ----------------------------------------------- 399
Beeville ------------------------------------------------------------- 402
Corpus Christi and Alice---------------------------------------------- 411
Alice ------------------------------------------------------------ 416
South of the Mexican National Railroad - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 416
Kenedy ranch---------------------------------------------------- 419
Armstrong ranch ------------------------------------------------- 420
El Sauz ranch---------------------------------------------------- 421
Lasater ranch ---------------------------------------------------- 422
Rio Grande Valley --------------------------------------------------- 423
Cienegas Springs ------------------------------------------------- 427
Eagle Pass ------------------------------------------------------- 427
Laredo and vicinity ---------------------------------------------- 430
Hidalgo to the coast ---------------------------------------------- 435
Nueces, Frio, and Leona rivers - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------------------- 444
Nueces River----------------------------------------------------- 444
Frio River ------------------------------------------------------- 447
Lakes near Carrizo Springs---------------------------------------- 457
IV CONTENTS.
Detailed description of irrigation plants—Continued.
wº" Nueces, Frio, and Leona rivers—Continued,
Carrizo Springs --------------------------------------------------
Pearsall ---------------------------------------------------------
Altgeld ranch ----------------------------------------------------
Tests of pumps and irrigation plants --------------------------------------.
Summary------------------------------------------------ .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Area and crops-------------------------------------------------------
Methods of irrigation -------------------------------------------------
Duty of Water--------------------------------------------------------
Labor and cost of irrigating - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Crop returns---------------------------------------------------------
Onion culture --------------------------------------------------------
Reservoirs -----------------------------------------------------------
Artesian Wells--------------------------------------------------------
Pumped Wells--------------------------------------------------------
Pumping plants------------------------------------------------------
Pumping ------------------------------------------------------------
Method of arriving at cost ----------------------------------------
Practical points on increased efficiency of plants-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES.
PLATE W. Map of Southern Texas------------------------------------------
VI. Fig. 1.-Sidehill work on Del Rio canal. Fig. 2.-Reenforced con-
crete pipe in course of construction, Del Rio can al - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
TEXT FIGURES.
FIG. 49. Strainer with holes, showing lower part filled with sand - - - - - - - - - - - -
50. Open-bottom well properly put down - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
51. Open-bottom well improperly put down-------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
52. Strainer covered with copper wire ------------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
53. Strainer covered with copper wire and gauze- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
54. Strainer covered with trapezoidal wire- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
55. Cost of wooden stave pipe ----------------------------------------
56. Cost of wooden stave pipe ----------------------------------------
57. Plan of current wheels belonging to Mr. Klein, San Antonio, Tex . . .
58. Section of San Antonio Sewage ditch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
59. Map of Corpus Christi Bay ----------. ---------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60. Cross section of reinforced concrete pipe - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
61. Bed irrigation ---------------------------------------------------
62. Section of Brownsville canal --------------------------------------
63. Section of Nueces River bed ---------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
64. Plan of Taylor dam, Nueces River, Tex- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
65. Regulating gate for laterals ---------------------------------------
66. Furrow irrigation in Texas ---------------------------------------
67. Hydrant in use at New Braunfels, Tex - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.
By AUG. J. Bowie, Jr.,
Agent and Expert, Irrigation and Drainage Investigations.
DISTRICT INCLUDED IN REPORT.
The district of Texas included in this report lies south of the line
through Del Rio, San Antonio, and Port Lavaca, with the addition,
however, of the upper Nueces and Frio River valleys. Unless stated
to the contrary, statements are intended to apply to that district
alone. (Pl. W.)
RAINFALL IN TEXAS.
The following table is taken from the Monthly Weather Review for
April, 1902, and comprises all available and reliable data the Weather
Bureau had pertaining to rainfall in Texas:
Rainfall in Teacas.

Record. Average
* Elevation
Station. Latitude. º: above Sea, J Years º
& level. From- TO— inclu- R.§
sive. *
O / O / Feet. Inches.
Abilene ---------------------- 32 23 99 40 1, 738 1885 1901 16 24. 22
Amarillo --------------------- 35 13 101 50 3,676 1892 1901 10 21.55
Austin------------------------ 30 16 97 43 650 1856 1901 37 33.51
Brenham --------------------- 30 02 96 02 350 1885 1901 12 38. 30
Burnet ----------------------- 30 56 98 01 1,395 1889 1900 9 28.62
Eagle Pass. ------------------- 28 39 I00 30 S00 1849 1901 28 23.06
Corpus Christi---------------- 27 49 97 25 18 1846 1901 14 26. 28
Cuero------------------------- 29 03 97 09 177 1883 1901 10 33.76
Dallas ------------------------ 32 55 96 38 466 1889 1901 9 33. 22
El Paso.----------------------- 31 47 106 30 3,762 1850 1901 38 8.84
Fort Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 50 97 57 57 1850 1901 28 25. 52
Fort Clark-------------------- 29 17 100 25 1,050 1852 1901 28 21. 87
Fort Concho------------------ 31 55 100 17 1,950 1872 1889 15 23. 70
Fort Davis-------------------- 30 40 104 07 4,700 1855 1891 20 18. 10
Fort McIntosh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 29 99 31 460 1849 1900 34 19. 05
Fort Ringgold. ... ------------ 26 27 98 47 230 1849 1901 38 19.80
Fort Stockton . . . . . . . . . . . . --. 30 50 102 35 4,952 1859 1899 14 16. 10
Fort Worth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 32 43 97 15 670 1849 1901 8 34.32
Fredricksburg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 20 98 45 1,742 1877 1901 17 28.32
Galveston -------------------- 29 18 94 50 54 1868 1901 33 48. 13
Houston ---------------------- 29 48 95 19 53 1882 1901 12 45. 20
Mount Blanco. --------------- 33 55 101 01 |------------ 1886 1901 13 15. 33
Palestine --------------------- 31 45 95 40 510 1882 1901 19 44. 14
San Antonio. --- - - ----------. 29 27 98 28 701 1849 1901 31 28.41
Waco ------------------------- 81 35 97 08 424 1867 1901 14 34.80
Weatherford . . . . . . . . . . . . ----- 82 57 97 57 864 1882 1901 8 30, 80
The monthly distribution of precipitation at Corpus Christi between
the years 1887 and 1904, also a summary of the highest, lowest, and
mean temperatures during this time, as prepared by Joseph L. Cline,
observer of the United States Weather Bureau, are given in the table
following.
347
348 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Monthly and annual precipitation.

Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. ||Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. *
I? Im. Im. Im. 70, Im. Im. Im. Im. Im. Im. In
1887-------------|------ 0.17 | 1.61 | Trace. 1.26 3.80 || 0, 10 || 2.84 || 9, 24 || 2, 99 || 0, 66 5.07 | . . . . . . . .
1888------------- 1.91 || 3. 50 2.99 || 1.45 | 8.72 5.46 2.25 2, 16 7.25 | 2.91 || 8, 64 92 48. 16
1889. ------------ 5. 47 3.61 || 3.24 | 1.06 || 4, 21 || 2.96 , 50 | 8.00 12. 69 48 3, 91 14 41. 27
1890------------- 3. 84 2.01 | 1. 67 | 1.36 | 2.40 || 3.22 .99 || 1.81 1.07 2.47 87 | 1, 80 23.01
1891----- - - - - - - - 2.85 . 31 2.18 2, 14 38 | 1.68 | 1.57 | 6. 31 4.65 12 2, 53 91 25.63
1892- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. 14 | 1,09 | 1, 10 26 | 1.95 . 62 | 1.15 || 2.78 2.04 || 1.23 5. 55 | 1.70 20.61
1898-- - - - - - - - - - - - 5.91 6. 27 12 42 || 3.22 | 1.27 . 49 06 | 1. 14 25 | 1.28 07 20. 50
1894- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 59 | 1.59 66 5, 10 | 1.63 | 1.23 || 4, 87 || 7, 65 3.00 14 01 64 28. 11
1895- - - - - - - - - - - - - 31 || 3.49 | 1.43 2.41 || 5.57 3.80 , 00 | 1.17 | 1.68 1.08 || 4, 14 25.72
1896. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 41 || 2, 20 62 1, 60 | 1.94 2, 19 2, 38 53 4.39 || 4. 12 30 73 23.41
1897- - - - - - - - - - - - 2. 57 06 | 1.61 83 2.28 1, 81 , 00 || 3. 24 98 || 3.79 11 | 1.08 18, 36
1898-- - - - - - - - - - - - 69 1.00 || 2, 74 2.41 | 1.83 || 2.44 | . 43 |Trace. 2. 33 51 || 3.61 | 1.33 19. 32
1899. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 36 | 1.08 29 || 3.04 || 1. 16 || 4.07 | .43 00 2, 48 7.34 2.84 1.87 26.96
1900. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 42 1, 10 || 2.32 2.07 || 2.74 . 77 5.85 5.48 || 2. 13 2.01 25 2. 16 29.30
1901. - - - - - - - - - - - - . 75 | 1.3 07 45 | 1.39 1, 00 | 1.30 2.53 7. 15 42 66 17. 50
1902- . . . . . . . . . --- 2. 14 2. 07 18 41 3.05 | 1.44 49 Trace. 3.63 | 1.93 3.91 2.34 21.59
1903. . . . . . . . ----- 1, 16 5, 81 || 7, 69 84 || 2, 25 | 6.48 || 6.87 | 1.84 . 89 | 1.74 56 79 36.92
1904- - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 | 1.37 -----|-------|------|------|------|-------|------------|------------|--------
Averages - 2.22 || 2.11 | 1.80 1, 52 | 2.70 || 2.60 | 1.75 | 2.44 3.93 | 1.97 2.31 | 1.33 26.68
Summary of temperature at Corpus Christi, Teac., 1887–1904.

An-
Temperature. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. nual
o F. o F. of o F. o F. of of of of of of of". of
Mean ------------- 55.9 58.i | 63.9 || 70.5 75.8 80.1 | 81.9 81.9 || 79.1 | 72.9 | 64.1 57.9 70.2
Highest - - - - - - - - - - 84 88 96 || 92 || 96 || 97 98 || 98 || 97 || 91 89 || 86 98
LOWest ----------- 16 || 11 28 44 44 || 59 68 || 65 || 54 || 42 30 20 11
Similar data for Brownsville between the years 1850 and 1891 are
given in the following table:
Rainfall at Brownsville (Fort Brown), Tew.


Year. Jan. | Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. *
Im. Im. Im. Im. | Im. Im. | Im. I’m... Im. | Im. | Im. | In 70,
1850------------- 4, 30 || 3.80 || 2, 30 || 0.05 || 2, 20 || 0.06 | 1.16 0.01 || 0.25 5.79 || 0.69 || 0.15 20. T6
1851------------- 95 || 1, 20 40 | 1.15 90 2.35 | 3.65 | 1.80 5, 60 || 4, 10 || 3.00 || 4. 70 29.80
1852. ------------ 50 60 35 | . 00 || 4.05 || 5.05 70 3.90 8.50 4.9 , 90 | . 00 29. 50
1853------------- 00 | 1.60 00 2.20 10 | 1.70 00 || 3. 10 8.00 7, 75 | 1.30 . 65 26. 40
1854. - - - - - - - - - - - 45 | 1.50 | 1.15 .05 || 4.10 || 7.65 4.25 | 5.00 11.31 5.79 || 7.47 | 1.88 50.00
1855- - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.47 || 4.83 || 3.03 | . 00 | 1.92 || 10.47 7. 58 9.52 9.44 5. 77 || 3.85 . 92 60, 80
1856.------------ 3. 18 | 1.80 | 1.50 .88 || 2.05 3.25 | 1.90 | . 58 3.25 5.75 | 1.45 , 55 26.14
1857 - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 35 2.30 | 1.15 00 50 || 3.25 | , 65 || 4 65 || 4, 65 55 2, 55 20.70
1858-- - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 50 85 07 | . 00 | 1.00 || 5, 15 70 2.45 5. 77 2.75 45 3.67 24.36
1860-------------|------|-------|------|------ 05 00 19 || 8.00 | 9.07 | . 57 | . 15 2.23 - - - - - - - -
1869-------------|------|-------|------|------|------|-------|------ 2.46 |10, 50 | 1.20 | . 10 |......!... --- - -
1870. -- - - - - - - - - - 1. 60 00 . 00 . 90 00 | 1, 00 75 . 10 || 2.53 1.00 . 70 .30 8. 88
1871------------- 90 00 30 | . 10 || 3. 40 . 78 40 | 1.40 2.80 8.50 1.77 .05 20.40
1872------------- 05 00 | 1.64 | . 82 27 | 1.78 | 1.92 || 4.19 || 4.56 || 3.61 | 1.60 | 1.92 22.42
1873. ------------ 00 15 47 | . 59 96 . 43 | 1. 10 | 1.98 |15. 35 2.81 | 1.71 2.10 27.65
1874. ------------ 86 | 1.48 || 1.90 | .30 | 1.34 || 1.50 2.81 30 |10, 96 . 48 || 4.76 | . 16 26.85
1875- - - - - - - - - - - - - 56 || 3.72 | 1. 62 . 05 | 1.45 . 16 40 || 2, 25 || 4, 20 | . 50 2, 35 | . 10 17, 36
1876------------- 10 | 1.03 | .98 | . 00 4.36 | 1.26 2. 10 97 || 8.85 | .22 2.43 || 3. 51 25.81
1877------------- 1.27 | 7.99 | . 51 | . 14 | 1.05 .95 90 | 1.52 | . 69 3.33 | 1. 21 6. 32 25.86
1878------------- 3.67 63 4.15 1.25 2.96 . 74 6.58 7. 20 | 5. 21 | . 86 | 1.76 | 1.34 36.35
1879------------- 1.03 || 1.03 .33 1.57 | . 05 || 2.55 1, 59 || 9.48 |11. 64 4.70 | . 14 62 34. 73
1880------------- 3. 87 | 1.06 | . 58 .01 | 1.56 | 1.03 || 3.64 16.58 | 1.90 3, 82 || 3.44 58 38. 07
1881------------- 2.73 | 1.18 . 20 ! .30 3.43 | Trace. 1.49 || 3.01 || 5.02 || 8.72 3.74 | 1.92 31. 74
1882------------- 2.95 | 1.24 3. 54 | 1.63 7.07 | 1.69 70 2.21 2.68 || 3. 19 || 3.28 2.38 32.56
1883. ------------ 1.22 | 1.01 . . 63 .38 . 83 || 5.66 4.02 | 1.97 || 7.74 | 1.65 3.32 2.59 31.02
1884------------- 1. 10 | Trace. . 07 . 57 5.86 2.74 . 23 | . 88 8.96 |15. 71 3.46 | 1.33 40.91
1885------------- 3. 87 2, 52 | 1.54 . 67 || 7.17 . 54 .22 || 2.06 3. 55 | 8.27 . 20 | 1.20 31.83
1886------------- 1.81 | 2.33 | 1.15 17 | 6. 57 7.78 4.88 3.08 |30, 77 | . 55 .48 69 60.06
1887------------- 2.87 07 || 3.94 || 13.80 33 || J. 45 15, 65 |16.27 1.70 || 4, 89 59.87
1888. ------------ 1.98 || 1.09 2.31 4.79 | 1.77 2.95 | 1.30 .95 7.47 | 2.05 || 4.99 93 32.58
1889------------- 2.72 || 3.27 3.61 2.69 | 1.26 || 4.43 50 7.03 || 7. 44 20 | 1.44 .02 34.61
1890. -----------. 69 | 1.23 14 5.48 || 3.33 2.32 || 3.97 1.51 | 1.51 || 3.67 1.32 | .38 25. 55
1891------------- 1.65 78 1.70 || 2.36 | . 29 00 3.00 2.47 l.-----|------|------|------|--------
Mean - - - - - 1. 59 | 1.61 | 1.32 93 || 2.42 2.91 2.04 || 3.36 || 7.30 4.35 2.05 | 1.64 31, 52
U. S. DEPT. of AGR., BUL. 158, office of ExPT. STATIONs. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATION8.
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IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 349
Figure 44 (p. 319) is a map of Texas showing the general distribution
of the rainfall and giving mean average values of the same for the
different districts into which the State is divided. The rainfall is
heaviest in the coastal country, particularly toward the eastern part
of the State, whereas in the western part it is comparatively light.
At Galveston the average rainfall is about 48 inches per year, while
at El Paso it is less than 9 inches.
From an irrigation standpoint the State may be divided into three
parts: (1) the eastern part where there is ample rainfall for crops
without any necessity for irrigation; (2) a large portion of the central
and southern parts which may be called semiarid, where irrigation is
a decided aid though not a necessity, and (3) the western or arid por-
tion where irrigation becomes almost necessary.
As will be seen from the tables the rainfall is very uncertain in its
distribution. Although in many places the annual rainfall is suffi-
ciently great for the needs of the land, still, owing to this uncertainty,
irrigation becomes of great advantage. Besides increasing the value
of crops even in good years, the insurance against failure of a crop is
a matter of the highest importance and any additional outlay for irri-
gation is usually considered as money spent to good advantage. The
results from the Beeville Experiment Station show most strikingly
the advantages which are to be derived from suitable irrigation of
land in comparison with land relying upon the rainfall. They show
also the comparatively small additional cost for irrigation and greatly
increased returns. (See pp. 404–406.) While irrigation was practiced
for many years by the Spaniards in Texas, still it is only within the
last few years that capital has been invested in enterprises of this
nature.
USES OF LAND AND ACREAGE.
For a number of years Texas has been essentially a cattle country,
and as it is now the cattle business may be regarded as the most
important in the State. Cattle men figure that it takes 10 to 15—usu-
ally 15—acres of land per head of cattle with wild feed. On such a
basis it is apparent that when land becomes of value some more profit-
able use must be made of it than raising cattle. Some of the more
progressive of the cattle men have already realized the possibilities of
irrigation and have invested considerable money in such work.
Among the majority of them, however, there is a strong tendency to
be backward in this respect and a diffidence about entering a field with
which they are not familiar.
As an industry, cotton growing is second in importance to cattle
raising. Enormous acreages are devoted to it. Being what is usu-
ally considered a dry-weather crop, requiring little moisture, it has
been grown successfully for a number of years in many parts of the
350 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
country. The ravages of the boll weevil in the past year, however,
have done almost incalculable harm to the cotton crop and this pest is
rapidly spreading over the whole State. The necessity of finding
some more remunerative use for the land is in consequence just
beginning to be felt.
The following is an estimate made by a cotton grower of the cost of
growing cotton per acre:
Rent -------------------------------------------------------- $4.00
Plowing ----------------------------------------------------- 1.00
Planting----------------------------------------------------- . 50
Four cultivations--------------------------------------------- 3.00
Two hoeings ------------------------------------------------ 1. 25
Total -------------------------------------------------- 9. 75
For land yielding one-third of a bale to the acre, the following addi-
tional charges should be made per acre:
Gathering --------------------------------------------------- $3.33
Ginning ----------------------------------------------------- . 83
Loss in Wrapping--------------------------------------------- .45
Total -------------------------------------------------- 4. 61
Cost per acre------------------------------------------------- 14.36
Cost per bale of 500 pounds ----------------------------------- 43. 08
One thousand pounds of seed per bale obtained from the gin brings
$5 to $8. At this rate of yield of one-third of a bale per acre cotton,
selling at $40 per bale, would hardly pay expenses. Obviously the
greater part of the expenses shown here is independent of the yield. .
In order to obtain the best results and make a commercial success,
larger yields must be obtained. The importance and beneficial results
of irrigation are at once apparent in attaining this end.
The following is an estimate of the cost per acre of farming unirri-
gated corn land:
Plowing ----------------------------------------------------- $1.00
Rent -------------------------------------------------------- 4.00
Planting ----------------------------------------------------- . 50
Three cultivations -------------------------------------------- 2.25
Total -------------------------------------------------- 7. 75
In order to raise crops which are a financial success, irrigation in
the greater part of the State may be said to be almost a necessity. Of
the lands in smaller holdings which are irrigated at present, the greater
part are devoted to truck raising. Alfalfa has been raised to only a
very limited extent, and will bring on an average about $15, a ton.
Corn is quite extensively grown, and generally without irrigation.
The yield of corn is not at all what might be expected, and more care-
ful farming and proper irrigation should make a great increase in the
output. Sorghum is another crop raised extensively; ribbon cane,
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 351
however, is grown to a rather limited extent. Johnson grass is raised
in many places for hay. It causes a great deal of trouble throughout
the country, being most difficult to keep out of the fields.
From a financial standpoint remarkable returns have been made
from growing Bermuda onions, which is a comparatively new industry
in Texas. The yields due to intensive farming have been exceedingly
large, and the profits have seldom been equaled in farming. On one
40-acre patch $27,000 was realized for a year’s crop; on another 13-acre
patch, $9,000. It must not, however, he assumed that these figures
represent average conditions or that such enormous profits can con-
tinue. Onions are rather an expensive crop to grow; still, owing to
the success of the last year much new capital is being invested in this
industry.
Land has increased in value at a remarkable rate in many parts of
Texas, solely owing to the benefits and possibilities of irrigation.
Land which a few years ago could be bought for almost nothing is
to-day selling at $15 to $20 an acre. This is the condition at present
existing along the lower Rio Grande. The opening up of that section
of country by irrigation has led to two lines of railroad being built—
one which runs from Robstown to Brownsville, 160 miles, and the other,
the “Sap,” has already been built from Alice to Falfurrias, a distance
of some 40 miles, with the intention of continuing to Brownsville,
although work on the same has been temporarily suspended. Prop-
erty on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande has also advanced very
materially, and in all probability a line of railroad will soon connect
Matamoras with Monterey. Brownsville, a city of some 6,000 inhab-
itants, which has hitherto been practically cut off from communication
with the outside world, being thirty-six hours’ stage ride to the near-
est railroad station, is now in a state of boom. The effects of irriga-
tion here have been far reaching, and by no means has growth in
values been confined to land alone.
GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY.
South and southeast of the Southern Pacific Railroad, between
Del Rio and San Antonio, most of the land is of a gently rolling
character, flattening out as the coast is approached. (See map, Pl.
V.) Within 20 to 50 miles of the Gulf coast the land is generally
level, and hence is most suitable for irrigation on a large scale.
Mesquite, which is the principal wood in this section, is found in
almost every part of the country. It is principally used for fuel
owing to the small size and crooked shape of the trees.
The country north of the Southern Pacific, near Uvalde, gradually
rises to the mountains which start in the southern part of Uvalde
County. The valleys of the Rio Grande and of the Guadalupe
352 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
f
River, near the coast, are the largest irrigation fields at present de-
veloped. Further inland the valleys grow narrow and the irrigable
territory lies in smaller areas.
SOIL.
It is not uncommon to find almost every known class of soil within
a very small area. There is, however, an unusually large percent-
age of rich black soil throughout the country, particularly where
it has been enriched for years by leaf-loam. In the valley of the
Rio Grande the soil is largely alluvial, composed of deposits formed
by the river, which has evidently changed its channel many times.
The large irrigation field of this river extends from about 75 miles
upstream down nearly to the coast. The land near the coast is
strongly alkaline, although it loses this quality to a considerable
extent farther upstream. Some degree of apprehension has been felt
over the possible effect this might have upon vegetation. The de-
posit formed by the river is widely varying in character, depending
upon the part of the country from which the river water has come.
The soil tends to crack open when it dries and requires a large amount
of water for irrigation, having no impervious substrata within
easy reach. Going north from the river everywhere within 100
miles of its mouth the soil suddenly changes from alluvial to a
black sandy loam covered with a heavier growth of mesquite, show-
ing quite clearly the demarcation of the land which has evidently
not been under water for a long period. This land is at present
practically uncultivated Save for a few scattered farms owned chiefly .
by Mexicans. No attempts at irrigation have been made, the land
nearer the river receiving first attention. At the time the writer
passed through this country, about the 1st of June, all the corn, which
is the principal crop, was burning up for lack of water. e
North of this belt of black sand land, which is some 20 to 30 miles
broad, the soil changes to sand. The mesquite disappears and the
only timber to be seen is scattered groups of oak trees. This char-
acter of land continues for some 50 miles and extends back some 60
miles from the coast. North of this the land changes to a black
waxy and black Sandy character, with a fairly dense growth of
mesquite.
WATER SUPPLY.
IRIVERS.
The Guadalupe and Rio Grande are the main rivers in the terri-
tory under consideration which may be relied upon for irrigation
throughout the year. The Guadalupe River is regarded as one of the
best streams in Texas for a continuous supply of water. Above
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 353
Cuero it has a drainage area of about 5,000 square miles. One of its
main tributaries is the Comal River at New Braunfels, which is fed
entirely by springs about a mile distant from the point where it flows
into the Guadalupe. The San Marcos River, which flows into the
Guadalupe below New Braunfels, is also one of its large tributaries.
At Cuero the river is dammed to obtain power for an electric station
which will be described later. The flow at this point when the river
was exceptionally low has been estimated at 550 cubic feet per second.
The Rio Grande is subject to very sudden changes in volume and
discharge, changing from a few thousand to 40,000 or more cubic
feet per second and back to where it started within a very few days.
According to Mr. Mendiola, engineer of the Mexican Government,
from observations made near Brownsville, while the minimum flow
of the Rio Grande is 1,100 cubic feet per second, the maximum dis-
charge is 36,000 feet per second. Under the latter conditions the
elevation of the surface of the river above tide water is 45 feet. The
maximum surface velocity is 6.3 feet per second. The corresponding
discharge of solid matter as measured by Mr. Mendiola is 538 cubic
feet per second, being about 1.5 per cent. While the water was com-
paratively free from sediment near the surface, near the bottom it was
practically running mud. The midstream discharge was 7,900 cubic
feet per second and the Solid matter discharged was 42.5 cubic feet
per second, slightly over 0.5 per cent. During these conditions the
elevation of surface of the river was 36 feet and the maximum sur-
face velocity was 3.4 feet per second. The average ground elevation
near Brownsville is 42.7 feet, the ground being highest at the bank.
The Nueces River is one of the largest streams in this section of the
country. It rises in Edwards County in the mountains and flows
in a southeasterly direction into Corpus Christi Bay. It drains an
immense section of country, but, in spite of this fact, during the dry
season there is very little, if any, water to be obtained from the river.
There is always considerable flow in the river in the mountain district
which becomes particularly apparent where the bed rock is near the
surface and the natural flow consequently makes its appearance.
The channel of the river through the mountains is filled with rock and
bowlders many feet deep. At one place on the river South of Mon-
tell in Uvalde County, where in all probability the larger part of the
flow came to the surface, a measurement of the water made by
the writer the latter part of August, 1904, showed a flow of 35 cubic
feet per second. At the point where the measurement was made
there was also undoubtedly considerable underflow. Farther down
the stream the water disappears entirely in the bed of bowlders. At
numerous points along the Nueces River irrigation plants are located
80620–No. 158–05—23
354 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
using small quantities of water, but without storage it would be
unsafe to go into irrigation on a large Scale, depending upon such a
supply.
The Frio River has its source in Edwards County and flows south-
west into the Nueces. This, like the Nueces, has also a flow of water
the year round in the mountains, although the flow usually disap-
pears farther down, except in time of wet weather.
From an irrigation standpoint the river next in importance is the
San Antonio, which has its source a short distance above the city of
San Antonio and flows in a southeasterly direction into San Antonio
Bay. Its headwaters are supplied by springs which evidently de-
rive their supply from the same source as the artesian wells near San
Antonio, since the flow of the river has decreased materially since
these wells have been put down. The San Antonio River receives a
considerable increase of flow from the creeks running into it, as well
as from springs and seepage from the banks. A few irrigation
plants are also located along the Leona River, as well as along several
of the other smaller creeks and streams.
LAKES.
Lakes are not numerous throughout the country, the chain of lakes
through Zavalla and Dimmit counties being the most important in
that part of the State. These are, however, of comparatively small
capacity and will be discussed later.
WELLS.
The wells in the neighborhood of San Antonio are among the best
in existence, the water being found as a rule in caverns in the rocks.
The flow from the wells is limited only by the friction in the casing,
and is hardly affected by friction in the ground itself. The strata
of water-bearing sand generally found in other parts of the district
in question as a rule offer considerable resistance to the flow of water,
owing to the fineness of the sand. The majority of the wells through-
out the State obtain their water from strata of Sand, though in many
cases water is also found in the porous sand rock, where the flow is
generally not great. Very few strata of good coarse sand and water-
bearing gravel are found. However, some of the country in Uvalde
County, where the various rivers issue from the mountains, has good
indications of considerable possibilities in the way of pumped wells.
The water flowing near the heads of these streams sinks into the
ground farther on, apparently flowing through strata of coarse
gravel, which would furnish an excellent supply for wells. As yet
almost nothing has been done to develop this supply. The water-
works well near Uvalde is an excellent indication of the possibilities
in this direction.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 355
Many strata of salt and alkaline water are encountered in well-
boring which would be totally unfio for irrigation purposes. The
general slope of the country is southeast toward the Gulf, and the
water strata also slope in the same direction, being on a steeper grade
than the surface of the land. The result of this is that in order to
tap the same stratum of water the nearer the coast the deeper are the
wells, but at the same time the greater are the possibilities of obtain-
ing an artesian flow. Alkaline artesian water has been obtained in
many places, but owing to this quality the wells have been abandoned.
The artesian district in Texas is unusually large and a great deal of
money has been invested in boring wells in attempting to find arte-
sian water. There seems to be a remarkable fascination about the
idea of obtaining water in this manner without pumping. While of
course this is highly desirable, still the fact should not be lost sight
of that it would be well to investigate the possibilities of obtaining
good pumped water, and further, that the expense of an artesian well,
usually great, may not justify the expenditure where the flow is small.
ARTESIAN IDISTRICTS.
There are four distinct artesian districts already discovered in
southwestern Texas: (1) San Antonio and vicinity; (2) King, Ken-
nedy, Armstrong, and LaSater ranches; (3) Carizzo Springs district,
and (4) wells near Inez and in the country near Port Lavaca.
The artesian field near San Antonio has rather a limited area, but
from the water-supply standpoint is superior to any of the others. A
12-inch well bored by the waterworks at San Antonio delivered
6,000,000 gallons per day at the ground level. A static pressure of
40 feet in this well was all used up in overcoming friction in the 600
to 800 feet of casing, according to both figures and actual measure-
ments, as will be described later. Mr. Judson of the San Antonio
waterworks devised a unique and interesting method of measuring
the flow of water in this well. A bottle containing an aniline dye had
attached to its stopper a dynamite cartridge which could be set off
by electricity. This was placed a given distance down the well and
touched off. The explosion blew the stopper out of the bottle, liber-
ating the aniline dye, which then was carried up by the stream of
water. Time was taken by a stop watch and the period which
elapsed between the firing of the cartridge and the appearance of the
dye at the surface was noted. The length and size of pipe being
known, the velocity of the water and hence the rate of flow was deter-
mined.
Some of the wells near San Antonio are situated at too high a level
to flow without pumping. The static level of the water in the ground
appears to be practically uniform for the artesian area, which in
356 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
itself indicates that there must be very free and open communication
in the underground passages through which the water flows. The
depth of the cavities in which the water is found in the rock varies
from 6 inches to 13 feet. Some of the wells, however, which are bored
where the rock strata are more dense, obtain their water from the
porous formation of rock, and the flow into these is of course limited,
owing to the friction in the ground.
The most extensive artesian belt in Texas is found in the lower por-
tion of Nueces County and in the northern parts of Cameron, Hidalgo,
and Starr counties. The known artesian territory runs about 100
miles north and south and 50 miles east and west, starting about 19
miles south of Alice and running practically to the coast. No arte-
sian water has been obtained at Alice, the elevation being too high.
About 19 miles south of Alice the first artesian wells are to be found.
These, however, are of small flow, owing to the low head. Going far-
ther south the wells increase considerably in their flow as the level of
the land falls off. Wells in this district are usually started with
about 6-inch or 54%-inch casing, and will vary in flow from 50 to 300
gallons per minute, and are 100 to 1,500 feet deep. Artesian water is
found in fine brown sand beds, varying in thickness from a few feet
to 40 feet.
The Carrizo Springs artesian district is 32 miles long by 8 miles
wide, running northwest and southeast. The wells in the Southeast-
erly part have the greater capacity and are deeper, varying in depth
from 300 to 800 feet. The casing is 5% inches to 10 inches in diame-
ter at the start. The average flow will vary from 40 to 300 gallons
per minute, only about two wells in this part of the country exceeding
this limit.
Near Inez, on the Keeran ranch, there are several Small artesian
wells, from which flow can be obtained at a depth of 50 to 300 feet.
About Edna and Louise there has been considerable development in
artesian wells, but this is outside the scope of these investigations.
Artesian wells of limited capacity are also to be found in the northern
part of Refugio County. At Encinal, Laselle County, artesian
wells have been put down, which, however, have very small output.
Near Pleasanton there is also a small artesian belt.
SPRINGS.
The headwaters of San Antonio River have their sources in springs.
In the city of San Antonio are also the San Pedro springs, which
supply water to an irrigation ditch. The springs of the Comal River
at New Braunfels have already been mentioned. Some of the largest
springs in this district are near Del Rio. The water from these is
utilized for irrigation by the Del Rio Irrigation Company. One of
the springs has a flow of about 40,000 gallons per minute and
IHRIG ATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 357
another about 15,000 gallons per minute. Two miles west of Del Rio
are also the Cienegas springs, with a capacity of 2,500 gallons per
minute. Some distance to the east of Del Rio, on the Southern
Pacific road, are also other springs owned by the Del Rio Irrigation
Company, which supply water to Pinto and Sycamore creeks.
IDAMS.
Very little has been done as yet with the storage of water by dams.
Numerous small dirt dams have been erected in the past to store
water for cattle, but, being provided with insufficient spillways, most
of them have washed out. There are only two dams of any impor-
tance for irrigation purposes, one of which is near Port Lavaca,
owned by Ross Clark, and an earth dam about 0.5 mile long and 8
feet high, details of which will be given later (p. 383). This was first
laid out with a spillway which consisted of merely a cut in the clay
bank. A heavy rain cut this out so badly that all the water retained
by the dam was lost. After this experience the cut was filled in with
earth and a wooden spillway arranged in the center of the long
embankment. This dam is thrown across the mouth of a draw, and
receives its water from rainfall alone.
The other dam is on the Nueces River, near Carrizo Springs, and
was constructed by J. S. Taylor. It is a rock-filled crib dam with
earth backing, which raises the water 28 feet, and serves in part for
storage and in part for elevating the water sufficiently to irrigate the
land without pumping. (See p. 456.)
There are several places where dams could be constructed to excel-
lent advantage to catch the run-off from the land. The rainfall is
sufficiently great to be made of much benefit in this manner, as a fairly
large annual average can be safely relied upon. However, one of the
Imost important considerations in the erection of dams is the provision
of an ample spillway, the necessity for which is particularly brought
out by the heavy rains which are liable to occur. Many schemes have
been made for the construction of shallow reservoirs in certain parts
of the country where the high rate of evaporation in the summer
months would of necessity preclude their construction.
METHOD OF BORING WIELLS.
Hydraulic rigs are greatly in favor for well boring in Nueces
County and in the country farther south, where the strata are for the
most part Soft and little rock is encountered. Considerable speed
may be obtained with the hydraulic rigs now in use, and wells are
put down at very moderate cost. The method generally employed is
to use a straight bit, which will bore a hole slightly larger than the
casing, the bit being driven by about a 2-inch pipe. Attached to the
358 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
upper end of this pipe is a swivel joint. The weight of the bit and
drill pipe are taken in part by ball bearings supported from above.
The pipe terminates near the bit in two small holes, each of which
is pointed, so that a stream of water which is forced down the pipe
will play on the cutting edge of the bit. A pump supplies a constant
stream of water to the well through the drill pipe. The same water
is caught again where it overflows the top of the well and used con-
tinuously for pumping. In order to prevent caving of the sand beds
through which the wells pass, this water is saturated with clay and
penetrates a considerable distance into the water strata, thus walling
them off and preventing undue leakage of the water which is pumped
down the well. It is customary to raise the drill pipe a few feet at
night on ceasing work. Unlike many systems of well boring, it is
not necessary to continue work day and night. A pressure gauge is
attached to the supply pipe leading to the drill pipe, indicating the
water pressure therein. By the way in which the drill turns, as well
as by the sudden change in Water pressure in the gauge, the driller can
tell when he strikes artesian water. After the completion of the hole
the casing is let down, and usually a strainer of some kind is after-
wards put down through the casing. With a 6-inch well in the ordi-
nary strata encountered, sand and clay, a crew can make from 20 to
40 feet of hole per day of twelve hours. The log of the well is told in
part by the material brought up by the clay water and in part by the
movements of the drill rod. However, when a well gets to be of any
material depth it is usually a matter of fifteen minutes to half an hour
before the material from the bottom is carried up by the water, and
this, coupled with the fact that it is mixed in with the heavy clay
water, would be apt to place Some doubt on the results obtained.
This method of drilling, while applicable to soft strata, is entirely
unsuited where much rock is encountered. In other sections of the
country the ordinary drop drill is commonly used, together with a
sand pump for removing the débris.
Still another method of drilling is to put a heavy steel shoe with
saw teeth on the bottom of the casing, which itself is revolved. Water
is forced down the casing through a swivel joint and comes up on the
outside, carrying the cuttings with it. This has been used successfully
where very hard rock formations have been encountered, but is rather
an expensive method.
STRAINERS.
The following strainers have been used in wells: The most com-
mon sort is a piece of pipe of a size to fit inside the casing, 20 to 30
feet long with one-half inch or three-eighths inch holes drilled in the
part penetrating the water-bearing stratum (fig. 49). The holes are
usually spaced about 2 or 3 inches apart in the circumference of the
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 359
pipe and from 6 inches to 1 foot between the rows of holes. The
bottom of this strainer is landed in clay at the lower side of the water-
bearing stratum and the top projects up into the casing of the well.
Sometimes the space between the casing and the strainer is plugged
up, but usually this is not done. The idea of putting in a strainer
smaller than the well is in order to pull it out should it become
stopped up. As a matter of fact, it is apt to be quite difficult to do
this, and consequently the result is mainly to restrict the area of the
pipe and cause additional resistance to the entrance of water. Many
of these strainers were originally covered with thin copper gauze over
the holes. This, however, was not usually successful, the gauze being
very weak mechanically and apt to stop up.
Strainers of the kind referred to above can not properly be classed
as strainers and the well will partake more of the nature of an open-
bottom well. Obviously,
with one-half or three- -
eighths inch holes no º v
strainer action against
sand will be possible. The
sand will fill up the lower º
part of the casing and ſ
%

O
O
the water will issue into . | .
the casing through the E. S. E====
upper holes only, the ve- =========|o.3 E===
locity through the lower jºi===#2; E=====<
holes being insufficient to ; §:#; §: =#: t
carry the sand off. §: §
Some wells in Nueces ;|:::#;
County were put down % * , }hº
without strainers, and, as
a gener al rule, alth ough FIG. 49 —Strainer ***.ºwns lower part filled
the bed of clay above the
artesian sand was exceedingly thick, yet the clay was of such poor qual-
ity or else the casing of the wells were put down in such a way that
caving ensued and the wells became more or less plugged up. This is
not the universal experience, however, in that section of country
and may be attributed to the fact that the casing was stopped at the
wrong point, being too low down in the water-bearing stratum,
instead of being stopped at the surface of the same. The result of
this would be that the well would throw an enormous amount of sand
and there would be increased possibility of caving. This may be seen
by reference to figures 50 and 51, in which figure 50 represents a well
casing stopping at the top of the stratum, showing the pool which will
form underneath in the sand, and figure 51 represents a well with the
casing too far down, showing the large amount of Sand which must
360 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
p
be thrown out in the natural course of the flow of the well. Figure 49
represents the conditions of the strainers above mentioned, showing
the method in which the bottom would fill up with sand and merely
the top holes be useful for admitting water to the casing. Of course,
were the clay to cave there would be more possibility of stopping up
the bottom of the casing itself if small than numerous small holes
inside, some of which
would still throw wa-
ter, but the fact remains
that the use of this
kind of strainer is not
more liable to prevent
caving than the use of
3, open-bottom wells prop-
#:#; erly installed, although
§ it may prevent the to-
*- /
*
tº e & e
* s: *.*:
g
• * ~ *
• * * * * ©
tº º e º
• *
§ tal plugging up of the
§ well in event of caving.
§: It would certainly be
§ §º advisable to put more
FIG. 50.-Open-bottom well properly put down. holes in these strainers,
especially near the top
of the water-bearing stratum, in order to cause less throttling to the
entrance of water.
Strainers have been used to a limited extent which have been made
up in the following manner: A piece of pipe was drilled with many
small holes, and copper wire was then wrapped tightly around it, the
convolution being wound as close as possible and soldered in four or
five places on the outside circumference in lines parallel to the axis of
the pipe, as shown in figure
52. The use of these strain-
ers, it is claimed, gave good
results.
Another form of strainer
was made by utilizing a
similar piece of pipe with
drilled holes. Copper wire
was then wrapped around
the pipe, leaving an interval between the convolutions, and over this
bräSS wire gauze was used which was soldered in a similar manner in
longitudinal rows (see fig. 53). This is also said to be effective.
A new form of strainer recently brought out is made by taking a
joint of pipe, drilling holes in the same, and wrapping the pipe with
special copper wire of trapezoidal shape, as in figure 54. A small
space is left between the convolutions of the wire, which is soldered
FIG. 51.-Open-bottom well improperly put down.
t


IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 361
in longitudinal rows to give it increased strength. The wire is wound
with the shorter leg of the trapezoid inside and the longer leg outside,
the result being a taper opening for the water to pass through, so
that particles which start to go into the casing will, in all probability,
continue through. This appears to be
founded on the correct principle, although
its practical use will have to be judged by
experience. -
There are certain points which should be š
combined in a successful strainer as follows: #
(1) It should be of such mechanical strength
that it will not be injured in being put down
the well or by possible action of the water on
the same.
(2) It should have openings which increase
in size toward the inside of the strainer in
order that particles of dirt which start
through the opening will be carried all the
way through and will not plug up the holes.
(3) While its
openings should be
of sufficient size to
admit the water,
still they should
keep out the sand,
Or at least allow a FIG.52-Strainer covered with
sufficient quantity of copper wire.
the coarser sand to work around the strainer
to serve as an adjunct to the strainer itself.
(4) It should present as little resistance
as possible to the entrance of water. In
order for this condition to be fulfilled the
strainer should of course be of as large a
diameter and as long as possible. The re-
sistance to the flow of water from the well is
what limits the output of the well, be it arte-
sian or pumped. This resistance is made up
in part of friction in the pipe, which can be
figured from the length of the casing; in
part of friction in the entrance to the casing,
, and in part of friction in the ground lead-
ing to the casing. The first is dependent upon the size of well used;
the Second on the strainer and the diameter and length thereof, as
well as on the nature of the ground immediately surrounding the
same, and the third on the quality and thickness of the water-bearing
S
g
s
copper wire and gauze.





362 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
strata. The coarser the sand and gravel the greater the ease with
which the water will be transmitted and the better the indications for
wells, other conditions remaining the same.
COST OF BORING.
The cost of well boring in Nueces County, where the strata are soft
and hydraulic rigs are used, is about $1 per foot without casing, for
6-inch wells up to 1,000 feet. In the vicinity of San Antonio 12-inch
wells up to about the same limit cost about $7 per foot, casing in-
cluded. In Refugio County, where the strata are exceedingly hard
and hydraulic rigs which revolve in the casing are used, the cost is
about $1 per inch diameter per foot up to
1,000 feet. Thus, a 12-inch well would cost
complete about $12 a foot, including casing.
In many parts of the country 6-inch wells
are bored for about 50 cents a foot up to 100
feet.
In sinking a deep artesian well it is almost
universally the case that many strata pervious
to water are passed through. In some of these
the hydrostatic pressure will be insufficient to
cause the wells to flow, and hence, provided a
free passage is formed between strata of dif-
ferent pressure or between a pervious stratum
which has no water and another stratum
wherein the water stands above the level of
the pervious stratum, there will be, of course,
a flow from the stratum of higher hydro-
static head into the other stratum. Provided
the hydrostatic head of highest value is re-
duced by flow down to the head of other
- -> ... strata in connection, there would be no ex-
**.*.*.* change of water. Provided the hydrostatic
head of highest water pressure is lowered
still further, water will flow into the well from the other strata,
which here will become useful in supplying water to the well,
whereas in the first case considered they would be of a decided dis-
advantage because of the leakage of water between strata, which is
consequently lost. This exchange or leakage of water between strata
of different pressures is apt to be a matter of considerable moment
in case of wells. Provided the hydraulic level of the water enter-
ing the well is above the hydraulic level of various strata encoun-
tered, then it is obviously important to cut off both from the well
casing and from communication outside the casing all strata with
too low hydrostatic pressure. The most effective and in fact prob-
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IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 363
ably the only way to accomplish this result is to make sure that the
well casing has a water-tight joint between itself and the ground in
Such a way as to shut off all undesirable strata. It is perhaps an open
question as to how much the clay or other strata in a well will close
in around the easing if the same has been loosely set therein. Pro-
vided there were no constant flow of water tending to keep the chan-
nel open between the casing and the clay, the latter would undoubt-
edly sooner or later settle in and make an absolutely tight joint. But
with considerable pressure difference between two connecting water
strata it is quite possible that there may be considerable leakage of
water which will keep up continuously. As evidence bearing on this
question may be mentioned the fact that in the oil fields in various
parts of the country many of the wells have been ruined by leakage
of water into the oil owing to the drillers not having landed the
casing properly and shut off communication between different strata.
Nor is this action apt to be confined to one well. There are cases on
record where entire fields have been greatly damaged by wells badly
put down, the leakage of water into the oil of one well coming up
in other wells. That this same thing will occur in artesian wells,
causing possibly serious loss of water, there can be little room to
doubt. The quantitive value, however, is a thing which there is
little means of judging. Suppose the hydrostatic pressure in the
artesian stratum is sufficient to elevate the water 10 feet above the
ground level and that the water pressure due to some of the strata
through which the well has to pass is such that the water stands 50
feet below the ground surface. Then there would be 60 feet differ-
ence of pressure, with the well shut off, between the two water strata,
water tending to cause the artesian stratum to flow into the other.
With the well flowing, if indeed it did flow, owing to the loss of water
in the ground not being too great, suppose that 5 feet static pressure
are necessary to account for the flow in the well pipe and into the
casing and that the other 5 feet pressure are lost in the ground due
to friction of the water flowing to supply the well and the leakage.
Then there will still be a difference of 55 feet static pressure, tending
to cause an exchange of water between the artesian and the other
water-bearing stratum. It would certainly appear that this had
a fair chance of keeping the channel open on the outside of the casing
and preventing the clay closing in around it, as it should do in order
to get full benefit from the well and cut off the harmful effects of
leakage. It has been reported to be the experience in many parts of
Nueces County that the closing down of wells by throttling or shut-
ting off entirely the supply, if continued for any length of time, will
diminish the quantity of water which the well is capable of throwing
when opened wide. This may be due either to settlement of the sand
in the bottom of the well or possibly to changes in the strata through
364 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
which the water is passing, due to decreased flow, or else the increased
pressure at the bottom of the well will cause an enlargement of the
leakage area on the outside of the casing. In fact, in certain wells
in Texas which have only limited pressure to cause artesian flow,
when the well is shut off the water will follow up the casing and even
appear on the outside at the surface. In view of these facts it is
certainly advisable to use precautions to make a tight joint between
the casing and the sides of the well hole. In the country near Carizzo
Springs, where a considerable quantity of rock is encountered in the
wells, cement has been occasionally used for this purpose, being put
down between the well hole and casing. Some precaution of this
kind is practically necessary in order to prevent leakage where there is
no clay in the well which would make a tight joint with the casing.
The supply of artesian water, like the supply of surface water, is
of course limited in quantity, and there is every reason why proper
precaution should be taken to prevent undue loss and to draw there-
from only what is needed. It is perhaps useless to talk economy
until the necessity for the same begins to be felt, but the fact remains
that it is a matter of public interest to take some means to throttle
or shut off the water from wells when the full supply is not needed.
The increased demand on the ground supply due to the growing
number of wells will sooner or later have its effect on the hydrostatic
pressure, and hence on the quantity of water available. -
FUEL.
The fuels available in Southwestern Texas are coal, oil, mesquite,
and oak. Of these, mesquite is the most widely used for irrigation
pumping. Roughly speaking, the fuel value of dry wood is propor-
tional to its weight. The moisture in the wood, however, which may
form a large percentage of its weight, is detrimental to its fuel value.
Mesquite, according to figures of the Brownsville Land and Irriga-
tion Company, weighs 3,700 pounds per cord. This weight was ob-
tained from a cord closely stacked, a condition which may be regarded
as not usually adhered to. Mesquite is so plentiful that the supply
for the operation of a pumping station is commonly obtained from
the land of the owner, in which case the cost of same is figured merely
as the cost of cutting and hauling. A large supply is obtained from
clearing and grubbing the land, some parts of the country yielding
about 10 cords to the acre. In the valley of Guadalupe River consid-
erable bottom oak is used for fuel. This wood is regarded as in-
ferior to mesquite. - -
In the territory investigated oil was used only to a limited extent,
the principal companies using it being the Victoria Land and Irriga-
tion Company and the Ross Clark plant, near Port Lavaca. Even in
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. 365
the vicinity of San Antonio the use of fuel oil is limited. The water-
works station there recently changed from oil and returned to the use
of coal. The Beaumont and Saur Lake districts are the principal
oil fields of the State. The price of oil at the wells has been subject
to wide fluctuations, varying from 8 to 80 cents a barrel.
Most of the Texas coal is of the lignite variety and of low thermal
efficiency. The table below gives cost and efficiency of several of the
grades of coal commonly used in the State. The British thermal
units per pound of fuel represent the total heat units available from
perfect combustion in that quantity of fuel. However, perfect com-
bustion is never obtained, and consequently considerable heat goes to
waste. The practical efficiency of a fuel depends on the amount of
heat which the boiler is able to extract from a pound of fuel, and this
in turn depends on the completeness of the combustion and on the
various other factors involving boiler efficiency. The commercial
efficiency is not proportional to the British thermal units per pound,
owing largely to the variation in the percentages of complete combus-
tion. The degree to which the latter is attained is largely dependent
upon making the construction of the boiler suitable to fuel that is to
be burned. - -
In the table the relative boiler efficiency represents the relative
efficiencies of various fuels when burnt under a boiler in quantities
sufficient to supply an equal number of theoretical heat units. These
values, and also the relative fuel values, by weight, are based on the
use of fuel for the boilers of locomotives. From what has been said
upon this subject, evidently these quantities are approximate, depend-
ing on the type of boiler employed, but they still serve as a guide
in the selection of fuel. If the plant to be operated is of considerable
size the saving in labor of firemen by the use of oil is a point worthy
of consideration. -
Mesquite makes a very hot fire, and unless proper precautions are
taken in the designing of a fire box it is liable to reduce the life of the
boiler considerably.
366 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Cost and fuel value of coal.



É Analysis of fuel. § # - É sº §§
tº ää # | * t- § 3; ##|35
*::::: *|Quality. Kind. # | #3 |##| 5 || : ă șg|#####
2. rc o | cº-º d ++ # 335| #3 º
# * | 35 || 3 | E. ..? d 3 ºf sº sº;
O J: o 8 TE O dº dº º 'º q) P-
O § P- 5 || 3 || 3 || 3 ||3° F : B |
B. T. U. -
$1 sº P. ct. P. ct.| P. ct, P. ct, P. ct. per lb. P. ct. P. ct.|Tons
McAlester, UBitumi. Jº - X: * t
Ind.T. }º § #} ºf & 1 to 2 | toº |1310|| 0 || 0 | 1.0
- Lump 1.85
Lºshina. } do...!. 1.65 |} 40 40 4.5 |3 to 4 || 13 | 11,900 87 || 86 | 1.33
º ; #;
Thurber, ſlr = -s ump *
* |}Lignite-RM. R.-- 2.05 57 32 1 to 2 1 9'-------------------- 1.33,
Tex. } §: 1.00
iº.” ---do ---- #5 *; § l (c) (c) (c) (*) (*) --------|------------|------
agle PaSS, - ump - tº
Tex. ..do----|{{...} £55 || 42 35 | 10 4 || 9 || 10,300 | 75 80 | 1.67
Mºde,
€Y.
Calver t , --do ------------ .90-1.00 ------------|--------------------|--------|------|------ 2.00
TeX. - -
Rºdale, ---do---------------------- 37 37 l 18 7 6. 200 45 ------------
€X.
Lytle, Tex--|---do ----|--------|---------- 19 60 ------- 13 8 4,800 35 ------|------
Carr -------- ---do ----|------------------ 37 41 1 13 8 6,900 50 ------|------
Laredo, TeX.]---do ----|--------|---------- 39 51 1 2 7 8,500 62 ------|------
a M. R.—Mine I*UIIl. b At El Paso. c No analysis obtainable; about same as Thurber. .”
Beaumont crude oil at the wells has sold for 8 to 80 cents per bar-
rel of 42 gallons (310 pounds per barrel), the present price being
45 to 55 cents per barrel. Analysis of same shows 84.6 per cent
carbon, 10.9 per cent hydrogen, 1.6 per cent sulphur, 2.9 per cent
oxygen. The calorific value, B. T. U., per pound is 19,100. The
relative calorific value per pound referred to McAlester coal is 1.39
per cent. The relative boiler efficiency is 1.32 per cent. Three and
one-half barrels of oil are considered the equivalent of 1 ton Mc-
Alester coal. - -
Mesquite and oak are the principal woods for fuel. They cost 60
cents to $2.50 per cord. Oak weighs 3,500 pounds per cord and mes-
quite 3,000 to 3,700 pounds, depending upon the moisture, the size of
the timber, and the closeness with which it is stacked. The calorific
value of these woods is about 4,500 B. T. U. per pound. The relative
calorific value compared with McAlester coal is 33 per cent. The
relative boiler efficiency is 58 per cent. Three cords of oak and 2.8
to 3.5 cords of mesquite are considered equivalent to 1 ton McAlester
coal.
The following table gives present freight rates on fuel in Texas as
established by the railroad commission. The rates on coal are per ton
of 2,000 pounds; on wood, per cord, and on oil, per barrel of 42 gal-
lons, weight 310 pounds, oil being assumed to be 7.4 pounds per gallon.
The rates are all for carload lots. The minimum carload of coal
is 20 tons; of wood, 30-foot cars 8 cords, 32-foot cars 9 cords, 34-foot
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs.
367
cars 10 cords, over 34-foot cars 12 cords; of oil over broad-gauge
roads, 123 barrels. Two classes of rates are given. No. 1 applies to
shipments transported over a single line of railroad or over two or
more lines of railroad under the same management and control. No.
2 applies to shipments transported over two or more lines of railroad
which are not under the same management and control.
Table of freight rates.
Distance and rate. .
Rind of fuel. 6 miles. 10 miles. 30 miles. 100 miles. 200 miles.
Rate Rate Rate|Ratel Rate Ratel Rate Rate|Ratel Rate
1. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2. 1. . . 2. 1. 2.
Soft coal except slack, Smithing . . . . . . *
coal, and coke----------------------|-------|------|------|------ $0.55 30.70 $0.90 ($1.05 ($1.40 ($1.55
Anthracite ---------------------------|-------------|------|------ .605; .77 iſ .99 || 1.155||1.54 || 1.705
Slack coal ----------------------------|-------|------|------|------ .40 .55 .75 .90 | 1.25 | 1.40
Lignite and lignite briquettes-------|-------------------|------ .32 .47 | .60 .75 .91 1.06
Wood------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> -- - - j - - - - - - - - - - - - - $0.50 ($0.90 .70 | 1.03 | 1.25 | 1.40 | 1.80 | 1.95
Oil------------------------------------ wonº wº .093 - 14 j . 14 .186 .217 ** * .31
Distance and rate. º -
Rind of fuel. 300 miles | 400 miles. 500 miles. 600 miles. 100 miles.
. Rate Rate Rate Rate Rate Rate Rate | Rate Rate Rate
1. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2. '1. # 2. 1. 2.
soft ğaº slack, Smithing $1.90 ($2.05 ($2.27 $2.37 $2.67 Š2 $3.10 S3.20 ($3 60 $3.70
CO81, 8,1101 COke---------------------- º 'º - e. º * . 37 S2.67 S2. 77 &#. - ... 7
Anthracite--------------------------- 2.09 2.255 2.497 2.607 2.937 3.047 3.41 3.52 || 3.96 || 4.07
Slack coal ---------------------------- 1.75 | 1.90 2.17 2.27 2.57 2.67 3.00 || 3. 10 || 3.50 3.60
Lignite and lignite briquettes-------| 1.23 | 1.38 1.54 1.64 || 1.86 1.96 || 2.17 2.27 2.29 2,39
W900-------------------------------- 2.50 | 2.70 || 3.25 | 3.30 3.75 3.75 || 4.00 4.00 || 4.00 || 4.00
Oi!-----------------------------------. .356 .356 º .418 .48 .511 .511 .511 .511 .511




In addition to the rates quoted in the table, the following are a few
special carload rates per ton of coal:
Eagle Pass to El Paso - - - --------------------
Eagle Pass to Saguin-------------------------------------
Eagle Pass to San Antonio--------------------------------
Hartz to San Antonio---------------------------- --------
Minera and Cannel to Laredo-----------------------i-----
Rio Bravo mines to San Antonio--------------------------
Dolchburg (Rio Bravo) and Hartz mines to Eagle Pass.----
Lytle to San Antonio–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
368 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
Rates on coal change every 10 miles of haul, the rate quoted for 30
miles being the minimum. The rate on oil between Beaumont and
Galveston is 18.6 cents per barrel. Special rates per cord on wood
are as follows: . .
Galveston, Houston, and San Antonio road, Pierson and
intermediate points to San Antonio (except where mileage
rates are less)----------------------------------------- $1.00
San Antonio and Aransas Pass road:
Serbin, Winchester, West Point, Rock Island, Cheetham,
Sublime, and Dilworth, Lockhart, and intermediate
points to San Antonio------------------------------ 1. 50
Cheetham and intermediate points to Corpus Christi
(eXcept where mileage rates are less) --------------- 1. 50
Altair to San Antonio-------------------------------- 1.50
The freight rate on coal from McAlester, Ind. T., to Denison, Tex.,
is 90 cents per ton. From Lehigh, Ind. T., to Denison, Tex., the rate
is 70 cents per ton. *. -
Rates on wood are made for 10, 15, and 20 miles; then every 10
miles up to 100; then every 20 miles up to 300; then every 30 miles
up to 400; then every 50 miles up to 500. Rates on oil are quoted
for 6, 10, 15, and 20 miles; then every 10 miles up to 60; then every
20 miles up to 100; then every 25 miles up to 250; then every 50 miles
up to 550. -
WATER CONDUITS IN USE.
The majority of the canals in use in Texas, particularly the large
ones, are built exceedingly wide for the depth. The earth which
forms the banks of the canal when same is not in a cut is usually
taken from borrow pits. Sometimes, as in the case of the Browns-
ville Land and Irrigation Company, these borrow pits are on the
inside of the canal. (See p. 441.) As is seen, the dirt is not taken
from the entire bottom, which hence presents additional surface for
friction to flowing water. Of course, in the course of time these
borrow pits will fill up with sediment. In several other plants,
however, large borrow pits have been made on the outside of the canal,
either for dirt to form the banks or to raise the grade of the canal.
This is a practice which is usually to be condemned, as much valuable
land is wasted thereby in addition to rendering the land impassable
for vehicles, except in certain places, although this latter consideration
is possibly of secondary importance. In one instance which the
writer recalls there was a space fully 50 feet wide on each side of the
canal absolutely ruined in this way. If the dirt for the construction
of the ditch had been obtained by going back some distance from the
ditch and taking a uniform layer off the ground, instead of taking
it all out in a lump, this land would have been as good as ever and a
IRRIG ATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 369
considerable saving would have been made. Moreover, it presents a
most unattractive appearance to see the land all cut up in this way,
though perhaps this is not as appealing to most people as the idea
of pecuniary loss. º
The work of irrigation in many parts of this country is compara-
tively new, and many people entering the field have had no experience
before in work of this nature. As a consequence, many of the canals
are constructed with exceedingly weak banks, coming almost to a
point on top, with the water level entirely too close to the top of the
bank for safety. These are continually breaking and causing a large
amount of trouble and expense. It is poor policy to put in work in
this manner. A ditch should always be constructed with the banks
amply wide and a safe distance between the water level and the top
of the canal bank. These are things, however, which will, of course,
come in time and with experience. Canals should be built on such
a slope as to give sufficiently high velocity to the water to prevent
the accumulation of Sediment and the tendency to plant growth.
At the same time the velocity should not be high enough to cut.
About 2.5 feet per second is usually considered a good velocity for
flow. There is a natural tendency with beginners in irrigation to
attempt to make the slope of banks entirely too steep. Of course,
the slope which can be given depends largely upon the nature of the
ground, and in the softer earths 2 to 1 on the outside and 3 to 1 on
the inside may usually be regarded as about as steep as good practice
will permit. The result of using a steeper slope, particularly on the
inside, is that caving will ensue from the wash of water.
WOODEN FLUMES.
Wooden flumes are not much used in this country, as there is very
little demand for them, owing to the level nature of the ground. Their
principal use has been in conveying water from the pump stations
to the canals, where some form of conduit was necessary. Even
here more expensive earth fills have frequently been made to avoid
the trouble of building and maintaining flumes. There are several
cases where more careful selections of sites for pump stations would
have been of material benefit in the construction of the canal system
and would have avoided the use of either wooden flumes or expensive
fills. These flumes are always a source of more or less trouble and of
high depreciation, particularly where they are alternately wet and dry,
in which case it is very difficult to keep them tight. In some instances
they are being lined with tin or galvanized iron to make them water-
tight. This should give good results and will doubtless be well worth
the additional expense.
30620–No. 158—05—24
370 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
There is great variation in the timber frames supporting the flumes,
some having many times the requisite amount of material and others
being so light that the flumes seem to be in imminent danger of col-
lapse. It should be borne in mind that if a flume is to remain water-
tight it should be well supported, in order that the spring of the tim-
bers may not cause a leak. -
wooDEN PIPE.
No wooden pipe whatever is in use in this region. It would cer.
tainly pay irrigators to investigate this subject in connection with
plants where the quantity of water delivered is large. For handling
AEO
//o
/22
390
4/5
A/~ce 2er Z/oza/ /*ao? of A^e Zo 42O//3/5. *
FIG. 55.—Cóst of Wooden Stave pipe.
small quantities of water it is of course out of the question. Even
though more expensive, it would be advisable in many instances to
install stations with pipe leading from pumping stations to the ditch
rather than to use the flume construction now practiced. The pipe
for this purpose should of course be sufficiently large to obviate the
friction loss of head and could be made of steel or wood, depending
upon the size of the pipe.







IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 3.71
The following table represents the approximate cost of redwood-
stave pipe in Texas (figs. 55 and 56). Wooden pipe built of pine
could be constructed for about one-third less than the figures given
below: *
Cost of redwood stave pipe in Teazas.
Cost per foot of wooden pipe, inside diameter of
Pressure w a; g o, ai w; a; o, a; g É §
# # # # # # | # # # | 3 || 5 || 5
3 || 3 || 3 || 3 || 3 || 3 || s | 3 || 3 || 3 || 5 || 3
oº: $0.58 in $2.65 $3.75 $4.90 $6.15 $7.35 $8.70 |310.00 ($11.30 $12
- * * * * * * * * .58 $0.98 || $1. . 65 $3.75 || $4. 6.15 $7.35 $8. .00 ($11.30 $12.75
20–30 --------- .65 | 1.10 sº 3.00 4.20 5.50 || 7.00 8.35 9.85 11.30 || 12.95 14.50
30–40 --------- . 72 1. 20 2.10 | 3.25 4.70 || 6. 20 7.75 | 9.45 11.10 12.80 14. 55 | 16. 40
40–50 --------- .79 | 1.30 2.25 3.50 5.00 6.75 8.50 10.35 12.20 14.20 16.15 18.15
50–60 --------- .86 | 1.40 2.40 || 3.80 5.50 7.30 9.30 || 11.35 | 13. 40 15.50 17.70 || 20.00
70--------- .93 | 1.50 | 2, 60 4.10 6.00 | 8.00 10.15 12.40 14.70 17.00 | 19.00 22.00
70–80 --------- 1.00 | 1.62 2.75 4.35 6.40 || 8.50 10.90 13.25 15.70 | 18.35 | 21.00 23.70
90 --------- 1. 10 1.74 2.95 4.65 6.75 9. 10 || 11.70 || 14.30 17.00 | 19.80 22.70 || 25.70
90–100 -------- 1.21 | 1.86 3.15 4.95 || 7.20 9.75 12.50 | 15. 35 ; 18.30 21.30 24.40 27.60
100–120 -------- 1.33 | 1.98 || 3.35 5. 30 || 7.85 10.75 13.95 17.20 20. 50 24.00 27.60 31.30
120–140 -------- 1.46 2. 14 || 3. 55 5.70 || 8.50 11.70 || 15.20 | 18.80 22.55 26.50 || 30.75 35.00
140–160 -------- 1.59 2.32 3.75 5.00 || 9. 10 12.70 | 16. 55 | 20.70 || 24.9%) 29.30 || 34.00 39.00–
160–180 -------- 1.62 2.50 4.00 || 6.35 | 9.70 || 13. 50 17.75 22.30 26.80 31.80 37.00 42.50
180–200 -------- 1 2.70 || 4, 30 6.80 | 10.30 14.50 | 19.00 24.90 29.00 34.40 | 40.00 46.10
Wooden pipe when properly installed is subject to very little
depreciation. It should be set in such a manner that the entire inner
AeC)
Z/62
A632
J.5"
A-ſce Axe- Z/7e5/ /öor of Ape ſo ZX2//arx
FIG. 56.—Cost of wooden stave pipe.
surface will always be kept wet. Manufacturers of wooden pipe
claim that redwood pipe under good conditions should last fifty years
and even under quite unfavorable conditions at least twenty-five
years. This would give an average annual depreciation rate of 3
per cent. Pipe built of pine is subject to much more rapid deprecia-

372 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
tion, its life being approximately fifteen years under similar condi-
tions, which would signify a 7 per cent depreciation. Experience
with wooden pipe leads to the conclusion that a pipe not buried will
last longer than one which is buried only a few inches to a foot below
the surface of the ground, due to the action of roots and brush on the
wood. The life of pipe may be much prolonged by burying the top
at least 5 feet below the surface. Exposed wooden pipe is more liable
to damage by fire or maliciously inclined people than were it covered
with earth. - -
One great advantage of wooden pipe over metal is the increased
carrying capacity due to the smoothness of the wood. Thus, for .
example, wooden pipe will carry approximately 16 per cent more
water than the same size iron pipe for a given loss of head, owing to
the greatly diminished friction.
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.
Concrete construction for conduits for water has been used to a
limited extent in Texas. The San Antonio Irrigation Company have
a considerable amount of concrete-lined canal for the conveyance
of sewage water of the city of San Antonio to the sewage farm. The
Del Rio Irrigation Company have made quite extended use of con-
crete expanded metal pipe, of which an account is given on page 425.
They have also built a large amount of ditch in which the outer
wall, in steep hillside work, has been largely constructed of con-
crete, and in the case of fills the entire channel has been lined with
concrete. wº - - -
The cost of expanded metal pipe will depend largely upon local
conditions and the question of the use of concrete pipe requires care-
ful consideration of both conditions and the demands of the work
as to whether some cheaper form of construction would not answer
fully all requirements. For example, wooden pipe could be in-
stalled at a lower first cost than concrete expanded metal pipe, but
would be subject to higher depreciation. Any settlement of founda-
tion would render the concrete pipe more liable to leak. The ques-
tion to be determined by the engineer is whether the expense of
interest, depreciation, and repairs would be greater or less for
wooden than for concrete pipe. -
GENERAL CONDITIONS OF LABOR.
In the southwestern part of Texas labor for farm purposes is
unusually cheap, particularly near the Mexican border. The greater
part of the labor throughout the country is Mexican. Until recently
near Brownsville 50 cents Mexican per day, or 23 cents currency,
was the price of Mexican labor, but since then prices have gone up.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 373
With the settlement of the country it is probable that these will in-
crease still further owing to increased demand. Along the Mexican
border labor costs 75 cents to $1 Mexican a day and throughout a
large part of the southern country $1 Mexican is the rate of compen-
sation. Throughout the remainder of the country in question the
rate of labor is from 50 cents to $1 a day in currency, except near the
larger cities, where it is from $1.50 to $1.75.
Very few negroes are to be found working in the fields here, and
negro labor hardly counts at all as a factor. With all his short-
comings, under the present conditions the Mexican is practically a
necessity for conducting farm operations in the lower country, and
although Mexican labor may not be as efficient as American labor,
still, considering the prices paid, there can be little cause for com-
plaint. The clearing of large areas of land covered with brush and
trees is often let out to Mexicans by contract at So much an acre.
The cost of work of this nature seems exceedingly moderate consid-
ering conditions, some of the most heavily timbered land being
cleared for from $10 to $15 an acre. The fact that from 5 to 10 cords
of wood per acre can be obtained from some of this land shows for
itself the amount of work which it is necessary to perform.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF IRRIGATION PLANTS.
The data given in the following pages are based largely on infor-
mation furnished by the owners of irrigation plants. In many places
where the plants were not in operation at the time of the visit it was
impossible to form any definite idea of the rate of flow of water. As
far as possible the flow of wells, pumps, and canals was measured or
estimated by the writer. While it is difficult to obtain accurate infor-
mation on the operation of plants, still it is believed that the descrip-
tions and data of the farms will give, on the whole, a good idea of
the present state of irrigation in Texas.
CUER.O.
Cuero, the county seat of Dewitt County, is situated on the bank
of the Guadalupe River. There is a limited amount of rich bottom
land in this vicinity, which is occasionally flooded by the river at
high water, as well as several irrigated farms of a few hundred acres
each lying along the banks of the river. Large tracts of irrigable
land, however, can not be obtained so far from the coast without
involving considerable expense. The irrigated land is of a rich,
black, waxy nature. The principal crops are rice, corn, and truck.
Water for irrigation is pumped from the river by steam plants, the
vertical lift being about 36 feet.
374 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Mr. Otto Buchel has erected a dam across the Guadalupe River, to
which reference has already been made. He has installed a water-
power station, utilizing a fall of about 12 feet, which is usually ob-
tainable except at times of very high water. The installation in the
station consists of three vertical turbines of 225 horsepower each,
which drive through bevel gears a line shaft, to which are belted two
2-phase 2,000-volt electric generators. The plant distributes elec-
tricity for power and lighting to the town of Cuero, about 2 miles
distant, and also furnishes power for driving a cotton mill, as well
as an irrigation pumping plant owned by Crouch & Slacker.
In addition to the electric equipment at the station, the following
hydraulic equipment is also installed: One 225-horsepower 54-inch
new American turbine drives through bevel gears and belting a No.
15 centrifugal pump rated to deliver 7,000 gallons of water per min-
ute at 42-foot lift; a duplex power pump, 18 by 22, driven by water
power, delivers 3,500,000 gallons per day when operated at about 25
revolutions per minute. This is equivalent to a flow of, in round
numbers, 2,400 gallons per minute. These pumps both discharge
water into a reservoir 500 feet square and 7 feet deep, from which,
however, only 3 feet in depth of water can be drawn. The centrifu-
gal pump discharges into a flume which empties into the reservoir,
while the duplex pump empties directly into the reservoir. The out-
let canal from the reservoir is 60 to 90 feet wide and about 7 feet
deep, the size, however, varying in different parts, the capacity of the
canal being rated at 12,000 gallons per minute. - s-
Mr. Buchel owns 600 acres planted to rice and irrigated from the
plant just mentioned. The land is laid out in checks varying in size
from 0.5 to 8 acres, the difference in elevation between the checks
being 0.4 foot. The land requires 10 gallons per minute per acre.
The irrigation season is from April 1 to October 1, or about 120 days.
The average yield in 1903 was 11 sacks of 165 pounds each per acre,
but in 1904 the owner expected to get 14 sacks per acre.
Water is admitted into the checks by wooden gates and will pass
through about six checks in series. Under favorable conditions it
is possible to irrigate from one gate 30 acres per day of twelve hours,
or in twenty-four hours 50 acres.
* Thomas ranch.-Mr. Thomas owns 180 acres of rice which he
irrigates with a 10-inch Morris double-suction centrifugal pump,
rated at 3,000, but said to deliver 4,000 gallons per minute. The lift
from the river is 33 feet, and the pump is driven by a 60-horsepower
simple noncondensing engine, which consumes 8.5 cords of wood in
twenty-four hours. The fuel used is mostly bottom oak and costs $2
per cord delivered. The average size of the checks is 6 acres, and the
plant operates on an average eighteen hours per day for the irriga-
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 375
tion Season of one hundred days. Corn unirrigated yields 25 bushels
per acre.
Woofort dº Rathbone ranch.-Woofort & Rathbone own a farm of
350 acres on the side of the river opposite to Cuero, a short distance
from town, which they planted in rice. They have installed a
pumping station with the following apparatus: A 100-horsepower
boiler furnishes steam at 100 pounds pressure to a 14 by 18 inch 75-
horsepower noncondensing simple engine, which drives a No. 12 cen-
trifugal pump, rated at 5,000 gallons per minute. The plant con-
Sumes 2.75 cords of oak in a twelve-hour run, the lift of the water
being 33 feet. The rice irrigation season lasts for one hundred and
twenty days, for several plantings of rice, and usually the plant is
operated twenty-four hours per day. The checks, which vary in size
up to 40 acres, are irrigated by passing the water through them in
series. The main canal is 40 feet wide and 5 feet deep. The plant
started March 21, and requires an average of 24 men to irrigate the
land throughout the season. The average yield is 13 sacks of rice per
acre, and the operation of the power plant is conducted by two engi-
neers, one of whom receives $50 per month and the other $1.25 per
day, and two firemen, one of whom receives $1 and the other $1.25,
working twelve-hour shifts.
Davidson dé Breeden farm.—This farm consists of 420 acres, 260
of which are at present under irrigation, being planted to rice. Irri-
gation on part of the farm starts the last of April and on the other
part May 20, and ends September 10. All the land is usually sown
by June 1. Rice is cut about September 10. The pump station con-
tains the following equipment: One 125-horsepower boiler supplies
steam to a 90-horsepower engine belted to a No. 12 centrifugal pump
rated to deliver 6,000 gallons per minute under a maximum lift of
26 feet. The pump is stated to deliver 6,500 gallons per minute.
Steam pressure carried is 70 to 80 pounds, and average daily run for
the season of one hundred and ten days is twelve hours. The fuel
used is box elder, elm, Oak, pecan, ash, and hackberry, the plant re-
quiring about 400 cords per year. The fuel is figured to cost $1.50
per cord, as it is cut on the land of the owners, but were it nécessary
to buy the same it would cost about $2.50. The operation of the plant
and general superintendence of the ditch require three men—fore-
man, engineer, and fireman. The foreman receives $40 a month and
the engineer and fireman get $60 a month together. In addition to
this, four men at 75 cents a day are required for irrigation. The
owners estimate that they could irrigate 500 acres in rice with the
addition of another engineer and fireman to their present force. The
average yield per acre is 14 sacks of rice. The engine, according to a
test, delivered 98 indicated horsepower. The boiler consumes 3.5
*
376 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
cords of wood in twelve hours. The canal is about 60 feet wide, and
varies in depth from 25 feet near the river bank to 6 feet near the
other end. Near the power house there is a large fill and in conse-
quence the canal has been made exceedingly deep. The length of
the canal is three-fourths of a mile, and it is possible to draw the
water down 4 feet. The canal is used in part as a reservoir. The
checks vary in size from 5 to 25 acres, the laterals running diagonally
across the same. The main ditch cost $2,300 to construct, at 10 cents
per yard, and the contractor lost $250 on the work on account of bad
weather. Water is let into each check from a lateral ditch and then
is drained back into the ditch for renewal of the water, because fresh
water is regarded as giving better results. It usually takes about
twelve hours to flood the checks, and the water seeps and evaporates
in the fields 1 to 2 inches per day. In one part of the field, which
had been previously used for a wagon road and was much harder
than the remainder, the growth of rice was materially stronger than
elsewhere and the same beneficial results are obtained in other places
where the ground is more compact. -
Crouch dé Schleicher farm.—The Crouch & Schleicher farm con-
sists of 400 acres, 300 of which are planted in rice and 100 in truck.
Water is obtained from the river. The pump installation consists of
one 100-horsepower 2,000-volt 2-phase motor belted to a 12-inch
centrifugal pump. The lift is 46 feet and the rate of flow about
4,000 gallons per minute. The length of run for the rice season is
one hundred and twenty days, and the pump is operated twenty-three
and one-half hours per day, except Sunday, when it is shut down
from 6 to 10 a. m. The pump is said to have been delivering at the
time of the writer's visit 4,500 gallons per minute, and it was taking a
current of 18 amperes at 2,300 volts. A steam engine had also been
provided to take the place of the motor in case anything should hap-
pen to the electric power, such as an excessive rise of the river, which
would decrease materially the fall at the dam. The boiler consumed
6 cords of bottom wood in twelve hours, but delivered somewhat more
water than the motor. The cost of power was three-fourths of a cent
per horsepower hour, which is certainly very reasonable considering
the conditions, and hence the cost of operation of the electric plant
was about $1 per hour for power. In one hundred and twenty days'
season the average pump hours run per day was seventeen. The
greater part of the water was used for rice. The checks were of 1 to
15 acres and 0.4 foot difference in elevation. As many as 6 checks
were irrigated in series from one gate. The yield of rice was 4,300
sacks on the 300 acres, or 14 Sacks per acre, the weight of the Sacks
being 180 pounds. tº- -
The steam plant which was put in to take the place of the electric
plant consisted of one 110-horsepower engine and two 70-horsepower
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 377
horizontal boilers. The cost of the steam plant was about $4,000.
According to the present method of operation, two men run the motor
and pump and four men are required to run the steam engine and
boiler. Four irrigators were required to handle the water of the
plant. The cost of wood for fuel was about 50 cents per cord for cut-
ting and 25 cents for hauling and would cost about $2 if purchased
from outsiders, but the wood was cut on the land of the company.
Mr. McHenry, who used to be in charge of the Beeville State Ex-
periment Station, has at present taken supervision of the truck farm
on this ranch, and the results of the same should be of considerable
interest to the truck farmers as illustrating the possibilities of this
kind of farming on a large scale. He uses for a fertilizer for onions
100 pounds of bat guano and 500 pounds of acid phosphate per acre,
and figures that the cost of the culture of onions per acre is $27 and
the cost of gathering and sacking $1 per 1,000 pounds. The depth
of water per irrigation for truck is 1.5 inches, and one man can irri-
gate 2.5 acres of truck per day. Cabbage on the ranch requires
about three irrigations per year.
VICTORLA.
The country in the vicinity of Victoria is very level and offers a
good field for irrigation on a large scale. At present there is only
one large plant in this vicinity, though there are several plants of
a few hundred acres. Rice is the principal crop grown, and the char-
acter of the land is almost universally of a black, waxy consistency.
The Victoria Rice and Irrigation Company.—The largest irriga-
tion company in this vicinity is the Victoria Rice and Irrigation
Company, which irrigates nearly 3,600 acres of land entirely devoted
to rice. The pumping plant is situated about 8 miles south of town
on the banks of the Guadalupe. In order to lift the water to a
sufficient height for irrigation, two pumping stations have been
installed, one of which raises the water 20 feet and discharges it into
a flume 1,400 feet long, from which the second pumping station takes
its water and elevates it 42 feet. The flow of water is estimated,
when all machinery is running, at 52,000 gallons per minute. It
would surely have been far cheaper to have installed all the ap-
paratus in one power house and to have used a sufficiently large pipe
to have conveyed the water to the canal. The double installation
and operating expenses both conspire to put a considerable addi-
tional burden on the plant.
The equipment of the pumping stations is as follows: The plant
near the river has two 16 by 24 engines of 180 horsepower each,
belted to “a centrifugal pump, 30-inch discharge, of the open-
runner type; three 250-horsepower boilers furnish steam for this
power. The upper plant contains two Corliss engines of 570 horse-
378 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
power each, each of which operates by a rope-drive a centrifugal
pump of 30-inch discharge, delivering 26,000 gallons per minute,
the pumps being the same as those in the lower power house. These
engines were bought secondhand and they leak so badly that, al-
though jet condensers have been installed, it is impossible to
operate them on account of the leakage of air. The boiler capacity
of the Second plant consists of a battery of nine 72-inch by 18-foot
horizontal multitubular boilers of 180 horsepower each. One hun-
dred and ten pounds steam pressure is carried. The fuel is Saur Lake
oil, which is pumped from the nearest railway station 7 miles dis-
tant through a 2-inch pipe. An outside-packed plunger pump is
used for this purpose and uses a pressure of 450 pounds to the square
inch. This will deliver two cars, or 14,000 gallons, of oil on a
twelve-hour run. The pressure, of course, will depend more or less
on the temperature of the ground, but fortunately this oil is rather
thin and is not affected to anything like the extent of the California
oils by the cold. In July the cost of the oil delivered to DeKosta,
the nearest railroad station, was 80 cents a barrel of 42 gallons.
The fuel consumed by the two plants is about 150 barrels per day on
an average, though with continuous running at full capacity about
300 barrels are required in twenty-four hours.
In the year 1904 3,600 acres were planted to rice.
In addition to the land watered by the main and lateral ditches
there are 300 acres lying above the available water supply, which
are furnished with water by a Menge pump driven by a traction
engine and lifting 9,000 gallons per minute 44 feet. The engine is
18 horsepower and runs in the daytime only. The main canal of
the company is 100 feet wide by 3 feet deep, not counting the borrow
pits which are on the inside. It costs about $1.25 per acre to disk
and plow waxy land. One man irrigates about 25 acres a day, and
the plant is of sufficient capacity to irrigate 5,000 acres if desired.
Five thousand three hundred acres are owned by the company, but
not all under cultivation. The checks are laid out 3 to 25 acres in
size. The total yield of rice was 48,000 bags of 180 pounds each,
or 13.3 bags per acre. The company furnishes water to the cus-
tomers for one-fifth of the crop and rents land under the same terms.
McKoy ranch.-Situated a few miles to the northeast of the Vic-
toria property is the ranch of Mr. McKoy, on which two well-pumping
stations have been installed. The owner intends to raise alfalfa and
expects to get ample supply from wells to make this venture a finan-
cial success. The first vein of water in the wells is fit a depth of 36
feet. At 45 to 50 feet there is a stronger vein, from which the water
rises to the 36-foot level, as also at 65 and at 80 to 100 feet. The last-
named stratum is composed of gravel and *e upper water strata
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. 379.
are of sand. The first stratum is about 3 to 5 feet thick; the Second,
7 to 8; the third, 8 to 12, and the fourth, 3 to 10 feet. The pumping .
plant had been recently installed. In pump station No. 1 was a
No. 5 centrifugal pump set at a depth of 36 feet, driven by a 50-
horsepower engine, which drew the water down 22 feet and delivered
a flow of 600 gallons per minute. In plant No. 2 was a No. 6 centrif-
ugal pump, also set in a pit 6 feet Square and 36 feet below the
ground, driven by a 35-horsepower traction engine. The well for this
plant was 90 feet deep and water was found, for the most part, in
gravel between 79 and 90 feet. A 12-inch strainer 42 feet long was
put in the well. The water was drawn down to 60 feet from the
surface when delivering a flow of 500 gallons per minute.
McCan farm.—Mr. McCan has an irrigated farm within the town
limits of Victoria. A 4-horsepower gasoline engine operates a deep-
well pump, 6 by 21 inch cylinder, running 30 strokes per minute,
delivering water from a well 115 feet deep. The quantity delivered
is 70 gallons per minute and the engine consumes 10 gallons of gaso-
line in twenty-four hours. The cost of gasoline is 18.5 cents per
gallon. The pump delivers its waters into a reservoir of about 60
feet bottom diameter by 9.5 feet deep, holding 300,000 gallons. The
pump will fill the reservoir in seventy-six hours’ continuous run, and,
starting with the reservoir full, will irrigate 8 acres in three and one-
half days. Water stands 53.5 feet below the ground level without
flow, and the suction pipe of the pump is submerged 12 feet under these
conditions. The discharge pipe is 9 feet above the ground level.
The surface soil is 2 to 3 feet thick, and the ground will yield 5 tons
of alfalfa hay in six cuttings. The plant irrigates 20 acres, the land
usually receiving three irrigations a year.
Seligson plant.—Mr. Seligson has a farm of 50 acres which he
irrigated by pumping water from a dug well 6 by 8 feet, 34 feet
deep. A 15-horsepower gasoline engine was used to drive a No. 4
centrifugal pump, which lowered the water 5 feet in the well. The
water was found in Sand and gravel. In the center of this well
another well 230 feet deep was put down with 113-inch casing. With-
out pumping, the water in the well stood 25 feet from the ground.
The cost of gasoline for operating this plant was $4 for twenty-four
hours, the price of gasoline being 18 cents per gallon. Of this farm
40 acres were planted in rice and 10 in truck. The rice irrigation
season lasted one hundred days and one man was able to attend to all
the work. The gross yield of rice was 80,000 pounds. At $1.75 per
barrel, the price of rice late in the season, this farm was just able to
pay expenses. -
Lander dé Rathbone place.—About 4 miles from Victoria is a
plant, owned by Lander & Rathbone, irrigating 64 acres. Rice and
380 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
corn are the two crops grown, the yield of rice being 18 to 20 barrels
per acre. Water is taken from a lake adjoining the field. The owners
estimate the size of the lake as follows: Length; 2 miles; average
width, 250 yards; average depth, 12 feet. The average lift of water
is 12 feet, and it is elevated by a centrifugal pump driven by a 16-
horsepower traction engine. The pump delivers 150 gallons per
minute. The plant is operated day and night until the land is flooded,
and thereafter about ten hours per day, the fuel consumption being
0.08 cord per hour. Rice was planted April 1 and the pumps were
started May 15. The length of the irrigation season is ninety days.
The operation of the plant required one pump man and one irrigator.
The overflow from Guadalupe River helps largely to fill the lake.
The centrifugal pump is of the vertical type and is completely sub-
merged. It requires twelve days’ continuous running to flood the land
thoroughly.
Davis farm.—About 8 miles northeast of Victoria is the irrigation
plant of Mr. Davis, which consists of three pump stations one-fourth
of a mile apart, which irrigate 60 to 75 acres of rice per well. The
surface soil is 6 to 10 inches deep, with a clay subsoil. The average
yield is 10 sacks per acre, although it was said last year that as much
as 18 sacks per acre was produced. The pumping plants are run
continuously, two men being required for each plant, as they work
twelve-hour shifts. Plant No. 1 was throwing 300 gallons per
minute, as estimated by the writer, and consuming 4.5 cords of wood
in twenty-four hours; plant No. 2 was not giving more than one-half
this amount of water, with the same fuel consumption, and No. 3
was delivering 300 gallons per minute, with a fuel consumption of
3 cords for twenty-four hours. The cost of fuel is $1.50 per cord.
Each pumping plant has a steam engine of 30 horsepower driving
a No. 6 vertical centrifugal pump set at the bottom of a pit 30 feet
deep. In the bottom of each pit was sunk an open-bottom well with
8-inch casing. The first water-bearing stratum lies between 90 and
120 feet from the surface and is 15 feet thick, consisting of fine Sand.
At a depth of 270 feet, which is the depth of the wells, there are
about 50 feet of the same kind of sand. The water in the wells
stands without flow 17 feet from the surface of the ground, and is
lowered 20 feet below the level of the pumps. The total lift is
about 53 feet. The land is laid off in checks of 2 to 40 acres, with
4-inch differences in level.
Keeran ranch.-About 6 miles east of Inez is the ranch of Mr.
Reeran. This is at present used as a stock ranch, none of the land
being under cultivation. Numerous artesian wells of very shallow
depth have been put down on the ranch. The following may be
regarded as the average strata encountered near the ranch.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. - 381
6 to 8 feet, soil.
10 feet, fine water sand.
10 to 50 feet, red clay.
20 feet, fine water sand.
10 to 50 feet, white clay.
20 feet, water sand slightly coarser with black specks.
100 feet, indigo-blue clay.
20 feet, coarser. water sand.
100 feet, blue clay. *
20 feet, light artesian-water sand; better quality has black specks.
50 to 200 feet, white clay.
20 feet, dirty sand.
200 feet, clay.
25 to 30 feet, coarse artesian sand with black specks. This artesian stratum
in Some places has a static pressure of 17 pounds to the square inch.
200 feet, blue clay.
30 feet, coarse artesian-water sand. Pressure about 20 pounds.
In low places on the ranch artesian water has been obtained at the
following depths from the surface, some of the flows being small,
however: 17, 50, 127, 130, 114, 148, 202, 222, 425 feet.
All these wells give off an odorless fuel gas. The wells already put
down are of Small diameter, being designed for stock purposes only,
consequently give Small flows. The method employed in finishing
these wells, which have been put down by hydraulic process, is to
support the casing on top and pump clear water for some time down
the well and up around the outside of the casing in order to wash the
clay out of the sand and set the casing properly. The wells are all
open bottom. - -
Garacitus Creek, which runs through the Keran ranch, carries a
considerable quantity of drainage water at the time of rainfall and
could be utilized as a reservoir by a dam estimated at 0.75 mile long
and 20 feet high, to store water 15 feet deep on 7,000 acres.
Bennett dé West ranch.-This land, near by, has the following
wells:
2-inch well, 330 feet deep, delivering 20 gallons per minute.
2-inch well, 50 feet deep, delivering 9 gallons per minute.
2-inch well, 327 feet deep, delivering 30 gallons per minute.
Well (12-inch, 300 feet; 9-inch, 390 feet; 6-inch, 210 feet), 900 feet deep,
delivering 150 gallons per minute.
Duesse ranch.-Within a few miles of the Keeran ranch is that of
Mr. Duesse. A well 880 feet deep furnishes artesian water. The
well was sunk 515 feet with 5-inch casing and the remaining distance
with 2-inch. This well supplies both water and gas and is used
mainly for the house of the owner. It has a static head of 28 feet
above the ground level without flow and will deliver on the ground
30 gallons per minute. The water from the well goes into an ele-
vated tank, in which is also placed a sheet-metal drum for collecting
38.2 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
the gas, which is piped into the house and used for fuel and lighting.
The gas burns with a bluish flame and is used with a Welsbach
mantle for light.
Laughter dé Simon ranch-About 4 miles north of Mr. Duesse's
place is a pumped well which irrigates 150 acres, belonging to Laugh-
ter & Simon.
CREERS.
In the country lying along the coast of Texas from Port Lavaca
to the mouth of Aransas River there are many creeks and streams
emptying into the Gulf which are dry except in times of rain. The
run-off of much of this land is relatively large, as there is but little to
retain the water. Some of these creek beds and valleys could be
dammed to store this water which now runs to waste. Generally
speaking, however, such undertakings would require fairly long dams
of moderate height, and in order to utilize the water on the land pump
stations would have to be installed. As the region is liable to rain
storms of occasional severity, it is of first importance to provide ample
spillways to take care of the water.
The Clark Irrigation Company near Port Lavaca is the only case
of any note in which a dam has been built to utilize water stored in
this manner. It has been estimated that its reservoir capacity is
2,000 acres, with an average depth of 12 feet, and the watershed
supplying the same 22 by 20 miles. The reservoir is supplied by
Placado and Agula creeks. It is claimed that 14,000 acres can be
irrigated with this storage. At present 1,300 acres of rice and 200
acres of corn are being irrigated. The latter was irrigated once,
and the yield is estimated at 25 bushels per acre. The company
have also 300 acres in cotton not irrigated.
From the engineering standpoint, the pumping station is a decided
improvement over all the other stations in this part of the country.
Two water-tube boilers supply steam at 125 pounds pressure to a
cross-compound condensing engine of 250 horsepower, which is direct
connected to a 36-inch centrifugal pump. The output of the pump
as run at present is 30,000 gallons per minute. This output can be
doubled if desired. The station is operated three days a week. The
fuel consumption for twelve hours is 8 barrels of oil. Six days' run
of twelve hours each are required to keep 1,300 acres flooded. The
pumps were run about sixty days during the season. The lift varies
from 23 to 31 feet, the average being 29 feet.
The main canal is 60 feet wide and 4 to 11 feet deep. Water is
taken into this by a flume 6 feet wide and 3 feet deep, into which the
pump discharges. The laterals are run on contours and irrigate by
passing the water through several checks. The fields are divided
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 383
into checks of various sizes, the largest one being 200 acres. The
contour checks are 2 to 9 inches. The checks can be drained by
draws, which return the water to the reservoir. Corn is irrigated
by furrows 300 to 400 feet long.
The operation of the plant requires one fireman, one engineer for
the power house, four irrigators, and four additional men to make
necessary repairs to ditches, etc.
In 1903 the average yield of rice was 15 sacks (180 pounds each)
per acre, the highest yield being 26 Sacks.
- The Clark dam is situated a short distance below the junction of
Placado and Agula creeks. It is about 0.5 mile long, 4 feet wide on
top, front slope 1.5 to 1, and back slope 2 to 1, and is built of dirt.
As originally constructed the dam had a wasteway cut in the clay
bank near one end which was intended to carry off the surplus water.
However, in time of heavy rain this wasteway was cut out and let
out all the water that was in the reservoir. After this accident the
wasteway was filled up solid and a wooden spillway about 400 feet
long made in the center of the dam. The spillway was double
boarded on top with 1-inch and 1.5-inch planks and on the down-
stream side provided with sacks filled with sand for taking the impact
of the water and preventing wash. The wings of the dam are made
of 2-inch plain sheet piling.
Big Chocolate Creek-It has been claimed that Big Chocolate
Creek, which empties into Chocolate Bay a few miles from Port
Lavaca, could also be used as a storage basin by putting a dam across
the lines of the grade of an old railroad which formerly ran to
Indianola.
Noble dé Wilson.—Noble & Wilson have a pumping plant near the
mouth of Lavaca River, from which they irrigate 250 acres of rice.
O’Connor ranch.-In the eastern part of Refugio County is the
stock ranch of Mr. O'Connor, where several artesian wells have been
sunk. Artesion water is obtained at depths of 900 to 1,200 feet in
fine sand. The wells are of 7 to 10 inch casing. About 30 feet of
fine sand constitutes the main artesian stratum, although small arte-
sian strata may be found higher up. The formation through which
the wells pass is very hard and drilling is expensive. The wells have
been put down by rotating the casing with a cutting shoe on the end
of it and utilizing the hydraulic process for forcing the cuttings up
the outside of the casing. The wells are provided with strainers of
smaller diameter than the casing, consisting of perforated joints of
casing over which is a layer of wire gauze covered in turn by a layer
of perforated brass. The cost of these wells was $1 per foot per
1-inch diameter of casing, with a guaranty to go at least 1,000 feet.
They are said to yield 30 to 200 gallons per minute.
384 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
Among the other artesian wells and attempts to obtain the same in
this vicinity may be mentioned the following: . . .
Waterworks well at Victoria, artesian water 888 and 1,062 feet
deep, found in fine sand, giving a flow of 100 gallons per minute.
In Gonzales County, near Pilgrim, a well was put down 1,402 feet
without getting water. -
- At Sinton, on the San Antonio and Aransas Pass Railroad, a well
was sunk 1,860 feet for J. J. Welder. While no artesian flow resulted,
yet at the 900-foot level a supply of pump water was obtained.
SAN ANTONIO.
Irrigation at San Antonio was begun by the Spaniards and mission
fathers many years ago, and some of their original ditches are still
in use. In the earlier days sufficient water was obtained by gravity
from the San Antonio River—which is the main source of supply—
to perform all the desired irrigation, but since the discovery of arte-
sian water irrigation has taken on a new aspect and the field for the
same has widely increased. Pumping plants have also been installed
on many of the wells situated above the level of the water plane,
where no artesian water was available, as well as to increase the flow
from artesian wells. At many places along the San Antonio River
pumping stations of considerable capacity have been installed, increas-
ing greatly in value the land which they irrigate. San Antonio
itself, in addition to being the largest city in Texas, is the natural
commercial center of a large section of the richest land in the State,
much of which is at present in an undeveloped state, and the city
is destined to grow considerably with the development of the sur-
rounding country. The most important feature in promoting this
result is the irrigation of lands now arid. -
The San Antonio River has its source in springs a few miles from
the city. There are three ditches which at present derive their water
by gravity alone from the river. The Upper Labor takes its water
from the river at a point about a mile below its source, on the right
bank. This ditch was formerly owned by the city and ran past the
International and Great Northern depot, but at present it is owned by
22 truck gardeners, who formed an association and charged $2 an
“ hour º’ three times a month throughout the year for the use of the
entire flow. The length of the ditch has been cut down to 3,000
yards. This ditch, which was originally built by the Spaniards
many years ago, is 6 feet wide on top and 3.5 feet deep, and water
runs about 2 feet deep. It is said to deliver 2,000,000 to 4,000,000
gallons per day.
Within the city limits of San Antonio are the San Pedro Springs,
which belong to the city. There are altogether seven springs, five of
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 385
which are in rock and two in sand, furnishing a supply of 2,000 gal-
lons per minute. Of this amount one-fourth runs through the town
in the lower ditch and goes to waste. One thousand five hundred
gallons per minute are used in the San Pedro ditch and a branch
ditch, for irrigation, these two dividing the flow between them about
evenly. Water is sold in shares known locally as “hours,” each of
which entitles the purchaser to the entire flow of the ditch for one
hour three times a month throughout the year. The annual charge
is $2 per “hour,” which is equivalent to $2 for thirty-six actual hours'
flow of the ditch. On the main ditch two hundred and forty-four
“hours” of water were sold during 1903 and 274 acres were irrigated;
on the branch ditch one hundred and forty-three “hours” of water
were sold and 150 acres irrigated. -
About 6 miles from San Antonio in the vicinity of the hot springs
are the heads of the San Juan and Espado ditches, which are over
150 years old. San Juan ditch is on the east side of the river and is
said to have a flow of 4 cubic feet per second. It irrigates 500 acres,
thus giving the entire flow one-half hour per acre once every ten days.
The ditch was originally 7 miles long, but has been cut down to 3
miles. -
Espado ditch, which is on the west side of the river, irrigates 600
acres, the flow of water and conditions being about the same as under
the San Juan ditch. The land irrigated by this ditch is all in small
holdings and the owners of the land also own the ditch, which was
originally 12 miles long but has been cut down to 5 miles.
These two ditches are practically the same size—5 feet wide on top,
4 feet on the bottom, and 3 feet deep, with a grade of 1 foot per mile.
Water runs about 1.5 feet deep in the ditches. The flow from these
ditches is considered hardly sufficient for the irrigation of the land.
The main crops grown are truck, corn, cotton, ribbon cane, and
alfalfa. The bed system is used for the irrigation of cane, alfalfa, and
grain, the checks being 10 feet wide and 300 to 600 feet long, with a
fall of about 3 inches. The other crops are irrigated by the furrow
system. It takes the flow of the ditch one-half hour to irrigate 1.5
acres by the furrow system, while the same length of time will irri-
gate only 1 acre by flooding. The soil is 1 to 3 feet deep, with clay
subsoil. The frequency of irrigation in dry periods with different
crops is about as follows:
Days.
Corn and Cotton * * * * * * * **m am memº m ºr em ºm mas. * * * * * * * * * * * *m ºsm m mºm 20–30
Cane _ 10–15
Truck * * * * 10
Numerous artesian wells in the vicinity of San Antonio derive their
supply of water from caverns in the rock at depths of 600 to 800 feet.
The underground connection between the different wells appears to
30620–No. 158–05—25
386 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
be very free and results in the static pressure being practically equal
in wells which are several miles apart. It is commonly supposed, and
without doubt is the case, that these artesian wells derive their sup-
ply of water from the same strata as the water which forms the San
Pedro Springs and the headwaters of San Antonio River. -
San Antonio River is said to have fallen very considerably in flow
since the numerous wells have been sunk in the surrounding country,
and this is commonly attributed to the flow from these wells having
diminished the subterranean supply. During the drought of 1898
San Antonio River went entirely dry, for the first time since 1875,
and remained so until 1900. In this period the output from the wells
decreased considerably. -
Among the various wells and irrigation plants in the vicinity of
San Antonio may be mentioned the following:
On the river, 2.5 miles north of town, is a farm belonging to the
estate of H. B. Kampman, which is leased by Louis Lehr. The Upper
Labor ditch runs along the border of the field, which, however, de-
rives its water supply from a 10-inch artesian well 1,020 feet deep.
Artesian water is found in a limestone formation. The well is cased
for 854 feet, the remainder of the hole being in rock. When first put
down the well had a static head of 11 feet above ground level. At
present it is said to discharge 700 gallons per minute. During the
drought of 1898 the well ceased temporarily to flow. Thirty-five acres
are irrigated, but it is considered that the flow of water is hardly
sufficient for this area without rain, and that under these conditions
the well will irrigate 20 acres of truck. A reservoir which stores
twelve hours' flow will, with four hours’ additional flow, irrigate 2
acres in four hours by the furrow system. The furrows are 150 yards
long, and the time required for the water to run through them is one
and one-half to two hours. Mr. Lehr irrigates every ten days in dry
weather, and in the summer starts at 5 p.m. to avoid irrigating when
the ground is excessively hot.
The city waterworks of San Antonio have three pumping stations
which derive their supply from artesian wells, the water being deliv-
ered direct into the city mains. In addition, there is a reservoir into
which the surplus water from the pumps flows. One of these pump-
ing stations is situated near the head of San Antonio River and
utilizes the water power of the river for driving the pumps. The
capacity of this station is 3,000,000 gallons per day.
The second station is situated about 2 miles nearer town, on the
river, and likewise derives its supply from artesian wells, which, like
all the others in the vicinity of San Antonio, are open bottom. At
this station there are three 8-inch wells and one 12-inch well 800 feet
deep. Water without pumping at present stands 7 feet above the
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. 387
ground level. When the pumps are running, delivering 3,100 gallons
per minute, the static pressure of water will be diminished only 2 or 3
feet. In the year 1900 water stood 18 feet above the ground. The
lowest point recorded was 1 foot below the ground level.
The machinery is steam driven, and can also be driven in part by
stored water power in the river. It has two vertical 50-horsepower
boilers, and supplies steam at 100 pounds’ pressure for a 100-horse-
power simple Corliss engine, which has a jet gravity condenser giving
about 23 inches vacuum. The engine drives two Worthington geared
pumps, which supply water under a pressure of 52 pounds. The
pumps operate six hours a day. Fuel consumption is 15,000 pounds
of Lytle coal per day. The San Antonio River at this station has a
fall of 14 feet, which is also utilized in 80 and 50 horsepower turbines
for driving the pumps.
The main station of the San Antonio waterworks is also situated
on the river, near the center of town. It has four 8-inch and five
12-inch wells 880 feet deep. These are about 20 feet apart. Each is
fitted with 650 feet of casing, the remainder of the hole being in rock.
The wells are all connected by piping to the suction side of the
pumps. In May, 1904, the static head above the ground was 35 feet.
One of the 12-inch wells delivered 4,200 gallons per minute. The
maximum fluctuation of water level due to drought is 12 feet. The
water pressure carried on the mains at this station is 75 pounds.
Water is supplied by triple-expansion Worthington duplex pumps,
with a steam end of 12, 20, 33 by 24 and a pump end of 18.5 by 24,
capacity 5,000,000 gallons per day, and six Gould triple-plunger
single-acting pumps, with a total capacity of 5,000,000 gallons per
day. Lytle coal, at $1.60 per ton, is used for fuel. It will evaporate
about 3 pounds of water per pound of coal, as against 4 pounds
evaporated by Black Diamond coal. Oil cost, delivered in San
Antonio, 86 cents per barrel, being 42 cents at the oil wells, 37 cents
freight, and 7 cents drayage. The average output of the station was
at the rate of 10,000,000 gallons per day, and while delivering this
quantity with one of the wells disconnected the static pressure in that
well was only 1 foot lower than when the other wells were not flowing
at all. The pressure on the suction side of the pumps was 10 pounds
positive pressure when delivering this flow, thus showing that the
ground pressure was scarcely affected, due to the flow of water
pumped from the ground, the principal source of loss being friction
in the pipes and well casing. -
Adjoining the old station the waterworks have put up a new plant,
which is at present in operation, delivering 15,000,000 gallons per
day. It consists of a large triple-expansion pumping engine 24, 46,
68 by 42, and three pump cylinders 28.5 by 42, the speed being 28.5
revolutions per minute. The boiler pressure is 150 pounds.
388 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The cost of 10-inch wells in this vicinity 500 to 1,000 feet deep is
$4 to $4.50 per foot. - - -
The strata have a general Southeasterly slope, on a greater grade
than the grade of the ground, hence near the headwaters of San
Antonio River the wells are more shallow and the water pressure
above the ground is less than farther downstream. Near the springs
at the head of San Antonio River at the first waterworks station it is
only 350 feet to artesian water. At the main waterworks station the
following is the log of one of the wells: ..
Three hundred and fifty feet, blue clay.
One hundred and eighty feet, magnesium limestone—very soft, white.
Three feet, shale and sulphur.
Three hundred and fifty to three hundred, and eighty feet, blue, white, and
gray limestone. -
At a depth of 720 feet there was a stratum, however, of blue mud
50 feet deep. ...”
The following represent average strata encountered in well boring
in San Antonio: -
Feet.
Soil -------- — — — — — — 3— 4
Yellow Clay and gravel ––––––––––– — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 60
Blue clay---------------------------------------------- 500–700
Blue and gray rock------------------------------------- 120
Black marl-like lignite clay and rock--------------------- 20–30
Loam rock-------------------- ". –––––. - - - 60
Blue clay (locally known as a “mudhole ‘’) -------------- - 50
Below the mudhole lies a water rock, which is usually blue, yellow,
and white. Sometimes a dark brown sand rock is found in which
the water supply is plentiful. In the artesian belt water is almost
always found within 50 feet of the mudhole. The artesian belt
extends fully 16 miles west, 9 miles north, and 6 miles east of the
town. -
The cost of well boring, furnishing everything complete, is as fol-
lows for wells up to 1,500 feet deep : - .
Cost of boring wells.

Diameter. - Boring. Casing. Total.
6-inch Well----------------------------------------------------- per foot-- $2.50 $0.75 .25
8-inch Well--------------------------------------------------------- do---- 3.25 i.6% s: 25
10-inch well --------------------------------------------------------do---- 4.20 1.30 5.50
12-inch Well -------------------------------------------------------- do---- 5.30. 1.70 7.00
At San Louis College, which is somewhat northeast of San Antonio,
there is an 8-inch well 713 feet deep, the casing extending down 500
feet. Water is found in rock. The well is open bottom. The col-
lege is about 130 feet above San Antonio, and water stands without
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAs. 389
flow in this well 80 feet from the surface. A deep-well pump, 5% by
30, capacity 80 gallons per minute, driven by a 20-horsepower engine,
lifts water into a tank 70 feet above the ground. At a depth of
between 150 and 200 feet is a water-bearing stratum giving a poor
supply of sulphur water. Between 300 and 400 feet a better supply
is obtained, but the main water-bearing rock, which is evidently the
same stratum as that of the artesian flow in San Antonio, is between
700 and 800 feet deep. The elevation of San Louis is 760 feet above
the sea.
Another 8-inch well near by is 705 feet deep and is provided with a
53 by 19 inch deep-well pump driven by a 25-foot windmill. This is
by far the largest windmill in this part of the country. It delivers
most of the water at ground level into a tank near by. Under aver-
age conditions this windmill will throw a stream of about 40 gallons
per minute. The wind in the vicinity of San Antonio averages 6 to 8
miles per hour and is fairly constant. The average velocity, as deter-
mined by the Weather Bureau, is 7.4 miles per hour.
Very extensive use of windmills has been made throughout Texas,
and in several cases small irrigation plants have been run by the aid
of water so pumped. Windmill capacities as usually given by manu-
facturers are based upon a wind speed of about 15 miles per hour.
The energy of the wind which passes a windmill varies as the cube of
the velocity of the wind, hence with a wind at half the speed men-
tioned the power obtained would be greatly reduced. Where wind
power is used for pumping for irrigation it would usually pay to
install much larger mills than has been the custom. -
Polo ranch.-A short distance from San Louis College is Captain
Tappen's Polo ranch. The irrigated portion of this ranch consists of
86 acres, which is planted mainly in corn. Water for irrigation is
supplied by a pumped well tapping the San Antonio artesian stratum.
The well is 1,000 feet deep and water stands without flow 76 feet from
the surface of the ground. A brick shaft is built down 84 feet below
the ground level and in the bottom of this sets a vertical centrifugal
pump. A 25-horsepower gasoline engine belted to a countershaft
drives this pump, which lifts the water 8 feet above the ground into
an outlet box, from which it can be turned either into a flume or into
an earth reservoir about 150 feet in diameter and 17 feet deep. This
depth is due to excavating material for the banks, and, of course, part
of the water stored in the reservoir can not be used for irrigation.
The pump discharged 600 gallons per minute by measurement and the
engine required 5 gallons of gasoline per hour. The plant would
irrigate 6 to 7 acres per day, the length of run being nine hours.
Corn was irrigated four times during the past season. The ground
is very liable to crack when dry and seemed to have been over-
irrigated. The ditches were in poor condition. The land was also
390 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
unfavorably situated for irrigation, being quite hilly. Gasoline for
the engine cost 12 cents per gallon. -
Vance ranch-A few miles from San Louis College is the ranch of
Mr. Vance. The house is situated on the top of a hill at an elevation
of 804 feet, and near by is a small farm, which is irrigated by water
pumped from two wells. Water rises without flow to 145 feet from
the ground level. The wells are 6 inches in diameter. One is 160
feet deep and the other 660, but the water supply for both comes
from the 160-foot level. In the valleys near by, 100 feet lower, the
water stratum is at a depth of 400 feet. Mr. Vance's wells are oper-
ated by deep-well pumps, one of which is driven by a 24-horsepower
engine giving 15 gallons per minute, the engine consuming 5 gallons
of gasoline in sixteen hours. The other is driven by a 6-horsepower
engine giving 35 gallons per minute and consuming 7 gallons of gaso-
line in fifteen hours. The combined capacity of these wells will irri-
gate 1.5 acres in three days. The price of gasoline is 17 cents per
gallon.
Creamery Dairy Company.—South of San Antonio, on the river,
near the town limits, is a pump station belonging to this company
which has recently been installed. A No. 10 centrifugal pump
belted to a 50-horsepower engine pumps water from the river 16.5
feet into a ditch. The pump is intended to irrigate 400 acres of land
and has a rated capacity of 5,500 gallons per minute. Lytle coal,
costing $2 per ton delivered, will be used as fuel for the 60-horse-
power boiler which furnishes steam for the engine. The ditch for
conveying water from the pump to the field is 3 feet wide on the
bottom, 6 to 8 feet wide on top, 3 feet deep, and 1.5 miles long. The
slope of the ditch is 0.5 inch in 250 feet. The water will be used to
irrigate truck, cane, and alfalfa by the furrow system. In the irri-
gation of alfalfa the furrows will be 5 feet apart. Part of this land
was formerly irrigated by sewer water, which is now, however, con-
veyed several miles below the city and used by another irrigation
company.
The intake to the suction pipe is through a channel formed by sheet
piling, and the water in the river is backed up by a small dam.
When the pump station of the creamery started running it utilized
a large part of the water flowing in the river, and will undoubtedly
interfere with the users of water farther down the stream.
About a mile farther down the river are two current wheels about
20 feet in diameter, operated by a 3-foot fall in the river. These will
deliver a flow of 500 gallons per minute and will irrigate 12 acres in
about twelve hours. The construction of these current wheels is
shown in figure 57. This water is used to irrigate 100 acres of land
owned by Mr. Klein, who is also one of the owners of the creamery
company. -
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. 391
Kellman well.—Near the “Sap * roundhouse in San Antonio is a
tract of 18.5 acres irrigated by the flow of a well on the place of Mr.
Kellman. The well is 1,100 feet deep, of 8-inch, 6-inch, and 4.5-inch
casing. The flow from this well will irrigate 3.5 acres in twelve
hours, and is utilized for irrigating the land owned by Mr. Kellman,
as well as that of many of the neighbors near by. The well is said to
have a pressure without flow of 25 pounds at the ground level. It
has been estimated that the well would irrigate 100 acres of truck
with irrigations three to ten days apart.
There are several small irrigation plants along the river which
pump water with gasoline engines. West of San Antonio, however,
are the largest irrigation plants in that vicinity.
FIG. 57.—Plan of current wheels belonging to Mr. Klein, San Antonio, Tex.
Collins plant.—F. F. Collins owns a tract of 180 acres just outside
of the town limits of San Antonio which is irrigated by water from
two artesian wells. One is 700 feet deep, with 12-inch casing down
500 feet. The other well, near by, is 640 feet deep and has a 10-inch
casing. The first well reaches to the artesian water stratum, and the
second evidently derives its supply from the same water stratum
through the lower 60 feet of hole of the first well, the water then
running across between well holes through the intervening strata.
From measurements by the writer in September, 1904, the well water
without flow stands 17 feet above the ground. The output of the
12-inch well with the other well shut off was 1,080 gallons per minute,
whereas the combined output of the two wells was only 60 gallons
more, or 1,140 gallons per minute. With both wells flowing, the out-

392 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
put of the 12-inch well was very materially reduced over the condi-
tion existing when the other well was shut off. The 640-foot well
struck water at that level and at first had a flow of 15 gallons per
minute from the porous limestone. Eventually the other well broke
through into it, greatly increasing its flow. The cost of these wells
was about $5,000 apiece.
Adjoining the wells is an earth reservoir of 3,000,000 gallons
capacity, the banks of which are 7 feet above the ground. The reser-
voir is 1.5 acres in area and 12 feet deep. While this reservoir is
kept full, it is never used, as the wells are of ample capacity for the
irrigation of the land. The cost of building this reservoir was 11
cents per cubic yard for earth handled. It was made entirely of
earth, which is a sticky black soil, and is water-tight.
The land owned by Mr. Collins is divided into 10 and 15 acre
tracts, each of which has its house and barn, and improved land is
rented out at $25 per acre per year, all necessary water being Sup-
plied tenants.
The main ditch is 6 feet wide on top, 2 feet deep, and has a grade
of 8 feet per mile. The laterals run at right angles to the main ditch
and have the same slope. The water from the plant is utilized day
and night, and allowance made of the entire flow of fifty-five minutes
per acre per week. Mr. Collins estimates his wells to be sufficient for
the irrigation of 500 acres. Much of the water at present runs to
waste. It is stated that one man can irrigate 12 acres a day with the
output of the wells. * r
Brady ranch.-Near the Collins ranch is that of T. F. Brady, on
which is a 6-inch open-bottom well 1,500 feet deep. This has a static
pressure above the ground of about 15 feet, and the flow of the well
is sufficient to fill two 6-inch horizontal pipes. This would probably
mean a flow of 800 gallons per minute. Mr. Brady irrigates 50 acres
in garden truck and runs the surplus water into a tank, and estimates
that he could irrigate 40 acres more. He also supplies three tenants
with water in addition to irrigating his own place. According to
his figures, it would cost $2 a foot for 1,000 feet of 6-inch well, pro-
vided the owner furnished casing. The furrows used for irrigation
were 75 yards long, and the length of time consumed in running the
water through them was fifteen minutes. -
|Wautrs ranch.--Near the Brady place is a ranch owned by F.
Wautrs which has a 6-inch well 1,474 feet deep. This well delivers
a flow of 45 gallons per minute, and water will rise 16 feet above
the level of the ground without flow. The artesian stratum from
which the well derives its water is evidently of a close porous forma-
tion, which throttles very much the water which can be obtained
from the well.
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. * 393
Near the well is an earth tank, which, however, is not often used,
the practice being to pump direct from the well onto the ground.
The reservoir is 100 by 75 feet, with banks 3 feet wide on top. The
total depth of the reservoir is 6 feet, owing to the excavation for
the banks, but of this only 4.5 feet are available for storage. The
reservoir cost $65. It takes twenty-four hours to fill the tank with
the pump running and four days and nights to fill it from the well
alone. The area irrigated is 50 acres. Two to 4 acres can be irri-
gated with the pump in fourteen hours. The water-bearing stratum
of the well is rock, at a depth of 1,235 feet. The pumping plant
consists of a direct-acting steam pump set in a pit and a 12-horse-
power vertical boiler. The cost of the well was $4,000 complete.
The cost of the boiler, pump, and house was $900. The fuel con-
sumed is 0.5 ton Lytle coal in fourteen hours and costs $1.35 per
ton. The yield from 2.25 acres was 557 bushels of potatoes. The
land is planted to truck and is irrigated by the furrow system.
The rows are 120 yards long, and it takes one to five hours to run
the water through them. The soil is of a black, waxy nature and is
carefully cultivated. The well when pumped has a flow of 142
gallons per minute. *
Reichert ranch.-In the same vicinity is the farm of Mr. Reichert,
on which is a 6-inch well 1,200 feet deep. Water will rise in this
well without flow 20 feet above the ground. At present 25 acres
are irrigated from the well, and the crops raised are cane, corn, and
truck. An earth tank 70 by 100 feet, with 3 feet available depth of
water, is utilized, mainly to avoid the necessity of running at night.
It is stated that 5 acres more could be irrigated with the same water.
Truck is irrigated-every ten days. Cane and corn each receive two
irrigations per year in dry weather. The furrow system is used, the
furrows being 100 yards long and 3 feet apart. It takes the water
one to four hours to run through the furrows. Level land takes
about an hour and hilly land about four hours. The well discharges
in the neighborhood of 300 gallons per minute. The usual rate of
irrigation is 1 acre with ten hours' flow.
J. Epp, jr., ranch.-In the same vicinity is the ranch of J. Epp, jr.
The water is furnished by a 4.25-inch artesian well 884 feet deep.
The well stands without flow 20 feet above the ground and delivers
200 gallons per minute. The area irrigated from this well is 21
acres, 10 of which are farmed by the owner of the well and planted
in corn and Johnson grass. The remaining 11 acres are planted in
truck and cultivated by tenants, who are allowed the water six days
out of every nine. Irrigation goes on day and night. No reservoir
is used. All irrigation is performed by the furrow system. The
total flow of the well will irrigate 0.5 acre of corn in twenty-four
394 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
hours. The cost of the well was $3,500. Part of the water is de-
livered through 1,700 feet of 3-inch pipe to a point 5 feet above
the level of the well. This of course cuts down greatly the supply
of water, due to extra elevation and friction loss in the pipe. For
night runs the water is turned into four or five furrows 300 feet
long 3.5 feet apart, and runs in them all night.
Barnes ranch.-Adjoining the Collins ranch is the property of
Mr. Barnes, with an artesian well with a capacity of about 1,100
gallons per minute. This well is provided with a throttle valve, as
are also many of the other wells in the vicinity of San Antonio.
This is a wise provision, as it prevents waste of water.
Meerscheidt dé Stieren Irrigation Company.—The ranch of this
company is about 4 miles west of San Antonio. It consists of 572
acres ready for cultivation, but at present only 470 acres is cultivated.
Of this land, 200 acres is planted to truck, 170 to cotton, and 100 to
corn. The land is all leased to tenants and water for irrigation is
furnished them from a 10-inch well. The elevation of the land is
considerably above the level of San Antonio, and water stands with-
out flow in the well about 2 feet below the level of the ground. The
pump station which has been installed has the following equipment:
One 80-horsepower horizontal tubular boiler; one 80-horsepower
automatic simple engine, belted to a centrifugal pump. The pump is
set in a brick pit 12 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep. -
The well was started with 12-inch casing, which went down 45 feet;
then 10-inch casing for 850 feet, and an 8.25-inch hole 110 feet deep,
the well being 1,005 feet deep. The pump is a No. 8 special, with
12-inch suction and 10-inch discharge. When operated at the speed
at which the pump is normally run, the suction -on the pump is 25
feet and the lift and friction loss in discharge pipe 25 feet, making the
total head against which the pump must operate 50 feet. The fuel
consumed is 2.75 tons Lytle coal in ten hours' run, costing $1.75 per
ton delivered. One man operates the entire station. The pump runs
ten hours per day for about two hundred days a year.
The ditches for conveying the water go in four directions from the
station and are 3 feet wide on the bottom, 5 to 6 feet wide on top, and
2 feet deep.
Some of the strata passed through by the well is as follows:
First rock, at a depth of 625 feet.
At 670 feet Sulphur water was encountered.
At 765 feet, brown rock and a small quantity of water.
At 800 feet, white rock.
At 865 feet, mudhole.
At 930 feet was a second water rock, from which the supply for the well is
obtained.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. - 395
The well was sunk to a depth of 1,005 feet in the hope of obtaining
flow, but, as said above, the elevation of the ground is too great. The
Well is open bottom and is apparently limited in flow only by friction
in the pipe itself. The cost of the well was $4,500, and the cost of the
pumping plant was $3,000. The output of the well when pump is
running full capacity is 2,500 gallons per minute. The cost of running
the plant, as figured by the owners, is $10 a day, segregated as follows:
Attendance ––––––––––––––––––- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $1.00
Coal --- — - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5. OO
Interest, depreciation, and operating expenses 4.00
Cost of pumping per acre-foot, about----------------------- 2. 20
The steam plant irrigates 350 acres of the tract. The remaining
120 acres are irrigated from a separate plant near by, supplied from a
6-inch well, to which is attached a No. 6 centrifugal pump delivering
a flow of 433 gallons per minute. The pump is placed in a pit 10
feet deep and is driven by a 12-horsepower gasoline engine, which
uses, in twenty hours' run, 29 gallons of gasoline, costing 13 cents per
gallon. The average daily run of the plant is six hours. A run of
three to four hours is required for an acre. The land is irrigated by
the furrow system, the furrows being 200 feet long. The entire flow
of the pump will take one-half to one hour to run through the fur-
rows, the flow being divided between 40 furrows. The plant is
said to have sufficient capacity to irrigate 200 acres. The cost of the
well was $2,700, and of the station $1,300. The well is 980 feet deep,
being 650 feet to the first rock, which is 260 feet thick. Below this is
the formation found throughout this region, known as “mudhole,”
50 feet deep. Twenty feet below this is the second rock, containing
the water supply. Water stands without flow close to the surface of
the ground. - -
Land and irrigation water from the steam plant are furnished ten-
ants at an annual rate of $17 an acre. The plant has been in opera-
tion but a comparatively short time. The following is the form of
contract between the company and the tenants which has recently
been prepared:
STATE OF TEXAS, County of Beazar:
This agreement, this day made and entered into by and between Meerscheidt
& Stieren Irrigation Co., as party of the first part, and , as party
of the second part, witnesseth : g
1. The party of the first part hereby leases for the term of years, begin-
ning on the day of , 190—, and ending On the day of y
190—, the following described tract or parcel of land out of their irrigation
farm near and within the city of San Antonio, Texas, on the Castroville road
and Cupples lane, and Containing acres Of land :
2. The party of the second part agrees to pay the sum of $ per acre for
said land, to be paid as follows: $ in Cash upon signing or taking posses-
396. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904. . .
Sion of Said land, and the balance in equal payments. $– on the first
day of , 190—, $ on the first day of , 190—, $ On the
first day of —, 190—. -
3. The party of the first part further leases to the party of the second part
acres Of land on shares—that is to say, each party to receive One-
half of the crop raised and gathered thereon, and the party of the second part
agrees to gather and deliver the equal one-half part belonging to parties of the
first part to them on said farm, or if so desired to market and sell same in the
City of San Antonio and turn over the money realized from such sale to the
parties of the first part, in their office in the city of San Antonio, Texas, * -
4. The party of the first part agrees to furnish out of their well, at their
Own expense, to the second party, Once every week, one-third of the water
pumped out of their well in ten hours for each fifteen acres rented for money
rent, and for land leased on shares only supplus water will be furnished, to be
left to discretion of first parties after all land rented for money has been sup-
plied; however, that the parties of the first part shall not be responsible to the
second party for any damages for failure to supply water by reason of a break-
down in the machinery, or if for any reason the well fails to furnish sufficient
water, as long as the first parties make reasonable efforts to repair any break-
down and pump the water contained in the well. And it is understood that in
case their well should diminish, or if for any reason it should become impos-
sible for the party of the first part to furnish sufficient water to the party of
the second part, as hereinbefore agreed, to make a crop, the damages therefor
shall never exceed the amount of rent the party of the first part agrees to
pay
5. The party of the first part agrees to furnish to the party of the second part
a house and stable with said land, and being house known as No. —.
6. The party of the second part agrees to cultivate his crop in a good farmer
and gardener. like manner and to keep the land free of weeds and Johnson
grass and to furnish all labor, tools, teams, and seed necessary to such cultiva-
tion, and he is to make the ditches on the land so leased and to keep them, in
repair and clean of weeds, and he further agrees to pay his rent promptly, as
hereinbefore set out, and a failure to comply fully with this article shall for-
feit this lease • . - -
7. It is further agreed and understood by the parties to this contract that the
parties of the first part have a lien on any and all crops raised on said, leased
land for rents due and to become due, and for advances made, if any, to such
tenant e *
Witness our hands this day of , 190—.
=-- *
- º
As will be seen, the contracts provide for payment in part of the
crop, for a cash consideration per acre, or for a combination of the
two.
SAN ANTONIO SEWAGE.
The city of San Antonio has a population of 60,000. The water
supply per capita is 167 gallons per day. In 1904 there were 3,462
houses, or about one-third of the total number in the town, connected
with the sewerage system. According to the report of the city engi-
neer, the average rate of flow of sewage water is 11 cubic feet per sec-
TREIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 397
ond. On the basis of the above figures, and assuming that six people
occupy a house, the water consumed per house would be 1,000 gallons
per day. This would account for only four-sevenths of the flow of
the sewer. The remaining three-sevenths of its supply comes from
Seepage into the brick sewer.
The sewage of San Antonio had previously been disposed of by
utilizing the water for irrigation on the old sewer farm, a short dis-
tance outside the city limits. As a Sanitary precaution, however, it
was decided to convey the sewage several miles farther, to the vicinity
of Mitchells Lake. The San Antonio Irrigation Company, of which
H. McC. Potter is manager, has obtained from the city the right to
utilize this sewage water for ninety-nine years for the disposal of the
same. The Government experiment farm, which is close by the old
sewage farm, had previously used the sewage water for irrigation,
but is at present cut off from this supply.
The pipe line for conveying the sewage ends a short distance beyond
the old sewage farm, from which point the water is conveyed by a
FIG. 58.-Section of San Antonio sewage ditch.
ditch to Mitchells Lake, a distance of 7 miles. The ditch is 4.5 feet
wide on the bottom, 3 feet deep, with side slopes of 1 to 1 and a grade
of 4.5 feet per mile. The banks have a 3-foot crown. The ditch is
designed to carry 20,000 gallons per day.
In addition to the ditch, 1,500 feet of flume are used, of the follow-
ing sizes: 6 by 2, 5 by 2.5, and 4 by 2.5 feet. The sections of flume
are constructed of cypress, with 2-inch bottom and sides and 4 by 4
inch posts bolted to stringers set 8 feet apart. The flumes are set on
a grade of 10 feet per mile.
A wooden retaining wall has been constructed where the ditch is
in a cut 700 feet long in loose ground. The joists are on the inside
of this wall, which is an objectionable feature, as they form stopping
places for sediment. It would have been better had they been placed
on the outside of the wall and the timbers bolted through.
Two thousand two hundred feet of open concrete invert were also
used, of a semielliptical section 3 feet in depth and 4 feet across at
the top (fig. 58). The thickness of the concrete lining is 6 inches.

398 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
The lining was put in when the embankment was green and has
cracked in places. The concrete cost 90 cents per square yard.
According to the city engineer's estimate, the following acreage is
available for irrigation from sewage water without the use of pumps:
* Acres.
From the point where the pipe line crosses the San Antonio
River to the Sewer farm-------------------------------- 400
Sewer farm and land lying east of it----------------------- 350
Sewer farm to Mitchells Lake_____________________ -------- 300
In addition to this, the Mitchells Lake property : -
Filter beds------------------------------------------ 550
Cultivated filter beds_______________ - * * * * * * = am. * * m sº sº m 'm, ºm * - 400
Land which can be irrigated from the lake and Canal____ 375
Land irrigated from the lake only--------------------- 125
Total----------------------- *w- * ___ 2, 500
Mitchells Lake, a shallow basin through which the drainage water
from a large section of country runs, formerly went dry in the sum-
mer time. At present the outlet of the lake has been closed by a dirt
dam 250 yards long with a slope of 3 to 1 on the inside and 2 to 1 on
the outside. The spillway, which includes the entire length of the
dam, is 1,000 feet long and is well covered with sod. It is of such
ample dimensions that no cutting has resulted from the water which
passes over it. The lake when full covers an area of 864 acres, with a
depth of water of 2 to 10 feet. The storm waters, which drain into
the lake from a section reaching as far as San Antonio, all pass
through a natural basin, the utilization of which the company is at
present contemplating by the erection of a dam 2,400 feet long, with
a maximum height above the ground level of 38 feet. The estimated
capacity of the reservoir is 8,000,000,000 gallons. Leona Creek will
be used as a wasteway for the reservoir. If this reservoir were con-
structed, Mitchells Lake could be drained and the land used for
agricultural purposes. . . -
The company figures that 2,000 acres are available for irrigation
by gravity under the existing canal, and that by damming the storage
basin 2,500 acres additional will be made available, of which 1,000
acres could be irrigated from the sewage supply by gravity alone if
desired. According to the figures of the city engineer, the present
sewage water supply is sufficient for the irrigation of 2,000 acres.
This would give a duty of about 180 acres per 1 cubic foot per second.
The sewage water which is at present not used for irrigation is
spread over what are known as filter beds—large sandy and gravelly
tracts—and eventually finds its way by percolation through the soil
into Mitchells Lake. The water is distributed over the filter beds by
means of Small laterals 4 feet wide on top and 8 inches deep, con-
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAS. ... " 399
structed with V scrapers and run on a grade of 1 foot to the mile.
Part of the filter beds can be used for farming. There are about 2
miles of ditches in the filter beds, through which the water is turned
into different sections as occasion may demand. By the time the
sewage reaches the filter beds there are no solids left in the water.
At present there are 450 acres under irrigation, planted as follows:
140 acres in Indian COrn, irrigated three times a year.
75 acres in Kafir corn, irrigated three times a year.
80 acres in Sorghum, irrigated three times a year.
25 acres in sweet poCatoes.
100 acres in Cassava, peanuts, COWſpeas, etc.
30 acres in Irish potatoes and alfalfa.
Irrigation commenced March 1. Sorghum matured in fifty days
and sweet potatoes in ninety days. Furrow irrigation was practiced
for all crops except alfalfa, which was flooded by the bed system, the
beds being about 25 feet wide. The laterals are about 300 feet apart.
SAN ANTONIO RIVER,
San Antonio River, in addition to the supply of water from the
springs at its source, receives considerable additions farther down
from seepage and from the creeks which run into it. Several pump-
ing plants have recently been installed considerable distances below
the city, which utilize this water for irrigation.
Ballard plant.—At Floresville, on San Antonio River, Mr. Ballard
has installed on his farm of 150 acres an irrigation pumping plant
consisting of a 65-horsepower boiler furnishing steam at 30 pounds
pressure to a duplex pump delivering a flow of 500 gallons per min-
ute. Water is raised 47 feet and 1 cord of mesquite is consumed in
twelve hours' run. One hour's run of the pump will irrigate an acre.
Mr. Ballard expects to put in 8 acres of onions this year (1905), to be
irrigated by the bed system, the beds being 13 by 100 feet. Forty to
50 tons of manure per acre are used for fertilizer.
Spencer plant.—At Falls City, on the San Antonio River, is the
irrigation plant of C. W. Spencer. This plant has just been installed
and is intended to irrigate 15 acres. A No. 3 centrifugal pump
driven by a 12-horsepower gasoline engine will be used to raise the
water 50 feet, forcing it through 450 feet of 4-inch pipe.
McKay plant.—Six miles from Falls City, on San Antonio River,
Dr. Donald McKay has installed an irrigation pumping plant con-
sisting of a 15-horsepower portable engine belted to a No. 5 centrifu-
gal pump. The lift is 37 feet. The fuel consumption is 1 cord of
mesquite for twelve hours' run, during which time 4 acres are irrigated.
The water is pumped through 95 feet of 54%-inch pipe. Wood costs.
75 cents a cord and is cut on the ranch. The present plant irrigates
400 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
26 acres. According to the owner's figures 50 acres could be irrigated. s
The following crops were grown on the land: -
Crop returns.

Irriga-
Crop. Acres. |tions per Yield per acre.
Se&SOIl.
Onions---------------------------------------------------------- 5 10 22,000 pounds.
Potatoes -------------------------------------------------------- 5 2 : 100 bushels,
Melons---------------------------------------------------------- 5 4 || 75 bushels.
Cotton ---------------------------------------------------------- 6 1 | Failure.
Corn ------------------------------------------------------------ 5 1 | 40 bushels.
Corn not irrigated yielded 20 bushels per acre. The onions were .
placed in rows 12 inches apart, the spacing being 5 inches. Trans-
planting the onions required thirty days’ labor per acre and harvest-
ing five days. - -
The soil is alluvial and cements easily. No fertilizer was used. The
bed system of irrigation is employed for onions, the beds being 12 by
100 feet and the slope 1 inch per 100 feet. The entire flow of the
pump is utilized on 2 to 4 beds at a time, and when irrigating 2 beds
about ten minutes flow is required. Crops other than onions are
irrigated by the furrow system, the furrows being 200 to 600 feet
long, with a slope varying from 2 inches to 1 foot per 100 feet.
Weir plant.—Near Karnes City Peter Weir has installed an irri-
gation plant pumping water from San Antonio River with the follow-
ing equipment: 100-horsepower horizontal tubular boiler; 100-horse-
power throttling engine, speed 140 revolutions per minute, which
drives through belting a No. 8 centrifugal pump provided with 10-
inch suction and discharge, throwing a stream of 2,500 gallons per
minute. The pump makes 400 revolutions per minute. Water is
raised 47 feet vertically through 75 feet of 10-inch pipe. The fuel
consumption of the plant is 1.5 cords of wood in twelve hours.
Water is pumped into a canal 25 feet wide with a maximum depth
of 6 feet and an average depth of 3.5 feet. It is 0.75 mile long, and
is utilized in part to store water. -
At present 110 acres are irrigated by the plant, 65 acres being
planted in corn, of which the yield is claimed to be 70 bushels per acre.
The land is rented out to tenants under contracts, of which the
following is a copy:
STATE OF TEXAS, County, of Karnes:
This contract, made by and between Peter Weir and —s— — —, both
of Karnes County, Texas, witnesseth : That said Peter Weir has this day leased
and rented to the Said — for the term of — months, beginning on
the day Of , A. D. 190—, and ending on the – day of , A. D.
190—, that certain acres of land this day marked and staked off by the par-
ties hereto, it being a part of the farm of the said Peter Weir, situated in
Karnes County, Texas, about four miles north of the town of Karnes City, on
the San Antonio River, and being a part of the A. Lombrano grant,
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. 3” 401
Said Peter Weir further agrees to furnish from the San Antonio River with
his pumping machinery, in the main ditch or canal near said land, sufficient
water to irrigate said land and to water the crops that may be growing thereon
at all necessary times for and during the term of this lease.
It is expressly stipulated and agreed, however, that the said Peter Weir shall
only be required to exercise reasonable diligence to supply the water for irriga-
tion purposes above mentioned, and he shall not be liable for damages on account
of a failure to supply such water occasioned by a breakage in machinery or acci-
(lent thereto, high water, failure of the water in the river, breakage in canal, or
from any other cause that can not be provided against with reasonable prudence.
For the rent of said land and the use of said water for and during the term
Of this lease the said agrees to pay to the said Peter Weir, at
Karnes City, Texas, the sum of $ , as follows: $– cash, the receipt of
which is now here acknowledged by the said Weir, and $– on the — day
Of , A. D. 190—, and $– on the day of , A. D. 190—, and a
first lien is now here acknowledged on all the crops grown and to be grown on
Said land for and during the term of this lease to secure the payment of all said
Sums of money.
It it further understood and agreed that the said Peter Weir shall, either in
perSon Or by an agent, at all times, during usual working hours, be at or near
Said pumping plant, and the said shall not take any water from said
main ditch or canal, except as hereinafter provided, until the consent of the said
IPeter Weir or his said agent shall have first been obtained, and then only such
quantity of water shall be taken as shall be prescribed by the said Weir or his
agent: Provided, That the said shall always be entitled to water
OD of each week, and at his request shall also be entitled to water at
any time during transplanting.
The Said - hereby agrees to work and cultivate said premises
in a good and farm-like manner during the term of this lease and to peaceably sur-
render the possession thereof to the said Weir at the termination thereof in as
good condition as it now is, natural wear and tear, the act of God or a public
enemy alone excepted.
Witness Our hands this
. A. D. 190—
day of
- -
Land adjoining the plant has increased in value $17 to $25 per acre
since its installation.
With furrow irrigation the pump flow is used on 30 rows 250 yards
long, taking about an hour to flow through the same.
The corn crop was planted early in March and harvested the first
part of September. It was irrigated twice. Without rain it would
require three irrigations.
Wood for fuel costs $1.25 per cord, being cut from the land of the
owner of the plant.
Delutz-Campbell plant.—Near Karnes City is another irrigation
plant pumping from San Antonio River, owned by Delutz and Camp-
bell. In 1903–48 acres were irrigated by this plant: Six in onions,
1 in melons, 0.5 in potatoes, and 0.5 in truck. This year (1905). 20
acres will be irrigated—15 in onions and 5 in cabbage. Water is
30620–No. 158—05—26
402 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
pumped from the river by a No. 3 centrifugal pump driven by a
10-horsepower gasoline engine consuming 1.25 gallons of gasoline per
hour. The lift is 44 feet and the flow 295 gallons per minute as
measured. The present plant will irrigate about 3 acres of onions
in ten hours. Last year’s onion yield was 14,000 pounds per acre,
for which the price received was 2 cents per pound f. o. b. No ferti-
lizer was used. Onions were planted October 15 and harvested April
15–20. Transplanting took 10 men three weeks and harvesting 5
men two weeks. The onions were planted 4 inches apart in rows 14
inches apart. The bed system of irrigation was used, beds being 12
by 100 feet. The entire flow of the pump required five to eight min-
utes to irrigate a bed. The first part of the season the onions were
irrigated every two weeks and after that every seven or eight days.
About 12 irrigations were required during the Season. The Onions
weighed 1.25 to 1.5 pounds each. It is the intention of the owners
to install later a No. 6 pump driven by a 40-horsepower engine, to
irrigate 70 acres. .
BEEVILLE.
In the country near Beeville there are several successful small irri-
gation plants which illustrate how trucking may be carried on to .
advantage by a man of small means. The water supply is obtained
entirely from pumped wells which furnish a comparatively limited
flow. In consequence much greater economy is practiced here in the
use of water than in most other parts of Texas which the writer
visited. All kinds of soil are found within a short distance, varying
from a sandy to a waxy consistency.
The State experiment station, of which Mr. Robertson is at present
in charge, is situated about 6 miles from Beeville. Experiments have
been conducted there to determine the commercial value of irrigation
which show clearly its great importance. Reports are carefully
kept of the cost of various operations and the labor necessary for
growing a crop and the results from irrigated and nonirrigated land
show a striking contrast. - -
A well 1,333 feet deep was bored in an attempt to obtain artesian
water near Beeville. At 40 feet the first water stratum, which was of
small capacity, was encountered, water standing at that level. At
65 feet the water rose to within 30 feet of the ground surface. At 237
feet in fine sand a good supply of water was encountered which rose
to within 37 feet of the surface. At 400 feet a better supply was
encountered and at 600 feet the water rose to within 9 feet of the
surface. No artesian flow, however, was struck. The formations
encountered in well boring near Beeville are in general as follows.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. - 403
From 35 feet down to 65 to 80 feet the ground is porous clay rock with a small
water supply. -
From there to 100 feet is a stratum of sand.
At 120 feet is a 5-foot vein of quicksand.
At 224 feet is another water-bearing stratum of sand.
These conditions hold to about 4 miles east of the town. About 6
miles west of the town the formation is rock to a depth of 125 to 150
feet. At 120 feet is a water-bearing stratum of rock. At 150 feet
is a water-bearing sand stratum. Nearer Beeville between depths
of 40 and 100 feet the ground is honeycombed sand rock yielding a
limited water supply and which is underlaid with about 60 feet of
clay. Twelve miles west of Beeville is a gravel stratum between 100
and 150 foot levels. Water stands 130 feet from the ground.
In the northern part of Bee County the wells are small. At the
60-foot level a small amount of seepage was encountered in a well at
Pettus, and at the 220-foot level the well was dry. West of Bee
County, at 150-foot levels, is a water-bearing stratum of sand and
gravel which furnishes a fair flow. Water stands 100 feet from the
surface of the ground. In the southern part of the county the water
gravel is 40 feet below the surface and furnishes a good supply.
Water stands without flow 30 feet from the surface of the ground.
In the eastern part of the county the water-bearing sand is 100 feet
below the surface and furnishes a good supply. The lift is 50 feet.
At Pettus, 19 miles north of Beeville, is a dug well near the bank
of Medio Creek, which is said to furnish a good supply of water.
At Skidmore is a well 180 feet deep, dug 8 feet square for the first
100 feet and drilled for the remaining 80 feet, supplied with 8 and
12 inch casing. Water stands 120 feet from the surface. The water
strata were encountered at 90, 120, and 180 feet, the stratum at 180
feet being gravel. A steam pump is set 15 feet above the water level.
The length of suction pipe is 28 feet. The delivery of the pump is
100 gallons per minute.
At Sinton, near Chiltipin Creek, is a pumped well delivering 95
gallons per minute. A well 1,600 feet deep was put down in this
vicinity in the hope of finding artesian water. Strata of water-
bearing gravel were encountered between 75 and 400 feet, but no arte-
sian flow was obtained. 3.
H. M. Perry irrigates 25 acres southwest of Skidmore. A 6-horse-
power engine drives a pump delivering 75 gallons per minute against
a lift of 140 feet. A reservoir of 500,000 gallons capacity is used.
Near Driscoll are three small farms of 15 to 20 acres each irrigated
by pumping.
404 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
Beeville ea periment station.—According to the figures of J. K.
Robertson, irrigation for trucking in the vicinity of Beeville requires
an average of 1 inch depth of water applied every 10 days when the
weather is dry. The irrigations required per year per crop are two
to ten. The pumping plant at the experiment station consists of a
deep-well pump operated by a gasoline engine delivering 65 gallons
per minute against a lift of 90 feet, utilizing 4.5 gallons of gasoline
in ten hours at a cost of 14.5 cents per gallon. An earth reservoir 62
by 44 top inside measurements, 8 feet deep, side slope 1 to 1.5, capacity
90,000 gallons, is used in connection with the pumping plant. The
well from which the water supply is obtained is 100 feet deep, the
water being in a porous adobe formation. In the summer of 1904,
water stood 65 feet below the surface of the ground. Formerly
the level was 15 to 20 feet higher. Water is pumped by a 6 by 22
inch deep-well pump run at 32 strokes per minute. Pumping at this
rate the well pit is emptied in five hours. The probable flow into the
pit when empty is estimated at 45 gallons per minute. -
The reservoir is lined with a mixture of 73 per cent sand, 2 per
cent lime, and 25 per cent coal tar. Air-slaked lime and sand were
mixed dry and poured into boiling coal tar. Fifty-three pounds of
mixture per square yard were used. The surface was coated with a
flashed tar applied as a paint, made by boiling tar twenty minutes
and flashing it while boiling until the grease was burned out. This
lining has worked quite Satisfactorily. - .
Mr. Robertson figures that the cost of gasoline for raising water
near Beeville was 4 cents per 1,000 gallons. -
The land on the experiment station used for truck growing was
fertilized at a cost of $7 per acre with the following commercial ferti-
lizer: Five parts of nitrate of soda, 6 of acid phosphate, 9 of muriate
of potash. The two latter were applied from seven to ten days before
setting out onions, and the former in two applications, one when the
bulb was half grown and the other when the onions were half grown.
Five hundred pounds per acre was applied and the same required
from one-half to five hours’ labor for its application. Three pounds
of onion seed, at $2 per pound, were used per acre. The following
are figures made by Mr. Robertson on the cost of farming and the
yield of land with and without irrigation. The time was carefully
kept of all operations required for one-twentieth of an acre.
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. 405
Oost of farming 1 acre of nonirrigated land.
Plowing and harrowing---------------------------------- $2.00
Laying off furrows, labor in irrigation before planting, etc. – 2.00
Restirring with 5-tooth cultivator---- - - 2. 00
Transplanting Onions--------- - — — - - 9. (90
Water for irrigation before planting (40,000 gallons) ------- 1.66
Eight cultivations---------------------------------------- 3. 60
Hand Weeding–––––-----------------------------------___ 5.00
Pulling onions, 33.3 hours, at 74 cents ---- 2. 50
Trimming, sacking, and weighing, 100 hours, at 7.5 cents____ 7. 50
Total -------------------------------------------- 35. 20
NoTE.—The land received one irrigation only before planting.
The following was the cost for irrigated land:
Plowing and harrowing------------ - - - - - - - $2.00
Laying off furrows, and labor of irrigation before planting_- 2.00
Restirring------------- tº º m, - ____ 2.00
Transplanting ------------------------------------------- 9. OO
Water for irrigation before planting – - 1. 60
Eight cultivations---------- ------------- 3: 60
Laying off rows for irrigating after planting________ — — — — — — —- 1. 50
Four irrigations—Water---------------------------------- 6. (O
Four irrigations—labor----------- 4.80
Pulling, trimming, sacking, and weighing, 190 hours, at 7.5
cents------------------------------- - - - 14.25
Total --------------------------------------------- 47.45
The Onions were red Bermuda, planted 44 inches apart in the rows,
which were 15 inches on centers. The nonirrigated land yielded
19,075 pounds per acre, and the irrigated land 38,056 pounds per
acre. Onions planted with the above spacing gave the following
yield in pounds from a 50-foot row: -
Pounds.
Red Bermuda-------------------------------------------- 63. 50
White Bermuda --- - -- 49.25
Creole ----------------------------- __ 35.25
Irrigated onions required no hand weeding; unirrigated onions
required 10 days’ labor in weeding per acre.
The following are the comparative results of the irrigated and unir-
rigated cabbage land. One-eighth acre was used in obtaining these
figures, but the results are reduced to cost per acre:
Unirrigated, earcept for planting.
Man and team laying off rows, 4 hours––––––––––––––––––––– $0.80
One man, 4 hours, irrigating------------------------------ . 40
Water for irrigation before planting_-_____________________ , 80
Labor, transplanting, 30 hours---------------------------- 2. 72
One man raking in furrows------------------------------- .80
Man and mule, 9 Cultivations----------------------------- 2.96
Hoeing, 6 hours--- - - = - - - - - - - - - - - - - * = . 60
406 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Cost of farming irrigated cabbage per acre.
Man and team, laying off rows, 4 hours____________________ $0.80
Six irrigations (167,000 gallons) -------------_____________ 6. SO
Labor, 6 irrigations, making ditch, etc., 22 hours____________ 2. 20
Man and mule, 9 Cultivations----------------------------- 2.96
Labor, transplanting, 30 hours---------------------------- 2. 72
Labor, raking in furrows--------------------------------- . 80
Labor, hoeing, 6 hours ---- - - . 60
Total --------------------------------------------- 16. S8
There were 8,320 plants transplanted, 152 being killed by black rot,
2,720 plants failed to head, and 5,448 plants yielded a total of 6,144
pounds on the unirrigated land.
Irrigated land which had the same number of plants transplanted
yielded 17,632 pounds, 248 plants being killed by black rot, 80 failed
to head, and 7,992 matured.
The following prices were received for cabbage in 1904: In Feb-
ruary, 1.90, 1.76, 1.75, 2.02 cents per pound; in March, 1.96, 2.17
cents per pound, and in April, 2.26 cents per pound. The average
for February was 1.86 cents, for March, 2.07 cents, and the average
for February, March, and April, 2.05 cents. Figuring on 2 cents
per pound, the irrigated land yielded a return of $352, whereas the
yield of unirrigated cabbage was only $123.
These figures demonstrate beyond a doubt the absolute commercial
necessity of irrigation, particularly in view of the comparatively
Small cost of the same and vastly increased returns, the difference
in cost being only $7.80 per acre, with an increased yield equivalent
to a profit of $229. These figures represent what can be obtained
by skillful farmers and are considerably above the average.
Rankin farm.–In the country around Beeville there are several
thriving truck farms, the most successful of which belongs to Carl
|Rankin. The water supply for irrigation comes from three wells,
two of which are pumped by 12-foot windmills and the third by a
gasoline engine. The present supply of water is just sufficient for
the irrigation of 20 acres, 15 of which belong to Mr. Rankin and 5
to a neighbor. By far the larger part of the water supply is derived
from the engine-driven pump, the well for which is of 54%-inch casing
and 175 feet deep, the water standing about 40 feet from the ground
level. From experience in wells near by, water will be lowered at
a rate of probably 6 inches per 1 gallon per minute rate of flow.
A deep-well pump, 3.75 by 24, is driven at 32 strokes per minute
by a gasoline engine of 24 horsepower. The capacity of this pump
is 37 gallons per minute. The end of the pump cylinder is 40
feet below the standing-water level. The pump discharge into an
earth reservoir, 80 by 52 feet top inside measurement, and about 6
feet deep, the banks having a slope of 1 vertical and 2 horizontal.
--
IRRIG ATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 407
The pump, engine, well, and house complete cost $1,000. The cost of
boring wells in this vicinity is 50 cents per foot.
The gasoline engine runs day and night without attention. The
owner estimates that the engine runs one-third of the year. Gasoline
at 14 cents per gallon costs 80 cents for twenty-four hours' run.
Labor for irrigating 1 acre costs 60 cents to $1. Irrigation is car-
ried on during the day only, the pump discharging into the reser-
voir at night. Twenty-four hours' run of the pump will furnish
sufficient water for the irrigation of 2 acres. Freshly plowed land
will take at the start twice this quantity of water. Truck land is
irrigated every ten days in dry weather.
The soil on this ranch varies from black waxy to light sandy, and
is 1 to 2 feet thick, underlain with a red clay subsoil. The land
is all fertilized with barnyard manure.
This farm is a good example of the benefits of diversified farming.
All kinds of vegetables and truck are grown on the land, and the
owner says he is able to sell some kind of produce from the farm
every day in the year. The land requires six to eight irrigations per
crop per year for truck raising. The land originally cost $25 per
acre a short time ago and it is now greatly increased in value. Five
acres of radishes marketed between January and March brought $200
per acre. One acre of beets yielded 145 barrels—264 bunches to the
barrel.
Benton farm.—Adjoining the Rankin farm is the farm of Mr.
Benton. A well for irrigation purposes has recently been sunk to
the same depth as the Rankin well, the water standing 42.5 feet below
the ground level. A test was made on this well to determine the rela-
tion between the delivery of the well and the distance the ground
water was lowered. This gave the following results:
Effect of pumping on level of ground water.

Gallons Depth Gallons Depth
per water was per Water Was
minute. lowered. minute. | lowered.
Feet. Feet.
00 00 12.9 7.5
20.7 11.2 8.8 5.6
20, 7 11.3 7.2 4.5
17.1 10 20.3 11.2
This indicates that the flow of this well, which is open bottom, is
directly proportional to the distance which the ground water level
is lowered. *
Messenger farm.—W. D. Messenger irrigates 10 acres of land from
a pumped well 6.25 inches in diameter, 90 feet deep, and cased 40
feet. The pump delivers water into an earthen tank 40 by 55 feet
inside top measurements, side slopes 1 vertical to 1.5 horizontal. The
tank is about 5 feet deep and cost $250. The cost of the well,
408 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
ditches, 3-horsepower gasoline engine, and 4-inch deep-well pump
was $750. The cost of the land was $40 per acre. The land was
fertilized with manure costing 10 cents per 2-horse load.
Stovall farm.—A. M. Stovallirrigates a small tract with water from
a 6-inch pumped well. The water stands 36 feet below the ground
level and is raised 6 feet above the surface to the top of an earth
reservoir. A 1.5-horsepower gasoline engine drives a 3.75 by 20
inch deep-well pump 30 strokes per minute, delivering 1 gallon per
minute per stroke. The engine uses 4 gallons of gasoline in twenty-
four hours. The suction pipe of the deep-well pump is 25 feet below
the level of the standing water. The reservoir is 45 feet inside base
diameter, with side slopes 1 to 1, and is 5.5 feet deep. The total
cost of plant was $425. --
Eidson plant.—Mr. Eidson has an irrigation plant which obtains
its water supply from a pumped well 60 feet deep; the distance
from ground to standing water is 35 feet. A 2.5 horsepower gaso-
line engine drives a 3.75 by 24 inch deep-well pump 30 strokes per
minute and delivers water 6.5 feet above the ground level into an
earthen tank 88 feet inside top diameter with side slopes of 1 ver-
tical to 2 horizontal. The cost of the reservoir was $200; total cost
of plant, including reservoir, $800. Seven acres in corn, beets, and
truck are irrigated. The pump delivers 30 gallons per minute.
The cost of gasoline was 17 cents per gallon and of operation for
twenty-four hours 75 cents. In boring the well the first water-
. bearing stratum was encountered at 30 feet, but was very weak. At
60 feet the water stratum consisted of 2 feet of gravel. The reser-
voir capacity is 200,000 gallons. -
Muckleroy farm.—R. C. Muckleroy has a farm 4 miles south of
Beeville, which derives its water supply for irrigation from a well
59 feet deep. The suction pipe of the deep-well pump is within 2
feet of the bottom of the well. The water stands 24 feet below the
ground level and is elevated 6.5 feet farther to the top and discharges
into an earthen reservoir 65 feet inside top diameter and 6 feet deep,
with side slopes of 1 vertical to 1.5 horizontal. The well is of
51%-inch casing. A 2.5-horsepower gasoline engine drives a 3.75 by
24 inch deep-well pump 30 strokes per minute. The cost of the res-
ervoir was $200; cost of engine, $245; cost of well boring, 55 cents
per foot. The well is cased 53 feet. Below the standing water level
is a 30-foot sand stratum and 5 feet of stone, the soil being 10 inches
thick, underlain with clay subsoil.
Cabbage set out in September was shipped in December and Feb-
ruary, and was followed by a crop of black-eyed peas planted May
1 and plowed under August 1. On the same land a crop of cauli-
flower and cabbage was set out in September and shipped in Decem-
ber and January. English peas planted September 1 were shipped
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 409
October 15–30, and radishes planted November 1 were shipped De-
cember 15–30.
Grissett place.—C. L. Grissett has a farm irrigated from a well
160 feet deep. Water stands about 44 feet below the ground level.
A 4-horsepower gasoline engine drives a 3% by 20% inch deep-well
pump, delivering a flow of 28 gallons per minute. Two acres of land
were irrigated per day of ten hours, in which time 34 gallons of
gasoline were consumed. The land is used for truck raising and is
irrigated every twelve days in dry weather, requiring from 6 to 8
irrigations per year. * >
McDowell farm.—This farm of 4 acres adjoins the Grissett place
and is irrigated with water from a pumped well 100 feet deep. A
1.5-horsepower gasoline engine drives a 2.75 by 10 inch deep-well
pump 44 strokes per minute. The depth to ground water is 44
feet 8 inches, the water being discharged into a wooden tank 5.5 feet
deep, 8.75 feet in diameter at the bottom, and 7.5 feet in diameter
at the top. A windmill also furnishes a small additional supply.
The pump and windmill together deliver 2,800 gallons of water
in 2.33 hours on an average. Starting with the tank full and the
pump running 1.5 acres can be irrigated in ten hours. Truck is irri-
gated once a week in dry weather.
Koon plant.—W. T. Koon leased 5 acres of improved land for one-
half of the crop. The land is irrigated every ten days, from 0.5 to 1
acre of land being irrigated per day. On the land is a reservoir
6 feet deep, 46 by 62 feet top inside measurements, with side slopes
of 1 vertical to 14 horizontal. The water supply is furnished from
an 80-foot well dug 6 feet square, the distance to water being 40 feet.
A deep-well pump driven by a 3-horsepower gasoline engine supplies
the necessary water.
Holliday plant.—Mr. Holliday has an irrigated farm on which
is a well 320 feet deep, the water standing 40 feet below the ground
level, and it is said that at 50, 70, 90, 120, 180, 240, and 320 feet water
strata were encountered. This is the deepest well in Bee County.
Bowen farm.—J. J. Bowen has a small irrigation plant which de-
rives its water supply from wells pumped by windmills. The water
is discharged into a tank 53.5 feet top diameter, 5 feet deep, side slopes
1 vertical to 2 horizontal. Considerable difficulty was experienced
in making the reservoir hold water. To prevent seepage, 6 barrels
of crude oil were applied in two coats to the reservoir, the cost of
the oil being $20. This was not wholly successful.
Mock farm.—Mr. Mock irrigates a small tract of land with water
pumped from a 5%-inch well, 93 feet deep. The ground water
stands without flow 50 feet below the level of the ground. A 23
by 13% inch deep-well pump is submerged 34 feet, the pump being
410 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
driven by a 14-horsepower gasoline engine. A windmill can be
connected to the pump in place of the engine. The water is dis-
charged into an earth tank 38 by 45 feet inside top measurements,
side slope 1 vertical to 2 horizontal. The tank is 5 feet deep and is
coated with the following combination: Twelve parts ashes, 8 parts
sand, 1 part lime, and 0.4 part salt. This is put on as a mortar.
After hardening it is given a coat of oil or coal tar. The well has a
limited capacity, and when the engine is operated only a small part
of the pump capacity is obtained. . The cost of apparatus is as
follows: -
12-foot windmill ------------------------------------------ $60
30-foot tower, erected -------------------------------------- 25
2-horsepower gasoline engine------------------------------- 135
Deep-Well pump ------------------------------------------- 25
Gasoline tank --------------------------------------------- 8.
Shed------------------------------------------------------ 15
Well------------------------------------------------------ 70
Pipe ------------------------------------------------------ 48
Setting up engine ----------------------------------------- 1()
Reservoir ------------------------------------------------- 75
Total ----------------------------------------------- 471
Elliott plant.—Mr. Elliott irrigates a small farm with water
pumped from wells by two 10-foot windmills operating one 3 by 8
and one 3% by 8 deep-well pumps. The water is pumped into an
earthen tank with a top diameter of 53 feet, side slopes of 1 vertical
to 2 horizontal. In normal wind the pumps will fill the tank, which
is about 4 feet deep, in from two to three days. The owner estimates
that he can irrigate 5 acres with water pumped by the windmills.
Truck and Sorghum are the crops grown, and are irrigated every
ten days in dry weather.
Waterworks well.—The city waterworks at Beeville derives its
water supply from a 64-inch well 225 feet deep near the center of the
town. The water supply is obtained from a stratum of 15 feet of
water sand. The well is operated by means of an air lift, a 1.5-inch
air pipe being inserted in the center of the casing. When water
was first pumped from this well it delivered 55 gallons per minute;
in two weeks the flow increased to 121 gallons per minute, and a
day later to 146 gallons per minute. One month after starting the
well gave 123 gallons per minute and shortly afterwards 263 gallons
per minute. The air pipe extended 6 feet below the end of the cas-
ing. The air pressure Supplied under these conditions was 50 to
55 pounds per square inch. With the air pipe at this depth con-
siderable sand was pumped from the well. The air pipe was sub-
sequently shortened to a length of 210 feet, at which depth 45 pounds
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 411
of air pressure are required, delivering a flow of 234 gallońs per
minute.
Coleman-Fuleton Pasture Company.—This company owns 170,000
acres near Gregory, extending practically to the Gulf. The land,
much of which is quite level, is used entirely for stock raising, and
as yet there has been no attempt at irrigation. In places it has been
found necessary to put in surface-drainage ditches to handle the
surplus rain water. Several wells have been bored for stock water,
but these are all of small capacity. Near the eastern part of the
ranch Chiltipin Creek empties into Aransas River, the basin at this
point being about a mile wide and fully 20 feet deep. Chiltipin
Creek channel, to which the flow of water is mainly confined, except
during freshets, is about 10 feet below the bottom of the creek basin
and at its mouth is about 3,500 yards wide. About a mile from the
mouth of the creek is a 10-foot dam across the river channel, which
backs the water up 20 miles. The bed of Aransas River is also very
level, and it has been estimated that a dam across the river basin
would furnish a storage 40 miles long, 0.25 mile wide, and 20 feet
deep, and that Chiltipin Creek would furnish a storage 20 miles
long, 0.125 mile wide, and 20 feet deep. Aransas River is 75 miles
long, its drainage extending through a distance somewhat less than
10 miles on either side near the mouth, while Chiltipin Creek, which
is 35 miles in length, has a drainage area of about one-half this
width. If these figures are correct they would give a storage for
Chiltipin Creek of 32,000 acre-feet and for Aransas River of 128,000
acre-feet, and, allowing 18 inches of stored water for the irrigation of
land, they would together irrigate 106,167 acres. Assuming 10 per
cent of the water which falls as the run-off of the land and 30 inches
of rainfall, this would call for a drainage area of 1,000 square miles
which would apparently be available. The figures given, however,
are not the results of measurements, but are based on observations
by those familiar with the country. An accurate survey would, of
course, be required to definitely determine the feasibility of such an
undertaking as damming the river. The water in Chiltipin Creek
runs about thirty days in the year and in Aransas River for six
months of the year. The possibility of the storage of water which
this exemplifies is certainly worthy of careful consideration, owing
to the vastly increased value of irrigated over unirrigated land.
CORPUS CHRISTI AND ALICE.
The supply of water near Corpus Christi consists of (1) the
Nueces River, (2) drainage from the land into Oso Creek, and (3)
pumped wells. Nueces River can not be depended upon to furnish
a continuous Supply of any extent throughout the year. Oso Creek
412 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
runs in wet weather only. The pumped wells so far developed
which furnish a reliable supply of water are of small capacity. In
an attempt to find artesian water a well was bored 1,730 feet and
artesian water encountered, but it was so strongly impregnated with
sulphur and salt that it was impossible to use it for irrigation. At
540 feet sulphur water was found, and at 1,440 feet there was a
strong flow of salt water which had a head of 90 feet above the
ground. Numerous surface wells have been sunk for irrigation pur-
poses, but these are all of small capacity and operated mainly by
windmills.
Three irrigation projects have been talked of which would involve
the storage of rain or river water, but nothing has ever been seri-
ously attempted in the construction of the reservoirs. Oso Creek
drains a country 25 miles long and 20 miles wide, and at its mouth
opens out into a large shallow lake, about 5 Square miles in area, lying
next to the sea, but is seldom filled with water. The soil in the
bottom of the lake is of a sandy alkaline nature. It has been pro-
posed to build a levee 2 miles in length to make this lake serve as a
storage basin for rain water, an average depth of 10 feet being
obtainable in this manner. *
Another proposition is to erect a dam across the creek a short
distance above where it widens out into the lake. The plans which
were made involved the erection of a dam 2,200 feet long, built with
a masonry section 500 feet long, 26 feet maximum depth, and resting
on clay 6 feet below the surface, the remaining 1,700 feet to consist
of an earth fill. Four hundred and fifty feet of the masonry part
of the structure was to serve as a spillway, the maximum depth being
20 feet. This dam would store about 12,000 acre-feet of water.
The third project involves the damming of Nueces Bay. The
Nueces River empties into Nueces Bay, a large shallow sheet of water
2 to 3 feet deep and 20 square miles in area (fig. 59). When the
river is very high the water in Nueces Bay, and even for some dis-
tance beyond, opposite Corpus Christi, becomes so fresh that it is
potable. At the mouth of Nueces Bay, where it joins Corpus Christi
Bay, the San Antonio and Aransas Pass Railroad crosses a trestle
13 miles long. Numerous proposals have been made to make this
bay serve as a reservoir by building a low levee across the bay near
the railroad trestle. Much of the land near the bay is very low, and,
in consequence, were a reservoir to be constructed it would necessitate
many miles of levee in addition to the levee crossing the mouth of
the bay. The Nueces River itself near the coast has very little fall
for many miles and before entering the bay the river channel is narrow
and deep, the result being that when the river is at all high it floods
considerable land. In connection with the proposed dam, it was esti-
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 413
mated that even though the water level in the bed should be raised
only 2 feet, 10,000 acres would be flooded. The bottom of the bay
is composed of black, sticky' mud and oyster shells. Only careful
surveys could determine the feasibility of such an undertaking, but
a shallow reservoir would be open to many objections. Evaporation
losses would be heavy and, in addition, the danger of contamination
by salt would be very great. The plan proposed for the reservoir
called also for 10 miles of embankment 2 feet high, and it was the
intention to run the water within 1 foot of the top. This is entirely
- 2.2%
Aſex/coo s A@772/72
VSS
FIG. 59.—Map of Corpus Christi Bay.
too little margin to allow, as the waves would probably wash the levee
out. In order to irrigate any quantity of land from Nueces Bay the
water would have to be pumped against a head of 40 to 70 feet.
The land near Corpus Christi is very productive, and in good years
irrigation is not a necessity. However, the benefits of irrigation in
the insurance against loss as well as in the increased returns are
greatly appreciated, as shown by the high rates paid for water.
The customers of the Corpus Christi waterworks, in spite of the
high water rates, as a rule think the results accomplished justify
the expenditure. Cabbage and cotton have been two of the most



414 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
successful crops grown at Corpus Christi, the returns from the former
being exceptionally large in 1904. Some of the cotton land produced
1 to 1.5 bales per acre, but the boll weevil cut down this yield
materially. a- -
The irrigable land near Corpus Christi starts from the bluff on
which a part of the city is situated, some 20 to 40 feet above the
sea level. The land is fairly level, with a sufficient slope, however,
to be irrigated advantageously, and in some places it has been neces-
sary to construct drainage canals to dispose of the rain water. Sev-
eral Small irrigated farms near Corpus Christi derive their supply
from pumped wells, the usual motive power for driving the pump
being a windmill. The quantity of water obtained from these wells
is limited and inclined to be brackish. The wells are mostly open
bottom, and the water is usually found in gray sand. 2.
The city waterworks of Corpus Christi obtain their water supply
from the Nueces River, the pumping station being situated at Nueces-
town, about 16 miles from Corpus Christi, at which point the Nueces
River is about 150 feet wide and 8 feet deep. A short distance
below the power station a wooden dam has been constructed across
the river channel, rather to keep the salt and fresh water separated
than to serve for storage purposes. The actual storage basin of the
river itself is some 25 miles long, due to a very gradual slope. The
pump station delivers water through a 10-inch pipe into a standpipe
in Corpus Christi. In several places along the pipe line this water
has been used for irrigation purposes. The friction in the pipe adds
very greatly to the head against which it is necessary to pump. The
company furnishes water for irrigation from the pipe line at $75
per 500,000 gallons, the water being sold in these units only. Water
for stock is furnished at $14 per farm per year. This charge of 15
cents per 1,000 gallons for irrigation purposes is so high that the
*ost careful means of utilizing the water are employed. Iron pipe
ind canvas hose are used for distribution, the water being allowed to
ºn freely out of the hose, which is moved as soon as the ground is
ºrigated.
Huff farm.—H. T. Huff irrigates 35 acres with 500,000 gallons of
water per irrigation, 3-inch canvas hose being used for the work.
Cabbage received two irrigations and peas one. According to these
figures, the depth per irrigation was only slightly over one-half of an
inch. Irrigation was carried on in March and April. The cost per
year per acre irrigated was $5.
Kleberg farm.—Robert Kleberg irrigated 15 acres of fruit and
truck four times at a cost of $10 to $15 per acre, which corresponds
to a depth of 2.5 to 3.7 inches per annum.
Trott farm.—Mr. Trott irrigated 8 acres of cabbage with 2,000,000
gallons of water from the pipe line of the Corpus Christi water-
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 415
works, the ground receiving four irrigations and the depth per
irrigation being 2.3 inches. Thirty thousand to 75,000 gallons
of water were used per acre per irrigation, depending on the condi-
tion of the soil. g
Moakes farm.—N. Noakes owns 10 acres near Nuecestown, which
were planted to cabbage in 1904. The land is situated on the bank
of the Nueces River and water was pumped by a No. 5 centrifugal
pump driven by a gasoline engine, utilizing 5 gallons of fuel per day
of ten hours' run. The lift averaged 9.5 feet. The volume of water
discharged was approximately 250 gallons per minute. Seven acres
were irrigated, water being applied twice, the first time requiring eight
days' run of ten hours each and the second six days' run of ten hours
each. The furrow system was used, the furrows being of lengths
varying up to 600 feet and the stream of water being divided between
seven furrows.
Fowler farm.—Mr. Fowler irrigates a small tract by means of rain
water collected in reservoirs formed by damming the natural draws.
Water is also pumped from a 54%-inch well 178 feet deep, provided
with a strainer of 44-inch casing 8 feet long, in which are drilled three-
eighths inch holes, the lower end of the strainer being set in clay.
Water was found in a sand stratum and is somewhat impregnated
with sulphur and iron. It stands 9.5 feet from the surface and does
not rise above the 9-foot level. It is raised by a pump set in a pit 18
feet deep.
Everhardt farm.—The well on this farm is 150 feet deep and has
an open bottom. It starts with a 5%-inch casing and ends with
3-inch. The level of standing water in the well is 16 to 23 feet below
the ground. A windmill operates a 2.5 by 6 inch deep-well pump,
which, at 40 strokes per minute, lowers the water level in the well
6 feet. This corresponds to a flow of about 5 gallons per minute.
Heath farm.—Captain Heath irrigates 4 acres with water pumped
from a well 182 feet deep. The well starts with 64%-inch casing and
ends with 4-inch. A 12-foot windmill drives a deep-well pump
4 by 8, delivering about 6,000 gallons per day. A supply of good
water is obtained at a depth of 182 feet in 6.5 feet of sand, below
which are 18 inches of clay and 10 feet of sand, these three strata
being overlain by one of rock. *
Know farm.—Mr. Knox irrigates his land from a 44-inch well 150
feet deep, the supply being in 7.5 feet of water sand and the distance
from the ground to the surface of the water 23 feet. A 12-foot
windmill drives a 2.75 by 12 inch pump.
416 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
ALICE.
From the coastal country near Corpus Christi to the Rio Grande
for a distance of 50 to 60 miles inland the ground is very level. From
Corpus Christi to Alice the rise is very gradual, the elevation at
Alice being 210 feet above the sea. Little irrigation is carried on
near Alice, the water supply being derived from pumped wells of
limited capacity. At a depth of 600 to 640 feet a fairly good water
stratum is found, in which the water rises to a level of 30 to 40 feet
below the ground. In the surface wells near Alice the first water
sand is encountered between 90 and 125 feet.
The San Antonio and Aransas Pass Railroad has a pumping sta-
tion operating four wells 210 feet deep with 6-inch casing, each pro-
vided with a single-acting 3 by 18 inch deep-well pump. These
pumps are all operated from the same shaft, and when run at a speed
of 40 strokes per minute, delivering 88 gallons per minute, the
water level is lowered 15 feet. Without flow the water stands 115
feet below the ground. The wells are 12 feet apart.
An 8-inch well near by delivers 125 gallons per minute. At Alice
the Texas-Mexican Railroad has a 5-inch well 800 feet deep, from
which water is raised by a direct-connected steam deep-well pump.
The level of the standing water in this well is 40 feet. At 150, 300,
and 450 feet water-bearing strata were encountered, at which points
the casing was perforated. The water is somewhat brackish. The
rate of discharge of the pump is 26 gallons per minute.
SOUTH OF THE MEXICAN NATIONAL IRAILROAD.
The elevation of Alice is too great to obtain an artesian flow of
water. The general slope of the country is toward the south and east
and the nearest artesian wells are close to the Santa Gertrudas
ranch, about 25 miles south of Alice. Eighteen miles southeast of
Alice Mr. Weill has a well 970 feet deep, in which water stands 15
feet below the surface. Nine miles south of this well and about 6
miles north of Kingsville is a flowing well 500 feet deep, delivering
25 gallons per minute. As a general rule the flow of the wells
increases toward the south and east. This is mainly due to the fact
that the ground strata slope in this direction more rapidly than the
ground itself, resulting in wells having a higher static pressure
above the level of the ground and therefore greater flows. At the
same time the wells toward the Southeast become deeper. In boring
wells in this vicinity many water strata were encountered which are
unfit for use on account of sulphur or salt. This is particularly true
toward the coast, as at Corpus Christi, where artesian strata are
encountered at great depth, but the water is so strongly impregnated
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 417
with sulphur and salt it is unfit for use. The sand in which arte-
sian water is found in this country is rather fine and of a brown color,
overlaid by a thick bed of reddish-brown clay. Artesian sand strata
are usually 15 to 40 feet thick and on the Santa Gertrudas ranch are,
as a rule, 400 to 600 feet below the surface.
The majority of the wells are of 54%-inch casing and 500 to 1,200
feet deep. Some are open bottom, but most of them are provided
with strainers made of sections of pipe Small enough to fit inside the
casing and drilled with a number of three-eighths or one-half inch
holes. A strainer commonly used consists of a joint of 44-inch cas-
ing, in which six three-eighths inch holes are drilled in the circum-
ference, the rows of holes being 3 to 12 inches apart. The strainers
have their lower ends set in the clay beneath the water sand and
project into the well casing. They are not provided with either
gauze or wire. On account of the danger of the clay above the
water strata caving, wells with strainers of this nature are preferred
to those with open bottoms. Strainers with holes of this size, how-
ever, will scarcely keep out the sand, and the result will be, as pointed
out in the discussion of wells, that the lower part of the strainers
will fill with sand and the entire water supply enter the casing
through the upper holes only.
The wells are all put down with hydraulic rigs, a 2-inch drill pipe
with a bit on the end being used in boring, as already described.
These boring rigs are usually operated by gasoline engines, though
some utilize horsepower. Forty feet of well are ordinarily made in
'a day, the rigs operating during the daytime only. In boring 6-inch
wells two 6 by 6 inch single-acting pumps are used for supplying
water to the drill pipe. These pumps run at 40 revolutions per minute
and operate under a pressure of 35 to 40 pounds, and deliver a flow
of about 60 gallons per minute for wells of this size. About 1,500
gallons of water per day are needed to compensate for seepage losses
in drilling. A 9-horsepower gasoline engine used to supply power
for drilling and pumping consumes 6 gallons of fuel in twelve hours.
The land in this part of the country is all in large holdings, which
in the past have been used for cattle raising. The two largest
ranches belong to Mrs. M. H. King and John Kenedy, and each con-
tains in the neighborhood of 1,000,000 acres. The Santa Gertrudas
ranch of 600,000 acres, starting about 18 miles south of Alice, and
El Sauz ranch of 400,000 acres, situated some 50 miles north of
Brownsville, are both the property of Mrs. King. The Kenedy
ranch lies between these two tracts, extending toward the coast.
E. C. Lasater and Maj. J. B. Armstrong are also large landholders
in this section.
30620–No. 158–05—27
418 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The country is practically devoted to cattle raising. About 15
acres of ground are required per head of stock. Artesian wells have
been sunk mainly to supply water to stock, but the possibilities of
irrigation are beginning to be better appreciated, and there is a gen-
eral tendency to undertake the irrigation and farming of the land.
The static head above the level of the ground in the artesian district
varies from a few feet up to 50 feet. The static level of the water
from the artesian wells is, however, by no means the same through
this country, as may be seen from the following statement of wells
along the line of the “Sap ’’ Railroad from Alice south:
Variations in the Static level of the water from artesian wells.

Distance *...* static
Elevation Depth of
from * level of
Ali. of ground.; ºaſe. well.
19.0 158 —10 468
27.5 155 - + 4 475
36.3 114 +15 568
The St. Louis and Brownsville Railroad, which was completed
last July, runs within 3 miles of the headquarters of the Santa Ger-
trudas ranch. Kingsville is the nearest railroad station, and the
country adjoining the station has been laid out as a town site. Land
in this vicinity, which was worth little a few years ago, is selling at
$15 to $25 per acre. The conditions of the sale of this land are that
any individual purchasing 40 acres or more of land is allowed to
sink an artesian well for the irrigation of the same. These wells,
however, will be put down by the King Ranch Company, and the
purchaser of the land is to pay the company the cost of sinking the
well. The purchaser is entitled to utilize as much of the flow of
the well as he may need, but the surplus flow belongs to the King
Ranch Company, and consequently the purchaser is not allowed to
dispose of the same. The idea of the company itself putting down
the wells is to be commended not only on the ground that it can do
the work more cheaply than individuals, but particularly since only
competent drillers will be employed in boring wells. -
The land near the Santa Gertrudas ranch is of a black waxy na-
ture, the soil being about 2 feet thick, underlain with a stratum of
clay. The land is covered with a growth of mesquite and costs from
$5 to $15 per acre to clear. In going toward the South the Soil grad-
ually becomes more sandy, finally changing to a sand belt 50 miles
wide, which extends down to El Sauz ranch. The rate of discharge
of the wells is between 25 and 300 gallons per minute, the larger
wells in this part of the country being on the Kenedy ranch. These
figures were obtained by measurements made by the writer. Over
100 artesian wells have already been sunk in this district near the
Santa Gertrudas ranch. A few of the wells are provided with
IRR [GATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 419
storage reservoirs and the water of the same is used for irriga-
tion. A measurement of Santa Gertrudas well No. 3 near the ranch
houre showed a flow of 81 gallons per minute. This well is 565
feet deep. The well at the railroad station at Kingsville gave a
flow of 113 gallons per minute.
EENEDY RAN CH.
This ranch lies mainly in the sand belt, which is sparsely covered
with a growth of oak and a few mesquites. Owing to the country
being so open it is estimated that 10 to 12 acres are required per head
of stock. The lands are covered with a variety of grasses, including
considerable wire grass. The sandy surface soil is 4 to 6 feet deep and
underlain with a stratum of yellow clay. The largest wells in this
district are on this ranch. The following are the data of the
various wells, the flow of each having been measured or estimated by
the writer.
Paistle well Wo. 1.-This well is 700 feet deep, with 200 feet of 5 ſº-
inch and 500 feet of 44-inch casing. The strainer is 22 feet long and
the artesian sand stratum is 40 feet thick. The discharge of the well
is 250 gallons per minute.
Mifflin well.—This well is 740 feet deep, with 371 feet of 63-inch,
395 feet of 51%-inch, and 60 feet of 44-inch casing, the latter including
the strainer, which is 22 feet long. The thickness of the water sand
is 22 feet. The estimated flow is 180 gallons per minute.
Esteranza well.—This well is 747 feet deep, with 340 feet of 63-
inch casing, 385 feet of 5%-inch casing, and 60 feet of 44-inch casing.
The thickness of artesian sand stratum is 30 feet. Estimated flow,
260 gallons per minute.
Bariosa well.—This well is 700 feet deep. There are 411 feet of
63-inch casing, 225 feet of 54%-inch casing, and 160 feet of 44-inch
casing. The water-bearing sand is 22 feet in thickness. Estimated
flow, 240 gallons per minute.
Serpa well.—The depth of this well is 617 feet. There are 60 feet
of 63-inch casing, 460 feet of 5%-inch casing, and 180 feet of 44-inch
casing, the strainer being 22 feet long, and the thickness of the
artesian sand, 38 feet. Measured flow, 307 gallons per minute.
Turcott well.—This well is 787 feet deep. There are 425 feet of
63-inch casing, 247 feet of 54%-inch casing, and 258 feet of 44-inch
casing. The strainer is 22 feet long, and the thickness of the arte-
sian sand belt 38 feet. The estimated flow of the well is 300 gallons
per minute. While boring this well a flow of 25 gallons per minute
developed at a depth of 600 feet, coming from a 10-foot stratum of
sand. The casing, however, was not perforated at this point.
420 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Alegos well.—This well is 865 feet deep. There are 560 feet of
51%-inch casing, 700 feet of 44-inch casing, and 100 feet of 34-inch
casing. The thickness of artesian sand was 22 feet; the measured
flow 212 gallons per minute. - .-
Arabia well.—At a depth of 647 feet the first artesian flow of 25
gallons per minute was encountered in this well from a 16-foot sand
stratum. At a depth of 200 feet greater a second flow of about 100
gallons per minute developed, the thickness of artesian stratum
being 17 feet, the water entering through a 4.25-inch strainer. At a
depth of 900 feet the third flow developed 200 gallons per minute.
This stratum of artesian sand is 22 feet thick and water entered the
casing through a 3-inch strainer. On this ranch near the coast the
depth of the first flow of water was 1,000 to 1,350 feet, with a sand
stratum 22 feet thick. The other artesian sand strata are too deep
to be reached by the wells. One well was finished with 3.5-inch
casing at a depth of 1,512 feet. In drilling a well three-fourths mile
from the ranch house, when the drill entered the water-bearing
stratum from which the ranch wells derive their supply the water
from the latter became muddy and gushed out, carrying considerable
quantities of clay and sand, although it had been running clear for
two years.
ARMSTRONG RANCEſ.
South of the Kenedy ranch is the cattle ranch of Col. J. B. Arm-
strong, consisting of 50,000 acres. The following are descriptions of
some of the wells on this ranch : **
Katherine well.—This well is 730 feet deep. There are 500 feet of
6.25-inch casing and 230 feet of 4.25-inch casing in the well, which
has a flow of 60 gallons per minute. The quality of the water is
good. The owner thinks that at 800 feet a larger supply of water
would be available.
Comal well.—Five miles north of Katherine is the Comal well,
which is of 3-inch casing, 820 feet deep. The flow is 100 gallons per
minute. -
Marana well.—This well, which is 2 miles west of Katherine, is 500
feet deep and has a 2.5-inch casing. The flow is 20 gallons per
minute.
St. Thomas well.—Three miles southwest of Katherine is this well,
which is of 2.5-inch casing 500 feet deep and has a flow of 20 gallons
per minute.
On this ranch are 15 surface wells which have a good quality of
water. The wells are open bottom, with 3.5-inch casing, and are
pumped by 8 and 10 foot windmills. A 10,000-gallon cistern in
connection with each well provides ample water for 1,000 head of
cattle. The ranch land is slightly rolling prairie, covered with
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 421
sandy soil to a depth of 4 to 6 feet. The clay subsoil is 6 feet thick,
below which is 4 feet of sand, 6 feet of clay, and 20 feet of coarse
water sand, from which the surface wells derive their supply. In
ordinary years the surface wells furnish sufficient water for stock,
surface water standing 12 feet below the ground, but in dry years
the supply almost gives out. At a depth of about 40 feet below the
surface a stratum of salty water is encountered.
EL SAUZ RAN CHI.
South of Colonel Armstrong's ranch is El Sauz, the lower of Mrs.
Ring's ranches. At the ranch house is a well 1,462 feet deep with a
measured flow of 127 gallons per minute. The well has 800 feet of
#-inch and 600 feet of 44-inch casing. Several artesian strata
were encountered while sinking the well, but as they were salt they
were not utilized. There are 8 feet of perforated casing in the well.
The water tastes strongly of soda. A reservoir of 170 feet mean
diameter and 5 feet deep is being constructed to serve as a storage
for well water, which will be used for the irrigation of a small tract.
Nine miles north of the ranch is a well 1,300 feet deep with a flow of
about 50 gallons per minute. This is open bottom, the casing being
reduced to 2-inch pipe, of which there is 60 feet. The water tastes
of soda and corrodes the iron.
Rosita well.—Fifteen miles to the north is the Rosita well, which
is 1,100 feet deep. The well was started with 51%-inch casing and
ended with 60 feet of 24-inch casing. The casing was perforated
where it passed through an artesian stratum of 8 feet of sand. The
estimated flow of the well is 170 gallons per minute. The water is
used for stock purposes only and has formed a shallow lake of about
12 acres in area. t
At Rudolph, 15 miles west of the Rosita well, the railroad com-
pany sunk a well 940 feet deep, starting with 63-inch casing and end-
ing with 330 feet of 44-inch casing. This well is stated to have a
flow equal to twice the flow of the Rosita well and is the largest on
the ranch. - -
Saltillo well.—Seven miles to the northwest of Rosita is the
Saltillo well, which is 900 feet deep and finished with 200 feet of
34-inch casing perforated at the water stratum. This well is
estimated to deliver a flow of 75 gallons per minute.
Noria well.—This well is situated 6 miles north of Rudolph and is
900 feet deep, being of 44-inch casing, perforated at the water
stratum. The flow is estimated to be 175 gallons per minute.
422 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
LASATER RAN CH:
E. C. Lasater owns a large stock ranch west of the Kenedy ranch
and south of the Santa Gertrudas ranch on which are 12 artesian
wells delivering flows of 15 to 100 gallons per minute. The depth
of the wells varies from 450 to 700 feet and most of them are of
5*-inch casing and open bottom. There are also about 60 surface
wells, 70 to 220 feet deep; the water standing in these wells usually
about 40 feet from the surface, though in some it is 100 feet from
the ground level. These wells are 54%-inch, open bottom, having a
sand stratum 10 to 20 feet in thickness. The water is pumped by
windmills attached to 4 by 6 inch and 4 by 8 inch deep-well pumps
and delivering water at the rate of 10,000 gallons in twelve hours
or 14 gallons per minute, which they can do with a good wind of
15 to 20 miles per hour. They lower the water when pumping at
the rate of 10 to 15 feet. Shallow wells cost 75 cents to $1 per foot,
and deep wells cost $1 per foot, the owner furnishing the casing.
Two of the wells, discharging together about 180 gallons per
minute, flow into a reservoir 5.5 acres in extent and 6 feet deep.
At the time of the writer’s visit the seepage was so great that the
reservoir would not hold water at all. Since that time it has been
puddled by stock and made water-tight. Near the ranch house is a
well with a flow of 90 gallons per minute by actual measurement,
which discharges at present into a small tank. A larger tank, 75
by 100 yards and 6 feet deep, is being constructed in which to store
well water.
About 25 miles South of the LaSater ranch is a 53-inch artesian
well having a measured flow of 73 gallons per minute. Near this .
is another artesian well with a flow of 54 gallons per minute. These
wells represent the extreme limit of proven flow. Since the writer's
visit it is reported that a well recently sunk on the Lasater ranch has
a flow of 300 gallons per minute.
Santa Gertrudas, Olmos, and San Fernando creeks, which flow in
wet weather only, serve to carry off the drainage from a large section
of country in the Southern part of Nueces and Duvall counties.
Earth dams have been built in places across the beds of these creeks
to serve for the storage of water for stock, but high water has almost
invariably carried the embankments away. While not available for
the storage of any large quantities of water, still, by providing
suitable wasteways, the creeks could serve as storage basins of appre-
ciable extent. - *
At Duval, which is 70 miles southwest of Corpus Christi on the
Mexican National Railroad and has an elevation of 390 feet, a
shallow artesian well was put down, but the water was strongly
charged with salt.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTEIERN TEXAS. 423
RIO GRANDE WALLEY.
The largest irrigation field in the part of Texas investigated lies
in the valley of the Rio Grande. The soil is largely alluvial, having
been deposited by the river waters, but its nature varies considerably,
depending upon the section of the country from which the sediment
has come. In general it may be said that alluvial soil requires a
large amount of moisture, owing to the fact that it is exceedingly
deep and porous and has a tendency to crack after irrigation.
The irrigable land lying along the river is in somewhat limited
areas from Del Rio to a point 15 miles above Hidalgo, where the low-
lying part of the valley widens out considerably. From this point to
the coast the area of irrigable land increases considerably. About
10 miles from the coast the land becomes so alkaline that it is unfit
for use. Apprehension has been felt at certain points along the river
as to the effect of this alkali upon crops, but no reliable information
upon this matter is to be obtained. The lift from the river to the
irrigable land increases rapidly at first as one ascends the river, vary-
ing from 12 feet to practically nothing at high water at Brownsville,
while near Laredo it is 60 feet.
About 12 miles above Del Rio, Devils River empties into the Rio
Grande. Devils River, which runs through a canyon of limestone
formation, has a fall of 700 feet in 70 miles. A measurement of the
flow of the river, made August 2, 1904, at a point a few miles north
of the Southern Pacific Railroad, gave a discharge of 324 cubic feet
per second. The crest of the hills on either side near where the
Southern Pacific railroad crosses the river is at such an elevation and
so far distant that it is improbable that water from the river will be
used for irrigation.
Near the town of Del Rio are several springs of considerable capac-
ity, which have been used for irrigation for a number of years, but
which will be further utilized by the Del Rio Irrigation Company,
of which G. B. Moore, of San Antonio, is president, through what is
perhaps the most costly irrigation enterprise of the State. The San
Felipe Springs, a short distance from the town of Del Rio, deliver a
flow of 70,000 gallons per minute. About thirty-five years ago the
San Felipe Agricultural Company built a ditch, through which
until recently they utilized water from the springs for the irrigation
of a considerable tract of land. The company consisted of the land-
owners, who operated the ditch at a cost of about $1 per acre per
annum. No charge was made for water from the springs, of which
a great part ran to waste. John Twohig was the original owner of
the springs and gave them to a priest, from whom they eventually
passed into the control of Mr. Moore. In the meantime he had
424 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
bought sufficient shares in the old ditch company to obtain control of
that, whereupon he formed the Del Rio Irrigation Company, and
water for irrigation was furnished to the stockholders of the old
ditch company at $5 per acre per annum. This, of course, raised a
storm of protest from the landowners, and as a compromise measure
the price was temporarily cut down to $2.50 per acre per annum.
In order to utilize to the best advantage the full capacity of the
springs the Del Rio Irrigation Company has undertaken a most
expensive engineering work in the construction of a ditch to carry
water from the springs some 21 miles. J. W. Maxcy, of Houston, is
the engineer in charge, and the undertaking is particularly worthy of
note owing to the difficulties of construction. One of the San Felipe
springs has a flow of 20,000 gallons per minute, another 45,000 gal-
lons per minute, and two smaller springs bring the total rate of flow
up to 70,000 gallons per minute. The springs have a static head of
9 feet above ground. The lower level of San Felipe Creek, through
which the springs discharge, was raised 10 feet by means of a masonry
dam 300 feet long, 12 feet high, and containing 1,200 cubic yards of
material, which cost $4,600. The main canal is 16 feet wide on the
bottom, 4.5 feet deep, and designed for a capacity of 70,000 gallons
per minute. Side slopes in earth are 1 vertical to 2 horizontal; in
rock, 5 vertical to 1 horizontal; in embankments, 1 vertical to 14 hori-
zontal. The upper part of the canal is built on a grade of 0.45 foot
per 1,000 feet. The remainder will be built on a grade of 0.3 foot per
1,000. The velocity of flow in the open channel is about 2.5 feet per
second. -
The country through which the canal passes necessitated heavy cuts
and fills, a 34-foot rock cut being necessary in One place. A consid-
erable amount of the ditch had to be built along a sidehill, where the
soil was of a treacherous nature. In the first 5 miles of canal, which
was the distance completed at the time of the writer's visit, 5,000 feet
of sidehill ditch had been constructed, with a concrete wall on the
downhill side 18 inches thick on the bottom and 9 inches thick on top,
set 18 inches into the ground. (Pl. VI, fig. 1.) Much trouble
had been experienced from some of this construction owing to the
banks washing out. To overcome this difficulty the canal was lined
on the bottom with 18 inches of clay at points where seepage was
liable to occur, and in addition a good deal more earth was thrown
on the outside of the concrete walls and the canal dug farther into the
bank. As the country is subject to rains of considerable violence,
much attention was paid to rendering the canal Safe from accidents.
due to such storms. Where a large quantity of water is liable to
be carried down a draw the canal water is taken under the ground
in inverted siphons of 5 feet inside diameter, built of reinforced con-
crete 9 inches thick. At other places where the canal is carried across
wº
U. S. Dept. of Agr, Bul. 158. Office of Expt. Stations. Irrig, and Drain. Invest. PLATE VI.
FIG. 1.-DEL RIO CANAL, TEXAS. SIDEHILL ConSTRUCTION, witH CONCRETE
OUTER WALL.
FIG. 2.-DEL RIO CANAL, TEXAS. REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE IN COURSE OF
CONSTRUCTION.


IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 425
small draws provision has been made for passing rain water under-
neath by means' of suitable underdrains. Figure 60 shows a cross
section of a concrete pipe which was reinforced by 0.5-inch steel
corrugated bars, running both lengthwise and around the pipes, set
1 foot apart. Plate VI, figure 2, shows the reinforced concrete pipe
in the process of construction. An inverted siphon 2,200 feet long
will carry the water under Sycamore Creek. In addition to the use
of concrete pipe for inverted siphons, a considerable quantity was
/2"6 orroyoted bars
/2" (ºenºres
§
§- -ºº
\\
*
-
k— ///“
FIG. 60.-Cross section of reinforced concrete pipe.
utilized in places for sidehill construction. This pipe was laid on a
grade of 4.5 feet per 1,000 and has a theoretical capacity of 70,000
gallons per minute.
The work involves 90,000 cubic yards of solid rock excavation,
120,000 cubic yards of loose rock, and 1,750,000 cubic yards of earth,
with 5 miles of concrete wall and 2 miles of vitrified pipe. The total
length of the concrete siphons is 8,000 feet and 110 tons of steel rein-
forcing rods were used in their construction. Steam shovels were



426 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
used for handling the rock and digging the canal. The cost of oper-
ating shovels per day was as follows: *
Cost of operating steam shovels.
1 engineer ---------------------------------------------- $5.00
1 assistant engineer ------------------------------------- 5. 00
1 fireman ------------------------------ t---------------- 2. 00
1 coal hauler ------------------------------------------- 2. 00
1 Water hauler ------------------------------------------ 2. 00
1 assistant ---------------------------------------------- 2. 00
2 tons of Coal, at $3.50––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 7. 00
Total --------------------------------------------- 25, 00
The steam shovel handled about 1,000 yards of dirt per day of
ten hours or about one-half this quantity of rock, the size of the
bucket being 1 cubic yard. The estimated cost of handling rock by
the steam shovel was 50 cents per cubic yard, and of earth, 25 cents
per cubic yard. The cost of the expanded-metal pipe, which was
built of 1, 2, and 5 Portland cement, was. $4.66 per running foot in
place. The wing walls were built of rubble masonry laid in con-
crete mortar, and cost $6.30 per cubic yard. Head walls and aprons
of 1, 2, and 5 concrete cost $5.75 per cubic yard. Rock excavation
cost 85 cents, loose rock 42 cents, and earthwork 13.5 cents per cubic
yard. The concrete work was done by Mexican day labor. The
total estimated cost is said to be nearly $1,000,000, and the system
will furnish water to about 15,000 acres on the assumption of a duty
of 100 acres per 1 cubic foot per second.
At several points it is proposed to utilize the water for the genera-
tion of electric power, and it has been estimated that 1,200 horsepower
could be developed altogether from the various falls. *
A few miles east of Del Rio are the Pinto, Sycamore, and Los
Moras creeks, the first two having a flow of 4,000 gallons per minute
each, and the last 5,000 gallons per minute. It has been estimated
that by means of storage in these creeks and the flow of the canal
40,000 acres could be irrigated, and the company has under contem-
plation the building of storage reservoirs. At present the water
from Sycamore Creek is used for the irrigation of 300 acres by
means of a 26-horsepower traction engine, which drives an 8-inch
centrifugal pump, delivering 2,400 to 3,000 gallons per minute,
against a bead of 27 feet. The fuel consumption is 1.5 cords of
mesquite in ten hours. Corn is the principal crop grown under this
plant, and the bed system of irrigation is used. Forty-five days of
ten hours' run each are necessary to irrigate 273 acres. About 500
acres are at present irrigated from Los Moras Creek and 350 acres
from Pinto Creek by gravity.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 427
The old ditch of the San Felipe Agricultural Company is supplied
from a spring delivering 15,000 gallons per minute, which irrigate
3,000 acres of land planted as follows:
Acres
Corn ---------------------------------------------------- 2,000
Garden truck -------------------------------------------- 300
Rice----------------------------------------------------- 250
Johnson grass and cane----------------------------------- 450
The ditch is 10 feet wide on the bottom, with nearly perpendicular
sides, and water runs 3 feet deep. It is 5 miles long and feeds 32
miles of laterals. The land is irrigated every fifteen days, irrigation
being carried on day and night. So far the water supply has proven
ample for all demands, even in dry weather. Rice is irrigated partly
by flooding checks and partly by wild flooding; 45 acres are irri-
gated by Japanese in accordance with the practice in Japan. About
11 gallons of water per minute per acre were used on this land in
1903, and the yield was 14 bushels per acre; but it is the opinion of
the company that this can be much improved. A large amount of
Johnson grass growing in the rice fields was killed by the constant
flooding. -
The laterals under the main canal of the Del Rio Irrigation Com-
pany are 4 feet wide, 4 feet deep, and carry a depth of 3 feet of
water. The grade is 0.9 foot per 1,000 feet, or twice the grade of the
main canal. It is figured that they will irrigate 1,000 acres. The
ditches leading from the laterals are 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep.
The first 5 miles of the main canal control only 1,500 acres, most of
the irrigable land lying farther down the canal.
CIENEGAS SPRINGS.
About 2 miles to the west of Del Rio are the Cienegas Springs,
belonging to D. Hart, the water of which is used to irrigate 550 acres
of Johnson grass. The land is irrigated by wild flooding once after
each cutting, when there is no rain, and requires the services of two
irrigators to control the flow. It takes two months to irrigate 550
acres with the full flow, utilizing the same twelve hours per day.
The flow of the springs is 2,500 gallons per minute. The land pro-
duces 1 ton of hay per cutting, yielding three cuttings a year.
EAGLE PASS.
The Rio Grande Valley Irrigation Company’s farm, situated about
3 miles north of Eagle Pass, comprises 360 acres of land belonging to
Messrs. Dolch, Dibrell, and Mosheim, 300 acres of which are irrigated
by water pumped from the Rio Grande. A 125-horsepower hori-
zontal boiler furnishes steam at 90 pounds pressure to an automatic
428 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
engine of 125 horsepower, which drives a 10-inch vertical centrifugal
pump, delivering 5,600 to 7,000 gallons per minute, against a lift of
46 feet. The pump is set in a pit 46 feet deep and 20 feet in diame-
ter, the sides of which are lined with brick and cement. A tunnel 60
feet long and 4 feet square leads to the river and supplies water to a
15-inch suction pipe connected with the pump. The pump discharge
pipe is also enlarged to 15 inches in diameter. Four and one-half
tons of coal screenings are consumed in twelve hours and cost $1.40
per ton. The coal comes from the Eagle Pass mines, which are close
at hand. One fireman and one engineer operate the plant, which
irrigates 25 acres in twelve hours. *
The main ditch is 1.5 miles long, 4 feet wide on the bottom, 7 feet
wide on top, 3 feet deep, and carries water to a depth of 18 to 20
inches. It has a grade of 18 inches per mile. The bed system of
irrigation is used throughout, the beds being 50 feet wide and 400 to
700 feet long, flooded from ditches at the ends.
The areas and yields of crops are as follows:
Crop on farm of Dolch, Dibrell, and Mosheim.

º Number
Crop. * Acres. Yººper When irrigated. of irri-
e gations.
Cotton------------------------------------------ 200 || 1 bale ----| Every 15 days ------- 7
Cane-------------------------------------------- 7 | 40 tons ---|----- do ---------------- 10
Sorghum --------------------------------------- 20 4 tons ----|----- do---------------- 5
Melons------------------------------------------ 10 ------------ Every 10 days -------|----------
Green peppers --------------------------------- 1 ----------------- do---------------- 10
OTD ---------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62 || 35 bushes Every 15 days ------ . 5
Pioneer Rio Grande Irrigation Company.—Dolch and Dobrowolski
irrigate 350 acres of land three-fourths of a mile south of Eagle Pass
with water pumped from the Rio Grande. Two 80-horsepower
boilers furnish steam to a 115-horsepower automatic engine driving
a No. 10 double-suction centrifugal pump, with an extreme rated
capacity of 10,000 gallons per minute. The pump normally delivers
7,000 gallons per minute and is set in a pit 36 feet deep and 30 feet in
diameter, about 300 feet from the river. The suction pipe, which is
14 inches in diameter, runs into a tunnel 4 by 4 feet. The discharge
pipe of the pump is 14 inches in diameter. The irrigable land lies in
two sections, one of which is adjacent to the pumping station, and the
other 1,100 feet distant, with an additional elevation of 8 feet. For
conveying water to the higher land a 14-inch pipe is used. The head
against which the pump has to operate in delivering water to the
lower land is 36 feet plus the friction in the pipe, and to the upper
land is 44 feet plus the friction in 1,100 feet of 14-inch pipe. In
normal operation the pump will deliver 7,000 gallons by the lower and
4,000 by the upper lift. The plant consumes 44 tons of Eagle Pass
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 429
coal in 12 hours. The lower bench requires much more water than the
upper, as the soil is more Sandy; and the pump is able to irrigate
about the same quantity of land in either bench in a day's run.
Twenty acres of onions can be irrigated in twelve hours, or 25 acres
of other land in the same period, with the entire flow of the pump.
The Soil is a light alluvial Sandy loam, very deep, and bakes but
little when irrigated. Seventy-five acres were planted in onions,
yielding 19,500 pounds per acre, irrigated every ten days; 15 acres
in cane; 20 acres in Sorghum.; 47 acres in corn; 20 acres in truck,
irrigated every ten days; 40 acres in alfalfa, irrigated every fifteen
days, twice for each cutting. The alfalfa yield was three-fourths of a
ton per acre per crop, and six crops per year, cut between the middle
of April and October; 5 acres planted in fruit, and 5 acres in melons,
the remainder, 123 acres, being in Johnson grass. The onions re-
ceived altogether twenty-one irrigations; the cane, Sorghum, and corn
received eight irrigations each. The onions were planted 5 inches
apart in rows 12 inches apart. They were irrigated by the bed sys-
tem, the beds being 30 by 150 feet, and were planted October 20, trans-
planted December 1, and harvesting commenced April 25. No fer-
tilizer was used on the onion land. One man irrigated 2 acres of
onions per day and from 4 to 5 acres of other crops in the same
period. Eighty men were thirty days transplanting the onions, and
100 men twenty days in harvesting them. The onions sold for $1.75
per hundred f. o. b. Eagle Pass. The bed system of irrigation is used
for all irrigation.
The A. B. Frank ranch.-Eighteen miles to the southeast of Eagle
Pass is the ranch of A. B. Frank. Fourteen hundred acres of land is
under irrigation by water pumped from the Rio Grande. Two hori-
zontal multitubular boilers, 60 inches in diameter and 18 feet long,
deliver steam, under 150 pounds pressure, to a 500-horsepower Corliss
engine, 20 by 42 inches. A surface condenser is used, and a vacuum
of 25 inches is obtained. The engine drives a 24-inch centrifugal
pump, supplied with water through a tunnel 5 feet wide and 5 feet
high, arched on top. The power house is situated on the making
bank of the river, and the tunnel is inclined to fill with sand. The
pump delivers 12,000 gallons per minute against a 52-foot lift, and
water is discharged into a flume 612 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 3 feet
deep. One engineer, 2 firemen, and 2 helpers are required for the
operation of the plant per shift. The plant consumes 15 cords of
mesquite in a twenty-four-hours' run, the cost of fuel being $2 per
cord, owing to the necessity of hauling the same 10 miles. The total
cost of the plant, including the flume, was $20,000, the flume itself
costing $2,000. The main canal is 8 feet wide at the bottom, 15 feet
at the top, and 3 feet deep, the crown of the banks being 30 inches.
The slope is 30 inches per mile; the length, 3 miles, and the depth of
430 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
<-
water when carrying a full discharge of the pump, 18 inches. While
1,400 acres are subject to irrigation, so far only 250 acres are irri-
gated, planted to alfalfa. The land had previously been irrigated
by the furrow system, but is being changed to the check system, the
checks being 6 inches in height. The yield of the land is 14 tons per
acre per cutting and from 6 to 8 cuttings per year. The plant will
irrigate 60 acres in a twenty-four hours' run.
LAREDO AND WICINITY.
The land around Laredo, which until recently has been considered
of little value, has in the last year produced some remarkable crops
of Bermuda onions. While other crops have been raised here and
between Cotulla and Carizzo Springs, still the yield of onions has
been so great and the prices realized so high that they have easily
taken first place in the products of the region. Financially the most
successful section of the country in onion growing is in the vicinity
of Laredo. The irrigable land in that region lies along the Rio
Grande, and comprises a comparatively narrow strip extending up
and down the river several miles. Some little distance back from the
banks, which are 50 to 75 feet high, the land slopes toward the river
on a steep grade, so that a considerable length of pipe is required to
convey water to the land. The soil is of a light alluvial nature and
very deep, requiring a comparatively large quantity of water for irri-
gation, which must be pumped from the river. The farms have been
so successful that many new pumping plants are being installed and
will be in condition for operation this season. The two most suc-
cessful plants from the financial standpoint were those of Mr. Alex-
ander and Mr. Nye. The former is said to have sold the onion crop
from 40 acres for $26,000, while the latter received $9,000 for the
crop from 13 acres. The yield of onions in this vicinity went as high
as 40,000 pounds per acre. The ground, however, was all heavily
manured. Onions were planted about November 1, transplanted a
month later, and the crops were harvested in April. On the majority
of the farms after the onion crop had been harvested cowpeas were
planted, to be plowed under in time for the next onion crop.
Richter farm.—Near Laredo is a farm, owned by A. C. Richter,
containing 6 acres. The ground was sown to white Bermuda onions
last year and the yield was 20,000 pounds per acre. The crop was
sold for $2,500. Cowpeas were grown on the land, plowed under,
and the land manured with 20 tons of goat manure per acre, as well
as 1 ton cotton-Seed meal, and 600 pounds of sodium nitrate put on in
six applications of 100 pounds each.
The pumping plant consisted of an 8-horsepower gasoline engine
driving a triplex power pump delivering 235 gallons per minute.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAs. 431
*
The lift was 65 feet. The engine consumed 1.5 gallons of gasoline per
hour at a cost of 184 cents per gallon. This plant flooded 6 acres in
thirty hours. The land received 12 irrigations per season, which
were applied two weeks apart at first and once a week later. Two
men were required for irrigation and running the engine. The cost
of labor was 50 cents per day. After each irrigation the land was
cultivated. It required 30 men twenty days to transplant the onions
and ten days to harvest them. Cowpeas were planted as soon as the
Onions were out of the ground, and received last year two irriga-
tions. Here, as in all other plants in the vicinity of Laredo, the bed
system of irrigation was used. The entire flow of the pump was
turned into one bed at a time, the beds being 104 by 12 feet. The sup-
ply was stopped when the water had reached three-fourths of the
way down the bed. The cost of fertilizers was: Cotton-seed meal,
$25 per ton; manure, 90 cents per ton; sodium nitrate, 3.5 cents per
pound.
Onions were planted in October, transplanted in December, and
crops moved April 15.
Aleaxander farm.—Near North Laredo, on the Rio Grande, is the
40-acre irrigated farm of Mr. Alexander. The pumping plant is as
follows: A 90-horsepower horizontal multitubular boiler furnishes
steam to a 40-horsepower engine belted to a No. 5 compound centrif-
ugal pump set in a concrete pit 17 feet in diameter and 19 feet deep.
The pump delivers 800 gallons per minute from the river against a
vertical lift of 65 feet and forces the water through 1,500 feet of
6-inch pipe. The plant was operated twelve hours a day, consuming
in that period 4 tons of coal, at a cost of $1.50 per ton. It requires
five days’ operation of the plant to supply water for one irrigation of
the land. One man was required to run the plant.
The ditch for distributing the water is 2 feet on the bottom, 5 feet
on top, 18 to 24 inches total depth, and has a grade of 7.5 feet per
mile. The laterals are on a grade of 4 inches per 100 feet.
White Bermuda onions were grown on the entire tract and yielded
30,000 pounds per acre, the gross yield being sold for $26,000. They
were planted October 1, transplanted in December, and harvested in
April. One hundred and twelve pounds of seed were used. The fre-
quency of irrigation was increased toward the end of the season—
every fifteen days in January, every twelve days in February, and
every ten days in March. Including the planting, about nine irriga-
tions were given. Bat guano (1 ton per acre) was used for fertilizer
on most of the land, though parts of it were not fertilized. Stable
manure was used for the seed beds.
The bed system of irrigation was used, beds being 13 by 150 feet,
with a fall of 4 inches per 100 feet. Onions were planted 4 inches
apart and rows spaced 12 inches. Hand culture was employed, and
432 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
two men were required to irrigate with the water furnished by the
pump. It took 60 men twenty-four days to transplant the onions and
85 men fifteen days to harvest the crop, the pay being $5 Mexican
per week of six days.
Cowpeas have been grown on the land, but without much success.
Grapes are grown with tolerable success.
The Soil is very deep, of a light alluvial nature, and will not retain
moisture. Well water in this vicinity is decidedly brackish. Owing
to sediment in the river the ditches fill rapidly. In 1892 the North
Laredo Land and Irrigation Company built a ditch 3 miles long in
this vicinity, which has now been cut up and is used in sections by
the various ranches.
Madrigal farm.—Adjoining the Alexander farm is a 13-acre tract
belonging to Mr. Madrigal. The irrigation plant consists of a 15-
horsepower gasoline engine geared to a triplex pump delivering 300
gallons per minute from the river against a lift of 65 feet through
800 feet of 5.5-inch pipe. The engine uses 2 gallons of gasoline per
hour, at a cost of 18.5 cents per gallon. Another gasoline engine of
10 horsepower, not now used, formerly ran a similar pump deliver-
ing 225 gallons on 1 gallon of gasoline per hour.
A small ditch, 20 inches wide on top and 10 inches deep, was used
for conveying the water to the land, which was irrigated by the bed
system, the beds being 10 by 100 feet and the entire flow being turned
into one bed. -
Ten acres were planted in onions and 3 in truck. The onions were
irrigated every twelve days, requiring 8 to 10 irrigations during the
season. They were planted October 1, transplanted November 15,
and harvesting began April 1. Two and one-half to 3 acres of
onions were irrigated per day of ten hours.
Truck was irrigated from August to March, partially by the
bed and partially by the furrow system. The latter saved one-third
of the water. The furrows were 100 feet long and 2.5 feet on centers.
The flow of the pump was turned into three furrows.
Onions were planted 4.5 inches apart in rows 12 inches on centers.
The yield of onions was 22,000 pounds per acre.
Nye farm.—Near the Alexander place is the farm of Mr. Nye, one
of the oldest residents of the section, as well as a pioneer in irrigation.
The farm comprises 25 acres, 23 acres being planted to onions, of
which 13 were farmed by the owner and the remainder rented. The
yield was considerably better on the part farmed by Mr. Nye than on
the rented land. The pumping plant consisted of a 60-horsepower
boiler, which supplied steam to a duplex steam pump 12 by 12 inches,
delivering 900 gallons per minute from the river against a lift of 65
feet and forcing water through 350 feet of 8-inch pipe. The pump
was set in a brick pit 15 feet in diameter and 15 feet deep. The fuel
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. - 433
used was coal, about 3 tons being required for a day's run of twelve
hours. The main ditch is 4 feet wide on top and 2 feet deep.
Seed was planted October 1, 35 to 40 pounds per acre being used in
the seed beds, equivalent to 3 pounds per acre after the Onions were
transplanted. The land was irrigated every ten to fifteen days dur-
ing the season, the crop requiring 10 irrigations. For fertilizer ma-
nure from the stock yards was used, applied at the rate of 60 tons per
acre, costing $2.50 per ton. The entire onion beds of 23 acres could
be irrigated in two days' run of fourteen hours each. Onions were
irrigated by the bed system, the checks being 13 feet wide and 100 to
300 feet long. The smaller beds required the full flow of the pump
four to five minutes and the larger beds fifteen to twenty minutes.
Onions were spaced 5 inches apart in 13-inch rows. One irrigator
could look after 10 acres. Transplanting 13 acres of onions required
40 men sixteen days, and harvesting the crop from the same re-
quired 40 men twenty days. The yield of the 13 acres farmed by
Mr. Nye was 35,000 pounds per acre, while that of the rented land
was but 15,000 to 20,000 pounds per acre.
Three acres of grapes brought $260. Six tons of alfalfa per acre
per year are raised, the land being irrigated every week.
Johnson farm.—Near Laredo, on the river, is the 4.5-acre farm of
Mr. Johnson. A 45-horsepower boiler furnishes steam to a 12 by 14
inch steam end duplex pump delivering 770 gallons per minute
from the river against a lift of 53 feet and forcing the water through
2,000 feet of 6-inch pipe. One man is required for the operation of
the pump station. Fuel is mesquite, costing $2.25 per cord delivered,
and 1 cord is required for ten hours' run.
The soil is 3 to 30 feet deep and varies from a dark chocolate to a
light color. The subsoil is partially rock. The land which slopes
back from the river 7 feet in 0.5 mile holds moisture fairly well.
It was planted to onions in beds spaced 5 inches apart, in rows 14
inches apart, and required five to eight hours run to irrigate the 4.5
acres, the flow of the pump being divided into two beds which were
made 15 feet wide and 100 to 200 feet long. The onions required
8 to 10 irrigations per season and were irrigated about every ten
days between December 1 and April 1. No fertilizer was used, but
this year cowpeas are being grown, which will require two irrigations.
Matteson farm.—Mr. Matteson is installing on his farm, near
Laredo, a plant for irrigating 15 acres. The plant consists of a
pump station containing a 50-horsepower boiler and a 35-horsepower
automatic engine belted to a No. 6 centrifugal pump discharging
1,500 gallons per minute through 400 feet of 9-inch pipe. The lift
from the river is 53 feet. •
30620–No. 158—05—28
434 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Cogley farm.—Fifteen miles southeast of Laredo Mr. Cogley has
a farm of 8 acres. The pump station has a 60-horsepower horizontal
boiler which supplies steam at 80 pounds pressure to a pulsometer
delivering from the river 500 gallons per minute through 700 feet
of 8-inch pipe against a vertical lift of 62 feet. The fuel used was
mesquite, costing 90 cents per cord, the wood being cut on the land of
the owner. The consumption of fuel was 4 cords per day of ten
hours, which was the length of time it took to irrigate the entire farm.
The ground was sown to onions irrigated by the bed system, the
entire flow of the pump being utilized on each bed. Onions were
planted in October, transplanted in December, and harvested the
latter part of April. The yield was 32,000 pounds per acre. The
land was irrigated every ten days and cultivated after each irrigation.
Two irrigators and one man
to run the pump station
were required. For fertil-
izer 200 tons of goat manure
were used on the 8 acres.
The soil is a light, Sandy
loam, very deep, with clay
subsoil. From the main
ditch, which is 4,000 feet
long, the water enters 12-
inch sewer pipes from
– which it is distributed to
the land. Transplanting the
onions took 18 men fifteen
days, and harvesting re-
quired the same amount of
labor. After the onion crop
had been harvested cowpeas were planted and up to the middle of
July had not been irrigated. -
Harvey dº. Thompson plant.—Near Laredo is a 20-acre ranch rented
and farmed by Harvey & Thompson. The pumping plant consisted
of an 80-horsepower boiler, supplying steam to a 6-inch pulsometer
pump delivering 500 gallons per minute from the river, against a lift
of 60 feet through 1,500 feet of 12-inch pipe. One man was required
to operate the pumping plant, receiving 55 cents per day. Four
tons of Laredo coal was consumed in a twelve-hour run, at a cost of
$1.50 per ton. The coal is of poor quality and the railroad company
figures that 2 cords of wood are equivalent to 1 ton of this coal.
Thirty tons of sheep and goat manure were used per acre for fer-
tilizer, at a cost of $1 per ton in addition to the hauling, which was
done by the tenants, and cost 40 cents per ton.
s
&
a ,” •
£7,2 % ZZZZ,222.2%%% // / /
* *z * a ~22222 z e ºf e e ! Z 2%%',', * A z
a * * * / e * a y
^, 22222222*.*, %22% 22%2, 222','o','.’,222%Z’,”,222'22','A', *
FIG. 61.-Bed irrigation.





IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 435
Onions were planted 4 inches apart in rows 12 inches apart. They
were transplanted in December and harvested in April. The irriga- .
tion beds were 12 by 150 feet. It took the entire supply of the pump
two and one-half minutes to irrigate each bed and twelve hours to
irrigate 12 acres. The supply of water to each bed was stopped when
the water had reached part way down and the check between the bed
and the adjoining one below opened in order that the surplus water
which arrived at the bottom of the bed might pass into the adjoining
bed. For illustration see figure 61. Two men and a .boss were re-
quired for the irrigation work. Field hands received $2.25 per week
with no Sunday work. -
Fifty men transplanted 1.5 acres per day, and 60 men were required
to gather, trim, pack, and load the yield from 1 acre—25,000 pounds
(500 crates)—per day. In harvesting, the onions were plowed up
while the tops were still green. This method, of course, destroyed a
certain number of onions, but the lessees believed that the damage
was more than equaled by the saving in labor over the customary
method of pulling by hand. Onions yielded 20,000 to 30,000 pounds
per acre, and the entire crop sold for $12,200. The lessees estimated
their net gain at $7,500, as shown in the following statement:
Twenty acres Onions––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– $12, 200
Water and labor------------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 200
Total gain -------------------------------------- 10, 000
One-fourth share to OWIler of plant___________________ _ _ _ 2, 500
Net gain ---------------------------------------- 7, 500
HIDALGO TO THE COAST.
Irrigable land in the vicinity of Hidalgo starts at a point about 15
miles upstream in a narrow strip which rapidly increases in width
down to the mouth of the river. The country is filled with resacas
(old river beds), some of which retain their supply of water through-
out the year. The country is highest near the river and at first slopes
away from the banks, gradually rising, however, to what is known as
the second bench. At Hidalgo the vertical distance from the top
of the river bank to extreme low water is 23 feet, the river at this
point being subject to a rise of 10 to 12 feet. Land slopes also in the
general direction of the river with a fall of about 1 foot per mile, the
distance by river being about 2.5 times the distance by straight line.
According to figures taken from a survey of the San Antonio and
Aransas Pass Railroad line from Alice to Brownsville, via Hidalgo,
land at the latter place is 20 feet above the average low-water stage of
the river. Five and one-half miles to the north the ground falls 8
feet. Seven and one-half miles north of Hidalgo the elevation is 24
feet above the Hidalgo bank. The ground is nearly level for 6 miles,
436 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
after which it drops 15 feet in 2 miles. At Brownsville the average
low-water stage of the river is 13 feet below the level of the land,
while the elevation at Brownsville is 35 feet above the sea. At
Santa Maria, 27 miles west of Brownsville, it is 73 feet; 43 miles
West, 85 feet; 53 miles west, 110 feet. For about 20 miles north of
Brownsville the ground slopes off gradually, having a fall of 18 feet
in 15 miles. At the end of this distance there is an abrupt rise of
12 feet, after which the ground gradually slopes off again and then
rises to the banks of the Arroyo Colorado, a stream which is usually,
dry. It heads a short distance above Santa Maria, and tide water
extends 30 miles upstream from its mouth.
The land of the first bench, starting at the river, is composed of a
light alluvial soil which cracks when it dries and when newly plowed
requires a large quantity of water for irrigation. The timber is
mainly mesquite, with a very heavy undergrowth. The land of the
second bench is a black Sandy loam and quite firm. It has not been
flooded for some time and the timber is much heavier. After cross-
ing the Arroyo Colorado the ground gradually becomes more sandy,
until at the beginning of the sand belt, about 3 miles beyond El Sauz
ranch and 52 miles north of Brownsville, the black sandy loam
entirely disappears. Going northward the timber growth becomes
lighter until it finally disappears at the beginnig of the sand belt.
Until very recently labor along the river has been about 50 cents
Mexican per day, or about 23 cents currency. Opening up the
country, however, caused prices to rise about 50 per cent. Labor is
practically entirely Mexican. Much land near Brownsville has been
cleared at $10 per acre. The usual method of procedure is to let con-
tracts for clearing the land rather than to have the work done by day
labor. Considering the nature of the land, some of which will yield
as much as 8 cords of wood per acre, these figures seem exceedingly
low. The clearing should pay for itself in fuel value.
Up to the past year this country was seriously handicapped in its
development by lack of transportation facilities. The only means
of getting supplies in was either by a 150-mile haul over Sandy roads
or by shipment by water to Port Isabel and transportation from there
to Brownsville, 20 miles distant, over a steam railroad, which is in
reality more of a tramway. Port Isabel is so situated that only light-
draft boats can enter the harbor, and even these often have to stay
outside in case the weather is at all rough. From Brownsville to
Hidalgo, a distance of 70 miles, there is at present no railroad on the
American side, though on the Mexican side a line runs from Reynosa,
which is opposite Hidalgo, to Matamoras, opposite Brownsville,
which has one mixed train every other day. However, there are
no bridges across the river east of Eagle Pass. In July, 1904, a rail-
road line was completed between Robstown and Brownsville, which
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 437
was the signal for general celebration throughout the country. A
branch line is at present being constructed to run near Hidalgo,
which will greatly improve the prospects and conditions of the farm
owners and enable them to enter into competition in the open markets.
Irrigation development in this country has been particularly
marked the past few years, and now that the railroad has been com-
pleted it will be natural to look for a large increase in the products
of the land. This country is one of the largest irrigation fields in the
State of Texas, and the low lift, cheap fuel and labor, and early Sea-
sons all combine to make it one of the leading Sections for irrigation
on a large scale. The flow of the Rio Grande will not be nearly
sufficient for all the irrigable land in this vicinity, but it will prob-
ably be some years before the low-water flow of the river will be
entirely used. The resacas form natural storage reservoirs capable
of aiding in the irrigation problem to a certain extent when the
supply of the river shall be entirely utilized. In connection with
reservoirs, however, the sediment carried by the river deserves careful
consideration. It has been estimated by those familiar with the
region that 100 miles of resaca de los Palmas, 60 miles of resaca de la
Guera, and 50 miles of resaca Fresno form part of the possibilities of
storage. By constructing earth dams every 6 or 8 miles these resacas
would form storage basins 250 feet wide and 7 feet deep. In addi-
tion, the Arroyo Colorado could be dammed to form several basins
of an average depth of 25 feet and a maximum depth of 40 feet.
This stream has a fall of 55 feet from its head to its mouth, a distance ,
of 200 miles and an average width of 300 feet. The adjacent land
could be irrigated partly by gravity both north and South of the
stream. The water of this stream is sometimes Salty, due to local
rains.
Hidalgo Company.—In the records of the county office at Hidalgo
is a notice of appropriation made in 1896 in the name of the Hidalgo .
and Cameron Irrigation Company, appropriating all the unappro-
priated waters of the river and all the underflow, stored and rain
waters, all the lakes and resacas, and all other water, in or out of sight.
The company had intended to irrigate 800,000 acres by a canal 30
feet wide on the bottom, 8 feet deep, and side slopes of 60°, to be 100
miles in length, and to deliver 1,370 cubic feet of water per second.
The canal was to divert water by gravity from the Rio Grande and
run to a point 6 miles below Brownsville. The project, however, fell
through entirely.
Hidalgo Canal Company.—This company has a pumping plant on
the river a short distance above Hidalgo, by means of which it irri-
gates 300 acres. The plant consists of two 50-horsepower boilers, fur-
mishing steam at 80 pounds pressure to two 50-horsepower throttling
engines, each driving a vertical centrifugal submerged pump. The
438 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATMONS, 1904.
engines and boilers are in the open, and have no protection against
the weather. The plant was installed in anticipation of the necessity
of moving it, due to caving of the river bank. It is operated by two
firemen and one engineer per twelve-hour shift. Wages in Mexican
money are as follows:
- Per day.
2 firemen, at $1.25 per day------------------------------ $2.50
2 helpers, at $0.75 per day---------------------- -------- 1. 50
1 engineer, at $1.50 per day---------- ------------------- I. 50
1 engineer, at $5.50 per day----------------------------- 5. 50
Total-------------------------------------------- a 11. 00
Fuel consumption is between 8 and 10 cords of wood in twenty-four
hours, at $1 per cord. The pumps are stated to deliver a combined
flow of 10,000 gallons per minute against a lift of 23 feet maximum.
A rough observation, made at a point about 600 yards from the pump-
ing station, indicated a flow of 11 cubic feet per second, or 5,000 gal-
lons per minute. The main canal is 50 feet wide and very shallow,
with small banks. Its grade is 3.5 feet for the first mile, and its
total length is 4 miles. The company has also one lateral canal 50
feet wide and another 25 feet wide, each 1 mile long. Some of the
lateral canals are 6 feet wide and run in the direction of greatest
slope. The land is planted in alfalfa, irrigated by the check system,
the checks being on 2-inch contours. The land has considerable slope,
and is very much cut up by this method. The check system is not
suitable for irrigation on steep slopes, and some other method should
be used unless the land is leveled off. The bottoms of the ditches are
lower than the irrigable land, and it is customary after the land has
been irrigated to drain the water back into the ditches. The banks
of the canals were poorly constructed, and are subject to considerable
leakage. When starting to irrigate for alfalfa, the entire flow of the
pump ran four days and three nights for 30 acres. The fourth time
this land was irrigated, after the alfalfa had grown, only twenty
hours' flow was required. Alfalfa is the principal crop, and the land
yields 9 to 11 crops of 0.75 ton each per year. Land and water for
irrigation are furnished to the tenants of the company for two-fifths
of the crop.
Closner plant.—One of the most successful irrigation plants in this
part of the country belongs to John Closner, who irrigates 500 acres
situated 6 miles below Hidalgo on the banks of the Rio Grande.
The pumping plant consists of a simple noncondensing engine 14 by
14 inches, which drives an 18-inch centrifugal pump delivering 6,000
gallons per minute. The steam pressure used is 60 pounds. The
plant cost about $3,000. One engineer and two firemen are required
per shift of twelve hours for the operation of this plant. The fuel
a Equals $5 in currency.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 439
consumption is 14 cords of wood in twenty-four hours, costing $300
per month of twenty-five days. One engineer receives $50 per month,
one $30 per month, and the firemen $12 per month each. Eight men,
who receive $12 per month, are required to take care of the irrigation
water. The pump is operated ten months per year.
The principal crops are sugar cane and alfalfa. Alfalfa irriga-
tion began in February and cane irrigation in March. The irriga-
tion of alfalfa ceased the middle of November, while water was dis-
continued on the cane about the middle of September. Cane was
irrigated by the furrow system and during the hot season it received
an irrigation every twenty to twenty-five days. The furrows are
about 300 feet long and 7 feet center to center. Alfalfa was irrigated
by flooding by the check system, the size of the checks varying from
one-fourth to 5 acres. According to the owner's figures the cost of
irrigation was $8 per acre. The present plant supplies sufficient
water for the irrigation of 700 acres. The lift from the river is the
same as at Hidalgo, namely, 23 feet at low-water stage. From the
middle of May to the middle of June and from the middle of August
to the middle of September are the usual periods for high water in the
river, the lowest water occurring between the middle of December and
the first of April. The river is liable to sudden rises from floods
caused by rains or the melting of Snow in the mountains. At a point
near Brownsville last Summer the rise in the river was 6 feet in as
many hours. --
A sugar mill which handles the cane grown on Mr. Closner's farm
has recently been materially enlarged.
Other plants.-J. Box has an irrigated farm adjoining the Closner
place. Seventy-five acres are at present under irrigation and it is the
intention of the owner to irrigate 200 acres with his plant, which con-
sists of a 12-inch centrifugal pump delivering 4,000 gallons of water
per minute. One engineer and one fireman are required for the
operation of the plant. The water is used principally for the irriga-
tion of corn. •.
Twelve miles below Hidalgo is the plant of La Blanca Agricultural
Company, which is similar to that of Mr. Closner and irrigates about
the same area. One hundred and twenty acres of alfalfa are irri-
gated in forty-eight hours. The principal crops grown are alfalfa,
corn, and truck. Florencio Ganz has a plant very similar to the Box
plant. From the plants just mentioned down to the plant of the
Brownsville Land and Irrigation Company no irrigation is practiced
at present, though there is much prospective irrigation.
Brownsville Land and Irrigation Company.—This company, capi-
talized at $300,000, has been a most important factor in the develop-
ment of the lower Rio Grande Valley. Its pumping plant, situated
on the river bank 6 miles above Brownsville, is the only one in this
440 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
vicinity which has made any attempt at permanent installation. In
all the other plants the idea seems to prevail that the bank of the river
is going to cave sooner or later and that it will hence be necessary to
move the machinery. The Brownsville Land and Irrigation Com-
pany has built a brick wall along the river front for a distance of 150
feet to protect the bank. This wall, as well as the foundation of the
power house, rests on a clay bottom. The suction pipes of the pumps
project through the wall into the river. A clay foundation is apt to
be treacherous, and it would have been preferable to have driven
piling underneath the foundation of the wall and power house.
The pumping plant, which is built next to the river bank, consists
of the following apparatus: One 200-horsepower water-tube boiler
supplies steam at 100 pounds pressure to an 18 by 42 inch 225-horse-
power Corliss simple condensing engine, which is belted to a 36-inch
double-suction centrifugal pump, the suction pipe of which is 42
inches in diameter and the discharge end of which is square with an
area equal to that of a 36-inch circle. The engine speed is 70 revo-
lutions per minute and the pump speed 164 revolutions per minute.
The engine is provided with a surface condenser giving only about
15-inch vacuum. Two 72-inch by 18-foot horizontal multitubular
boilers of 125 horsepower each supply steam to two throttling, non-
condensing, slide-valve engines of 125 horsepower each operating at
a speed of 120 revolutions per minute. Each engine is belted to a
24-inch centrifugal pump run at 180 revolutions per minute. The
pumps have a 26-inch suction and 24-inch discharge. The capacity
of the plant under a 12-foot lift is 40,000 gallons per minute from the
36-inch pump and 20,000 gallons per minute from each of the 24-inch
pumps at rated speeds, the normal speed, however, being 10 per cent
less than the rated.
The labor required for operating the plant is as follows: Three
engineers, each of whom works on an eight-hour shift, and 10 labor-
ers and 4 firemen, each working a twelve-hour shift. The operation
of the 36-inch pump requires 1 fireman at $1.50 Mexican and 2
helpers at $1 Mexican to fire the boiler, the remainder of the plant
requiring 1 fireman and 3 helpers per shift. The fuel consumption
for the 36-inch pump is 11 cords of wood per twenty-four hours, the
pump speed being 10 per cent less than given above. The remainder
of the plant consumes 13 cords of wood in twenty-four hours with the
same reduction in pump speed.
The pumps discharge into a flume whose top lies directly over the
discharge pipes. The lift of water as expressed by the figures of the
company is the vertical distance between the bottom of the flume and
the level of the water in the river. However, as the water runs at
considerable depth in the flume, 2 feet should be added to the rated
lift to obtain the actual distance, which in this case would allow for
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 441
only the depth of water in the flume and not for the velocity head of
the discharge. The rated lift is between 12 feet 9 inches and minus
16 inches, or, in other words, practically between 14 feet 9 inches and
8 inches. During high water, however, it is necessary to run the
pumps slowly, although the level of the water in the river is above
the level of the bottom of the canal. Twenty-six cords of wood are
consumed in twenty-four hours under a 10-foot rated lift. . When
the lift falls off the fuel consumption is 30 to 32 cords per day.
The main canal is 100 feet wide and very shallow and has a fall of
6 inches per mile. Excavations for the banks were largely made by
borrow pits on the inside next to the banks, the canal having a sec-
tion, as shown in figure 62. The deposit made by the river in the beds
of the canals is partly clay and partly sand, but in most of the canals
near Brownsville it is clay, which cracks open when dry and becomes
almost as hard as Soapstone.
About 25 miles of main canal have been constructed and water is
furnished to 7,000 acres, planted mostly to rice. Two crops of rice
per year are grown on part of the land, but the second is decidedly
smaller than the first. The irrigation Seasons for rice are from
Žº
wnsville canal.
March 1 to November 1. The canal company figures that about 10
gallons of water per minute per acre are required during the season
for rice irrigation. The first crop required one hundred days’ irriga-
tion and the second, sixty days. The land yields 4 to 17 sacks per
acre, with an average of 10 sacks of 195 pounds each. The price
realized for rice was between 2 and 3.4 cents per pound. For the
irrigation of 6,000 acres of rice the yearly consumption of fuel was
2,250 cords of wood.
Rice land is irrigated by the check system of flooding, the areas
of the checks varying up to 10 acres in extent. The bottoms of the
ditches are in many places constructed considerably lower than the
land itself in order to make the same ditch serve both for supplying
water and to drain when it is necessary to draw the water off the
land. *
In addition to the rice, about 125 acres were planted in truck. The
land for farming and water for irrigation of the same are furnished
tenants for one-half the value of the crop, much of the land being
farmed by renters. No measurement whatever was made of the
water consumed by tenants.


442 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Up to May 30, 1904, the 36-inch pump had operated forty-nine
days and five hours, one 24-inch pump twenty-eight days and eight
hours, and the other 24-inch pump nineteen days and two hours.
The average corrected lift during this period was 11 feet 6 inches.
During a test of the flow of the canal, made by the writer, the cor-
rected lift was 12 feet 8 inches, and the quantity of water measured
at a flume 1 mile from the power house was 64,800 gallons per minute.
The conditions of operation of the machinery at the time were as
follows: - 3.
36-inch pump, 63 revolutions per minute; engine, 147 revolutions
per minute; pressure, 110 pounds; vacuum, 15 pounds. -
24-inch pumps, 114 revolutions per minute; engine, 175 revolutions
per minute; pressure, 90 pounds.
Mesquite, which is used for fuel, is rather green and when closely
stacked weighs 3,700 pounds per cord. The price of same is $1.60 to
$1.70 per cord. Brick construction is used very extensively in
Brownsville, as it is cheaper than wood. * -
The Brulaye plant.—George Brulaye has an irrigation plant on the
river 9 miles below Brownsville. His farm consists of 400 acres, of
which 181 are at present under irrigation, 70 acres being in rice, 11
in corn, and 100 in cane. The lift from the river is about 15 feet at
low water. The boilers supply steam to two engines, one of which
drives a 15-inch and the other a 10-inch centrifugal pump. The 15-
inch pump requires 6 cords of wood for a twelve hours' run, the 10-
inch requiring 4 cords of wood for the same length of run. The
pumping station is situated on the making bank of the river and the
distance from the station to water has materially increased since the
plant, was first put in. At present the water is conveyed through a
channel about 150 feet long to the suction pipe. At the time of the
writer’s visit the banks of the channel had caved in and all the pipes
were filled with sand, and in consequence the plant was not in opera-
tion. A sugar mill was installed on the farm and the fuel consump-
tion for both the power house and sugar mill was 700 cords per year.
The engines and pumps are direct-connected units and were installed
without adequate protection from the weather. The furrow System
of irrigation is practiced for corn and cane.
On the Mexican side of the river there were several plants that
are worthy of note.
M. M. Mendiola plant.—M. M. Mendiola, a well-known engineer
in the employ of the Mexican Government, has an irrigation plant
at Matamoras, across the river from Brownsville. A steam engine
drives a centrifugal pump delivering 4,000 gallons per minute against
a 22-foot lift. The fuel consumption is 3 cords of wood in twelve
hours. The plant is sufficient for the irrigation of 300 acres of
cane, though at present only 100 acres are irrigated. Sugar cane
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 443
requires six irrigations a year in dry weather. The plant is operated
from 3 a. m. to 7 p. m. The irrigation season is from March to
August, in which time the crop requires one hundred and fifty days'
operation of the plant. Cotton is irrigated twice in dry years, once
When planting and once when half grown. The pump station will
irrigate 10 acres of land in twelve hours. All irrigation is done by
flooding, the land being divided into checks and about half an acre
in extent. It is flooded 8 inches deep, the owner preferring flooding
to the furrow system, as it tends to kill the vermin. Corn in dry
years receives two irrigations, one when it is planted in March and a
second in May.
The Fernandes plant.—Near Matamoras is an irrigation ranch
belonging to J. H. Fernandes, consisting of 600 acres, planted to
rice. The pump capacity is 14,000 to 20,000 gallons per minute, but
only one-third of this capacity is used for the present acreage. A
24-inch pump furnishes the water supply to the land, and it is the
intention of the owner to irrigate 2,500 acres. A 15-inch centrifugal
drainage pump is used in connection with this work. The water
pumped by the latter is used for the irrigation of pasture.
Sauto Company.—The Sauto Company applied to the Mexican
Government for an appropriation of 20 cubic meters of water per
second, to be used for the irrigation of land near Matamoras. The
application was refused, however, since the quantity asked for was
more than one-half the minimum rate of flow of the river. The
Government, however, said it would grant them 183 second-feet, the
same being one-third of half of the minimum flow of the river, or a
flow of 1,100 cubic feet per second. The company owned 100 square
leagues of land, but it is thought possible that they may irrigate 10
square leagues with the flow which they would be allowed to appro-
priate. This would be a duty of over 300 acres to the second-foot,
which is decidedly large considering the nature of the country. Up
to July, 1904, the Sauto Company had taken no action on the offer of
the Government.
On the San Diego River, 25 miles from Del Rio on the Mexican
side, an irrigation company proposes to irrigate 60,000 acres of land
from the river by a gravity system, with the aid of storage. The
land to be irrigated lies in two tracts, the lower of which is 60 feet
above the Rio Grande. There is a fall of 278 feet between the site of
the proposed storage reservoir and the lower irrigable land. It is
proposed to utilize the water power in two falls of 40 and 50 meters,
respectively, for pumping water from the Rio Grande to assist in
irrigation work. A large canal with a capacity of 4 cubic meters
per second is intended for the irrigation of 30,000 acres, and a canal
with a quarter of this capacity will be utilized for power purposes.
444 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The Rio Grande was formerly navigable some distance above
Hidalgo, but in recent years the sediment has deposited so rapidly
that at present no attempt at navigation is made. The river is
still classed as a navigable stream by the Government, and it may be
considered an open question what effect the diversion of water would
have on its legal aspect. Among the principal tributaries on the
Mexican side may be mentioned the San Juan River, which empties
into the Rio Grande 108 miles above Brownsville, and the Salavo
River. The water of the former is of a good quality; the Salavo
River is decidedly salty and alkaline.
NUECES, FRIO, AND LEONA RIVERS.
Beginning a short distance north of the Southern Pacific Railroad
in Uvalde County the ground rises gradually to the mountains in the
northern part of the county. Several rivers and creeks have their
headwaters in the mountains, among which may be mentioned the
Nueces, Leona, Frio, and Dry Frio rivers, all of which finally empty
into the Nueces. The beds of the rivers in the mountains are filled
with loose rock and gravel, through which the water percolates when
the rivers are low. The river beds themselves are of rock, and where
the gravel layer is thin surface flow appears. By the time the rivers
reach the plains the flow has largely disappeared, except in times of
wet weather. South of Uvalde, however, the Leona River always
carries sufficient water to serve for considerable irrigation. On the
visit of the writer to this district in July, 1904, the rivers were at an
exceptionally low stage. In the mountains the flow from the Nueces
and Frio rivers was utilized for irrigation, and the supply was
sufficient for the present needs of the country. The river valleys
in the mountains, while not wide, still have a considerable amount of
land capable of being irrigated to good advantage. In general, how-
ever, it may be said that large tracts of irrigable land lies toward the
center and south of Uvalde County, and tò obtain irrigation water
for this land would necessitate the construction of storage reservoirs.
There are a few sites on these rivers where, from preliminary obser-
vations, it would seem that storage reservoirs could be built to advan-
tage. There has been some talk of their construction, but no actual
steps have been taken in this direction.
NUECES RIVER,
Fern Lake Ranch Company.—A few miles north of the town of
Montell is a 190-acre tract owned by this company and irrigated by a
ditch from the river. A dam 2.5 feet high and 4 feet base, built of
gravel and willows, serves to raise the level of the water sufficiently to
irrigate the land by gravity. Like other dams of this nature, it leaks
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAs. 445
considerably, but as there is sufficient water in the river this is a mat-
ter of no consequence. The ditch is 3 feet wide on the bottom, 5
feet on top, and 3 feet deep. Water runs about 30 inches deep.
The ditch is said to carry 3,000 gallons per minute. At the time of
the writer's visit it was not full and was carrying, by measurement,
about one-half this quantity of water. One hundred and twenty acres
are planted in Johnson grass, irrigated every fifteen days; 35 acres in
cotton, irrigated twice a season; 35 acres in corn, irrigated twice a
season. The yield of corn was 30 bushels per acre.
The ditch full will irrigate all the corn and cotton land in fifteen
days of twelve hours each, and Johnson grass in ten days. The latter
is irrigated by the tablet system, the tablets being 40 to 60 feet by 200
to 300 yards long. One man can look out for the irrigation of John-
son grass at the above rate and two men for the irrigation of corn
and cotton. The yield of Johnson grass is 1 ton per cutting and 4
cuttings per year.
W. M. Jones ranch.-A short distance below Montell, W. M. Jones
irrigates 50 acres with water pumped from the river. A 6-horse-
power gasoline engine drives a No. 3 centrifugal pump delivering 350
gallons per minute against a 27-foot lift. The engine uses 9 gallons
of gasoline in ten hours, the cost of same being 12.5 to 18 cents per
gallon.
Twenty acres were planted in cotton, which up to the end of July
had received one irrigation; 30 acres in corn and Sorghum, which
received two irrigations per crop. A ten-hour run of the pump fur-
mished sufficient water to irrigate 3 acres. The tablet system of irri-
gation is used, the tablets being 50 to 80 feet wide by 400 yards long.
One man can irrigate 1.5 acres in a day with one-half the flow of the
pump. Corn yielded 30 bushels per acre.
Baylor ranch.-A short distance below the Jones ranch Mr. Baylor
irrigates 25 acres with water from Montell Creek, which, however,
runs dry part of the time. A ditch about 18 inches wide runs 6
inches deep, delivering a flow of 800 gallons per minute. Four acres
planted in corn were irrigated every fifteen days; 18 acres in John-
son grass were irrigated every fifteen days; 3 acres were planted in
CàIle. wº
A rock-and-clay dam was used for diverting the water, which
flowed into an earth tank 2 feet deep, 350 by 95 feet. The flow of the
ditch will fill this tank in ten hours. The tank full will irrigate 4
acres in six hours. Johnson grass was irrigated by the tablet sys-
tem, the tablets being 30 feet wide and 240 yards long. The yield of
corn was 30 bushels per acre.
A few miles below this ranch an attempt was made a few years
ago to dam the Nueces River to divert water into a ditch which was
to irrigate a large area near the base of the mountains. At the dam
446 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
site selected the river had filled up to a depth of some 17 feet with
rock and gravel, and to cut off the underflow from the same sheet
piling was driven through the rocks. The piling was composed of
three pieces of 3 by 12 held together in such a way as to form a tongue-
and-groove boarding, the middle piece being offset. This attempted
dam, however, was a dismal failure, as the sheet piling drove any-
° thing but straight through the bowlders and utterly failed to inter-
cept the flow of water. Figure 63 shows a section of the river at the
point of the attempted dam.
Still another difficulty encountered was in the construction of a
ditch for diverting the water. The ground through which the ditch
ran was gravelly and acted like a sieve. Only a short section of the
ditch was constructed and that has now been abandoned.
At present there is a proposition to divert the river water at a
point a short distance above this dam site, where the bed rock of the
river comes to the surface. The projected plan involves the construc-
tion of a low dam at this point, whence the water will be carried by
O * %& &
/O’
20.
30°
*O'
20
FIG. 63.−Section of Nueces River bed.
a pipe submerged in the river channel to a point about a mile dis-
tant, where the head of the ditch will be located. One idea of this
plan is to avoid encountering the gravelly strata through which the
old ditch ran. The water would then be conveyed by a ditch some 20
miles long to an earth reservoir built by damming some of the draws
in the foothills. If this were carried out an immense quantity of
land would be subject to irrigation. The main point about such an
undertaking is the building of a reservoir of suitable size. The esti-
mated storage capacity of the proposed one was 124,000,000 cubic
feet. Allowing 18 acre-inches storage capacity for the irrigation of
1 acre would make this reservoir capable of irrigating 2,000 acres.
A continuous supply from the river would of course increase to a
considerable extent the acreage which would be subject to irrigation.
For this proposed reservoir the embankment is to be 5 feet higher
than the level of high water, 14 feet wide on top, built with side
slopes of 3 to 1. The maximum height of the dam will be 42 feet
and the length 1,700 feet. The cubic yards of earth in the dam
would be 310,000.

IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 447
A measurement of the river at the proposed dam site, made in the
latter part of July, 1904, showed a flow of 35 cubic feet per second.
At the point where this measurement was made there was a con-
siderable bed of gravel, which would add materially to the actual
flow, which, as an approximation, was a total of perhaps 50 cubic feet
per second.
Dodson farm.—A short distance below the site of the attempted
dam is the farm of J. J. Dodson, who irrigates 144 acres with water
pumped from the river. Two 40-horsepower boilers supply steam
to a 65-horsepower throttling engine driving a No. 6 centrifugal
pump delivering 1,000 gallons per minute against a head of 39 feet.
The boilers consume 2 cords of mesquite in twelve hours' run. The
mesquite grows on the land of the owner and the cost of cutting and
hauling is $1 per cord.
Three acres were planted in alfalfa which received two irrigations
for each cutting. This was not a very successful crop. One hun-
dred and fifteen acres were planted in cotton, which in 1904 received
one irrigation. When the weather is dry the owner figures that two
or three irrigations per season would be necessary. Two acres were
planted in truck, 4 in sorghum, and 20 in corn. The latter received
one irrigation, but in dry years would require two. The yield of
corn was 30 bushels per acre. Part of the time it was necessary to
run the plant day and night.
The tablet system was used for alfalfa and the furrow system for
other crops. The flow of the pump would irrigate 8 acres in twelve
hours by the furrow system and 3 acres in the same time by the
tablet system. Alfalfa was laid off in tablets 25 by 300 feet. The
rows in the furrow system were 600 feet long on 4-foot centers, the
flow of the pump being divided between 2 to 3 rows. The time re-
quired to run through the rows was twenty to thirty minutes.
FRIO RIVER,
In this section of the country the term “head of water ’’ is used
as a kind of unit of measurement, meaning the amount of water that
one man can handle to advantage in irrigation, and may be consid-
ered to be from about 1,000 to 1,500 gallons per minute, though it
is naturally a widely varying quantity.
Grigsby & Horton ditch-Grigsby & Horton own 120 acres of
land near Lakey, which is irrigated by water diverted from the
Frio through a ditch 3 feet wide on the bottom, 5 to 6 feet wide on
top, and 2 feet deep. The ditch, which was constructed in 1897, is
2 miles long and has a grade of 2 inches in 300 feet. It is said to carry
two “heads of water,” and irrigates 60 acres of corn and 60 acres
of cotton, each of which received two irrigations in 1904. The flow
of the ditch is sufficient to irrigate 10 acres in twenty-four hours. At
448 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
present water is used mainly in the daytime. In very dry weather
the ground should be irrigated every fifteen days. The soil is black
and waxy, 2 feet deep, with clay subsoil. Corn will yield 30 to 35
bushels per acre and cotton three-fourths to 1 bale per acre. The
owner figures that by irrigating day and night the amount of land
irrigated could be doubled. Water is diverted from the creek by
a log, brush, and gravel dam, which raises the water level 1 foot.
The furrow system of irrigation is used, the furrows being 150 to
300 feet long. One head of water is divided between 8 to 10 rows,
and twenty minutes' flow is required to irrigate furrows 300 feet long.
The rows are 3.5-foot centers. -
Smith, Patterson dé Watkins ditch.-Near the town of Rio Frio a
ditch, constructed by Smith, Patterson & Watkins in 1867, diverts
water from the Frio River for the irrigation of 850 acres of land.
The ditch is 5 feet wide at the bottom and 3 feet deep, set on a grade
of one-sixteenth inch per rod, and delivers between 3,000 and 4,000
gallons per minute. Five hundred acres are planted in cotton and
irrigated every twenty-one days, the yield being 1 bale to the acre;
300 acres are planted in corn, irrigated every twenty-one days, the
yield being 45 bushels per acre; 50 acres are planted in oats and
wheat, irrigated every twenty-one days. The yield of oats is 15 to
30 bushels and of wheat 20 bushels per acre. A small amount of
truck is also grown. The ditch is 5 feet wide on the bottom, 3 feet
deep, and 3.5 miles long, and its capacity is said to be 3.5 “heads,”
which would mean that a head in this case is equivalent to a flow of
1,000 gallons per minute. One head will irrigate 10 acres in twenty-
four hours. Land, with water-right, rents for one-third of the crop,
and labor costs $12 to $15 per month and board.
Ditch water is divided in proportion to the land to be irrigated,
each field receiving water every three weeks, the water running con-
tinuously in the ditch. When the river is at its lowest stage this
ditch consumes all the visible supply, though there is considerable
more water under the gravel bed. The full supply of the ditch is
required for irrigation. Land is watered by the tablet system, the
tablets being 40 to 48 feet wide and the length varying up to 1,200
feet. The water is run 40 to 50 feet down the tablets from each
opening made in the Supply ditch.
Where the Frio River emerges from the mountains the valley nar-
rows to about 600 feet and on either side for a height of about 60 feet
the walls are solid rock, forming apparently a good site for a dam.
Some years ago there was a project to build a dam at this point and
convey the water by ditch to the plains near Uvalde, but no work
was ever actually undertaken in this direction. The area of the
watershed of the river up to the dam site has been estimated at 750
square miles, and the run-off in the mountains is undoubtedly high.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 449
Several unsuccessful attempts have been made to find artesian
water on the line of the Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio
Railway from Uvalde to Sabinal. In a well 1,822 feet deep at
Sabinal water rises to within 80 feet of the surface. At a point 18
miles to the west of Uvalde a well 1,500 feet deep was sunk, in which
the water was 300 feet from the surface. Although the water dis-
appears in dry weather in many of the rivers as they emerge from the
hills, still it follows along under the river channel in many places,
and the indications are that large surface wells can be obtained in
Some localities.
The city waterworks of Uvalde has a well from which the supply
for the city is derived which is 100 feet deep. At a depth of 40
feet there is a stratum of gravel 3 to 4 feet thick, with clay below it.
This was originally a dug well 20 feet square and 40 feet deep, but
in 1897 the water gave out, whereupon three 6-inch open-bottom wells
were drilled in the bottom of the old well 60 feet deeper. The water
at present rises to 33 feet from the surface and is scarcely lowered by
a pump with a capacity of 1,000 gallons per minute. A direct-acting
steam pump delivers the water against a pressure of 45 pounds, with
a suction lift of 6 feet. Two and one-half cords of oak or elm are
consumed in eight hours, with a delivery of 800 gallons per minute.
Ike West has dug a well 30 feet deep and 5 feet square 5 miles from
Uvalde. Water stands 4 feet deep in the well, which is about 400
yards from the Leona River. The water-bearing stratum consists
of bowlders. The surface soil is a light-red sandy loam 6 feet deep,
underlain by a clay subsoil. A 20-horsepower engine drives a ver-
tical centrifugal pump for lifting water from the well.
Considerable irrigation is carried on below Uvalde with water
taken from the Leona River. The river is dammed in several places
by means of crib dams, which raise the water to a sufficient height to
irrigate. the land by gravity and at the same time serve as storage
basins of small capacity. Three miles south of Uvalde is a rock-
filled crib dam belonging to Mr. Patterson, resting on a rock bottom.
The dam is 9 feet wide at the base, with the timbers notched and
bolted together, and sets into the banks 20 feet. It is faced with an
apron of 2-inch plank, which is covered with dirt to aid in making it
water-tight. The dam is 140 feet long with the addition of the two 20-
foot wings, and is 64 feet high. The cost of construction was $1,250,
the work being let by contract. The timbers built for forming the
crib work are about 14 inches in diameter on the small end and made
of oak. The dam has lasted two years without accident, but so far
has not passed through any severe flood. It backs the water up 2
miles in the river, which has an average width of 120 feet and a
depth of 4 feet. The water can be drawn down 34 feet. The ditch
30620–No. 158–05—29 -
450 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
which heads near the dam is 6 feet wide on the bottom, 9 feet on top,
and 3 feet deep, with a slope of 2 feet to the mile. It is owned by a
company, the stock being divided into six shares, of which Mr. Pat-
terson owns 3% shares. Eight hundred acres are now under irrigation
from this ditch, which delivers a flow of 4,000 gallons per minute.
Irrigation is carried on day and night; one share in the ditch
entitled the holder to twenty-fours' flow of the ditch every six days.
The irrigators take what water they please and regulate the same
by a gate at the head of the ditch, no measurement of water being
taken. A ditch man is employed whose duty it is to keep the ditch
clean and in repair. Mr. Patterson’s land, which is situated at the
end of the ditch, 9 miles from Uvalde, in addition to the ditch supply
receives water also from a pumping station on the river adjoining
his farm. A 50-horsepower boiler supplies steam to a duplex steam
pump delivering 1,200 gallons per minute against a lift of 22 feet.
The plant consumes 14 cords of live oak or elm in twenty-four hours'
operation. The cost of the wood is 60 cents a cord delivered at the
pump. As the wood comes off the land of the owner, only the cost
of cutting and hauling is included in these figures. For the past
two years the pump has not been operated, as the ditch supplied
sufficient water. However, in time of low water the pump is an
additional Security against an insufficient supply, the river between
the dam and the pump being fed by a number of springs. Near
the pumping station is a dam of natural rock which forms a reser-
voir 1 mile long and 75 feet wide, 15 feet deep in places. Mr. Patter-
son irrigates 500 acres, but thinks he would be able to irrigate twice
this acreage with his present water supply. Two hundred acres are
planted in cotton, irrigated four to five times each season, and 150
acres of Johnson grass, irrigated six to eight times; 70 acres of corn,
irrigated four times. The Johnson grass is irrigated twice per cut-
ting, and is usually cut four times a year. The cotton land formerly
produced 1 bale per acre, but the ravages of the boll weevil have mate-
rially cut down this yield. Johnson grass yields 1 ton per acre per
cutting and the corn 30 bushels. With the full flow of the ditch—
4,000 gallons per minute—40 acres of land can be irrigated in twenty-
four hours. -
Irrigation throughout this district is carried on by the tablet sys-
tem. The tablets are 36 feet wide and 300 feet long, and are mainly
irrigated from the small ditches running lengthwise of the tablets,
though occasionally a head ditch is used for this purpose. Canvas
dams are used in the head ditches for stopping the flow of water.
One man handles one-quarter of the full flow of the ditch, turning
the same into one tablet. The irrigation season lasts practically all
the year. T. E. Taylor irrigates 150 acres of corn and cotton from
the Patterson ditch. J. L. Tyner irrigates 150 acres of corn, cotton,
IRRIG ATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 451
and Johnson grass from the same source. Johnson grass, which for-
merly sold for $15 per ton, now sells for $10 per ton in Uvalde.
Below the Patterson place the Leona River is dammed to supply
water to a ditch owned by A. A. Kelley, B. F. Wilson, and L. R.
Norseworthy. Five hundred and fifteen acres are at present insculti-
vation from this ditch. Three hundred acres are owned by Mr.
Kelley, who is entitled to six-twelfths of the flow; 175 acres by Mr.
Wilson, who is entitled to five-twelfths, and 40 acres by Mr. Norse-
worthy, who has one-twelfth of the flow. The ditch is said to deliver
four heads of water, or about 4,000 gallons per minute. One head
will irrigate 1 acre per hour. Land in this vicinity sells for $50 per
acre, with water rights included, and rents for one-third of the crop.
It is to be noted that the water right goes with the land.
The Kelley ditch is 6 feet wide on the bottom, 9 feet wide on top,
and 3 feet deep, and the water runs in the same to a depth of about
2 feet. The slope of the ditch is 18 inches per mile and the length is
2 miles to the nearest farm which it supplies, and 2% miles farther to
the end of the ditch. It was built in 1870 and has been somewhat
enlarged since then. The full flow of the ditch is said to irrigate 4
acres per hour.
J. C. Priddy irrigates 105 acres by the tablet system, 40 acres in
corn, 60 in cotton, and 5 in cane.
The Lewis plant.—G. W. Lewis irrigates 220 acres of land lying a
short distance south of the end of the Kelley ditch. Irrigation water
is pumped from the Leona River, and the Supply pumped is just
sufficient to irrigate the land. A 45-horsepower throttling engine
drives a 10-inch centrifugal pump running 310 revolutions per
minute, delivering 2,400 gallons per minute against a lift of 23 feet.
The fuel consumed is 5 cords of wood for twenty-four hours' run, in
which time 10 acres of land can be irrigated. One hundred and
seventy acres are planted in cotton, irrigated about every three weeks;
50 acres in corn, irrigated every three weeks. The tablet system of
irrigation is used, two men handling the supply of water from the
pump. This year the probable yield will be at least one-half bale of
cotton to the acre. The boll weevil has caused considerable trouble in
this vicinity. The crops received, 5 irrigations in the year.
The main ditch is 6 feet wide on top and 18 inches deep and
V-shaped. Some of the tablet ditches are as much as 200 feet apart,
and one irrigator will turn one-half the supply of the pump into 20
rows, which are about 50 feet long.
Batesville.—The Comanche Ditch and Irrigation Company, which
is about thirty years old, diverts water from the Leona River near
Batesville and irrigates about 500 acres of corn, cotton, oats, John-
son grass, fruit, and truck. The ditch is about 8 feet wide on top, 3
feet deep, and water runs 2 to 2.5 feet deep in the same. It is said
452 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
to carry two heads of water. One head per hour per acre is allowed
for irrigation, the irrigation period recurring every ten days. A
dam composed of brush, dirt, and gravel 10 feet high forms a reser-
voir in the river bed 1.5 miles long, 30 feet wide, and 4 feet deep. It
washes considerably with every freshet. When the supply of water
falls off, one head of water is used instead of two and the time of use
is correspondingly cut down. When the pumps farther up the river
are operating there is sometimes not sufficient water for one head.
The main idea of the dam was not so much for storage as to raise the
water to a sufficient level to supply the ditch. Altogether about 640
acres owned by the company are subject to irrigation. The tablet
and bed systems are used, the tablets being 45 to 60 feet wide and the
beds 20 to 40 feet wide, with a length of 150 to 200 feet. One head of
water will irrigate a bed in fifteen minutes.
In this vicinity there are indications of good surface wells. At a
depth of 30 feet is a water-bearing gravel stratum 8 feet in thickness
underlaid with sand and gravel strata. The water stands 35 to 45
feet below the surface of the ground.
Artesian water is found in the southwest part of Zavalla County,
being a continuation of the artesian belt near Carrizo Springs. Ed
English and B. H. Eskins have each two artesian wells, and James
Odin has one in that vicinity used for irrigation, and there are also a
few other artesian wells used for stock.
Artesia.-Near Artesia artesian water in small quantities has been
discovered and there are at present in this vicinity seven open-bottom
wells, 54%-inch casing, delivering a flow of 12 to 18 gallons per min-
ute each. These wells are 500 feet deep, and are located within
1.5 miles of the railroad station. The artesian water-bearing stra-
tum is fine sand. The wells were put down by horsepower machines,
and cost $1 per foot to complete. The total area irrigated is 75
acres, the main crops being truck and onions. Four acres of Onion
land gave a yield of 2.5 cars. In connection with irrigation there are
two storage reservoirs 8 feet deep and 0.5 and 0.75 acre, respectively
in area. *
Cotulla. The Nueces River runs near the town of Cotulla and
furnishes water for several irrigation plants in that vicinity. The
surrounding country is very rolling, though occasional places are to
be found where the land is sufficiently level for farming to good
advantage. However, much of the hilly land is also farmed.
The supply of Nueces River is variable. In times of high water
the discharge is very great, while at low water it practically disap-
pears. The indications are, however, that there is a considerable sub-
surface flow when water has disappeared entirely from the surface
channel. Owing to the lay of the land pumping is necessary in
order to irrigate. Some of the pump stations have been installed so
IRRIG ATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 453
low down that they are entirely submerged during high water. This
is a practice which can hardly be looked upon with favor.
Hargus plant.—This is 3 miles above Cotulla and is just being
installed. It has a 60-horsepower boiler, with a 40-horsepower throt-
tling engine, which is belted to a No. 6 centrifugal pump, having a
10-inch suction and 103-inch discharge pipe of a total length of 660
feet. The lift of this plant is 35 feet and the flow of the pump is
Supposed to be 2,500 gallons per minute. In all probability the eco-
nomic flow will not be more than one-half this, however. One hun-
dred and thirty acres to be planted in onions and alfalfa will be irri-
gated. It is the intention of the owner to dam the river in order to
provide storage for a small amount of water. The river has a fall of
8 inches per mile. In general the distances by river are about twice
as long as by land.
Caley plant.—H. Caley irrigates 40 acres situated near the Hargus
plant. A 30-horsepower boiler supplies steam to a 60-horsepower
automatic engine driving a No. 3 centrifugal pump, delivering water
to the field through a 3.5-inch pipe, the farthest point of delivery
being 1,500 feet from the pump station. The height of this point of
delivery above the river is about 40 feet. There are three outlets for
the water in the pipe line. The flow of water is said to be 300 to 500
gallons per minute, depending upon which outlet is open. The fuel
used is mesquite, 0.75 cord being consumed in twelve hours.
The river is dammed near the farm by a structure 3 feet high and
30 feet long, composed of loose rock on the lower side, while on the
upper side is a wooden apron covered with dirt. Floods have caused
no trouble with the dam, the water passing over the same without
damage. It backs the water up 2 miles in the river, forming a res-
ervoir with an average width of 35 feet when water is near the top of
the dam. Before the dam was put in there was a shortage of water,
but since the installation of the same no trouble has been experienced
on this account.
Thirteen acres were planted in onions and the remainder in can-
taloupes, tomatoes, corn, and truck. White Bermuda and Crystal
Wax onions were sown and were spaced 3 to 4 inches apart in rows
12 inches apart. The crop was harvested April 15 and sold for 1.5
cents per pound, yielding $3,349.
The land was irrigated by the furrow system every 15 days and
it required twelve hours pumping to irrigate 2 to 4 acres. The fur-
rows were 60 feet long. The season for irrigating tomatoes is Octo-
ber 1 to January.
With one irrigation 1.25 acres of corn yielded 80 bushels. Cotton
land yielded without irrigation 1 bale per acre.
The soil is a black chocolate Sandy loam 3 feet deep, with clay sub-
soil. No fertilizer was used.
454 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
One to two men are required to handle the water. The owner cuts
his fuel and estimates it to cost 50 cents per cord. With ‘a larger
pipe he figures that he could irrigate 65 acres. Usually the plant
is run in the day time only, but during the past season it ran six
nights. . . - •
Fuller plant.—Near the Caley place is that of Mr. Fuller, compris-
ing 15 acres. The pumping plant which draws water from the same
storage consists of a 15-horsepower boiler, which supplies steam at
75 pounds pressure to a No. 7 pulsometer, lifting water 35 feet and
delivering 400 gallons per minute through 460 feet of 4.75-inch pipe.
The fuel consumed is 0.75 to 1 cord in twelve hours' run. The owner
of the plant says he could irrigate with the flow of the pump 30 acres
without night run. He irrigated 4 acres of truck with six hours' run
of the plant, using the furrow system, but intends to change to the bed
system. Land is irrigated every fifteen days, receiving six to eight
irrigations per season. The yield of 1 acre of tomatoes brought $300.
A short distance from these plants are two farms belonging to Mr.
Goldtrap and Mr. Gates, respectively, which obtain water by pump-
ing from a small lake.
Goldtrap farm.—This comprises 101 acres planted in corn, cane,
cotton, and tomatoes and irrigated by the furrow system. The pump-
ing plant consists of a 35-horsepower boiler and a 35-horsepower
throttle engine belted to a centrifugal pump delivering a rated flow
of 800 gallons per minute through 1,000 feet of 6-inch pipe against
a lift of 40 feet. The fuel consumption is 0.5 to 0.75 cord of wood per
day. To irrigate the entire area would require pumping six days of
twelve hours each per week, and requires the services of two men for
irrigating and one man for operating the pump station.
The furrow system of irrigation is used, the furrows being 60 to
150 feet long. Cotton is irrigated every sixteen days, with about four
irrigations per season; corn every twenty days, with about three irri-
gations per crop. Cane received one irrigation per crop; tomatoes
four irrigations per crop. Two crops of corn, cane, and tomatoes per
year are gathered. Corn was planted in January and August; cane
in the early spring and in June; tomatoes in January and August.
The size of the lake when full has been estimated at 0.5 mile long,
50 yards wide, and 8 feet deep. The lake derives its supply from the
river which flows into the lake when the river rises 4 feet. Evapora-
tion and seepage from the lake is about one-eighth inch per day, and
about the same amount of water is taken out by the pumps of the two
plants drawing from the lake. a'
The flow of the pump was turned into four to six rows. While
irrigating the pump averaged four days' run per week.
A small part of the land was planted to onions, which were spaced
4 inches apart in rows 12 inches apart. They yielded 15,000 pounds
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 455
per acre, and the crop was all harvested by April 25. The onions
were irrigated every ten days. #
The Soil is deep and is composed of a light waxy loam.
Gates farm.—Adjoining the Goldtrap farm is one of 100 acres
belonging to Mr. Gates. A 30-horsepower boiler supplies steam to a
30-horsepower engine belted to a No. 5 centrifugal pump, delivering
a flow of 850 gallons per minute from the lake against a vertical lift
of 42.5 feet through 500 feet of 8-inch pipe. The fuel consumed is
0.75 cord of wood in ten hours. The pump is operated about one-
quarter of the time during the irrigation season.
Eighty-three acres were planted to cotton, requiring 3 to 4 irriga-
tions per season, from March 1 to August 1. The furrow system was
used, the furrows being 50 to 100 yards long and 4 feet apart. The
flow is turned into 3 to 7 furrows at the same time and it takes five
minutes for the water to run through the same. The yield was 1
bale per acre. The boll weevil is causing considerable trouble in this
Section now.
Five acres of cane, 2 acres of corn, and 10 acres of tomatoes were
also irrigated, the latter requiring irrigation every two weeks during
dry weather.
The level of the lake does not vary much more than 1 foot and this
variation may be expected within four months’ time.
Kech plant.—Southeast of Cotulla, a short distance from the town,
is the 25-acre farm of E. A. Kech. The pumping plant consists of
a 15-horsepower boiler and a duplex pump delivering 250 to 300
gallons per minute against a head of 35 feet through 2,000 feet of
4-inch pipe. The plant consumed 0.75 cord mesquite in twelve hours.
The pump draws its supply from a small reservoir in the river
formed by a rock and dirt dam which in high water cuts out con-
siderably.
Last year 15 acres were planted in Onions and 10 acres in melons
and corn. The latter were not irrigated. The onion land, after the
removal of the crop, was planted in cowpeas and tomatoes, no irri-
gation being required for the cowpeas up to July. Onions were irri-
gated every twelve days by the furrow system. The furrows were
30 to 40 feet long, and the flow of the pump was turned into three or
four furrows at a time. One man irrigated 3 acres of Onions a day.
The onions were planted 3 inches apart in 12-inch rows. The yield
was 20,000 to 30,000 pounds per acre. The crop was harvested in
May.
In irrigating for tomatoes the entire flow was turned down one
furrow, making the amount considerably too great for the furrow
and difficult to control.
Seefeld plant.—Adjoining the Kech place is the farm of R. H.
Seefeld. A new plant is being installed to pump from the river and
456 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
consists of a 30-horsepower boiler and 25-horsepower throttling
engine driving a No. 5 centrifugal pump delivering a rated flow of
1,000 gallons per minute against a head of 36 feet. The pump will
deliver water into a galvanized flume lined with 42-inch sheets bent
half-round, this form of construction being used since it is cheaper
than pipe and avoids the loss in head which occurs in pumping
through a small pipe. The flume has a slope of 18 inches in 625 feet.
Last year a 15-horsepower boiler was used to supply steam to a direct-
acting pump delivering 300 gallons per minute against a head of
36 feet and forcing the water through 700 feet of 4.25-inch pipe.
One cord of wood was consumed in twelve hours’ operation of the
plant during which time 3.5 acres of onions could be irrigated. Wood
costs $1.50 per cord. The wages of a man for operation of plant were
55 cents per day. The cost of operating plant was $2.25 per day.
Onions were spaced 3.5 inches apart in 12-inch rows and irrigated
by the furrow system, the furrows being 30 to 50 feet long. The yield
was 20,000 pouilds per acre. No fertilizer except cowpeas was
employed.
FIG. 64.—Plan of Taylor dam, Nueces River, Texas.
Taylor plant.—About 30 miles from Cotulla, on the road to Carrizo
Springs, is an irrigation plant engineered by J. S. Taylor. The farm
is situated on the northeast bank of the Nueces River, which is
dammed by a rock-filled timber crib structure (see Pl. VII and fig.
64) 500 feet long over all and 110 feet wide at the base. The maxi-
mum height at the spillway is 32 feet, the wings being built up 10
feet higher than the rest of the structure. The dam rests on a clay
foundation and is built up with timber cribs 12 feet square composed
of rough logs spiked together with 3-inch Square spikes. The spill-
way, which is in the center of the dam, is 40 feet wide, and is built
of rough logs spiked in place and held down also by rock, constructed
in such a manner as to let the water down in a series of drops of 2 to
8 feet each, in a horizontal distance of 40 feet. The dam is back-
filled with rock covered with dirt with a crest of 15 feet and a slope
of 1 in 2. Six feet below the spillway is the top of the wastepipe, 3
feet in diameter, provided with a gate valve. The dam backs the
water 10 miles up the river with a storage area estimated by Mr.

PLATE V ||.
Irrig, and Drain. Invest.
U. S. Dept. of Agrº, Bul, 158, Office of Expt, Stations.
TAYLOR DAM, NUECES RIVER, TEXAS.

IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 457
Taylor at 15 miles long, average width of 175 feet, and average depth
of 15 feet, 5 miles of a branch of the river being included in this
estimate.
The plant serves at present for the irrigation of 175 acres, of which
100 can be irrigated by gravity and 75 acres by pumping. The
gravity canal is 9 feet wide on top and 3 feet deep near the head, and
8 feet wide on top, 3 feet on the bottom, and 1.5 feet deep near the
end of the canal, which is 1.5 miles long. The grade is 1.5 feet per
mile. A heavy cut was made where the canal heads near the dam and
water can be drawn off by gravity not more than 2.5 feet below the
top of the dam; therefore the gravity system can be used for the
most part only when there is a flow in the river, and can make little
use of the stored water. The canal is provided with a wooden head
gate 10 feet wide and 6 feet high. -
A No. 5 centrifugal pump driven by an 18-horsepower engine is
used to lift water 12 feet above the level of the top of the spillway
and delivers a flow of 1,200 gallons per minute. The flow of the
pump was used to irrigate onions, corn, and cane. The furrow
system was employed. The furrows for onions were 18 inches
apart and 100 feet long. Onions were spaced 4 inches apart in 18-
inch rows. The land was plowed and cultivated by the use of horses,
the spacing being sufficiently wide to permit of this. The land was
irrigated every eight to ten days and required four hours' run of the
pump to irrigate an acre. In irrigating, the flow of the pump was
turned into 20 rows at a time.
Onions were harvested May 1 and the yield was 11,000 to 16,000
pounds per acre. No fertilizer was used.
The dam as originally constructed was built with insufficient
wings, which resulted in its washing out around the ends. The cost
of the present dam and canal was $35,000.
Irrigable land in the vicinity which originally sold for $1.50 per
acre now brings $10 to $15 per acre.
At the time of the writer's visit, about the middle of July, 1904,
no water was flowing over the spillway of the dam.
LAKES NEAR CARRIzo SPRINGs.
Near Carrizo Springs is a chain of seven lakes which receive their
water partially from the drainage of the surrounding land and par-
tially from the river when water is sufficiently high. In fact, they
afford additional channels through which the river water may flow
in times of flood. The drainage area from which it is estimated that
these lakes are fed is 100 by 25 miles. The overflow from the lakes
runs into the river farther down. The following estimates have been
458 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
made by those familiar with the country as to the probable size of
these lakes: -
Capacity of lakes near Carrizo Springs.

Name of lake. Length. Width. Depth. Capacity. Mean.
Miles. JFeet. Feet. Acre-feet. Acre-feet,
Rocky------------------------------------------ 1 180 11 239 239
7 300 15 3,820
Caymanche------------------------------------ 6.5 225 11 1,950 2,650
4 300 15 2,180
5 300 15 2,730
Espantoso ------------------------------------- 5 225 11 1,500 |} 2,260
7 150 20 2,540
- 4 150 10 727
Soldier----------------------------------------- i 3 90 12 392 464
: 3 75 10 272
. 5 75 10 45
McDonald ------------------------------------- i .16 240 9 42 69
| * *| || 1:
Buckhorn-------------------------------------- { . 28 150 8 41 43
- j 3.5 150 10 453
Fincenia---------------------------------------- t 2 6 348 509
4 150 10 727
Near the center Caymanche Lake is about 200 yards in width. The
ground near the lake is subject to flood in high-water periods. It is
composed of an exceedingly rich black loam and is called locally
of a “bayouky” nature. Going from the lake the ground rises
gradually at first about 5 feet in 500 yards, and then is fairly level
for a distance of about one-half mile or more. At the end of this
stretch the rise is much more rapid. The land near the lake is cov-
ered with a fairly heavy growth of timber, mainly oak and mesquite.
The average width of the “bayouky” country is between one-half
and three-fourths mile, widening out toward the outlet of the lake.
There have been several plans for utilizing the water of these lakes
for irrigation, but as yet no actual steps have been taken in the
matter. The land lying near Rocky Lake has been bought with the
idea of utilizing it for the growing of rice. Mr. J. S. Taylor
had made plans for the erection of a dam across Caymanche Lake
1.75 miles long and 25 feet high, which he states would give a storage
capacity of 12 by 3 miles, 15 feet deep.
CARRIZO SPRINGS.
. . With the exception of the irrigation from the Taylor dam, all
irrigation around. Carrizo Springs is carried on by means of water
obtained from artesian wells. The proven artesian field in this
vicinity is about 8 miles in width, running 16 miles Southeast and
an equal distance northwest of Carrizo Springs. The southwest line
of the belt passes approximately through Carrizo Springs itself.
The artesian strata evidently slope more rapidly than the ground
toward the southeast, as is the general rule in all this part of Texas,
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 459
the result being that the artesian wells to the southeast are larger and
deeper than those in the opposite direction, since the static pressure
above the ground is greater, the general slope of the ground being
toward the southeast.
The discovery of artesian water has made great increases in land
values near Carrizo Springs. Lack of proper transportation facili-
ties, however, is hampering at present the development of this region.
A railroad line to either Eagle Pass or Cotulla, the nearest railroad
stations, would be of the greatest assistance to the farmers.
The formation of earth usually encountered in drilling artesian
wells north and east of Carrizo Springs is as follows:
Soil, 1 to 2.5 feet thick.
Clay, 2 to 10 feet thick.
Hardpan, 6 to 20 feet thick.
Sand rock (water does not rise from this, however), 16 to 20 feet thick.
Hardpan or Soapstone, 25 to 75 feet thick.
Sand rock (water rises from this 10 feet), 8 to 10 feet thick.
This is followed by layers of soapstone and hardpan, below which is 20 to 30
feet of sand rock, the depth of this varying from 175 to 500 feet below the
ground. This is followed again by soapstone, hardpan, and 100 feet of water
rock, the latter being found at depths of 300 to 600 feet.
Little farm.—About 10 miles from Carrizo Springs, in the direc-
tion of Cotulla, is the farm of Mr. Little. Water is supplied by an
artesian well 600 feet deep, 4.5 inches at the bottom and 5% inches at
the top. The flow is said to be 200 gallons per minute. Last year
23.5 acres were irrigated. Though it was a dry season, part of the
well supply ran to waste.
A reservoir 40 by 100 yards at the bottom, with side slopes of 1 to
1.5, is being constructed. The top of the banks will be 6 feet above
the ground, and the crown will be 5 feet wide. The owners of the
place are building the reservoir themselves, at a cost of about 6 cents
per yard of dirt. The banks of the reservoir are united to the subsoil
of clay, the surface soil being removed.
Last year onions were grown on 16.5 acres on which no fertilizer
was used. The Onions were irrigated every eight days. The crop
was harvested April 12, producing 25,000 pounds of white Bermuda
onions per acre. They were spaced 4 inches apart, with a furrow
between every other row of onions. The furrows were 2 feet 2 inches
apart. Four inches was found to be too close to plant onions.
The land is owned by T. M. Berry and F. M. Shaw, who took charge
of the place at the expiration of the Little lease during the summer.
The owners will be able with the aid of the reservoir to irrigate 50
acres to be planted in alfalfa, corn, and onions. Corn was planted
July 25.
Hughes farm.—Near the Berry-Shaw place is the Hughes farm,
irrigated from an artesian well 640 feet deep, cased with 54%-inch
460 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
casing for 48 feet. The first flow was in sand rock at 350 feet. The
well is in the center of a rectangular reservoir 130 by 40 feet. It
takes the well ten hours to fill this reservoir 3 feet. This would mean
a flow of 192 gallons per minute. The plant irrigated 50 acres of
onions and corn, the water supply being just sufficient to irrigate
every twelve days by the furrow system. Thirty-five acres were
planted in Onions and 15 acres in corn, the latter being planted in
March and April. With the aid of the reservoir 3 acres per day
were watered. Corn was irrigated every fifteen days in dry weather.
One man looked after the irrigation.
The Onions were spaced 3 by 18 inches. They matured May 1, and
the yield was 16,000 pounds of red and white Bermudas per acre,
which sold for 1.75 cents per pound. Transplanting the onions took
18 men thirty days and harvesting required the same amount of labor.
No fertilizer was used on the land. -
The rows were 150 feet long, and the water was turned into 10 to
15 rows, the time required for the water to flow through the rows
being five to ten minutes.
The cost of putting down the well was $1 per foot for the first 100
feet and 25 cents additional per foot for each succeeding 100 feet,
without casing.
Eardley place.—A short distance from the Hughes farm is that of
Mr. Eardley, irrigated by water from an artesian well 720 feet deep.
The well started 12 inches and finished 10 inches in diameter. It is
shut off by a valve when water is not desired. This well is by far
the largest in this part of the country and is said to deliver a flow of
1,400 gallons per minute. It passes through three rock strata and is
cased to the first stratum only with 10-inch casing. The flow of the
well is used to irrigate C0 acres, 20 acres being in corn, planted April
1; 5 acres in onions, and 5 acres in truck. Corn was irrigated twice
in the season and onions once a week. Only one-third of the flow of
the well, it is estimated, was used to irrigate 5 acres of Onions a day,
requiring two or three irrigators. The onions were planted 4 inches
apart in rows 18 inches on centers. The rows were 225 feet long, the
land being very level. The main ditch is 4 feet wide and 18 inches
deep. No fertilizer was used on the land. The yield of onions was
19,000 pounds per acre and of corn 35 bushels per acre. No reservoir
was used in connection with the well, which should be capable of
irrigating a tract much larger than the area at present watered.
Patterson farm.—Mr. Patterson owns 43 acres of irrigated land
near the Eardley place. The water supply is obtained from two
artesian wells, one of which is 600 feet deep, with 55-inch casing, and
the other 662 feet deep, 8 inches in diameter. An artesian water
stratum is found at 240 feet, and a second one at 500 feet. The first
well is cased for 90 feet down and cost $1 per foot. The 8-inch well
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 461
is without casing. Each well flows 120 gallons per minute and dis-
charges direct on the ground, no reservoir being used. The pressure
of the wells was estimated to be 40 feet above the ground without
flow. The second well irrigated 30 acres of corn, which was esti-
mated by the owner to be its maximum capacity. The total irrigated
area under both wells included 12 acres onions, 26 acres corn, and 5
acres truck. Of the 26 acres in corn, 3 were put in June corn, and
yielded 40 bushels per acre. The remainder of the corn was planted
in the spring.
Onions yielded 13,000 pounds per acre. They were spaced 5 inches
apart in 18-inch rows. The onion furrows were 130 feet long, and
the flow of one well was divided between 12 furrows at a time.
Onions were irrigated three to six times, while corn was irrigated
twice. The land was cultivated after each irrigation. The first
onions, which were shipped April 10, brought 2 cents per pound in
the field. The cost of hauling onions from Carrizo Springs to Co-
tulla, the nearest railroad point, is approximately one-half cent per
pound.
The corn furrows were 400 feet long, and it took the water six
hours to flow through them. All furrows were nearly level, and one
well could irrigate an acre in twelve hours.
The soil is black waxy and black sandy about 18 inches deep, with
a substratum of clay. ->
Shaw farm.—F. M. Shaw has 35 acres of irrigated land supplied
with water from a 53-inch well 380 feet deep, cased 60 feet. Water
is found in sand rock, and will rise without flow at least 20 feet above
the ground. The output of this well is said to be 150 gallons per
minute. In connection with the well is a reservoir 178 feet inside top
diameter, with a side slope of 1 to 1.5. The banks are clay 7 feet
high and 6 feet wide on top. The reservoir cost 10 cents a cubic
yard for material handled. It takes six days to fill the reservoir
within 6 inches of the top. In a dry year Mr. Shaw figures that he
could irrigate 30 acres. The crops grown were as follows:
Seventeen acres of Corn, planted in March.
Twelve acres of alfalfa yielded 8 crops of 1 ton each per acre, irrigated by
flooding after each cutting.
Six acres of onions yielded 23,000 pounds per acre.
The Onions were spaced 4 inches apart in rows 12 inches apart.
They were shipped the last of April and May. Onions and corn were
irrigated by the furrow system. With the reservoir full and the addi-
tional flow of the well, 20 acres can be irrigated in two days, two men
being needed to handle the water.
McDaniel & McCaleb farm.—This farm consists of 100 acres, irri-
gated with the flow of three wells. Two of the wells discharge into
a reservoir 120 by 420 feet top inside measurements and 8 feet deep.
462 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The reservoir fills with the discharge of these two wells at the rate of
1 inch in two hours. Allowing for the slope of the banks of 1 on 1.5
would, however, make the total output of these two wells 230 gallons
per minute. The third well will deliver about 100 gallons per minute,
and its reservoir is 120 by 210 feet at the top on the inside. The
reservoirs were built by the owners of the land. In order to make the
banks compact, teams with scrapers were driven around the reservoir
on the embankment. The cost was estimated at 8 cents per yard of
material handled. •
The wells are about 400 feet deep and 6 inches in diameter. The
first well mentioned is cased 86 feet, and the last two only 20 feet.
One of the ditches leading from the reservoir is made on top of a
fill and is lined with 3 inches of clay, which was applied in the fol-
lowing manner: The ditch is 2 feet wide on top and 8 inches deep,
curved in section. After the earth had settled the section was made
uniform by dragging a board of the desired cross-section along the
ditch. After this had been done the clay was hauled to the head of
the ditch and mixed into a mortar, which was run down the ditch by
the aid of water, another wooden templet being used to give the clay
the proper shape. Two scrapers and four men could line 1,200 feet
of ditch in three days. In applying the clay mortar it can be run up
the ditch in the manner outlined to good advantage for a distance of
100 yards. In order to keep the clay from cracking a small supply
of water is usually kept in the ditch. The ditch was given a fall of
1 inch in 64 feet. The method utilized of setting the ditch on proper
grade was by means of a plumb bob attached to a T board. When
the plumb line was a given distance off center, the ditch was at proper
grade.
The irrigated land was planted 25 acres in onions, 25 acres in corn,
5 acres in Sorghum, and 45 acres in truck. Eight acres of the onion
land were subsequently planted to corn and tomatoes. The onions
yielded 22,000 pounds per acre. No fertilizer was used last year, but
this year the owners will use artificial fertilizer rather than manure,
on account of the danger of Bermuda grass, which has been a source
of great annoyance to farmers. Some of the onions, which were
shipped as early as March 26, brought 5% cents per pound. These
were planted in September and transplanted November 1. They
were planted 6 inches apart in rows 9 inches apart, the furrows being
3 feet apart. This made a furrow every 3 rows of onions. This
year, however, the furrows will be 6 feet apart and the Onions 4.5
inches apart, in rows 9 inches apart, there being accordingly one
furrow for every 5 rows of onions. The owners are convinced that
owing to the nature of the ground this system of irrigation will be
perfectly satisfactory and that the onions will all receive sufficient
water. This allows for closer planting than is customary.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. º 463
Sorghum and corn were irrigated every fourteen days, truck every
eight days. Furrows are 200 to 400 feet long, but the former are
considered preferable. It takes the water about thirty minutes to
run through the furrows, and 12 to 15 furrows are irrigated at a time.
Part of the land which is hilly will be leveled off in order to put it in
better shape for irrigation. This is a plan which might be followed
elsewhere to good advantage.
The owners estimate that the flow of the wells, with the reservoirs,
will irrigate 200 acres.
Moore place.—Mr. Moore has put down an 8-inch well 400 feet
deep, cased 100 feet. At 175 feet a weak artesian flow was struck
which increased somewhat at 215 feet. At 375 feet it received a
considerable increase. This water will be used in irrigation.
Arnold farm.—This farm has an 8-inch well 480 feet deep deliver-
ing a measured flow of 40 gallons per minute. Seven acres of corn
were irrigated from the well, water being applied every eight days.
The flow of the well will irrigate 2 acres of new-plowed land in four
twenty-four hour days and in the same time 5 acres of old land, the
respective irrigation depths in inches being 1.7 and 4.2. The furrows
are 400 feet long and it takes the water six hours to run through them.
The discharge pipe from the well stands 3 feet above the ground,
thus forcing the well to work against needless additional head. The
well is provided with a throttle valve and when this valve is closed
water is forced up around the outside of the casing. This shows
clearly the point previously mentioned in the chapter on wells—the
possibility of considerable loss of water by opening a path of com-
munication between artesian strata and other pervious strata.
Shipp farm.—Near the Arnold place O. E. Shipp has an irri-
gated tract supplied with water from two artesian wells, one of which
is 365 feet deep with 55 feet of 43-inch casing, and the other 417 feet
deep with 65 feet of 6-inch casing. The owner estimates that the
two wells can irrigate 30 acres without reservoir; with reservoir, a
larger area. He thinks that there is a considerable loss of water
from the wells, due to their being improperly cased. Water will rise
without flow 18 to 20 feet above the ground. The first well has a flow
of 15 gallons per minute and the second 25 gallons per minute.
The land is irrigated by the furrow system, the furrows being
300 to 500 feet long. It takes two to six hours to run the water
through the furrows. Corn is irrigated twice a season, onions every
ten days, truck every week, and sorghum and grapes every two
weeks. Corn not irrigated yielded 30 to 35 bushels per acre, while
irrigated corn yielded 40 bushels. The two wells will irrigate about
2 acres per day. The Soil is of a black sandy nature, 18 inches to 5
feet deep, with a clay Subsoil. -
464 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Richardson ranch.-The largest ranch in the vicinity of Carrizo
Springs belongs to Asher Richardson and contains 550 acres of irri-
gable land, although at present only 400 acres have been irrigated.
Water is furnished from two wells 650 feet deep cased down 90 feet.
One well is 6-inch and the other 12-inch. Water rises without flow
in these wells 75 to 80 feet. A circular reservoir 8 feet high and
covering 7 acres is in course of construction. The base of the bank
is 50 feet wide and the crown 8 feet wide. The reservoir will have
a 6-foot clay core.
The two wells are 100 yards apart, and the second well did not
affect the flow of the first. Artesian water was found at 390 feet and
650 feet in white sandstone. The output of the 6-inch well is 234
gallons per minute and the combined output of the two wells, as
measured after the water from the 6-inch well had gone through 100
yards of ditch, was 520 gallons per minute. These outputs are by
weir measurements made by the writer.
The land irrigated includes 100 acres of corn planted in February,
receiving one irrigation; 200 acres of cotton, one irrigation; 75 acres
_ of barley and oats, two irrigations
** a season; 25 acres of truck, irri-
gated every ten days. Having no
reservoir, the land is irrigated day
and night, and it requires Seven
days for the flow of the two wells
to irrigate 100 acres of corn.
The furrows are 150 to 1,350 feet
long, the average being 300 feet.
The flow of the two wells was di-
vided between 15 rows and took an hour to go through furrows 300
yards long. The rows were 3.5 feet apart for cotton. The main
ditch was 3 feet wide and 1 foot deep, the slope varying from 1 in
1,000 to 3 in 1,000. The laterals had a slope of 1 in 1,000 and the
furrows the same or less. The furrows in many places are curved.
A marker was used on the plow to locate the next furrow in order to
keep the lines parallel.
Gates were used in the laterals for regulating the supply of water
and dividing the same properly. Some regulating gates used were
made of a semicircular piece of sheet metal, provided with a slide in
the center which could be forced down into the laterals. (Fig. 65.)
A night farm.—Adjoining the Richardson place is the farm of Mr.
I(night, containing 27 acres, which will be irrigated with water from
an 8-inch artesian well 640 feet deep. The well delivers about 125
gallons per minute. Five acres of corn can be irrigated with the
flow of the well in two days of twelve hours each. Two acres of
FIG. 65.—Regulating gate for laterals.

IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 465
onions can be irrigated in one day. No reservoir is used. Last year
2 acres of onions and 15 acres of corn were irrigated. The onions
were planted in December, spaced 4 inches apart in rows 16 inches
apart. The flow of the well was divided between 30 furrows, taking
about one and a half hours to irrigate the same. The yield of onions
was 25,000 pounds per acre. In irrigating corn the water was turned
into 8 furrows at a time and took about an hour to run through.
The furrows are 150 feet long. No fertilizer was used.
Pollard farm.—Adjoining the Knight farm is the farm of Charles
Pollard. It has a 10-inch well, 640 feet deep, cased 35 feet. The
well formerly had a considerably larger flow than at present, but has
filled up until it is now only 420 feet deep. The present flow is 120
gallons per minute and is used to irrigate 38 acres, no reservoir being
employed.
In 1903–4 there were 24 acres in corn, 7 in sweet potatoes, and 7 in
truck. This year 18 acres will be planted in onions and the same area
in corn. The onions required
irrigation every ten days
and corn every fifteen days, aſ
The onions were planted 3.5
inches apart in 16-inch rows.
They yielded 16,000 pounds
per acre. It took twenty-
five to forty hours' flow of
the well to irrigate 8.5 acres }]
of onion land a depth of 1 } f is
inch per irrigation. Forty-
e 2 *
eight hours continuous flow 4; ſº % %yº N
of the well was required to FIG. 66.—Furrow irrigation in Texas.
irrigate 4.5 acres of Sandy
land when very dry. Black sandy loam is considered best for onions.
Corn furrows were 200 feet long. The flow of the well was usually
divided between 15 furrows, requiring about three hours to run
through the same. Night irrigation of corn was carried on in the
following manner: At the lower end of the furrows was a small
ditch perpendicular to the same. This ditch was opened between
the furrows, into which the water was turned, and a sufficient number
of adjacent furrows, so that the water which ran down and through
the ends of the furrows, being irrigated from the lateral, would go
along the ditch and up the adjacent furrows, partially irrigating the
same. (See fig. 66.) While this is somewhat wasteful of water,
still it saves night attendance. -
Considerable trouble has been experienced from Smut Spoiling the
corn. The yield of corn was 25 to 40 bushels per acre.
30620–No. 158—05—30
*.S.Š

J[ſ/

466 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Jeffrey and Cowan farm.—Augustus Jeffrey and W. C. Cowan
own 12 acres of irrigated land, supplied with water from a 51%-inch
well 332 feet deep. Water is taken into an earth tank through a
2.5-inch pipe, which necessarily cuts down the supply. The tank is
60 by 100 feet at the top, inside, and 4 feet deep, the banks having a
4-foot crown and 20-foot base with slopes of 1 to 2. The well fills
the tank at the rate of 4 feet in forty-eight hours, hence has a
capacity of 50 gallons per minute. No trouble is experienced from
seepage. Eight and one-half acres were planted in onions and the
remainder of the area in corn and truck. The furrow system of
irrigation is employed. Onions were spaced 5 inches apart in rows
14 and 18 inches apart, the irrigating furrows coming in the 18-inch
intervals, with two rows of onions between. The yield was 9,000 to
10,000 pounds per acre. No fertilizer was used. Harvesting began
April 10. * *
The flow was divided between four to six furrows and irrigated
two-thirds of an acre per day of twelve hours. This rate of irriga-
tion lowered the water in the reservoir about 6 inches. To irrigate
13 acres of Onions per day required two irrigators.
The land is quite level and is a red and chocolate sandy loam, the
surface Soil being 2.5 feet, underlain by a clay subsoil. The red sand
bakes considerably. The owners consider waxy land best for onions.
The onion land is set out in black-eyed peas, which will later be
plowed under for fertilizer.
Burton farm.—This comprises 40 acres, subject to irrigation from
two artesian wells, each 5% inches in diameter and 400 feet deep,
which discharge into a reservoir 450 by 100 feet, inside top dimensions,
with banks 6 to 7 feet above the ground. The crown of the reservoir
is 6 feet. It was built by contract at 10 cents per cubic yard for
material handled. The wells fill the reservoir 6 inches in twenty-four
hours, giving a flow of 103 gallons per minute for the two. This, of
course, allows for seepage and evaporation in the reservoir.
Six acres were in onions, irrigated every eight to ten days. Three
acres in Sorghum received two to three irrigations per season. One
acre in cane was irrigated every ten days. Eight acres in corn re-
ceived two to three irrigations per season. Two and one-half acres
in truck were irrigated every ten days. The 6 acres in onions were
irrigated in two days’ time, with a fall of 4 inches in the reservoir.
The water used for this irrigation included, also, the flow of the well
for thirty-six hours; hence 2 inches was the depth required for the
irrigation. Two men irrigated 5 acres of corn in twelve hours. All
irrigation was done by the furrow system, the onion furrows being
330 feet long. The flow as utilized was run into ten to twelve rows,
and required fifteen minutes to run through them. The owner figures
IRRIG ATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 4.67
that in very dry years the plant could irrigate about 20 acres to good
advantage. The soil is a black Sandy loam.
Onions were spaced 4 inches apart in 18-inch rows. They yielded
13,000 pounds per acre. After the onion crop was removed, the land
was sown with black-eyed peas.
Some of the corn furrows were 900 feet long.
Rector place.—W. E. Rector has recently put down a 63-inch well,
380 feet deep, delivering a flow of about 65 gallons per minute, with
which he irrigated 3.5 acres last year and will irrigate 10 acres this
year. Last year 1.5 acres of onions yielded 14,000 pounds.
Foster place.—J. P. Foster irrigates 12 acres with water from two
53-inch wells, 384 feet deep and about 50 yards apart, delivering a
flow of about 33 gallons per minute each. There is no reservoir on the
land, and it is the common practice to irrigate only in the daytime,
though occasionally the land has been irrigated at night. Mr. Foster
estimates that when the second of his wells was sunk the first well de-
creased to about four-fifths of its previous flow. The cost of the wells
was $1 per foot.
Five acres were planted late in the season in onions, which were
irrigated every twelve days. The yield was 8,000 pounds per acre.
Four acres were planted in corn in January and received two irri-
gations. Three acres were planted in truck, irrigated every three
weeks. º
Under good conditions it takes the combined flow of the wells two
days of twelve hours each to irrigate an acre, though occasionally
twice this quantity of water had to be used per acre. The Onions were
planted in rows 150 feet long. The water was divided between eight
furrows and required forty minutes to run through them.
The soil is of a black and red waxy nature, about 18 inches deep,
with clay subsoil.
Moehrig place.—Fritz Moehrig irrigates 30 acres from two 6.4-inch
wells, one 550 and the other 420 feet deep. The capacity of the wells
is about 40 gallons per minute each. No reservoir is employed, and
the owner figures that he can not irrigate more land with the present
supply of water. Water for irrigation is seldom used at night.
Eleven acres were planted in onions, irrigated every seven days, and
10 acres in corn, which was planted in March and irrigated every
fourteen days. Nine acres were planted in truck, irrigated every
twelve days. -
The land was irrigated by the furrow system, furrows being 200 to
300 feet long. One well irrigated five to eight furrows in one-half to
one hour. When the Onion land is irrigated every week, one well can
irrigate an acre in ten hours, but when the irrigations are less fre-
quent it will irrigate one-half this area in the same time.
468 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The onions were spaced 4 inches apart in rows 16 inches apart.
The yield was 14,000 pounds per acre. They were harvested April 1,
and the land was subsequently planted in black-eyed peas, which were
irrigated every two weeks.
The ground is black, red, and white sandy clay loam, 18 inches to 2
feet deep, which bakes when irrigated. The subsoil is clay.
Owen farm.—J. C. Owen irrigates 20 acres with the flow of two
wells, one of which is 5% inches in diameter and 636 feet deep. The
main flow of this well, which is cased 60 feet, comes from the 315-
foot level. The owner estimates that this well delivered 60 gallons
per minute, though this has now been reduced about one-half, owing
to the other well, which was sunk 400 yards away. The flow of the
first well was very much throttled, being led into a reservoir through
two 1.5-inch pipes. The reservoir is 100 by 300 feet, top inside meas-
urements, and 6 feet deep. Its banks are sloped 1 to 2.
The second well is 64 inches in diameter and 360 feet deep, deliver-
ing about 60 gallons per minute. The owner will build another reser-
voir, with the intention of irrigating 40 acres with the aid of a third
well. The ground level of the second well is 4 to 5 feet lower than
at the first well, which accounts for the increase in discharge.
Ten acres were planted in corn, irrigated every ten to fifteen days.
Seven acres in cotton received two irrigations per season; 2 acres in
cane, the same, and 1 acre in truck was irrigated every eight days.
Ten acres of corn can be irrigated in three days with the combined
flow of the wells and reservoir. -
Kendall place.—W. L. Kendall irrigates 15 acres from a 4-inch
artesian well 406 feet deep, said to deliver 87 gallons per minute. The
land was planted in onions and corn, the latter being sown in March
and July.
A reservoir has been constructed, 60 by 30 yards inside top dimen-
sions and 6 feet deep. The banks are built up with clay core, but
the reservoir leaks slightly.
The land is irrigated every eight to ten days, and with the well and
reservoir the owner figures that 15 acres is about the limit of capacity.
A 3-inch artesian well 357 feet deep supplies water to stock.
Oden farm.—Sixteen miles north of Carrizo Springs, J. Oden has
48 acres under irrigation. Water is supplied from a 43-inch well 449
feet deep, cased 165 feet. The owner thinks it should be cased 330
feet to prevent caving, as it is necessary occasionally to clean out the
well. The casing is landed in rock 8 feet thick.
A reservoir 8 feet high and 125 feet inside bottom diameter is being
constructed for use in connection with the well. The banks will have
a slope of 1 to 2 and the crown will be 8 feet. Y.
Fifteen acres were planted in corn, 17 in broom corn, 6 in cotton,
and 10 in truck. The furrow system of irrigation was used, the fur-
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 469
rows being 30 to 100 yards long. The well will irrigate 2 acres in
twelve hours. The water was divided between 10 to 15 short furrows
and between 5 to 6 long furrows at a time.
The cost of boring the well was $1 per foot for the first 500 feet, the
owner furnishing the casing. The well has a head without flow of
12 feet above ground, and is said to have a capacity of 300 gallons
per minute.
English farm.—Mr. English irrigates without reservoir 100 acres
with two 6-inch wells 380 feet deep, delivering 75 to 100 gallons per
minute.
PEARSALL.
The soil in this vicinity is mainly of a light Sandy nature. Near
Pearsall are several small irrigation plants which derive their water
supply from pumped wells.
Maney farm.—About 4 miles southeast of Moore is a plant owned
by E. P. and Mason Maney, which derives its supply of water from
two 55-inch wells 100 feet deep. A 4-horsepower gasoline engine
operates two deep-well pumps, 3% by 36 inches, delivering, when run-
ning at 30 strokes per minute, 50 gallons per minute per pump. The
pumps lowered the water in the wells over 20 feet. The pump cyl-
inders are 75 feet from the surface of the ground. The level of
standing ground water was 35 feet below the surface of the ground.
The pumps elevated the water 4 feet above the ground and utilized
5 to 7 gallons of gasoline in ten hours, at a cost of 18 cents per gallon.
The wells discharge into a storage tank 60 feet base inside diameter
and 80 feet top inside diameter, with a depth of 3.5 feet. The base
of the reservoir bank is 20 feet and the crown 6 feet. The banks are
composed of stiff clay. The cost of the reservoir by contract was $50.
There is considerable loss from seepage from the reservoir and no
attempt has been made to puddle or tamp the earth. One and one-
half to 2 inches of water are lost per night due to this cause. The
water comes from a porous sand rock which extends from 42 feet
down to 100 feet below the ground. The wells are cased 44 feet.
Nine acres of onions were irrigated by the plant and yielded
100,000 pounds gross. No fertilizer was used on the ground, which
was irrigated every six to ten days. It was necessary to run the
pumps four nights during the irrigation season. The bed system
of irrigation was used, the beds being 12 to 30 feet wide and 70 yards
long. The plant could irrigate one acre in ten hours. The soil is
2 to 6 feet deep.
It takes fifteen hours' pumping to fill the reservoir, and with the
reservoir full and the pumps running 3 acres could be irrigated in
six hours. - -
470 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Harkness farm.—A. C. B. Harkness irrigates 4 acres at Pearsall
with water from a 53-inch well 100 feet deep, the water-bearing
stratum being sand rock. Ground water stands 45 feet below the
surface of the ground and the end of the suction pipe in the well is
70 feet below the ground. A deep-well pump, 3% by 30, run at
38 strokes per minute, delivering a flow of 60 gallons per minute
at an elevation of 4 feet above the ground, is operated by an 8-horse-
power gasoline engine, consuming 5 gallons in ten hours. The land
produced 15,000 pounds of onions per acre. On the same farm was
a 6-inch well 150 feet deep. The cost of these wells was 50 cents
per foot. No casing was used as it was found to be unnecessary.
Hess farm.—W. D. Hess irrigates 6 acres with water from two
pumped wells, 105 and 108 feet deep, respectively. The water
stratum is sand rock and runs from about 60 to 95 feet below the
ground. The wells are cased for a distance of 12 feet. A 6-horse-
power gasoline engine drives two deep-well pumps, 4% by 28 and
33 by 36, respectively, lifting the water 7.5 feet above the ground.
The combined flow of the pumps is 125 gallons per minute. The
engine uses 5 gallons of gasoline in ten hours, the cost being 15 cents
per gallon. Ground water stands 38 feet below the ground. The
ends of the suction pipes in the wells are 75 and 85 feet, respectively,
below the ground.
The pumps discharge into a reservoir 75 feet Square inside bottom,
7.5 feet deep, crown 4 feet, and width of base of bank 34 feet. The
pumps will fill the reservoir in forty hours. There is a coating of
clay 4 inches thick on the inside of the reservoir, which was built by
the owner at a cost of $170, or about 7% cents per yard.
One and one-third acres were planted in onions, irrigated every
eight days. Four and two-thirds acres were planted in truck, irri-
gated every twelve days. The pumps without the reservoir will irri-
gate 1 acre in twelve hours. Fully 2 acres can be irrigated with the
reservoir alone. Onions are irrigated by the bed system, the beds
being 10 feet wide by 200 feet long. The beds were flooded crosswise,
but next year will be irrigated by flooding from the end, as is done in
other sections. The onions were placed 5 inches apart in rows 14
inches on centers. Twenty tons of stable manure per acre were used
for fertilizer. Cowpeas have been planted this year. The onions
were planted late, and owing to this cause the yield was but 10,000
pounds per acre. -
Patterson farm.—Tom Patterson irrigates 8.5 acres with water from
a 51%-inch open bottom well 240 feet deep, water being in a purple
sand stratum cased 216 feet. A 4-horsepower gasoline engine drives
a 33 by 24 inch deep-well pump, running 38 strokes per minute and
delivering a flow of 45 gallons per minute. Ground water stands 60
feet below the level of the ground and is elevated by the pump 6
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 471
feet above the ground. The end of the pump cylinder is 160 feet
below the ground. The engine consumes 6 gallons of gasoline in ten
hours at a cost of 18 cents per gallon. The pump discharges into an
earth tank 40 by 80 feet inside base measurement, 4.5 feet deep, side
slope 1 to 2. The pump will fill the reservoir 1 foot in ten hours.
One-half tankful will irrigate 1.5 acres of onions in three hours.
One tankful can irrigate the entire acreage in melons,
Seven acres were planted in watermelons and 1.5 acres in onions.
The furrow system of irrigation is used, the furrows for onions being
2 feet apart with 2 rows of onions 8 inches apart between each pair of
furrows, and the furrows for melons being 12 feet apart. Onions
were spaced 6 inches apart in rows which were 70 yards long. The
average length of time required for water to flow through the fur-
rows was 5 minutes.
Trickey farm.—W. Trickey irrigates 23 acres with water from an
8-inch well 121 feet deep and a 6.5-inch well 201 feet deep, each well
having 6 feet of casing. The water stratum runs from 65 to 121 feet
below the ground. The ground water stands 46 feet below the
ground surface and the bottom of the cylinders of the pumps is 60
feet below the ground level. A 6-horsepower gasoline engine drives
a 3% by 31inch and a 3% by 36 inch deep-well pump, running at a speed
of 33 strokes per minute. The water is lifted 6.5 feet above the
ground. The engine consumes 5 gallons of gasoline per ten hours,
the cost of same being 17 cents per gallon. A 300,000-gallon reser-
voir, 60 by 75 feet bottom inside dimensions, 7 feet high, side slope 1
to 2, crown 3 feet, is used in connection with the pumps, which
deliver a combined flow of 110 gallons per minute.
Seven acres planted in onions were irrigated every ten days; 2
acres in alfalfa were irrigated every two months; one-half acre in
ribbon cane, 2 acres in tomatoes, 1 acre in cabbage, 9 acres in sweet
potatoes, 1 acre in truck, and 1 acre in beans were irrigated every
three weeks.
Commonly the ground is irrigated from the pump without the res-
ervoir. Four acres of onions can be irrigated in twelve hours with-
out the reservoir.
Onions are irrigated by the furrow system, the rows being 14
inches apart and the Onions spaced 5 inches apart. The length of
the furrows is 125 feet and the flow of the pumps was divided between
five furrows. The onions were planted late and no fertilizer was
used. The yield was 9,300 pounds per acre. It is intended to plant
cowpeas on the onion land. Sweet potatoes took practically the same
quantity of water as onions.
Alfalfa was irrigated by flooding, the beds being 30 by 60 feet, and
was used for grazing. On the farm were 150 peach, pear, and plum
trees, which were doing well.
472 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Berry farm.—J. E. Berry irrigates 7 acres 4 miles south of Moore
with water from a pumped well. The end of the pump cylinder is
60 feet below the ground level. A 6-horsepower gasoline engine runs
a 3% by 30 inch pump. Three acres were planted in onions, 1 in
tomatoes, and 3 in corn and cantaloupes. The onions were planted
late and yielded 8,000 pounds per acre.
Bennett farm.—John Bennett irrigated 10 acres near Derby with
water pumped from a 10 and an 8 inch well, each of which is 200 feet
deep. The ground water is 40 feet and the pump cylinders 60 feet
below the ground level. A 24-horsepower engine drives a deep-well
pump supplying 50 gallons per minute to a reservoir, and a 6-horse-
power gasoline engine is utilized for driving another pump deliver-
ing 70 gallons direct to the land. The land was planted in onions,
which yielded 10,000 pounds per acre. **
Coker farm.—J. M. Coker irrigates 16 acres near Devine by pump-
ing water from a well 110 feet deep. The pump is a 43 by 20 inch
eep-well and runs 30 strokes per minute. The consumption of gaso-
line is 6 gallons in ten hours. A tank 56 by 22 yards inside top meas-
urement by 8 feet deep is utilized in connection with the pump. In
twelve hours the supply of the tank and pump can irrigate 4 acres.
The crops grown are onions, sweet potatoes, and truck.
Starting about 12 miles southeast of Pearsall there are 15 artesian
wells 165 to 675 feet deep delivering a flow of 10 to 85 gallons per
minute. These wells belong to the Keystone Land and Cattle Com-
pany and are used for stock purposes.
In the vicinity of Pleasanton there are also several small artesian
wells, used mainly for stock purposes.
Mr. Harry Landa, of New Braunfels, who owns the land where
the springs supplying the Comal River are situated, has made a park
of the surrounding country, which is one of the garden spots of Texas.
The waters of Comal River, clear as crystal, gush forth from the
rocks and flow into a small artificial lake, whence the greater part of
the water is diverted into a canal, through which it flows about one-
half mile into the fore bay for supplying power to two 350-horse-
power turbines, one of which drives a cotton-seed oil mill, a corn
sheller, and two No. 5 centrifugal pumps for supplying adjacent
fields with irrigation water; the other operates a corn mill, flour mill,
ice plant, and electric lighting and power plant. The fall is about
21 feet when the river is very low. High water in the Guadalupe
River, which seldom occurs, cuts this figure in two.
These centrifugal pumps run about 700 revolutions per minute and
deliver a measured flow of 350 gallons per minute each. They dis-
charge through about 300 feet of 6-inch pipe into wooden pressure
boxes 12 by 12 by 15 feet. From there the water is distributed
through 8 and 10 inch sewer pipes to hydrants, the farthest of which
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 473
is about 1,500 feet distant. It takes about two and one-half hours to
irrigate an acre with the flow of one pump when the ground is dry,
but not cracked. This is equivalent to a depth of 1.95 inches per
irrigation.
The hydrants which supply the fields with irrigation water are
peculiar in construction. As will be seen by referring to figure 67,
water is admitted through a supply pipe a, which connects with the
pressure box. The water level will stand at l. Water is supplied
through the opening h to the outlet o. The plugs p, faced with
leather and usually provided with iron handles, serve to cut off the
flow of water from hydrants from which it is not desired to irrigate.
The hydrants are constructed of brick and are about 6 feet high.
They are usually provided with 12-inch plugs for the outlets. This
plant of two centrifugal
pumps supplies two fields
with water, which is dis-
tributed a considerable dis-
tance with practically no
loss.
From the lake in Landa
Park there is another outlet
besides the canal, which
supplies the turbines. The
water from this source is
used to drive an undershot
wheel, which in turn drives
a rotary pump with an
8-inch discharge pipe, which
supplies a reservoir on top
of a hill near by with a flow
of about 500 gallons per
minute. Water is taken from this reservoir through an iron pipe
into a pressure box and thence distributed to hydrants in the field in
the manner already described. The land is rented, and water is sup-
plied for one-half of the crop produced. The renter is also furnished,
free of cost, with wagons and stock.
The flow of Comal River through the canal was measured August
18, 1904, and was 236 cubic feet per second. The irrigated land is
all of a black waxy consistency. The principal crop raised was
onions, which were harvested May 1. In order to make an attractive
appearance for sale the onions were all washed off after harvesting.
The yield averaged 24,000 pounds to the acre, the maximum yield
being 39,000 pounds. Onions and potatoes were irrigated about
every twenty days by the furrow system, the onions receiving about
seven irrigations and the potatoes three or four irrigations per year.
FIG. 67.-Hydrant in use at New Braunfels, Tex.

474 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The two 5-inch pumps irrigated 70 acres, of which 39 were planted in
onions, 30 in potatoes, and 1 in truck. Potatoes averaged 200 bushels
per acre. The cost of labor was 75 cents to $1 per day.
ALTGELD RAN CHI.
About two miles south of New Braunfels is a ranch owned by Mr.
Altgeld, supplied with water from a spring 60 feet deep, which on
August 18, 1904, gave a measured discharge of 120 gallons per
minute. This spring is situated in the center of a small pool or tank,
which can be used for a limited storage of water. According to
Mr. Altgeld's observation the spring water will rise without flow to
a height of only 2.5 feet above its present level. He is at present
constructing a much larger tank in addition to the present basin and
figures on the installation of a pump. Owing to the small hydro-
static head available for causing flow from the spring, it is natural
to expect that there would be great increase in the amount of water
supplied and that good results could be obtained by the installation
of a pump. Ten hours' flow of the spring was required per acre
irrigated by bed flooding when the alfalfa was on level ground.
This is equivalent to a depth of 2.7 inches per irrigation. When the
alfalfa is on hillside 2.5 acres are irrigated in the same time. This
would mean a depth of water of only 1.1 inches. As the hydrostatic
head of the spring is so small the flow may vary considerably in a
short time from changes in the head of the spring. For the irriga-
tion of corn the flow of this spring in ten hours will irrigate 2 acres.
This would mean a depth of 1.3 inches per irrigation. Alfalfa pro-
duces five or six crops of a ton each per acre and $15 a ton is the
average price realized. One acre of unirrigated land produced 25
bushels of corn to the acre. An acre next to it irrigated gave a yield
of 75 bushels. Land in the vicinity of New Braunfels not subject to
irrigation can be bought for $50 an acre, whereas irrigated land
brings $150.
TESTS OF PUMPS AND IRRIGATION PLANTS,
The following tables contain results of tests of irrigation and
pumping plants at San Antonio and Beeville.
The first table gives the results of tests to ascertain the quantity of
water applied for irrigation. The land near Beeville was nearly all
of a black, sandy description, while the land at San Antonio was of a
black, waxy variety.
The headings of the table explain fully the results.
At Beeville the Grissett farm was the only one which did not
employ a reservoir, but pumped water directly onto the land. None
of the plants at San Antonio used reservoirs.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.
475
Irrigation tests.


# Rate of ...
Ar Depth Time OW ;
©8, U6 §In Ce E is tº & gº ©1* |CUIII’e
Name. irri- of # last ir- conſººn Of K. of IS ; * tºw!”.
gated. |gation... riga- * sº W* | per "|through
tion. min- furrow.
ute.
Beeville: cres. |Inches. Days. Feet Galls. | Minutes.
TMuckleroy --- 0.11 0.83 60 Very dry ----| B. S. a ----|------------ 27 ----------
.06 .43 5 Ty ---------- B. S.L. a-- 254 by 1.6- 34 7
Mock --------- . 07 .20 1 --------------------- do----|------------------------------
* , .09 .30 1 ----------------|------------ 54-------- 24 ----------
Grissett ------ .43 1.51 |-------- Dry---------- B. S. L. a--| 310 by 3-l- 28 32
#| || || |†:2:::::::: ***: ####| || ||
e & OlSt ------------- O ---- y 3---
McDowell----|| 3 | 1.f., | 155 || Wººdry.........] §§§... 3 41
.04 .83 3 || ---- O--------|----- do----------------------------------
sº 2.13 | 1.02 8 : Fairly moist - B. S. L. a--!------------|------------------
Rankin ------- 1.33 1. 55 10 |----- do------------- do----------------------------------
| 1 1.67 8 |----- do--------|----- do----------------|--------|----------
.03 .75 10 |----- do--------|----- do ----|468 by 3--- 30 20
.06 .85 11 ||----- do------------- do ----| 468 by 3--- 22 35
.06 1.11 18 1----- do------------- do ---- 468 by 3--- 24 41
* .13 || 1.22 21 TV --------------- do ----| 480 by 3--- 14 80
Elliott -------- * .03 1.26 16 Fairly moist -|-----do ----| 468 by 3--- 55 20
.07 1. 30 Dry ----------|----- do ----| 480 by 3--- 19 47
. 07 .30 .5 ! Wet ----------|----- do ----| 480 by 3--- 27 12.
.10 1.18 30 Dry ----------|----- do ---- 480 by 3--- 19 57
. 07 .30 .5 ! Wet ----------|----- do ----| 480 by 3--- 17 21
San Antonio:
- 1.03 7.15 -------- Dry ----------|------------|------------|--------|----------
Meerscheidt--|{ 4.40 7.80 ------------------------ B. W.” ---------------|------------------
8. 20 6.28 --------|--------------------- do----------------------------------
.91 3.57 ------------------------|----- do----------------------------------
1: | ##|:::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 33----|--------...-------------------
* tº º ºs m sº m ºr sº sm ºm m ºm º mº sº, as as sº * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * Q ----|------------------------------
Wautrs------- i .81 4.13 --------|----------------|----- do------------------------|----------
.55 | 6.94 |--------|--------------------- do----------------------------------
| 1.66 4.13 ------------------------|----- do----------------------------------
6.04 4.10 --------|----------------|----- do----------------------------------
5.08 5.30 --------|--------------------- do----------------------------------
* 3.13 4.78 ----------------------------- do----------------------------------
Collins-------- { 4.03 3.67 --------|--------------------- do----------------------------------
2.95 9.13 ----------------------------- do----------------------------------
3.14 6.45 --------|--------------------- do ----------------------------------
6.50 6.70 ----------------------------- do----------------------------------
a B. S. =black Sandy; B. S. L. =black sandy loam; L. S. L. =light sandy loam; B. W. =black
Waxy. -
Summary of irrigation tests.
Area irri- Depth of ºf
Name. *s-siºner, 4-5 of water
gated. irrigation. applied.
Beeville: Acres. Inches. Acre-in.
Muckleroy---------------------------------------------------- 0.11 0.83 0.09
9°k---------------------------------------------------------- .22 .30 . 07
Grissett------------------------------------------------------- .43 1.51 .65
McDowell----------------------------------------------------- . 22 .75 .17
Rankin-------------------------------------------------------- 3.46 1.33 4.60
Filliott--------------------------------------------------------- . 62 1.13 . 70
Total ---------------------------------------------------- 5.06 I. 24 6.28
San Antonio:
Meerscheidt—
Gasoline -------------------------------------------------- 1.03 7.15 7.37
Steam----------------------------------------------------- 12.60 6.80 85. 70
Wººtts ------------------------------------------------------- 5, 33 3.75 20.00
Collins -------------------------------------------------------- 30, 90 5.50 170.00
Total.---------------------------------------------------- 49.86 5.68 283. 07

The table brings out most prominently the relation between depth
of water used in comparison with the supply. The farms at San
Antonio had a much larger supply on which to draw and used the
476 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
water much more extravagantly than at Beeville, the average depth
of irrigation at Beeville being 1.24 inches and at San Antonio 5.68
inches, or nearly five time as much.
The following table gives the results of tests of gasoline pumping
plants. All of the pumps at Beeville were of the deep-well variety.
The pump at Meercheidt's was centrifugal. The ratio of explosions
to misses was in most cases very small, the engines being much under-
loaded. As a result the consumption of gasoline per horsepower
hour was exceedingly high, and the cost of operation considerably
greater than it should be. Deep-well pumps should operate under
not over half a gallon of gasoline per water horsepower hour.
Results of tests of gasoline pumping plants.


Mºle. Mock. Grissett. McDowell. Rankin. ºil.
Pump: -
Size------------- inches--| 3} by 24 2} by 134 33 by 20%| 23 by 10 3} by 24 No. 6.
Speed ----rev. per min-- 29 28 273, 47 31}l------------
Engine
Size------- horsepower-- 2} 13 4 1} 2} 12
Speed ----rev. per min-- 350 328 258 390 380 ------------
Explosions-------- per min-- 32 102 43 50 ------------
isses ---------------- - - - 143 120 27 152 140 ------------
Engine load ------ per cent 18 79 22 26 100
ead ------------------ feet-- 44.5 92 59 61.5 63 33.1
Rate offlow --gals. permin-- 28 5.4 28 11 36.5 433
Water horsepower --------- .314 . 125 . 417 . 171 .58 3.63
Gasoline per hour ----gals-- . 422 . 136 . 35 .284 a .394 1.43
Gasoline per water-horse-
power hour --------- gals-- 1. 34 1.09 .84 1.66 (t. 68 . 394
Gasoline per acre-foot
raised 1 foot -------- gals-- 1.84 1.49 1.15 2. 27 a .93 54
Gasoline per acre-foot, gal-
ODS ------------------------ 82 137 68 140 a 59 47
Cost of gasoline per gallon,
cents ---------------------- 14 14 14 14 14 13
Cost of gasoline per water-
horsepower hour--cents-- 18.8 15.3 11.8 23.2 a 9.5 5.1
Cost of gasoline per acre-
foot raised 1 foot --cents.-- 25.7 20.9 16.1 31.8 a 13 7
Cost of gasoline per acre-
foot------------------------ $11.40 $19.20 $9.50 $19.50 a $8.00 $2.30
* Average of several observations.
The following table shows the results of tests of two steam pump-
ing plants in San Antonio. In test No. 1 there was a leak in the
suction side of the pump, resulting in a very low vacuum and con-
Sequent inefficient operation of the pump. The weight of water
evaporated was calculated from the amount of water supplied to the
boiler by the pump, no allowance being made for the moisture in the
steam delivered to the engine. In the Meerscheidt plant the boiler
was fed by a pump, no allowance being made for the steam used by
the pump, which is hence credited to the engine. The Wautrs plant
used an injector instead of a pump for boiler feed water. If satu-
rated steam is supplied to an engine, the weight of the steam con-
sumed per horsepower is dependent on the difference of temperatures
between the entering steam and exhaust. The line marked “Theo-
retical pounds of steam per horsepower hour' represents the amount
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.
477
of steam required provided the engine were operated at 100 per cent
efficiency. In the next line is given the engine efficiency, which is
the ratio of theoretical steam consumed by the engine to the steam
per indicated horsepower hour.
In the next line is the given effi-
ciency of the engine, allowing 8 per cent of the apparent steam con-
Sumption for moisture and for operating the feed pump. In the last
column is given the total combined engine and pump efficiency, which
is the ratio of the total energy output of the pump to the energy
which is furnished by the required weight of steam, with 8 per cent
allowance, as above.
Tests of steam pumping plants, San Antonio, Tea., 1904.

Meerscheidt & Stieren.
Wautºrs.
Boiler:
Type----------------------------------------------
Size-----------------------------------------------
Engine:
Type----------------------------------------------
Size-----------------------------------------------
Pump:
Type----------------------------------------------
Size-----------------------------------------------
Kind of fuel------------------------------------------
Cost of fuel--------------------------------- per ton--
Consumption of fuel per hour. ------------ pounds--
Water evaporated per pound of fuel--------- do----
Water evaporated per pound of fuel from and at
212° F -------------, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - pounds--
Steam per I. H. P. hour----------------------- do----
Steam per W. H. P. hour --------------------- do----
Fuel per I. H. P. hour------------------------- do----
Fuel per W. H. P. hour ----------------------- do----
Fuel per acre-foot raised 1 foot--------------- do----
Fuel per acre-foot pumped--------------------------
Water º: pêT DOllf--------------- pounds--
Cost of fuel per acre-foot raised 1 foot ------ centS.--
Cost of fuel per acre-foot pumped ------------------
Cost of fuel per W. H. P. hour -------------- centS.--
T. H. P.------------------------------------------------
Head ------------------------------------------- feet--
Discharge-------------- --------------------- g. p. In--
Water horsepower------- :- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Combined pump and engine efficiency -- per cent--
Temperature of feed water-------------------- o F__
Steam pressure ---------------------------- pounds--
Engine. ------------------------------------- T. p. In--
Pump ------------------------------------------ do----
Suction gauge, inches in mercur
Calculated head lost in friction in discharge pipe
* velocity head----------------------------º * *
sº s = * * = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - -
Theoretical pounds steam per H. P. hour--pounds--
Engine efficiency er cent--
Engine efficiency, allowing 8 per cent for moisture
and steam for feed pump per cent--
Engine and pump efficiency, allowing 8 per cent
for moisture and steam for feed pump--percent--
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
inch.
Simple automatic
º
80 H. P., 12 inch by 16
* * * * * * * *
. | Test, 2.
* * * *-* * * * *
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * *
* - - -s ºn º º tº
733
3, 20
3.55
41.3
75
12.9
23.3
31, 9
1,620
2,340
2.8
$1.42
2.04
56. I
JU).
2,417
31.2
140
76
174
403
22, 2
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * *
Vertical M. T.
12 EI. P.
Direct-acting steam.
Mesquite roots.
30.9.
142.
1.074.
75.
11.3.
a Strokes per minute.
During test No. 1 there was a leak in the suction of the pump,
thus cutting down the discharge and also the head against which the
pump operated. In test No. 2 the combined efficiency of the pump
478 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
and engine, which is the ratio of the water horsepower output to the
indicated horsepower, is 55 per cent, which is a good result. The
engine efficiency of 51 per cent is also not bad, considering that the
engine is operating under about 70 per cent load. The water evapo-
rated per pound of fuel is exceedingly low. This, however, is due to
the poor grade of fuel which is used; owing to this the fireman was
hardly able to keep up steam during the test.
The results of the test of the Wautrs plant gave a steam con-
Sumption per horsepower-hour of 205 pounds, as against 75 pounds
with the Meerscheidt plant. This is due to the poor efficiency of the
direct-acting steam pump. Although the boiler is considerably
Smaller, still the results of evaporations show that 1 pound of coal
used in the Meerscheidt plant performed the same amount of evapora-
tion as 13 pounds of wood. This would give an equivalent evapora-
tion efficiency in the two cases of 1 ton of coal against 1 cord of wood
weighing 3,000 pounds.
SUMMARY.
Several tables have been prepared to summarize the results of the
foregoing investigations. The figures given in the tables are derived
mainly from the data in the text and are based largely upon informa-
tion furnished by the farmers and not upon actual measurements;
hence there will undoubtedly be found discrepancies in results in
individual cases. Still, the number of plants is so large that possible
individual errors will be greatly minimized in the average results.
The tables of performances of plants are useful not alone for statis-
tical purposes but to indicate the sources of undue expense, as well as
the means by which this may be avoided. The results shown in these
tables point very clearly to methods by which considerable improve-
ment may be expected over present conditions. In the preparation
of the tables assumptions have been made, mainly with regard to
cost of fuel and labor, only where the conditions of neighboring
plants seem to warrant the same. There are two kinds of averages,
viz, the straight and the weighted. For example, the average flow per
acre for several farms may be secured in two ways: (1) The straight
average will be secured by dividing the sum of the averages for the
several farms by the number of farms; (2) the weighted average will
be secured by dividing the total flow to all the farms by the total
acreage. The straight average is probably of more value from the
agricultural point of view, since it gives the results attained on the
average farm and is a good indication of what others may expect
to do. The weighted average is better for statistical purposes, be-
cause it is the true average per unit of area.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 479
AREA AND CROPS.
In the districts investigated there were approximately 30,000 acres
of irrigated land, devoted more largely to rice than to any other one
crop. The following table gives the recorded acreages of the various
crops: -
Areas of crops in districts investigated.

Area irri- Percent- Area irri- || Percent-
Crop. gated. age. Crop. gated. age.
Acres. Acres.
Truck---------------------- 2,917 10 || Sorghum ------------------ 14 1.
Onions --------------------- 462 2 || Johnson grass------------- 1,371 5
Corn ----------------------- 4,843 17 || Rice ----------------------- 13,325 48
Cane ----------------------- 995 4
Alfalfa--------------------- 1,447 5 Total ---------------- 27;780 100
Cotton --------------------- 2,273 8
METHODS OF IRRIGATION.
The methods of irrigation at present in use are mainly furrow,
check, bed, and tablet systems. In the matter of adopting a system
of irrigation there is a strong tendency for each man to imitate
his neighbors. Thus one is almost certain to find the same system of
irrigation used exclusively throughout any district, independent of
whether it is suitable for conditions encountered. The system of
irrigation most commonly used in Texas is the furrow system. Usu-
ally the water for irrigation is turned into a temporary head ditch,
from which it is divided among several furrows. This system neces-
sitates the constant attendance of the irrigator to see that the water
is evenly divided among the different furrows. The furrow system
of irrigation, which is now being used in California, governs the
flow of water to different furrows by small wooden boxes or pieces of
pipe set temporarily in the head ditch opposite each furrow. This
system insures an equal distribution of water among the different
furrows, removing the danger of the ground at the entrance to the
furrow washing away and hence distributing the water unequally.
It enables an irrigator to accomplish much more work in a given
space of time, as, after once the water has been started into the fur-
rows no further attention is required until the irrigation is com-
pleted. The old-fashioned method, however, of furrow irrigation
prevails throughout Texas, no devices being used for controlling the
flow at the entrance.
In onion culture the bed system is in common use. The land is
laid out in beds about 12 feet wide and 100 to 200 feet long. Between
the beds small levees are thrown up. The supply ditch runs along
the head of the beds, and water which is admitted to them from this
ditch flows along the beds in the form of sheet, covering the entire
ground. This method is used occasionally for alfalfa and truck.
480
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
In the tablet system of irrigation the ground is laid off in rectan-
gles, called tablets, from 30 to 40 feet wide and 150 to 500 feet long.
At the head of these tablets is the ditch, which supplies water in turn
to ditches running between tablets. From these ditches the tablets
are watered by making cuts in the bank, from which the water is
spread out to irrigate part of the length of the tablet. When this is
wet the ditch bank is closed and another break made to irrigate
farther down, and so on at as many places as may be necessary to
irrigate the field. The boundaries of the tablets running lengthwise
are alternately levees and ditches.
The check system of irrigation is used principally for rice, and
sometimes for alfalfa.
The basin system is used to a limited extent
for the irrigation of trees. In the distribution of water, in some
places canvas dams are used in lateral ditches to cut off the lower part
of the ditch. Some more permanent installation, such as wooden
gates and drops, would be decidedly preferable, as the additional
cost of installation would soon be saved through smaller expenditures
for labor.
The following table brings together the information collected as
to sizes of beds and tablets, lengths of furrows, etc.
tions in the column showing kind of soil are as follows: B. S., black
sandy; B. W., black waxy; S., Sandy; L. S., light sandy; A., allu-
vial; B. L., black loam.

Irrigation practice.
The abbrevia-
Dist Time º
ISU8, Ince Uli I’0
Rate of
between I’URIl *
No. Of Length of furrow or bed or area. te flow per Eind of
i...] System. Of check. fºrews|ºr. through | *.i.
or bed | . . furrow or
width bed or into
check.
Gallons
per
Feet min'wte. Minwies.
1 Check -------- 0.5–8 acres -------------------------|----------|---------------------- B. W.
2 |----- do -------- 6 acres---------------------------------------|----------|------------ B. W.
3 |----- do -------- To 40 acres------------------------|----------|----------|------------ B. W.
5 l----- do -------- 1-15 acres--------------------------|----------|---------------------- B. W.
6 ----- do -------- 3–25 acres-------------------------- * * * * * * * * * * r * m sº m 'm sº sº se mºe ºr 4 m am ºr sº ºr ºm as sº me m ms a B. W.
16 |----- do -------- To 200 acres-----------------------|--------------------|------------ B. W.
19C Bed ---------- 800–600 feet ------------------------ 10.0 ---------------------- B. W.
196 ||----- do --------|----- do------------------------------ 10.0 ----------|------------ B. W.
20 Furrow ------ 450 feet ----------------------------|----------|---------- 105 || B. W.
29 |-|--|-- do -------- * feet ----------------------------|----------|---------- 15 B. W.
30 -----do -------- 360 feet ----------------------------|-------------------- B. W.
31 |----- do-------- 0 feet ---------------------------- 3.0 ---------- 60–240 || B. W.
32 |----- do------------- do------------------------------ 3.5 !---------- To 600 . B. W.
34 |----- do -------- 200 feet ----------------------------|----------|---------- 30–60 | B. W.
34.5 |----- do -------- 300 feet ----------------------------|--------------------|------------ S.
35 Bed ---------- 110 feet ---------------------------- 13.0 ---------------------- B. S.
37 ----- do -------- feet ---------------------------- 12.0 ---------- 10 || A.
37 Furrow ------ 200-600 feet ------------------------|----------|----------|------------ A.
38 H----- do -------- 750 feet ------------------------------------------------ 60 | B. S.
39 Bed ---------- 100 feet ---------------------------- 12.0 ---------- 7 | B. S.
48 Furrow - - - --- 310 feet ---------------------------- 3.0 ---------- 30 S.
49 |----- do -------- 300–400 feet ------------------------ 3.0 20 , 8–41 L. S.
53 |----- do -------- 254 feet ---------------------------- 1.6 34 7 | B. S.
54 ----- do -------- 470 feet ---------------------------- 3.0 25 a 12–80 || B. S.
60 |----- do -------- To 600 feet-------------------------|--------------------|------------ B. W.
86 Bed ---------- 400–700 feet ------------------------ 50.0 ---------------------- A.
87 ----- do-------- 150 feet ---------------------------- 80.0 ---------------------- A.
*Average 38.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.
481
Irrigation practice—Continued.
Dista, Time º
Il Ce quire
Rate of
between I*UID. &
;º: System. Length of *:::::::::: bed or area. furrows º,*: through K. Of
& Or bed or bed furrow or &
width. ‘ ibed or into
check.
Gallons
per
Feet. minute. Minutes.
89 Bed ---------- 104 feet ---------------------------- 12.0 235 9 || A.
90 ----- do-------- 150 feet ---------------------------- 13.0 800 ------------ A.
91 |----- do-------- 100 feet ---------------------------- 10.0 300 5 | A.
92 |----- do -------- feet ------------------------ 13.0 900 4–20 | A.
93 |----- do -------- 100–200 feet ------------------------ 15.0 385 5–9 A.
96 || ----- do-------- 150 feet ---------------------------- 12.0 500 2–3 || A.
98 Furrow ------ feet ---------------------------- 7.0 ---------------------- A.
98 heck-------- 0.25-5 acres --------------------------------------------|------------ A.
101 |----- do -------- To 10 acres ------------------------|----------|---------------------- A.
105 Tablet ------- 900 feet ------------------------ 50.0 ----------------------
106 |----- do-------- To 1,200 feet----------------------- 65.0 ----------------------
107 |----- do -------- 720 feet ---------------------------- 30.0 i----------|------------
108 ----- do -------- feet ---------------------------- 25.0 ---------------------- S.
108 Furrow ------ 600 feet ---------------------------. 4.0 330 15 S.
109 |----- do -------- 150–300 feet ------------------------ 3.5 150 28 B. W.
110 Tablet ------- To 1,200 feet ----------------------- 44.0 ---------------------- B. W.
110.75 ----- do -------- feet ---------------------------- 36.0 ---------------------- B. L.
112 |----- do-------- 150–200 feet ------------------------ 53.0 ---------------------- B. L.
112 Bed ---------- 150-200 feet ------------------------ 30.0 1,000 15 || B. L.
114 Furrow ------ feet ----------- 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - B. S.
116 |----- do -------- 60-160 feet-------------------------|-------------------------------- B. S.
117 |----- do-------- 150–300 feet ------------------------ 4.0 210 5 B. S.
118 J----- do -------- 30–40 feet -------------------------- 1.0 75 ------------ S.
119 |----- do -------- 30–50 feet -------------------------- 1-0 ---------------------- S.
120 ! ----- do -------- feet ---------------------------- 1.5 60 ------------ S.
122 l----- do-------- 150 feet ---------------------------- 1.5 !---------- 8 B. S.
123 |----- do -------- 225 feet ---------------------------- 1.5 ---------------------- B. S.
124 |----- do -------- 130 feet ---------------------------- 1.5 10 ------------ B. S.
124 |----- do -------- 400 feet ------------------------------------------------ 360 | B. S.
126 ----- do -------- 200–400 feet ------------------------ 3.0 ---------- 30 B. S.
128 |----- do -------- 400 feet ------------------------------------------------ 360 | S.
129 |----- do -------- 350-500 feet ------------------------|----------|---------- 120–360 | B. S.
130 ----- do -------- 150–1,550 feet ---------------------- 3.5 85 ------------ B. S.
131 ----- do -------- 150 feet ---------------------------- 1.3 4 90 S.
131 |----- do -------- 150 feet -------------------------------------- 16 60 S.
132 - - - - - do ------- 200 feet -------------------------------------- 8 180 S.
134 ----- do--------| 330 feet ------------------------------------------------ 15 S.
136 |----- do -------- 150feet -------------------------------------- 8 40 B. W.
137 || ----- do-------- 200–300 feet ------------------------|---------- 7 45 | L.
140 |----- do -------- 90-300 feet ---------------------------------------------------------
142 Bed ---------- 210 feet ---------------------------- 21.0 ---------------------- S.
144 |----- do -------- feet ---------------------------- 10.0 ---------------------- S.
145 Furrow ------ 210 feet ---------------------------- 13.0 ---------------------- S.
146 |----- do -------- 125 feet ---------------------------- 1.2 22 3 S.
146 Bed ---------- 60 feet ----------------------------- 30.0 ---------------------- S.
Experiments made by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture to determine the amount of water used by the various systems of
irrigation show that the furrow system required considerable less
water than flooding the land, and that irrigation by means of deep
furrows required less water than irrigation by means of shallow
furrows.
In some soils the system of flooding can not be used to ad-
vantage owing to the baking of the ground. If the ground is of
such consistency as to bake when dry, the furrow system should be
used. The advantages of the furrow system for the irrigation of a
crop over systems of flooding are that it requires less water and that
it leaves the soil in much better condition.
The finely pulverized
top layer of soil is a great benefit in assisting vegetation and in keep-
ing out the intense heat of the Sun.
In many places in Texas more
cultivation and less irrigation would produce very beneficial results.
30620–No. 158–05—31
482 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
DUTY OF WATER.
The quantity of water used for irrigation varies widely in differ-
ent parts of the country. Where it is abundant there is a natural
tendency to use it to excess; where it is scarce the reverse is found to
be the case. Results of tests made to determine the depth of water
used in irrigation for a limited number of cases have shown that
between 1 and 8 inches were used per irrigation. Where the higher
limit was used the ground became exceedingly boggy, and crops were
probably damaged by the excess of water. Among truck farmers it
is common to irrigate once in 7 to once in 14 days in the driest
weather. Ten days will represent a fair average of opinion in the
matter. Where land is irrigated so often it will of course require
considerably less water per irrigation than in cases where irrigations
are far apart. The quantity of water required for irrigation, which
was commonly measured by the depth to which the water would cover
the land were it evenly spread out, depends upon so many factors—
such as the frequency of irrigation, condition of the soil, kind of soil,
seepage losses in ditches, and, last but not least, the irrigator him-
self, that it is not easy to arrive at definite conclusions with regard to
the same.
The following table gives the averages from the tables showing for
the various crops the frequency of irrigation, the number of irriga-
tions per season, the depth of water applied per irrigation, and the
depth per season: -
Duty of water in southern Teazas.

Frequen. Irriga. Pºpº ºf Pºpº ºf
Crop. cy of ir- |tions per ºi. *
rigation. Season. gation. SOD1.
Days. Inches. Peet.
Alfalfa ------------------------------------------------------- 38 9 5.1 5. 72
Cane---------------------------------------------------------- 13 5 3.6 2.50
Corn---------------------------------------------------------- 16 3 4.4 1. 53
Cotton-------------------------------------------------------- 21 3 5.5 1.60
Johnson grass. ----------------------------------------------- 37 7 6.1 3. 51 .
nions-------------------------------------------------------- a 11 11 2.4 2.40
Rice ----------------------------------------------------------|----------|----------|---------- 5. 12
Sorghum ----------------------------------------------------- 13 4 3.5 1.86
Truck -------------------------------------------------------- 12 6 2, 8 1.30
Average for all crops.----------------------------------|----------|---------- 4.2 2.67
* Irrigated less frequently early in the season than later ; the average is given.
It will be noticed that the figures in the last column of the table
are not calculated from those in the other columns, but are computed
independently. The figures showing the depths per irrigation are
averages of all statements showing this, while those showing depths
per season are averages of all statements from which the total for the
Season can be computed. These averages naturally include different
plants, and hence will not check.
IRRIGATION. IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.
483
Expressing the duty of water in the flow required per acre, rather
than in depth of water received by the land, the statements from the
plants reported on give the following averages:
Rate of water 8tºpply per acre.
Area irrigated
ams, sº sº sº smºs assº sºme sº as sºme me sº me mº, sº sº me = * * * * = **m amº sº, smº, ºs m = ** acres—- 25,030. 50
Rate of Supply------------------- gallons per minute – 303, 320.00
Corresponding rate of supply per acre---------- do–––– 12. 10
Straight average rate of Supply---------------- do–––– 16. 40
Average depth of irrigation-------------------- feet—- 2. 67
Average irrigation factor a – per Cent—— 15. 10
LABOR AND COST OF IRRIGATING.
The following table gives averages made from the data secured
relating to the labor required for irrigation and its cost:
Cost of labor per day------------------------------------- $0.59
Labor per irrigation per acre------------------------ days—— . 42
Cost per irrigation per acre------------------------------- $0.31
Labor for irrigation per acre per year_______________ days__ 3. 07
- $1.96
Cost for irrigation per acre per year
CROP RETURNS.
The following table shows the average crop returns per acre:


* Cro Assumed Value of
Unit, iel value crop per
y per unit. acre
Alfalfa ---------------------------------------------- Ton ---------- 5.9 $15.00 $88.50
Corn-------------------------------------------------- Bushel ------- 41.0 . 50 20.50
Cotton------------------------------------------------ le---------- .8 50.00 40.00
Johnson grass---------------------------------------- Ton ---------- 3.0 12.00 36.00
nions ----------------------------------------------- Pound ------- 18,612.0 .02 372.24
Rice ------------------------------------------------------- do -------- 2,140.0 .02 42.80
Sorghum.-------------------------------- :- - - - - - - - - - - - - Ton ---------- 4.0 --------------------
ONION CULTURE.
While only a small percentage of the area reported upon is devoted
to onions, the last table shows that this crop yields by far the largest
returns of any grown. This fact and the great interest taken in onion
culture in certain sections led to the collection of information as to
onion culture.
The following tables give the returns secured by six
persons who were irrigating onions and the expenses incurred in rais-
ing the crops.
a Ratio of the given depth to the depth to which the land would have been
Covered by the given volume flowing Continuously for One year.
484
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Returns of onion crop.

- Gross || Yield per | Returns
Area. Gross yield. returns. 8,Ol’e. per acre.
Acres. | Pownds. Pounds.
75 1,462,500 $25,600 | . 19,500 $341,
6 120,000 2,500 20,000 416.67
40 1,200,000 26,000 30,000 650.
13 455,000 9,000 34,300 692. 30
20 500,000 12,200 ,000 610.00
13 223, 3,349 17, 154 257.62
167 3,960,500 78,649 23,716 470.95
Approximately 500 acres were planted in onions, the average yield
reported being 20,497 pounds per acre, giving a gross yield of 10,-
000,000 pounds in the year 1904. *
The following table shows the average cost per acre of raising
Onions, as well as the gross and net returns:
Cost of raising Onions.
Per acre.
Plowing and harrowing–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– $2.00
Laying off beds or furrows------------------------------ 2. 00
Eleven cultivations–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 5. OO
Transplanting------------------------------------------- 16. 36
Harvesting --------------------------------------------- 12. 95
Fertilizer ----------------------------------- ––––––––––– 15. 87
Irrigation Water ---------------------------------------- 25. 55
Labor for irrigating 11 times–––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 3.41
Total -------------------------------------------- 83. 14
Interest on investment in land, 7 per cent on $30__________ 2. 10
Total -------------------------------------------- 85. 24
Returns: 20,497 pounds at 2 cents per pound______________ 409.94
Expenses ---------------------------------------------- 85. 24
Profit -------------------------------------------- 324. 70
The cost of irrigation water is considerably higher than it should
be, owing largely to the fact that the pumping stations installed are
considerably larger than required for the areas irrigated, and the
fixed charges of plants are correspondingly high.
IRESERVOIRS.
Many artificial reservoirs built of earth are in use in irrigation in
Texas. Some of them are supplied with water by windmills, while
others derive their supply from pumped and artesian wells. In most
of this work considerable care has been taken in construction, and as
a rule tanks of this nature have been fairly successful. There are,
however, several instances where the soil was unfavorable and the
construction poor, where difficulty has been experienced in making
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 485
reservoirs water-tight. The usual method of construction is to plow
down to the clay under the bank of the reservoir to make a tight
joint and then tamp the bank thoroughly during construction by
the teams making a circle of the reservoir after having dumped
their loads of dirt. Sometimes a layer of clay is placed on the inside
bank of the reservoir, and in other instances dirt alone is used in the
formation of the banks. Some of the reservoir banks are constructed
of black, waxy soil having suitable consistency without the addition
of clay to answer all the requirements. Should the clay be used in
reservior embankments the best place in which to put it is the center
of the bank, where it will be protected from the air and where there
would be no danger of cracking. A thorough joint should be made
between the embankment of the reservoir and the ground itself. If
the ground is of such nature that it would not hold water a trench
should be dug to the nearest impervious stratum and a proper joint
made there with the bank. In some of the reservoirs where trouble
has been experienced in making them water-tight this has been
remedied by puddling, by driving stock around inside while the soil
is wet. One large reservoir with clay stratum below the ground
appeared to be on porous ground and water went through it like a
sieve. After tamping and puddling, however, no difficulty was ex-
perienced in making it water-tight. In many of the reservoirs of
Texas borrow pits for the banks have been made on the inside. As
it is impossible to empty these by gravity they are frequently stocked
with fish.
Near Beeville, where the soil is largely of a sandy consistency,
some difficulty has been experienced in making the reservoirs hold
water. Some of the reservoirs have been lined with a coating of tar
to make them water-tight. A description of the method of mixing
the lining is given under the head “Beeville * (p. 404).
Most of the reservoirs in use in the region investigated have been
constructed with a slope of 1 to 2 or 1 to 1; inside and outside. This,
in many cases, is too steep for the slope on the inside of the reservoir.
This eventually results in the caving of the banks, which finally
assume a more gradual incline. The proper slope to give the bank
of a reservoir depends largely upon the material of which the
banks are constructed as well as on the wave action on the sides. As
a rule 1 to 3 on the inside and 1 to 2 on the outside will give suitable
proportions. Where reservoirs are of any extent the banks should be
protected against the action of waves. The usual method of protec-
tion is the use of riprap, laid on about 10 inches in thickness, made of
assorted sizes of rough stone.
Contracts for reservoir construction are commonly let by the cubic
yard of earth handled, the average cost of most of the reservoirs
486 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
being 10 cents per yard, most of the earth being obtained near by,
necessitating only short hauls. In the computations following, 10
cents per cubic yard will be assumed as the cost of all such work,
though with high embankments and longer hauls the cost will
increase; but for embankments up to 10 feet there should be no mate-
rial increase in cost of construction. The earth or clay for embank-
ments is usually plowed and then handled by drag Scrapers.
Reservoir capacity with reference to the size of a given plant may
be conveniently reckoned in terms of the number of hours the total
flow from the supply of water will require to fill the reservoir. The
total area irrigated by the aid of artificial reservoirs is in the neigh-
borhood of 2,000 acres. One of the most important factors in improv-
ing the irrigation facilities of the country and utilizing its resources
to the fullest extent is the judicious use of reservoirs. Natural reser-
voir sites are few and often inconveniently located. In much of the
country in Texas, on the other hand, artificial reservoirs may be built
entirely in embankment wherever desired, provided the subsoil is
suitable for retaining water. These reservoirs could be used for the
storage of artesian well water, river water supplied by gravity, or
pumped water. A study of the use made of artesian well water
indicates that of the wells which are used for irrigation only about
20 per cent of the total available water supply is actually utilized, the
remainder going to waste, although under present conditions the
wells themselves may have reached their practical limit of irrigation.
In other words, throughout a great part of the year well water not
desired for irrigation will go to waste. Artesian wells will be subject
to a certain annual expense which will represent the cost of the total
amount of water furnished by them, and which will be taken at 12 per
cent of first cost for all wells, made up of 7 per cent for interest and
taxes and 5 per cent for depreciation and repairs, the latter to include
all possible costs in connection with the wells, such as Sand pumping,
etc., as well as the elements of depreciation of wells due to deteriora-
tion of casing and to the supply falling off, owing to increased number
of neighboring wells. The annual cost of the well is independent of
the amount of water obtained from it. Thus, if only one-fifth of the
well's supply is used the water per unit of volume will be five times
as expensive as if the entire supply were used. While large sums of
money have been expended for artesian wells, little has been done in
the way of utilizing the resources of these wells to anything like their
fullest extent. -
The construction of reservoirs in general is a thing which should
not be gone into in a haphazard manner. The conditions of the case
should be carefully studied from the standpoints of rainfall, evapora-
tion, seepage, time and amount of the water supply, and time and
duration of the irrigation Season. One very obvious method of
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 487
increasing the use of well water is by means of diversified farming,
by planting crops requiring water at different periods of the year, .
instead of attempting to raise one crop only which will require irriga-
tion for a brief period.
Throughout Texas there are many districts where at certain seasons
of the year large amounts of water run to waste, while at other
Seasons the rivers run practically dry. In most localities no natural
reservoir sites are obtainable, and to store the water would necessitate
the construction of entire artificial reservoirs, as well as the installa-
tion of pumping plants to raise the water sufficiently to flow into the
reservoirs. A study of the possibilities of reservoir construction
indicates that such a water supply may be turned to the greatest prac-
tical advantage at a cost for irrigation water considerably below
present figures for pumping, and that lands hitherto without an
available water supply may experience the beneficial effect of irri-
gation.
A summary of the reservoir data shows a gross capacity of 123
acre-feet for 35 reservoirs, the total cost of construction being $9,033.
These reservoirs aided in the irrigation of 1,704 acres. The average
cost of reservoirs per acre-foot was $73.
In consideration of the use of reservoirs with artesian wells it
should be borne in mind that artesian pressure will raise the water in
the well without flow a certain height above the ground level, known
as the static head. It is this head which is effective in creating
pressure, causing the flow of water. Should the static head be large,
a few feet additional pressure against the well will not have a great
effect upon the discharge, but should it be comparatively small the
additional pressure of a few feet of water would materially affect the
output. -
The pipe supplying the reservoir should therefore not be taken over
the top of the reservoir bank, as is commonly done; it should be taken
into the reservoir through the bank at the lowest point, in order that
the maximum pressure operating against artesian flow may be as small
as possible while the reservoir is filling up. If the static head of the
well is very low an outlet should be provided from the well directly
into the ditch used for irrigation, and a valve should be placed between
the well and the reservoir in order that when the well is discharging
into the ditch it may not have to supply water against the additional
head caused by the water in the reservoir. Also, a separate discharge
should be provided from the reservoir itself. This would necessitate
at least three valves. Where piping is taken through the bank into
the reservoir care should be taken to so design the connections that it
will not be necessary to disturb this piping in any way to get at any
of the valves or at the well itself. For this reason the pipe entering
the reservoir should be provided with a flange connection. Any tend-
488 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
ency to disturb the pipe where it passes through the reservoir bank
is liable to start a leak, resulting in much trouble. The piping lead-
ing from the wells should be arranged in such a manner that the
interior of the well would be easily accessible. For this purpose a
vertical T with the plug in the top end or else removable-flange
connections should be provided in order to allow access to the inside
of the well should it be necessary to sand-pump the same. Precau-
tions should always be taken against malicious or thoughtless people
throwing things down the well. In some of the wells which the
writer saw, the top of the casing was provided with an elbow con-
nected with horizontal pipe which went through the reservoir bank,
all joints being screw joints, no flange couplings being used. Were
it ever desired to get at these wells it would be impossible to do so
without disturbing the earth around the pipe which enters the
reservoir. This method of construction should by all means be
avoided.
ARTIESIAN WELLS.
The following table gives information as to the cost and capacity
of and area irrigated by various artesian wells in Texas:
Cost of artesian wells in Teacas.
Average cost per gallon per minute (straight average) –––– $21.62
Average cost per gallon per minute for irrigation wells a
(Weighted average) ----------------------------------- $8.30
Area irrigated ----------------------------------- acres—— 1, 406
Average cost per acre irrigated (straight average) ––––––––– $71.00
Average cost per acre irrigated (weighted average) –––––––– $57.77
Annual cost per acre irrigated–––––––––––––––––––––––––––– $8.63
Average cost per acre-foot-------------------------------- $2.86
In order to simplify the work of calculation it has been assumed
that the wells to certain depths cost a certain amount per foot and
that deeper wells cost a certain additional amount per foot of total
depth, which varies for each additional 100 feet. This method is not
very accurate, but as the figures are only approximate and the cost of
boring is liable to vary considerably for different wells of the same
depth, the figures may be regarded as sufficiently accurate for prac-
tical purposes. The following approximate assumptions have been
made in figuring the cost of boring 6-inch wells:
King and Kenedy ranches:
$1.00 per foot to 900 feet. sº
1.10 per foot to 1,000 feet.
1.20 per foot to 1,100 feet.
a Wells delivering 7,618 gallons per minute cost $63,272,
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 489
*-
King and Kenedy ranches—Continued.
$1.30 per foot to 1,200 feet.
1.40 per foot to 1,300 feet.
1.50 per foot to 1,400 feet.
1.60 per foot to 1,500 feet.
Around Carrizo Springs:
$1.00 per foot to 400 feet.
1.10 per foot to 500 feet.
1.20 per foot to 600 feet.
1.30 per foot to 700 feet.
1.40 per foot to 800 feet.
1.50 per foot to 900 feet.
1.60 per foot to 1,000 feet.
The following summary shows the cost of irrigation and the irri-
gation factors of a few artesian wells in the vicinity of Carrizo
Springs: -
Cost of irrigation.

Cost of well—
Annual * *
No. Pergallon | Per acre- cost per Irºn
per ſºld | foot used 3. CT6. &
ute. e
Per cent.
122- . . $5.77 $1.06 $2.71 40.6
124--- 5.54 4.01 3.73 10.3
125--- 2.85 1.17 1.48 18.2
130- - - 3.95 1.74 .63 16.9
184--------------------------------------- 12.3
136__ 11.62 5.09 7.64 17.0
137__ 15.00 4.09 4.91 27.3
Total - - - - 44.73 17.16 21, 10 142.6
Average - 7.46 2.86 3.52 20.4
PUMPED WELLS.
The following summary gives information on the cost and output
of pumped wells. These have been rated at the cost per gallon per
minute rate of pumping. It should be borne in mind that, provided
the well capacity is not exceeded, this cost is dependent upon the
capacity of the pump installed and is not fixed, as is the case with
artesian wells.
Cost of pumped wells.
Average cost per gallon per minute (straight average) --___ $6. 13
Average Cost per gallon per minute (weighted average) --__ $2.75
Area irrigated ----------------------------------- àCI'êS__ 934
Cost per acre irrigated (straight average) – $15.25
Cost per acre irrigated (weighted average) ---____________ $14. 79
It will be noted that the cost per gallon per minute is considerably
less than the corresponding cost for artesian wells, being practically
one-third as great. To this must be added the cost of pumping
machinery to make a comparison.
The average cost of pumping plants as shown by the report is as
follows. -
490 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Cost of pumping plants.

Num Average cost per acre
Description. Assumed Area irri- i. irrigated.
cost. gated. lants
p * | Straight. Weighted.
Steam plants: Acres.
od ---------------------------------- $109,940 9,790.5 26 $79,32 $11.23
Coal------------------------------------ 16,800 855.0 6 90.75 19.65
Oil ------------------------------------- 85,300 5,100.0 2 15.00 16.73
Electric plants ---------------------------- 3,000 400.0 l 7.50 7.50
Gasoline plants---------------------------- 19,140 483.5 21 109.40 39.59
Total.--------------------------------- 234,180 16,629.0 56 88. 24 14. 12
From the above tables the following comparative statement is
made up :
Comparative cost of artesian and pumped wells.

Straight. Weighted.
Average cost of pumped wells and machinery per acre irrigated.-- ------- $103.49 $28.91
Average cost of artesian Wells per acre irrigated.--------------------------- 71.00 57.77
The wide difference between the straight and weighted averages of
the cost of pumping plants is caused by the extremely high cost for
some of the small pumping plants. One plant, watering but 4.5
acres, cost $778 per acre, while the largest plant included watered
6,000 acres, at a cost of $6 per acre—0.77 of 1 per cent as much as
the small plant.
IPUMIPING IPLANTS.
The following table summarizes the data on the apparatus installed
and the capacity of the various pumping stations, as well as the irri-
gation factors. The capacity of the pumps, in gallons per minute
per acre irrigated, is calculated from the total capacity and the area
actually under irrigation. The irrigation factor was calculated by
dividing the total hours run per year by 8,760, the number of hours
in a year. The investment in pumping plants was approximately
$310,000.
Capacity of pumping plants.
Area irrigated -------------------------------- acres—- 17, 190. 0
Gross capacity of boilers––––––––––––––––– horsepower__ 5, 732.0
Steam engines–––––––––––––––––––––– total horsepower__ 4, 227. 0
Gasoline engines ------------------------------ do––––– 181. 0
Water motors -------------------------------- do––––– 225. O
Electric motors ------------------------------- do––––– 100. O
Steam engines–––––––––––––––––––––– number of plants__ 31. 0
Gasoline engines ----------------------------- do––––– 28. 0
Water motors –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– do––––– 1. 0
Electric motors ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– do––––– 1. 0
Steam engines–––––––––––––– ----- average horsepower__ 136.0
Gasoline engines ----------------------------- do––––– 6. 0
Water motors -------------------------------- do––––– 225. 0
Electric motorS_ - - - - - - - - - - do––––– 100.0
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAs.
491
Gross capacity of pumps--- * * * * sº mºs as sº gallons per minute - 265, 992. 0
Average pump capacity------- _do----- 3, 640. 0
Average pump capacity per acre (straight average), gal-
lons per minute------------------------------------ 21.4
Average pump capacity per acre (weighted average), gal-
lons per minute------ --------- sº ºn * * * 14.3
Average daily run---------------------------- hours—— 15. 0
Average irrigation factor-------------------- per Cent—— 14. 0
The following table gives data on capacity, lift, and water horse-
power of various plants, as well as the cost of fuel consumption per
water horsepower.
The water horsepower is calculated by dividing
the product of the capacity in gallons per minute and lift in feet by
3,960 and making no allowance for losses of head in the piping.
Consumption of fuel per water horsepower.


Water horse- Cost Of
power. tº fuel per
Consumption of fuel -
Fuel. Ayººse per water - horse- Cost of fuel. H.
& Gross. Aver- power-hour. power-
age. hour.
Steam: Feet.
Wood ----- 36 868 26.4 0.01852 cord --------- $1.46 per cord-------- $0.027
Coal------- 54 297 33.1 ! 39.60000 pounds ------ 1.58 per ton--------- .031
Oil -------- 45 | 1,034 517.0 .02420 barrel ------- .82 per barrel------ .020
Total.---- 40 2,199 50.0 -
Water -------- 42 100 99.8
Electricity---- 46 52 52.3 2.22000 horsepower- .0075 per horse- .017
hours. power-hour.
Gasoline ------ 64 60 2.1 56000 gallon ------- . 1580 per gallon.---- .088
Total.---- 50 2,411 32.6
It will be noted that the cost of wood, coal, and oil was particularly
low, but gasoline, on the contrary, is necessarily an expensive fuel.
A very large Saving could be made in the operation of gasoline plants
by the use of distillate, which is nearly as efficient as gasoline. How-
ever, this is an article which is scarcely known throughout Texas,
though quite commonly used in California.
Based on the figures given in the fuel table in the column “Num-
ber of B. T. U.’s per pound ’’ (p. 366), the following are the weights
of the various kinds of fuel required to generate 1 horsepower-hour
provided the efficiency were 100 per cent:
Heat value of fuels.
[Pound per horsepower-hour.]
Coal :
McAlester ------ - - -
Eagle Pass_______
Carr ----------- = <= = * *
Laredo –––––––––––– * * * * * * * * * * * * m amm me sº ºms ºm. * = <= <= sma mºs. * * * * * * * *= a- sºme
Oil ----
Wood
\
Pehigh ---------------------------------------------
Rockdale -------------------------------------------
Lytle ----------------------------------------------
492 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Allowing 310 pounds of oil per barrel would require under the
same conditions 0.000430 barrel per horsepower-hour. Allowing
3,500 pounds of wood per cord would correspondingly require
- 0.000161 cord of wood per horsepower-hour.
The losses of efficiency in a pumping plant may be segregated
the following manner: --
(1) Losses in the boiler and piping.
(2) Losses in the cylinder of the steam engine, due to condensa-
tion, etc. - -
(3) Losses in the mechanical efficiency of the engine.
(4) Losses in the belting and pump.
(5) Losses in the piping.
The most important loss of heat is one which it is theoretically
impossible to avoid, but which may be reduced by increasing the
pressure of steam supplied to the engine by superheating or by the
use of condensers. The following table gives the theoretical effi-
ciency and steam consumption in pounds per hour for various pres-
sures of steam supplied to the engine, taken from Peabody's
Thermodynamics of the Steam Engine:
in
Efficiency and consumption of a perfect steam engine operating on the Carnot
Cycle.
Initial - e Noncondensing en-
pressure Condensing engines. gines.
by the
tºº, º: Of - . Of
8, OOWe the * Steam per - Steam per
atmos- Efficiency. horsepow- Efficiency. horsepow-
phere. er-hour. er-hour.
15 0, 189 14.3 0.053 50.9
30 .215 12.8 .084 32.8
60 . 249 11.4 . 124 22.9
100 .278 10.5 .157 18.4
150 .302 9.8 , 186 16.0
200 .320 9.5 . 207 14.6
300 . 347 9.0 .238 13.1

The theoretical figures can, of course, never be attained, but serve
merely as a standard of comparison for the actual results. The fol-
lowing figures may be taken to represent approximately average con-
ditions which should obtain in pumping plants installed in Texas,
consisting of noncondensing steam engine driving centrifugal pump:
Efficiencies of elements of pumping plants.
Per cent.
Boiler efficiency ------------------------------------------
Theoretical efficiency of a perfect noncondensing engine at
100 pounds gauge pressure------------------------------- 15. 7
Efficiency of engine cylinder------––– __ 55.0
Mechanical efficiency of engine------ ---------------------- 85.0
Pump efficiency ------------------------------------------- 55. 0
Efficiency of piping ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––--------- 95.0
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TExAs.
493
The product of these efficiencies would give the combined efficiency
of plant, representing the ratio of the actual work performed in lift-
ing the water to the number of units of work available in the corre-
sponding quantity of coal consumed, which in this case would be 2.5
per cent. On the basis of the theoretical quantity of fuel required
per horsepower-hour the following efficiencies have been calculated
for the plants in Texas:
Efficiencies of pumping plants.

# 3 & Fuel effi- * g ºf Fuel effi-
Description. ciency. Description. ciency.
Wood: Per cent. || Wood—Continued. Per cent.
No. 3.------------------------------ 1.5 No. 116--------------------------- 2.5
No. 8------------------------------ 2.9 No. 117--------------------------- 2.0
No. 4.------------------------------ 2.1 No. 118--------------------------- ... 6
No. 5------------------------------ 1.7 No. 119--------------------------- ... 5
No. 10----------------------------- .9
No. 11----------------------------- ... 3 Total.--------------------------- 47.9.
No. 11----------------------------- .2 Average ----------------------- 1.5
No. 11----------------------------- .5 :
No. 30----------------------------- ... 5 No. 6 ----------------------------- 1.0
No. 85----------------------------- 1.2 No. 16---------------------------- 14.2
No. 37----------------------------- 1.3 *-i-º-º-mº ºmºmº-
No. 88----------------------------- 3.7 Total --------------------------- 15.2
No. 84----------------------------- 1.8 Average ----------------------- 7.6
No. 88----------------------------- 4.1 || Coal:
No. 93----------------------------- 1.6 9 * ---------------------------- 1.9
No. 95----------------------------- .3 No. 30 ---------------------------- .8
No. 97----------------------------- 1.4 No. 84---------------------------- 2.1
No. 98----------------------------- 1.0 No. 86---------------------------- 2.1
No. 101---------------------------- 3.5 No. 87 ---------------------------- 1.7
No. 101---------------------------- 3.0 No. 90---------------------------- ... 6
No. 102---------------------------- .7 No. 93---------------------------- .9
No. 108---------------------------- 1.4 No. 96---------------------------- .3
No. 108---------------------------- .9
No. 110.50------------------------- 1.2 Total --------------------------- 10.4
No. 110.75------------------------- 1.7 Average ----------------------- 1.3
No. 111---------------------------- 1.1
No. 114---------------------------- 1.0 || Total.--------------------------------- T3.5
No. 115---------------------------- .8 || Average ----------------------------- 1-8
In a certain large pumping station, designed with great care to give
the highest efficiency, the fuel consumption was only 1.25 pounds of
coal per water-horsepower-hour output, corresponding to a combined
efficiency of 15 per cent.
PUMPING.
METHOD OF ARRIVING AT COST.
In figuring the cost of irrigation, particularly in the case of pump-
ing plants, it is a very common mistake to Reglect entirely all allow-
ance for interest on the investment, depreciation of the plant, repairs,
renewals, and sometimes labor, fuel expense being regarded as the sole
expense of operation. As a consequence the results obtained may be
- far from the true state of affairs. The cost for pumping water may
be subdivided into three classifications: (1) Interest on the invest-
ment and depreciation of the plant; (2) operating expenses, repairs,
and renewals, and (3) fuel expense.
The interest is of course independent of the time of operation, and
the depreciation of the plant is also to a large extent independent of
494 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
the same, while the operating expenses may be considered in one
sense dependent solely on the time of operation of the pumps. But
this is not strictly true, since it is often impossible to engage labor on
these terms owing to variations in weather, and the employer must
often pay the engineer his full time. In small plants it is not uncom-
mon to find the engineers employed on other work on the farm when
the pumps are not running. This applies particularly to cases where
the operation of the plants is not continuous over a long period of
time.
Repairs and renewals are partly dependent on the length of time
of operation. Depreciation, repairs, and renewals are commonly fig-
ured as a percentage of the first cost of the plant. In steam plants
fuel expense, while depending mainly on the time of operation and
the load, is nevertheless dependent also upon the number of times
the plant is started and stopped. If the steam is allowed to go down
between the stopping and starting of the plant it is commonly as-
sumed that it will require two hours’ fuel supply at full load to get
up steam in starting. -
In considering the percentage values of first cost which ought to
be assigned to the various quantities making up the cost of pumping,
circumstances and care of apparatus, of course, have a material effect.
Seven per cent may be considered as a fair value to allow for interest
and taxes on the entire plant; depreciation will vary from 2 to 30.
per cent, depending upon the apparatus, its use and abuse; 8 to 10
per cent should be sufficient to represent depreciation of pumping
plants if reasonable care is used; 2 per cent should be sufficient to
cover depreciation of iron pipe; repairs and renewals commonly,
require 2 to 20 per cent of the original investment. Allowing 7 per
cent for interest and taxes, 10 per cent for depreciation and 3 per cent
for repairs and renewals gives a total of 20 per cent per annum of the
original cost to be allowed for these items. With any sort of proper
supervision this should be on the safe side for power-house work,
though of course this will not allow for accidents which may occur
through carelessness. Irrigation plants, particularly the Small ones,
are usually subject to quite heavy deterioration. They are generally
poorly set up, exposed to dust and dirt getting into the working parts
of the engines from insufficient housing, and as a result the real cost
of pumping is higher than it should be. The annual fixed charges of
pumping plants have been figured at 20 per cent on the pumping-
plant investment, and 12 per cent on the remainder of the investment,
such as pipe line, reservoir, and wells. * . r
In the following table the cost of power is segregated under the
heads of fuel expense, labor expense, and fixed charges per water-
horsepower-hour. The amount of power required for raising 1
acre-foot of water 1 foot is 1.37 horsepower-hours, hence the column
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 495
representing this quantity in the table is easily obtained from the pre-
ceding column of “Total cost per water-horsepower-hour.” The
cost per acre-foot is obtained by multiplying the preceding column
by the total lift and the cost per acre irrigated by multiplying the
cost per acre-foot by the average annual depth of irrigation. The
last column in the table gives the pump investment per acre irrigated.
The results given are the straight averages of the results for the
Several plants.
Average C0&t of pumping water.

Cost per water-horsepower-hour. Cº.,t Cost per | Cost per | Invest-
Fixed P...?" acre acre fºriment per
Fuel. Labor. charges. Total. foot. foot. gated. 3,CI’e.
Steam: Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents.
Wood--------------- 2.76 1. 24 12.93 17.45 23.91 $10.71 $16.83 $74.00
Coal ---------------- 2.97 .49 10.89 14. 16 . . 19.41 11.56 18.44 91.00
Oil------------------ .76 .17 1.08 2. 3.42 1.56 5.75 15.00
Average ---------- 2.71 1.04 11.70 15. 72 21.60 10.27 16. 40
Electricity ------------- 1.68 . 32 . 56 2.56 3.51 1.61 6.83 8.00
Gasoline---------------- 8.65 .03 14.46 22.20 30.45 18. 40 28.90 109.00
Average---------- 4.85 , 69 12.72 17.25 23.66 12.38 19.75 85.
The cost of gasoline plants per unit of water pumped is far in
excess of the cost of other plants. This is due mainly to the small
size of the gasoline plants, since naturally the relative cost of small
units is considerably higher than that of large units.
The following table gives the total annual water-horsepower-hours
as well as the segregated and total annual expense for various plants.
The table is classified according to fuels. Wood-burning plants are
further classified under the heads of rice-irrigation plants and plants
used in irrigating other crops. Gasoline plant No. 9 is also used for
rice irrigation.
Total Cost of pumping water.

Annual Total annual cost.
Area irri- Yº.*
gated jºr. Fixed
hours. Fuel. Labor. charges. Total.
Wood for fuel: Acres.
Rice ----------------------------- 7,460.0 817,685 $9,283 $4,633 $10,916 $24,832
Other crops --------------------- 1,423.5 449,664 5,801 1,815 9,524 17,140
Total -------------------------- 8,883.5 | 1,267,349 15,084 6,448 20,440 41,972
Gasoline-for fuel-------------------- 3.11.0 28,030 1,535 53 3,844 4,432
QQal for fuel ------------------------ 855.0 255,025 3,683 1,049 4,992 9,724
Qil for fuel-------------------------- 5, 100.0 | 1,428,400 16,396 2,521 17,060 35,977
Electricity -------------------------- 400.0 106,700 1,792 342 600 2,734
Total for steam plants a ------------ 14,838.5 2,950, 774 35,163 10,018 42,492 87,673
Rice --------------------------------- 12,610.0 2,254,015 26,075 7,154 28,244 61,473
Other crops ------------------------- 2,589.5 724,789 10,6 ,917 18,092 31,
Total -------------------------- 15,199.5 2,978,804 36,698 10,071 46,336 93, 105

"The totals here do not include the items “ Gasoline for fuel " and “Electricity.”
From this summary the following summary of segregated and
total charges per acre irrigated and per water-horsepower-hour is
496
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
obtained. This summary gives the weighted averages and is to be
contrasted with the summary on page 507, which is obtained by
averaging the results for the various plants.
Cost of pumping per acre and per water-horsepower-hour.

Annual costper acre irrigated. | *P* wºol *P*W* | Cost per
4. acre- ºpt
* tº T8...ISO
Fuel. Labor. cº, Total. Fuel. Labor. ciº. Total. 1 foot.
Wood for fuel: Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents.
Rice-------------- $1.25 $). 62 $1.47 $3.34 1. 14 0.57 1. 3.04 4.17
Other crops.------ 4.08 1.27 6, 69 12.04 1, 29 , 40 2. 12 3.81 5.22
Qtal:------------ 1, 70 , 73 2. 30 4.73 | 1.19 .51 1.61 3.31 4. 53
Gasoline for fuel----- 4.93 . 13 12.36 || 17. 46 5, 48 . 19 18, 73 || 19. 40 26.60
Coal for fuel--------- 4.31 | 1.23 5.84 || J1.38 1.44 .41 1.96 || 3.81 5.22
Oil for fuel----------- 3.22 . 49 3.35 7.06 | 1.15 .18 1.19 || 2, 52 3.45
Electricity----------- 4.50 .85 1.50 6.83 1.68 . 32 .56 .56 3.51
For all steam plants- 2.37 .67 2.87 5.91 1. 19 .34 1.44 2.97 4.07
Total results:
Rice-------------- 2. 07 .56 2.24 4.87 1.16 1.25 2.73 3.74
Other crops.------ 4. 10 1. 13 6.98 || 12, 21 1.46 40 2.50 || 4.36 5.98
otal.------------- 2.41 , 66 3.05 6.13 1.23 1.56 3, 13 4.29
It will be seen that the average cost of irrigation per acre per year
lies between $4.87 for rice-irrigation plants and $12.21 for plants
irrigating other crops, and between $4.73 for wood-burning plants
and $17.46 for gasoline plants. The lowest cost of irrigation was
under plant No. 101, and was $2.19 per acre per year.
It is particularly to be noted that throughout the fixed charges
are higher than charges for fuel, the total average fixed charges per
acre irrigated being approximately equal to the sum of the charges
for fuel and labor. In some cases the fixed charges make the cost of
power far out of proportion to the other charges. It may perhaps
be considered that in the column of fixed charges some allowance
should be made for the small use made of some of the plants, but the
deterioration can not by any means be considered as ceasing when the
plant is not in operation; in fact, in many instances, owing to
the rusting of the machinery, it would rather increase than decrease
from disuse. A fixed charge of 20 per cent as assumed would then
allow 7 per cent for interest, 3 per cent for repairs and renewals,
and 10 per cent for depreciation, corresponding to a life for the plant
of ten years. As shown on page 491, the average irrigation factor is
but 14 per cent, indicating that the plants are used on an average
only one-seventh of the time. In order to cut down the expense of
irrigation the irrigation factor itself should be increased. This may
be done in the following manner:
If a plant were designed for the irrigation of a certain crop requir-
ing water only in May, June, and July, and demanding the maximum
rate of flow continuously for these three months, the irrigation factor
would be 25 per cent. If another crop were to require water in
August, September, and October, under the same conditions the irri-
gation factor would also be 25 per cent. Were the maximum supply
in the two cases to be the same, and were both crops watered from the
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 497
same pumping plant without storage, the irrigation factor would then
be 50 per cent instead of 25 per cent. The only additional expense
of water for the second crop would be for operation, the fixed
expenses being practically not increased. The larger the fixed
expense with reference to the operating expense the greater is the
inducement for improvement in the irrigation factor by diversified
farming.
Suppose, for example, an irrigation plant were installed for irri-
gating 50 acres of land at a first cost of $2,500. Allowing 7 per cent
for interest and 13 per cent for depreciation, repairs, etc., would
make a total fixed cost per year of $500. If fuel and labor for con-
tinuous operation of the plant three months in the year cost $500
the annual cost of operation would be $1,000, provided the plant
were operated three months of the year. Provided, now, that it is
required to irrigate an additional tract of land requiring the same
quantity of water during three other months of the year, this would
necessitate an additional expense of $500, or a total expense of $1,500
per year, and hence at an expense of $15 per acre instead of $20 per
acre, which would have been the cost had the first tract alone been
irrigated.
In general, two plans may be followed to increase the irrigation
factor—(1) construction of reservoirs and (2) the use of water at
different seasons. Of course if the dry season is of brief duration,
say two or three months, it is possible that little may be done under
the latter plan, but provided the dry season is uncertain and of long
duration considerable may be done by judicious management and
varied crops. Additional water may be furnished at nearly the cost
of the additional operating expenses, and it is usually poor policy to
let the plant lie idle part of the year when it should be bringing in
revenue. This is perhaps largely caused by owners failing to appre-
ciate the large fixed expense under which they operate.
In order to cut down the fixed charges it would appear that it is
important to have a low first cost of plant, particularly where fuel
is as cheap as in Texas. The greater part of the pumping is per-
formed by means of centrifugal pumps, which are in general by far.
the cheapest part of the plant. It is the poorest kind of economy,
however, to invest in a cheap pump of this nature, provided the
cheapness is secured at the expense of efficiency, as the necessary
increase of boiler and engine equipment would much more than make
up for any saving which might be made in this manner, aside from
increased fuel expense.
The cost of labor for operation of pumping plants is exceptionally
low, and hence conditions are correspondingly favorable for econ-
omy in this direction. One of the main advantages of gasoline lies
in the Saving of labor, particularly in small plants. The cheapness of
30620–No. 158–05—32
498 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
labor, however, would indicate the inadvisability of installing gaso-
line plants of any capacity, if no cheaper form of the fuel, such as
distillate, is available for use in gasoline engines.
One of the main savings in the use of fuel oil over other fuels lies
in the greatly diminished labor of firing. This is a matter of impor-
tance in plants of considerable size only and is further minimized by
the cheapness of labor.
The smaller irrigation plants in Texas, requiring up to about 20
horsepower, have usually been run by gasoline engines, and plants
over this size by steam. In the majority of cases steam plants are
cquipped with steam engines, though a few of them have direct-acting
steam pumps and others have pulsometers. While the use of the last
two methods of pumping would involve probably a minimum in the
way of initial expense and have the advantage of simplicity of
operation, their use is not generally to be recommended on account of
the high steam consumption. Were compound steam pumps to be
used, considerably better economy could be obtained than with pumps
not compounded, but these have so far not found their way into the
field. The majority of the steam engines for plants of 20 to 100
horsepower are of the throttling variety and consequently do not
make efficient use of the steam. Where fuel is as cheap as it is in
many parts of Texas it is true that simplicity may count for quite a
little in the operation of the plant, considering the kind of labor
which is usually employed for the same; still, automatic engines in
plants of any size should justify the additional expense in the Saving
of fuel.
By far the greater proportion of the steam pipes leading from the
boilers to the engines have no covering and the loss by condensation
is considerable. As an approximation, it may be said that 80 square
feet of exposed steam-radiating surface demand 1 boiler horsepower.
A little extra care and money spent in installation of plants would be
amply repaid. In all the territory covered there is only one irriga-
tion pumping plant of any size in which due consideration appears
to have been given to economy of operation. This is the plant of
Ross Clark. It is the only plant which has water-tube boilers, com-
pound condensing engines which condense, and centrifugal pump
directly connected to the engine. Direct connection is here made by
a rigid coupling.
In order to direct-connect machinery with a rigid coupling the
foundation must be particularly good, as otherwise it would be better
to use a flexible coupling to avoid possible strains from the shafts
getting out of line. Direct-connected units do away with loss in
belting, usually 5 to 10 per cent, besides Saving considerable space.
It requires, however, a proper combination of pump and engine to be
effective. -
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 499
The automatic engines are to be preferred to throttling engines on
the ground of efficiency, although more expensive to install. Few of
the stations use condensers, and in the majority of places where they
were used not over 16-inch vacuum was obtained, indicating either
poor design or operation of the plants. In many of the pumping
stations some simple form of gravity or jet condenser could be used
for condensing the steam in the engine which would probably
increase considerably the efficiency of the plant.
Single-acting deep-well pumps, 2.5 to 6 inches in diameter, with
a stroke of 15 to 20 inches, are used extensively. These are driven by
a power head as a general thing, though occasionally they are driven
by means of a walking beam. The efficiency of this type of pump
with a lift of 60 to 70 feet will usually be between 40 and 50 per cent,
and although not high, they are usually the most efficient pumps
that can be used in the conditions under which they operate, namely,
a small quantity of water and a high lift, considered together with
the fact that no pit is necessary to bring the pump nearer the water,
the pump being inserted in the well. It is a common fallacy to
assume that the lift is dependent upon the position of the bottom of
the suction pipe attached to the pump cylinder. Of course this is
not the case, as the lift is measured from the surface of the water
standing in the well on the outside of the suction pipe.
In the case of most wells operated by deep-well pumps the pump
cylinder and casing usually fit the well so closely that it is extremely
difficult, if not impossible, to measure the actual distance of the level
of the well water below, the ground, particularly when the well is
being pumped. Should there be room between the well casing and the
pump cylinder for the insertion of a small pipe the water level may
be determined very accurately by means of the method which the
writer has used. A one-eighth-inch pipe will answer very well the
requirements of the case. By blowing down the pipe it is a very
simple matter to tell instantly when the surface of the water in the
well has been reached, as the concussion of the air bubbles emerging
from the end of the pipe under water will give very definite indica-
tion thereof. Knowing the length of the pipe, the distance to stand-
ing water in the well is easily obtained. In one well which was
tested by this means the water level seemed quite indeterminate, vary-
ing perceptibly. However, by observation it was ascertained that
this variation was due to the unequal flow naturally occasioned by
the pump, the level being highest just before the pump started to de-
liver water on the upstroke.
In figuring the lift of well water allowance has been made in the
wells, which were not measured, for the probable distance which the
water would be drawn down, based on the rather limited information
which could be obtained on this subject.
500 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
There are two sources of loss in pumping plants—(1) on entrance
to the piping and (2) on discharge from the end of the pipe—which
could easily be greatly reduced by suitable design. While in many
cases these losses are small and negligible, in others, particularly
with low-head plants, they are liable to represent a considerable per-
centage consumption of energy, which should by all means be reduced,
since this can be done very simply and cheaply. The energy of water
discharged from the end of a pipe varies with the square of the
velocity of discharge, and a velocity of 8 feet per second is represented
by the energy required to lift the quantity discharged 1 foot higher
than necessary. A taper joint of gradually increasing section will
largely overcome the loss of head in discharge. Since the discharge
varies with the fourth power of the diameter, by increasing the diam-
eter of the pipe 42 per cent the discharge would be reduced to one-
fourth of its previous value, and by doubling the diameter would be
reduced to one-sixteenth of its previous value. At the entrance to a
straight pipe projecting into a body of water there is a loss of energy
equivalent to one-half of the velocity head in the pipe itself. This
can be easily avoided by belling the pipe at entrance. A bell-shaped
entrance is preferable to a cone-shaped, though the latter will often
be a decided improvement over a straight pipe. It is no uncommon
sight to find discharge pipes throughout Texas throwing water into
the air considerably higher than the level of the discharged water,
owing to the high velocity head in the piping. It is obvious to even
a casual observer that this represents a considerable loss of power.
PRACTICAL POINTS ON INCREASED EFFICIENCY OF PLANTS.
Deep-well pumping plants are sometimes provided with stuffing
boxes near the ground level, in order to force the water to a few feet
greater elevation. It is not uncommon for a large amount of power
to be consumed in the stuffing boxes, due to either the pump rod being
bent or to the gland being screwed down too tightly. In fact, if
gasoline engines are used for operation, it is not difficult to put such
a load on the engine by screwing down the gland as to bring the
engine to a standstill. With intelligent care stuffing boxes should
cause no trouble, but as commonly operated in such plants, if the
stuffing box leaks the operator will simply screw the gland tighter
until the leak has been stopped. In order to prevent leaks in stuffing
boxes the packing should be taken out at least once a week and oiled
and coated with graphite. Packing to be effective should retain its
elasticity, and if in that condition it would require only light pressure
from the gland to prevent leakage. Stuffing boxes can be avoided in
most cases by the use of a walking beam connected with the pump
and by running the continuation of the discharge pipe to a sufficient
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 501
height. Where apparatus will not receive due attention this is to be
preferred for obvious reasons.
With deep-well pumps all the work is commonly on the upstroke.
This necessitates larger engines and means more wear and tear on
machinery than if the power required were equally divided between
the up and down strokes. When a walking beam is used, by prop-
erly adjusting the weight on the end away from the pump, work on
the two halves of the stroke can be very nearly equalized. The sound
of the machinery operating furnishes the best clue to the amount of
weight which is best to use. A long, strong spring can be used if
desired on deep-well pumps without a walking beam, the spring
being attached directly to the pump rod and being put under con-
siderable initial tension; but this would be generally more expensive
than a walking beam.
But little attention is commonly paid to the leakage from deep-
well pumps until the leakage has become very bad. The leather
pump cups are frequently left in so long that they become badly
worn and allow very large leakage of water, thus materially reducing
the output of the pump. The leakage may be judged by the speed at
which water sinks in the well pipe when the pump is at rest. In
several windmill plants visited, the pumps when operated at slow
speed delivered no water, owing to undue leakage. While many
kinds of machinery will run without attention, to obtain the best
results they should always be kept in good condition and should
receive frequent overhauling.
When a gasoline engine is operating at full load it will, as usually
constructed, have an explosion every other stroke. The percentage
of load may be judged approximately by the ratio of the total num-
ber of explosions to the total possible number of explosions per min-
ute, which can be counted without difficulty. This would be more
accurate by deducting from each the explosions per minute required
to run the motor unloaded. Gasoline engines require a certain mix-
ture of air and gasoline in the cylinder to obtain the best results from
the fuel. If the mixture is too strong or too weak the best results
can not be obtained. Thus by allowing too great a flow of gasoline
to the engine a large amount of fuel may be wasted. The proper
mixture of gasoline and air will depend in part on the quality of
gasoline used. Most gasoline engines are provided with a small
needle valve for regulating the flow of gasoline, with two positions
marked—one for the gasoline supply for starting and the other for
operation. By not setting this valve to the right point considerable
gasoline may be wasted. In general, it is well to throttle the supply
of gasoline to a point where the rate of explosion starts to increase
or the speed to fall off. Losses due to improper setting of this valve
may be very large. In California distillate has been used directly
502 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
in the engine cylinders in place of gasoline, thus reducing greatly the
cost of operating plants.
The following tables give detailed information regarding artesian
wells and pumped wells in southern Texas:
Location and description of artesian wells in southern Teayas.

Ö
º §
* $ º
Q) -
§: N f - § , : # Wat,
.* Q- 8, Dºle O - E. Q) 8ter”
Location. : Well. Kind of Well, § º § : * E Strata.
Q
rº rö à | 8 .d 8 &
ă # # | | | # º
- Q) Q)
2. ſº > U2 Q | I]
Gal- Gal-
lons perlons per
777,270,- || ???, ???-
wte. wte. Im. | Feet. | Feet.
Inez--------------- 1 ------------- Open bottom 10 -------------- 222 |-------
* * * * = * * * - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - do ------- 50 --------|------| 179 |-------
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do------- 30 --------|------ 705 |-------
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do ------- 10 -------------- 180 |-------
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do------- 10 --------|------ 425 |-------
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do------- 60 l.-------|------ 127 -------
Do ------------ 1 ----------------- -do ------- 60 --------|------ 114 |-------
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do-------| 20 --------|------ 50'l-------
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do ------- 9 --------|------ 127 -------
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do ------- 30 --------|------ 148 -------
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do ------- 8 --------|------ 17 -------
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do ------- 30 --------|------ 202 |-------
Do ------------ 1 ---------------------------- 20 -------- 2 || 330 - - -----
Do ------------ 1 -------------|--------------- 9 -------- 2 50 |-------
Do ------------ 1 -------------|--------------- 30 I-...------| 2 | 327 |-------
Do ------------ 1 ---------------------------- 150 |-------- 12 900 -------
Do ------------ 1 ------------- - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * 30 |-------- 5 880 28
Port Lavaca ------ 1 ------------- Strainer ---- 62 -------- 7 900 || ------- Sand.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do------- 173 |-------- 7 950 ------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do------- 173 |-------- 10 | 1,100 |------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do------- 35 -------- 7 900 ------- Do.
Victoria ---------- 1 ---------------------------- 100 --------|------ 1,062 |-------
San Antonio ------ 1 |-------------| Open bottom 700 -------- 10 | 1,020 11 | Caverns.
Do ------------ 4 ------------------ do -------|--------|--4.170 8 880 35 DO.
Do ------------ 5 ------------------ do--------------- ... }12 880 | 85 Do
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do -------|--------|-- 1,080 || 13 || 700 # É.
} & O
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do --------------- { +60 || 10 || 640 17 DO.
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do ------- 800 |-------- 6 1,500 15 Do.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----------------------- 45 6 1,474 16 || Lime rock.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|--------------- 300 -------- 6 1,200 20 | Caverns.
Do ------------ 1 |---------------------------- 200 -------- 4}. 884 20 Do.
Santa, Gertrudas - 1 | Santa, Ger-i Strainer -----------.. 81 51%. 565 i------- Sºnd.
trud a s
III.
Do ------------ 1 || Kingsville |----- do --------------- 113 ------|-------|------- Do.
Lapara ----------- 1 | Paistle I --|----- do--------------- 250 5%| 700 |------- DO.
Do ------------ 1 | Miflin -----|----- do ------- 180 -------- 6; 740 ------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 || Esperanza. ----- do ------- a 260 -------- 6# 740 ------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 | Bariosa ---|----- do ------- a 240 -------- 6# 700 - - ----- Do.
Do ------------ 1 | Serpa -----|----- do--------------- 307 6# 617 | ------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 Turcott ---|----- do ------- a 300 -------- 6# 787 ------- DO.
Do ------------ 1 | Alegos ----|----- do--------------- 212 53%. 865 ||------- Do.
Katherine -------- 1 Katherine |--------------- 60 -------- 6+ 730 ------- DO.
Do ------------ 1. omal-------------------- 100 -------- 3 820 ------- DO
Do ------------ 1 | Marana ---|---------------| 20 --------| 24 500 |------- DO
Do ------------ 1 | St.Thomas!------ - - - - - - - - - 60 -------- 6+ 730 || ------- DO
El Sauz ----------- 1. auz ---| Strainer ----|-------- . 127 51%. 1,462 |------- DO
Do ------------ 1 Rosita-----|--------------- a 170 -------- 5*| 1,100 ------- DO.
Do ------------ 1 Rudolf ----|--------------- 340 --------|------ 940 ------- DO.
Do ------------ 1 | Saltillo----|-Strait, er ---- *75 -------------- 900 |------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 | Noria -----|----- do------- a 175 -------- 4} 900 ------ - DO.
Falfurrias -------- 1 ------------- Open bottom -------- 90 5*|-------|------- Do.
25 #. - - - - - -tÅ of 2 - - - - - - m sº * * * * *- : - - - - - - - - - - - - ºn m. m. Ot 90 - - - - - 73 \ * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - tº * * * * = DO.
In 116S SOilt, El O
Talfurrias ------ ? -------------|----------------------- { 54 || 5* |-------|------- -
Carrizo Springs --| 1 ||------------- Open bottom 200 -------- 5% 600 1------- Sand rock.
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do ------- 192 |-------- 5* 640 |------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do------- 1,400 |-------- 12" | 720 - - - - - - - | Do.
a Estimated.
IRRIGATION IN souTHERN TEXAs. 503
.**
Location and description of artesian wells in southern Texas–Continued.


g
o C
# B. ... 3 .
5: TN f 3 =; : $3 wate
º {}- 8, Iſle O º º à têI’
Location. : Well. Kind of well. ; 'E § * Ł à Strata.
GD †† # | < || 2 || 3 ;
;C rt; ; 3 || 3 || 3
à | # | 3 || 3 | # 3
2. p3 > f Q |I.
Gal- Gal-
lons per long per
7min- mim-
wte. 'wte In Feet. | Feet.
Carrizo Springs --| 2 |-----. ------- Opºtion #|::::::: #| || || Sangºok.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- O ------- 150 -------- # 380 ------- Do.
Do ------------ 8 ------------------ do --------------- b 230 { 6 } 400 ------- Do
b 100 6
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do------------ i5 40 i. ; Tº B:
- - - - - - - - O.-
Do ------------ ? ---------------------------- { }}|… § #| || 19 | Po.
Do ------------ ? ------------- Open bottom -------- { § 1. § # É.
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do ------- a 125 -------- 8 640 1------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do--------------- 120 10 640 ------- Do.
Do ------------ ! ------------------ do-------|-------- b : 51%; 332 ||------- Do.
Do ------------ * !------------------ do--------------- b103 ||------ 400 ------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 ------------------ do ------- a 65 -------- 380 ------- Do-
Do ------------ '? -------------|--------------- { #|…] §§ 384 |------- Do.
550 ------- Do.
Do ------------ * !---------------------------- 80 -------- 6+ 420 ------- O.
Do ------------ ? ------------- Open bottom{ § }------- 51%. 636 ------- Do.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do ------- 87 -------- 4 406 |------- DO.
Do ------------ 1 -------------|----- do ------- 300 -------- 4; 449 12 DO
Do ------------ * !-------------|----- do ------- 175 -------- 6 380 l------- DO
a Estimated. b Calculated.
Location, and COSt of artesian wells in Southern Teacas.
Casing. Cost per Cost An-
foot. Cost - per nual
Esti- Cost,
1 |gºal Area|mated per | jºsſ'.
Location. Di- Tº: sººn irri- irri- acre wºlis *:
- Length.|ame-ſºº. 9. H. gated. gable irri: mated *
ter. ing. ing. lite. area. gated. to irri- ga-
gate. ted
Feet Im. Acres. 4cres
Ineż ------------- 800 | 13 ----------------------|------------------------------|--------|------
O----------- 390 9 ------|------|----------|--------------------------------------------
Do----------- 210 6 ------------------------------------------------------------------
Do----------- 515 5 ------------------------------------- * * * - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - - -
Do----------- 365 ? ------|----------------|--------------- * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * - - - - - - - - - -
Port Lavaca ----|----------|------|------|------ $6,300.00 ($101.50 |-------|-------|--------|--------|------
Do-----------|----------------|------------ 6,650.00 38.45 ------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Do--------------------------------------- 11,000.00 63.65 |-------|-------|--------|--------|------
Do-----------|---------------------------- 6,300.00 | 180,00 ------- * * * * * - - - - - - - * * * * : * * * * * * * * : - - - - - -
Victoria-------------------|------------------|----------------------------------------|---`-----|------
San Antonio ---- 854 10 $4.20 ($1.30 5,394.00 7.72 35.0 ------- $154.00 $269.70 |$19.48
O----------- 650 2.50 | 1.00 | 3,250.00 --------|-------|-------|--------|--------|------
Do----------- 650 | 12 5.30 | 1.70 || 5,770.00 1.38 ------------------------------------
Do---------------------------------------|------------------ 18, 5 100 ----------------|------
Do-----------|----------|------|------------ 10,000.00 8.78 180.0 500 55, 56 6
Do----------- 1,500 6 2.50 75 4,875.00 6.10 50.0 90 97. 54.17 | 11.7
. Do-----------|---------- 6 ------------ 4,000.00 00 50, 0 ------- 80.00 --------
Do--------------------- | 6 || 2.50 75 3,900.00 13.00 0 30 156.00 || 130 19.72
O-----------|---------- 4+ ------|------ 3,500,00 17.50 21.0 ||------- 166.67 -------- 20, 00
Santa Gertrudas!----------|------ 1.00 ------ 995.00 * !------------------------------------
L Do----------------- 200 5; 1.00 ſis fi - * * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * : * * * * * * * : - - - - * * * * : * * * * * * * * i - - - - - -
8|981'8---------- * - Fº
Do----------- 500 4} }1 00 |{ {, }1,176.00 4.70 -------|-------|--------|--------|----- -
Do----------- 371 6$ .00
Do----------- 5\};}1.00 78 |}1,475.00 8.20 ------------------------------|------
Do----------- 60 4+




504 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Location and cost of artesian wells in sowthern Teacas—Continued. .
Casing. Cººper cost An.
foot. Cost Esti- | Cost peº |nuº!
T É., | Area mated per |...}}}...] gºt
Location. e | | Total gallon | . ." §e wellis per
Length.|...] Bor: gas | * | #. gººd gaie º lºal:
*“|º. ing. ing. ute. area. gated. toirri-| ga-
gate. ted.
Feet, In . Acres.| Acres
Lapara.---------- 340 6; $1.00 --
Do----------- 385 5;}$1.00|{ .78|}$1,418.00; $5.46 |-------|-------|--------|--------|------
Do----------- 60 4+ .64
Do ---------- 411 6# 1.00
Do ---------- 225 5;}} 1.00; .78|} 1,388.00 5.76 ------ - I - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - I - * ~ * * *s
Do ---------- 160 4+ . 64
Do ---------- 60 | 6; 1. ()0
Do ---------- 460 | 5;} 1,008 . T8|} 1,251.00. 4.08 |-------|-------|--------|--------|------
Do ---------- 180 4+ .64
Do ---------- 425 6& 1.00
Do ---------- 247 5;} 1.008 . T8|} 1,555.00) 5, 18 |-------|-------|--------|-------. ------
Do ---------- 248 4+ . 64
Do ---------- 560 5; .78 -
- Do ---------- 700 4{T} 1. 10R .64|} 1,561.00 7.37 -------|-------|--------|--------------
Kaºis: #| # :
8, UDiél'IIlò - - - - - - 3. * *
#3 … §| # 1.00 #: 22.60 |------- * gº sº º º mº m i º ºn ºn ºn tº º ºs ºn sº º ºs º wºm º ºs ºg º sº tº º gº º
O ---------- + tº * tº
El sº * * * * * * * * * * ; ; 1.00 .# 1,857.00 22.60 -------|-------|--------|--------|------
Sauz --------- 3. .78 Py
#: * * * * * * * * * *m. sº #} 1.60 º 27.36 -------|-------|----------------------
O ---------- Eliºt, 5 ... 7 rº
#. & tº º ºs º nº º sº ºm m. º § 㺠1. 30 1.É. 2, 000,00; 11. ſt -------|-------|-- * = - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
O ---------- 8, I’ § g
B. :::::::::: ###| # }* .# 1,900.00 5.60 -------|-------|--------|--------------
O ---------- Il $ & *
cºś sº | # } 1.20% : 1,655,00--------|-------|-------|--------|--------------
arrizo SprlingS- I’t. # ------ e
Do -------* Sº #|: .67|ſ---------|-------- 23.5 50 l--------|--------|------
Do ---------- 48 || 5; 1.67 .78 1,107.00 5.77 50.0 50 $22.14 $22.14 $2.66
Do ---------- (a) 10 f i. 60h "...If 666.06| 5.56 30.0 -------|----------------|------
Do ---------- 90 5; {}}} .85% 663.60 × 5i } 48.0 60 || 31.90 22.14 || 3.82
Do ---------- 60 53 | 1.00 .81; 429.00 2.85 || 35.0 |------- 12.30 -------- 1. 48
Do ---------- 86 || 6 | 1.00 .90
Do ---------- 20 || 6 | 1.00 .90}} 1,312.00 3.97 || 100.0 200 | 13.12 6.51 | 1.57
Do ---------- 6 | 1.00 , 90
Do -------------------------- 1.10|------ 600.00. 15.00 7.0 - - - - - - - 85.71 ||-------- 10, 28
Do ---------- 55 43 | 1.00 .69 403.00. 26.85 } 30 30, 73
#. * * * gº º º mº me ºn as ; º #; .# 518.00. 20.70 |ſ------| “” -------- * * * | * as sº sº sº a
O ---------- º g *
Do ---------- 90 | 12 ||------ gº! 926.00 8.95 |400.0|-------|--------|--------|-----
Do ----------|----------------|------|----------------|-------- 27.0 ---------------|--------|------
Do ---------- 35 | 10 ||------ 1.56]------------------ 88.0 -------|-------- sº º ºr sº wº º ºs º * * * * * *
Do ----------|----------|------|------------|------------------ 12.0 -------|--------|--------------
Do ----------|---------------- * * * * m * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 28.0 20 --------|--------|------
Do ----------|----------------|------4------|------------------ 10.0 -----------------------|------
Do --------------------|------ {}}|...] §§ ##} 12.0|------- 64.00 |--------| 7.68
Do --------------------|------ 1. 101------ 1,200.00; 15. 30.0 30 | 40.00 40.00 || 4, 80
Do ----------|----------|------|------|------|----------|-------- 20.0 ---------------|--------|------
Do ----------|----------|------------|------|------------------ 15.0 15 --------|--------|------
Do ---------- 165 || 4 | 1.00 . 60 548.00) 1.83 || 48.0 -------| 11.41 ||--------| 1.37
Do ----------|----------------|------|------|----------|-------- 100.0 -------|--------|--------|------

a To first water stratum.
IRRIGATION IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.
505
Location and description of pumped wells used for irrigation in southern Teacas.

£g g
bſ) :
* | ## 3;
#|## B. §§
*s 3. q} ; * r: 8 bº)
Location. ‘8 # Kind of well. B. 3 : § # Water strata.
# gº § | # # | 3 ||3:
3 : 5 ro p ‘5 .c. #3
à |# # | 3 | | | # |##
.3r: *: .S § #3
24 Q £d > Ú2 Q Q
Gals.perigals.per
Feet St. minº; 7minute. # * Fº: Sand and
- - rainer -----| 600 --------- nd and gravel.
Victoria --------- 2 { 24 H----- do -------- 500 --------- 90 36 Do.
Do ----------- 1 ---------------------- 70 --------------- 115 54 | Sand.
Do ----------- 1 5 !----------------|------------------ 11; 230 25 DO.
a 300 l.-------- 8
Inez-------------- 3 38 ---------------- a 150 --------- 8 } 270 17 Do.
a 300 --------- 8
San Antonio ----- ? ------ Open bottom- 80 --------- 8 { # -: Limºjock
Do ----------- 1 ----------------------|--------- 600 ------ 1, 76 Do.
Do ----------- 2 |------ Openbottom: ; } - - - - - - - - 6 { § # B.
Do ----------- 1 45 |----- do ----------------- 2,417 | 12 | 1,005 2 DO.
Do ----------- 1 31 -----do --------|--------- 433 6 980 2 Do.
Beeville ---------- 1 35 ----- do-------- 45 --------------- 100 65 | Porous rock.
Do ----------- 1 ----------- do ----------------- 37 51%. 175 40
Do ----------- 1 (b) |----- do-------------------------- 5*-------------
Do ----------- 1 ----------- do --------|------------------ 6+ 90 |------
Do ----------- 1 ----------- do ----------------- 30 6 . 60 35 ; Gravel.
Do ----------- 1 ----------- do-------- 28 --------- 5fs 59 24 Sand.
Do ----------- 1 ----------- do ----------------- 28 6 160 44
Do ----------- 1 ----------- do --------|--------- 11 100 45
Do ----------- 1 ------ Pug ----------|---------|--------- c 72 80 ------
Do ----------- 1 ------ Open bottom-|--------- 5 5* 93 50
Do ----------- 1 64 |----- do----------------- 234 6; 225 40 | Sand.
Uvalde----------- 3 (d) ||----- do -------- 1,000 --------- 6 100 33 Gravel.
Moore------------ 2 | 20 !-----do -------- { }}-------. 5# 100 35 | Sand rock.
Pearsall --------- 1 ------|----- do-------- 60 --------- 5; 100 45 DO.
Do ----------- ? ----------- do --------|-- 125 --------- 6 |{ }; } 38 DO.
Do ----------- 1 ----------- do -------- 45 --------- gº # ; #.
O.
Do ----------- ? ------|----- do -------- 110 !--------- { 64 201 || 46
Derby------------ ? ---------------------- 120 --------- {1} } 200 40 Do.
Devine ----------- 1 ------|---------------- 46 --------- 6 110 !------
a Estimated. b Six inches per gallon per minute. c Square d Slightly.
506
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
*
Location and COSt of pumped wells used for irrigation in Southern Teayas.

º Cost per
C tº - Cost
aSling foot. Cost º per | Time
* Esti- || Cost *
Total ºn Area ºd per wiis quºted
Location. Dºle, loss |*|* :alji, ºf wº
- Bor- gas- * ... [gated. gable irrl- **
Length *...*|ing. |ing. º area. gated. tº *::::
gate.
Feet, Im. Acres. Acres, FIowºrs
Victoria ------------------------|--------------------------- 20.0 -------|----------------
Po-------------|--------------|--------------------|-------- 50.0 ---------------|-------- tº º sº. * sº tº mº º
1194---------------|--------|------|------|------|--------|-------- 200,0 200 --------|--------|--------
San Antonio ------ 500 8 $3.25 $1.00 $2,815 $35,20 |-------|-------|--------|--------|--------
Po-------------|--------------|---------------------------- 86.0 -------|--------|----------------
Do------------- { }| # 3.30 (#|} 4,500 | 1.86 |350,0|....... $12.86 ||--------|--------
DQ------------- 97() 6 2.01 | .75 2,700 6, 22 120, 0 200 22.50 $13.50 ||--------
Beeville ----------- 175 5* .50 | . 60 193 5.20 20.0 |------- 9.65 ----------------
Do------------- 40 6} | .50 .80 77 |-------- 10.0 |------- 7.70 --------|--------
Do------------- 60 6 . 50 | . 75 75 2.50 7.0 |------- 10.71 --------|--------
Do------------- 53 || 5* .55 ! .60 | 64 2.29 |-------|-------|--------|--------|--------
Po-------------|--------|------|------|------|--------|-------- 4.0 -------|--------|----------------
Pºº------------|---is---|-----|------ 70 14.00 -------|-------|--------|--------|--------
Uvalde------------ { # º } * * * * * r * * *wo* I ºm m = * * si is* º ºs ºs = * * * * = gº sº as sº = * * * * * * * : * * * *m sº sº sº º sº * * * * * * *
§ * e e
Moore------------- { #| #|}.50 |{:}}| #| ##|} 9.0|------- 18.00 l--------|--------
Pearsall-----------|----- 12 || || 6 : 75` § . 87 4.0 ------- 12.25 ----------------
- e , ſo
Do------------- { #| | | #| #| #|} 1.00 6.0|....... 20.83 --------|--------
Do------------- 216 5* .50 | . .60 250 5. 55 8.5 ------- 29.40 --------|--------
Do------------- { }| || $|*}| ſº | 1.79 23.0 ------- 8.61 ----------------
a Feet square.
Investment per acre irrigated by pumping plants in Southern Teacas.

Cost Of Investment per acre.
pºis Total invest- Area, irri- s
jº ment. * | * | total
Steam: Acres.
Wood -------------------------- $109,940.00 || $119,125.00 9,790. 5 $11.21 $12.18
Coal---------------------------- 16,800.00 30,500. CO 855. 19.67 35. 70
Oil ----------------------------- 85,300.00 85,300.00 5,100.0 16. 72 16. 72
Total------------------------- 212,040.00 234,925.00 15,745.5 13.47 14.92
Electricity------------------------- 3,000.00 3,000.00 400.0 7.50 7.50
Gasoline --------------------------- 18,290.00 31,530.00 483.5 37.90 65.20.
Total------------------------- 233,330.00 269,455.00 16,629.0 14.00 16, 20
'Investment per water horsepower pumping plants in southern Teacas.

Investment per water
f 99*9t. Total invest.] water horsepower.
pumping
lant. ment. horsepower. Pumping
p .# Total.
Steam: -
Wood -------------------------- $117,690.00 $126,875.00 807. 70 $146.00 $157.00
Coal---------------------------- 18,800.00 32,500.00 206.36 91.00 158.00
Oil ----------------------------- 85,300.00 85,300.00 1,034.00 83.00 83.00
Total------------------------- 221,790.00 244,675.00 2,048.06 108.00 119.00
Electricity------------------------- 3,000.00 3,000.00 52. 30 57.00 57.00
Gasoline --------------------------- 21,455.00 35,815.00 56. 12 382.00 638, 00
Total------------------------- 246,245.00 283,490.00 2,156.48 114.00 132.00
#81. ‘3 || 009 3#9 26), ‘I 00!,"90I | 0'00;
KūIOI?HALOGITGI
39; ‘g | #58 ‘g 93 939 “I 030'8& 0 “TT3
0.13 012 ---------- 09 §II 0 '93
,993 gig ---------- 93 #98. I 0 °9
093 19L ---------- 80I 93; "I 0 '6
99T 031 ---------- !ºk, 0 °09
#8 |---------- 0.9.I 0 '81.
93.9 #0} ---------- &I f{Q.I 0 '8T
#g I---------- 00I 063 ‘I 0 '9
OII 00I ---------- 0I 88 0 1.
99T ---------- 033°I 0'03
$ 011 ||---------- 09 090 “I 0 °8
SS; ‘I | 0g I ‘I 89 Q:S3 08), ‘9 0 '98
* * * * * * * * * * 963 (86.4 0'09
I63 16I ---------- #6 Ożg "I 0 03
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1,16'98 || 090'ſ.I Igg'3 963'9I 00; ‘83; ‘I 0'00I 'g
1683, Q93.3 §3. 9%, Qºţ.8%I. Q003.
380°33 008'3I 8.83 °3 000°9'I 000'013 "I 0'009'8
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93.8 963. I 999 969"I QºI Q.0%
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9I9 °3 || Of I ‘I 86 I 813 "I ()09'99 0 0&I
"TWOO
Of I ‘LI #39'6 g[8‘I I08°g #99'6% g'93; ‘I
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1.3% 993 6I 3# gū.g 0'00ſ
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196, I08 003 9996 .
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1933 |008 989 891. Q.90I | Q.9%
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sº ... ." º ...” A z * +- y?" ,-- -
º; : * ~ * Z. * - º r * * -
* <> * -> >
3.x 2^.” UBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON
* ...+. f •x -º * 3.
#'." * a A * • A
*: º * *
** ...x: « w” *. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. .
: A'. - * * * A 2. ... *~~ A A t z
wº
Rs. ~5. º
}, ... , 53. * * &
* ... Note:-Publications marked with an asterisk (*) are not available for distribution.
... *
xº~
..., z º.º.Bul, 36. Notes on Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. Pp. 64.
.."
3: ... Bul, 58. Water Rights on the Missouri River and its Tributaries. Pp. 80.
v. Bul. 60. Abstract of Laws for Acquiring"Titles to Water from the Missouri River
t; " * -. and its Tributaries, with the Legal Forms in Use. Pp. 77.
.*.*.*. Bul, 70. Water-right Problems of Bear River. Pp. 40.
* * *-
* * *
*
'...' *Bul. 73. Irrigation in the Rocky Mountain States. Pp. 64.
Bul. 81. The Use of Water in Irrigation in Wyoming. Pp. 56.
* . Bul. .86. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 253. –
... Bul. 87. Irrigation in New Jersey. Pp. 40.
…', Bul. 90. Irrigation in Hawaii. Pp. 48. *
"* ... Bull, 92. The Reservoir System of the Cache la Poudre Valley. Pp. 48.
Bul. 96. Irrigation Laws of the Northwest Territories of Canada and of Wyoming.
S / . . . Pp. 90. f 2. -
Bul. 100. Report of Irrigation Investigations in California. Pp. 411.
Bül. 104. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 334.
~ * *Bul. 105. Irrigation in the United States. Pp. 47.
, , Bul. 108. Irrigation Practice among Fruit Growers on the Pacific Coast. Pp. 54.
Bul. 113. Irrigation of Rice in the United States. Pp. 77.
Bul. 118, Irrigation from Big Thompson River. Pp. 75.
Bul. 119. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1901. Pp. 401.
K Bul. 124. Report of Irrigation Investigations in Utah. Pp. 330.
. . . Bul. 130. Egyptian Irrigation. Pp. 100.
Bul. 131. Plans of Structures in Use on Irrigation Canals in the United States. Pp.
* . ~ * 51.
• Bul. 133. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1902. Pp. 266.
, , Bul. 134. Storage of Water on Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson Rivers. Pp. 100.
Bul. 140. Acquirement of Water Rights in the Arkansas Valley, Colorado. Pp. 83.
. . . . Bül. 144. Irrigation in Northern Italy. Part I. Pp. 100.
y - Bul. 145. Preparing Land for Irrigation and Methods of Applying Water. Pp. 84.
Bul. 146. Current Wheels: Their Use in Lifting Water for Irrigation. Pp. 38.
... : Bul. 147. Report on Drainage Investigations, 1903. Pp. 62. 4. t
Bul. 148. Report on Irrigation Investigations in Humid Sections of the United States
J. . . in 1903. Pp. 45. *
.. Bul. 157; Water Rights on Interstate Streams. Pp. 116.
tº
}
...”
w.
*
*-
~~
* *.
*
*.
ºw,
*
**
~ *.
* \,
2 • {
*
x * FARMERS’ BULLETINs.
... Bul, 46. i. in Humid Climates. Pp. 27.
Bul. 116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. Pp. 48.
... Bul. 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. Pp. 40. -
... Bul: 158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Pp. 28.
“” Bul, 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. Pp. 40.
+-
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Review of the Irrigation Work of the Year 1904. By R. P.Teele. Pp. I-75: ;
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- Irrigation in Santa Clara Valley, California. By S. Fortier. Pp. 76–91. . . .
- Mechanical Tests of Pumping Plants used for Irrigation. By J. N. Le Gonte...
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The Distribution and Use of Water in Modesto and Turlock Irrigation Districts, Calº.º.
- ifornia. By Frank Adams. Pp. 93–139. * --- º
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Relation of Irrigation to Yield, Size, Quality, and Commercial Suitability of. ruits...º.
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Irrigation Conditions in Imperial Valley, California. By J. E. Roadhouse. , Pp. zº
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Irrigation in Klamath County, Qregon. By F. L. Kent. Pp. 257–266. - . ~~ 3. tº:
Irrigation Investigations in the Yakima Valley, Washington, 1904. By O. L.Waller: º
Pp. 267–278. - T . . . . º.
Irrigation Conditions in Raft River Water District, Idaho, 1904. By W. F. Bartlettº.
Pp. 279–302. ----. . . . *, * sº
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SEPARATE No. 5. - - -á, -º
*- - tº -- -- * * -: . 2. ~ x
Irrigation Investigations at New Mexico Experiment Station, Mesilla Park, 1904, º
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By J. J. Vernon. Pp. 303–317. a-4- . . . . * * * *
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Irrigation Investigations in Western Texas. By Harvey Culbertson. Pp. 319-340; º;
Pumping Plants in Texas. By C. E. Tail. Pp. 341–346. - wº- - **ś, ź
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SEPARATE No. 6. -- - - - - - -
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Irrigation in Southern Texas. By Aug. J. Bowie, jr. Pp. 347–507. -- * * * * > . . .”
SEPARATE No. 7. ~ . . . . . . 2' r".
Rice Irrigation in Louisiana and Texas in 1903 and 1904. By W. B. Gregory., Pp.º
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Irrigation Experiments at Fort Hays, Kansas, 1903 and 1904. By J. G. Haney.-Pp: ; ºr
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567--583. . *** - 3.
Irrigation near Garden City, Kansas. 1904. By A. B. Collins and A. E. Wright-ºxº
Pp. 585–594. ^ ** . .” -- “...º:
Pumping Plants in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas. By O. V. P. Stout. *Pp. 595-º º
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Irrigation near Rockyford, Colorado, 1904. By A. E. Wright. Pp. 609-623. ~s * * *
The Irrigation and Drainage of Cranberry Marshes in Wisconsin. By A. R. Whitson: ".
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Pp. 625–642. •r *. º:
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Report of Drainage Investigations, . By C. G. Elliott. Pp. 643–743. - * * §3.
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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
z/S OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONs,
º-
A. C. TRUE, DIRECTOR.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
UNIDER THE DIRECTION OF
ELWOOD MEAD,
CHIEF OF IRRIGATION AND DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS.
SEPARATE NO. 7:
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS IN 1903 AND 1904.
By W. B. GREGORY, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Tulane University.
RICE IRRIGATION ON THE PRAIRIE LAND OF ARKANSAS.
By C. E. TAIT, Irrigation Engineer. (In cooperation with Arkansas Agricul-
tural Experiment Station.)
#
[Reprint from Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

1905.
* * %.
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director.
E. W. ALLEN, Ph. D., Assistant Director.
IIRRIGATION AND DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS.
ELwooD MEAD, Chief.
C. G. ELLIOTT, in Charge of Drainage Investigations.
S. M. Woodward, in Charge of Irrigation Investigations.
R. P. TEELE, Earpert in Irrigation Institutions.
C. J. ZINTHEO, in Charge of Farm Mechanics. ^.
SAMUEL ForTIER, in Charge of Pacific District.
F. C. HERRMANN, Earpert in Irrigation as Related to Dry Farming.
II
!…+
*
*
7- 0, -/4 3 ×
CONTENTS.
Page.
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS IN 1903 AND 1904. By W. B.
GREGORY -------------------------------------------------------------- 509
The season of 1903---------------------------------------------------- 509
The season of 1904---------------------------------------------------- 510
Methods of farming -------------------------------------------------- 514
The waterweed------------------------------------------------------- 516
Drainage ------------------------------------------------------------ 517
Effect of Salt water--------------------------------------------------- 518
The Mermentau dam ------------------------------------------------- 519
Use of water--------------------------------------------------------- 524
Duty of water at Estherwood, La., in 1903 ----------------------------- 526
Duty of water at Eagle Lake, Tex., in 1903 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 527
Duty of Water in 1904------------------------------------------------- 529
Duty of water at Estherwood, La., in 1904 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 530
Duty of water at Crowley, La., in 1904 ---------------------------- 531
Duty of water at Nottawa, Tex., in 1904 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 532
Comparison of results of water measurements in rice irrigation for four
Year'S - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 533
Evaporation --------------------------------------------------------- 534
Pumping plants.------------------------------------------------------ 534
Pumping plants of the large canals -------------------------------- 535
Results at two large pumping plants ------------------------------- 537
The Miller-Morris plant -------------------------------------- 537
The Abbeville plant----------------------------------------- 539
Small pumping plants -------------------------------------------- 540
Fuels---------------------------------------------------------------- 542
Texas storage dams--------------------------------------------------- 542
Unpolished rice------------------------------------------------------ 543
Oil and feed from rice ------------------------------------------------ 543
Rice straw ----------------------------------------------------------- 544
RICE IRRIGATION ON THE PRAIRIE LAND OF ARKANSAs. By C. E. TAIT------ 545
Early experiments --------------------------------------------------. 545
Rice experiment station ---------------------------------------------- 547
Planting, watering, and harvesting rice -------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 555
Other pumping plants used for rice irrigation in Arkansas in 1904 ------- 559
The Morris plant------------------------------------------------- 559
The Fuller plant ------------------------------------------------- 560
The Boysen plant ------------------------------------------------ 563
Diversified farming--------------------------------------------------- 564
ILLUSTRATIONS,
PLATE.
Page.
PLATE VIII. Details of Mermentau dam.....----------------------------. 520
TEXT FIGURES.
FIG. 68. Plan of rice field at Estherwood, La- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 526
69. Plan of rice field at Eagle Lake, Tex - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 528
70. Method of making joint between strainer and well casing- - - - - - - - - - - 550
71. Disks for closing bottom of well casing ---------------------------- 551
72. Section of field levee, Lonoke, Ark-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 554
73. Section of strainer------------------------------------------------ 559
74. Jet process of sinking wells--------------------------------------- 561
IV
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS IN 1903 AND
1904. *
By W. B. GREGORY,
Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Tulane University.
THE SEASON OF 1903.
The copious rains of the winter and spring and the tardiness of the
warm weather were accountable for a delay in planting of from three
to four weeks during the season of 1903. It was impossible to plow
the ground at the usual time and the backwardness of the season made
it undesirable to plant the rice as early as usual. A cold north wind,
about the 1st of June, seemed to blast the tender leaves of the rice
plants in Some Sections, causing fear of permanent injury to the
early rice. The abnormally cool weather continued until about the
middle of June, after which time the climatic conditions for the re-
mainder of the season were almost ideal. The temperature was high
and the air possessed considerable humidity; the frequent rains were
distributed over the entire rice belt. Of course there were small sec-
tions in which the rainfall was not as plentiful and as well distributed
as in others, but in general the rainfall was sufficient to produce Provi-
dence rice throughout the rice belt. However, the rainfall was not
sufficiently great to cause the large pumping plants to close down; in
fact, many of them reported an average season, so far as the amount
of water pumped was concerned, But in cases where new pumping
plants had been hastily erected and where trouble was experienced on
that account enough rain fell to produce a good crop in many cases
where, in average years, complete failure would have resulted.
There was no increase in the total acreage of the rice crop in Loui-
siana in 1903 over that of the preceding year. In the vicinity of
Crowley there was a reduction in acreage variously estimated at from
20 to 25 per cent. This was partly due to the inability of farmers
to prepare the land in time to finish seeding at a date early enough to
promise a fair crop. Another cause was the fact that on land where
rice had been raised for several years it had become evident that the
soil needed a rest and that it would be unprofitable to continue plant-
ing the same fields in rice indefinitely. In Texas there was an in-
crease in acreage due to the development of new territory; this in-
crease was about 25 per cent over the acreage of the previous year.
509
510 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The weather prevailing during the growing Season, after the mid-
dle of June, when cold spring changed to warm Summer, was, as has
been said, very favorable to the rapid growth of the rice. The ap-
pearance of the crop was good, giving promise of a bountiful harvest.
Dry weather prevailed from the beginning of harvest and long after
the last of the rice had been thrashed and removed from the fields.
A belief was prevalent during the early days of the thrashing sea-
son that the yield of the entire crop would be above that of the average
years, but as the thrashing was continued it became evident that the
crop grown from late planting was yielding much less than that of
the earlier planting. The best yields were obtained from fields
planted before May 1. Good yields were obtained from seeding
during the first half of May, while the yield from rice planted late
in May and in June was not so good.
The quality of the crop was excellent and there was not as much
red rice as usual. The early rice proved to be superior to the late in
quality as well as quantity.
The spring of 1904 found nearly 1,000,000 pockets, 100,000,000
pounds, or nearly one-fifth of the total crop of 1903, in the various
mills and warehouses of the rice country, because the owners were
unwilling to sell at the prevailing low prices. r
THE SEASON OF 1904,
The dry weather which prevailed during the harvesting season of
1903 extended into the winter months up to the time of preparation
for a new crop. The situation was then relieved by sufficient rain
to render the soil moist and in good condition to receive the seed
throughout most of the rice country. Even in places where little rain
had fallen there was some moisture in the soil. Much of the plow-
ing had been finished by February 15, and two or three weeks later
some early rice was sown. *
While there was enough moisture in the soil to insure the germina-
tion of the seed, the rains had not been sufficient to affect the streams
which are used for irrigation purposes. In the latter part of Feb-
ruary salt water was reported in the Calcasieu River north of Lake
Charles, a very unusual occurrence at any season of the year.
An opening had been made in the temporary structure of the
Mermentau dam in August, 1903, to allow the navigation of the
river. (See p. 520.) Before March 1, when the dam was closed by the
permanent structure, the Salt water had entered the lower river, and
as the rainfall was very light there was no surface drainage to be
carried off and consequently there was no current. The amount of
salt water present in the lower river was great enough to cause some
apprehension early in the Season, and as Soon as irrigation was begun
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 511
the pumps produced a backward flow. By the latter part of May
there was a scarcity of water throughout the rice country, both in
streams and wells.
The weather of the first two weeks of April was abnormally cool and
had a bad effect on the early rice. During the latter part of April
more or less abundant rain fell over nearly all the rice belt. The
evaporation was high, due to the warm weather, and the soil was
capable of absorbing a considerable quantity of water; as a result,
the surface drainage which found its way into the irrigating streams
was too small to have an appreciable effect in raising the level of
these streams.
In the Mermentau country, when it had become evident that there
was a possibility of trouble with the salt water, the owner of each
pumping plant was desirous of getting as much of the fresh water as
was possible before the salt invasion: besides, the rice needed much
water. The effect of continued, universal pumping was to hasten the
time when the water was too salty to be used in irrigating rice.
During the first week of June the condition of the crop in both
Louisiana and Texas was fairly good. There was need of rain and
some signs of distress in fields of young rice. At this time some of
the plants along the Laccasine and the lower parts of the Mermentau
were pumping brackish water; a similar state of affairs existed
south of Beaumont on Taylors Bayou. The plant of the Abbeville
Canal Company, taking water from Bayou Vermilion, was closed
down because of salt water on June 21, and did not resume pumping
until July 9. While pumping plants near Crowley were pumping a
part of the time and the water was comparatively fresh, many of the
plants farther down the river had ceased to pump. Near Lowry
pumping was discontinued as early as June 13. The Lichtenstein
& Hechinger plant, on Bayou Queue de Tortue, stopped pumping on
June 27, when it became known that a sample of water taken the
previous day contained 142 grains of salt per gallon.
About June 20 the rice country of Texas received abundant rains,
and a week later there were plentiful rains in the Louisiana rice
district. Well-distributed rains continued throughout the remainder
of the irrigation season and into the harvesting time for the early
rice. So much rain fell that the last ten days of June practically
marked the end of the pumping season for most of the large plants,
although they did a little desultory pumping after that time.
The rainfall was not only sufficient in many cases to supply the
needs of the growing rice, but also soon raised the water in the
rivers and bayous. Before these heavy rains occurred the Mermentau
and its tributaries had had their water level considerably reduced,
so much so that at times the water on the inside of the dam was 4
feet lower than mean-tide level.
512 . IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Samples of water were taken on July 18 and 19 at various points
on the Mermentau, including water from the Gulf side of the dam
and as far upstream as the village of Mermentau. These samples
were sent to Washington and analyses made by the Bureau of
Chemistry of the United States Department of Agriculture.
It will be noted that this was after the rains had become general
throughout that district. The stream had risen somewhat at this
time. For instance, the Bayou Plaquemine, at the Miller-Morris
plant, had risen about 1.5 feet above the lowest level recorded, which
was during the last week of June. The samples obtained, therefore,
in all probability do not exhibit the worst conditions of the season of
1904, but they show that the problem was serious and that the oppor-
tune rainfall was quite necessary to avert a calamity and save the
late rice.
The principal salts that have an injurious effect on the rice crop
are sodium chlorid, or common salt, magnesium chlorid, and potas-
sium chlorid. The reports of analyses made of irrigation waters
in this part of the country have usually been approximate, and all
the chlorid has been computed as sodium chlorid and the amount
contained given as so many grains per gallon of water analyzed.
For the above reasons, and to render the results of general interest
and in such form that the principal result will not be lost in too much
detail, the complete results will not be given, and only the number of
grains of the chlorids of sodium, magnesium, and potassium com-
puted per gallon of water. As a matter of interest it may be said
that the amount of magnesium chlorid varied from about 6.4 to 13
per cent of the total amount of the chlorids, and the potassium
chlorid from about 1.7 to 2.7 per cent of the total amount.
The table given below shows the locality where the samples were
taken and the amount of salts present. All samples were taken
within 2 feet of the surface of the water. Previous analyses, made
in 1902 by the Bureau of Chemistry, showed conclusively that the
amount of Salt is much greater in the deeper water.
Salts in water taken from the Mermentau River July 18 and 19, 1904.
Grains
per gallon.
Seaside of Mermentau dam___________________ ___________ 1, 167
Upper Side Of Mermentau dam____________________________ 802
Center of Mud Lake------------------------------------- 635
LOWer end of Grand Lake_------------------------------- 240
Center of Grand Lake------------------------------------ 211
Upper end of Grand Lake-------------------------------- 186
Halfway between Lowry and Houcks_____________________ 175
Center of Lake Arthur–––––––––––––––-------------------- 161
Mermentau River at mouth of Bayou Queue de Tortue______ ÚT
Bayou Queue de Tortue at Lightenstein & Hechinger plant__ 132
Mermentau River at Mermentau, La-______________________ 74
RICE IRRIG ATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 513
The effect of the rainfall and the resultant irregularity in the
demand for water in different parts of the territory is shown by a
comparison of the water taken from the Mermentau at the mouth
of Bayou Queue de Tortue with that taken at the Lightenstein &
Hechinger plant. The result given in the table is the mean of two
Samples, one taken at a depth of 6 feet and the other at a depth of
20 feet. For some reason the first sample showed a greater amount
of salt than that taken at a greater depth. However, two samples
taken August 13 showed a greater amount of Salt at a lower depth.
These samples were taken at depths of 6 and 21 feet and showed an
average amount of only 7.5 grains of Salt per gallon.
The harvest season was unusually early. Rain continued almost
daily several weeks.after harvesting was begun, causing considerable
damage to the early crop, much of which was chalky or overripe and
of a poor quality. By October 1 harvesting was reported more than
half finished on the Gulf coast. Only a small amount of thrashing
had been done up to this time, owing to the prevalence of local
showers.
The rice harvested from the late planting was of a better quality
than the early rice, as the climatic conditions for harvesting and
thrashing were much improved later in the season. . However, the
crop of 1904 was inferior to that of 1903, both in quantity and
quality, and this inferiority was not confined to the rice raised along
streams where salt water had appeared. While undoubtedly there
was some damage done by irrigation with salt water, even the
so-called “river' rice, irrigated with water from the Mississippi,
and also that of the Teche country, were in every way inferior to the
previous crop. The climatic conditions up to October 1 were very
unusual, in fact different from any yet experienced since the develop-
ment of the rice industry in this section. Growing weather con-
tinued through September, the days and nights being warm and the
daily rains supplying the moisture to keep the air well saturated.
In some instances a second crop of rice was raised, an unheard-of
experience previous to last year.
The effect of the moisture was to render the rice chalky, and to take
away its milling qualities. The weather after October 1 was favor-
able to harvesting and thrashing, but the grain proved inferior,
although an improvement on that gathered during the wet period. It
seems to be an impossibility to have more than an average crop in any
instance from late sowing.
The problem of disposing of the rice crop has been the cause of
considerable advertising during the last two years. The Rice Kitchen
at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis did much toward
making rice extensively and favorably known as a food. Several
30620–No. 158—05—33
514 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
large concerns in the North and West have been retailing a fair grade
of rice for 5 cents per pound, a price considerably below that usually
charged.
A distributing company was organized at Crowley and began busi-
ness on August 1. It controls several large rice mills, buys and sells
on commission, and conducts a general warehousing business. Sev-
eral sales of considerable magnitude have been made by this company
in foreign countries.
The area planted to rice in Louisiana in 1904 was reported by the
United States Department of Agriculture to be 376,500 acres, while
that of Texas was 234,200 acres. The total area in the United States
was 662,006 acres. The combined acreage of Louisiana and Texas is
therefore 99.2 per cent of the total area.
METHODS OF FARMING.
The broad low contour levee advocated in a previous publication
on rice irrigation " has not been generally adopted; however, it is
growing in favor, and was used to some extent in the vicinity of
Crowley during the last two seasons. Its construction is more expen-
sive and requires more time than the older form of levee. A road
machine is needed for its construction, and many of the small farm-
ers do not own one of these implements. The growing of rice, rather
than weeds, on the levees is certainly desirable, as is the ability to
drive all implements used in the cultivation of the land and in plant-
ing and harvesting the rice over the levees in any direction, instead
of treating each “cut” as a separate field. The difference of level
of the land within a “cut” is much less than that used in the early
days of rice planting; 2.5 to 3 inches is commonly used now, while
as much as 6 inches was not unusual a few years ago. The rays of the
Sun penetrate and warm shallow water, but have little effect with a
depth of half a foot. Often the best rice in the field is raised on top
of the broad levees, where the ground is wet but is not covered with
water. In former times, when the difference of level between the
highest and the lowest ground in a “cut” was half a foot, it was
noticed that often the finest rice grew on the highest ground, which was
sometimes covered with water and sometimes without water on its
surface. Fresh water applied to a rice field two or three times in a
season will give better results than when water is allowed to stand on
the fields continuously throughout the irrigating season.
By the use of the broad levee the available area for rice is
increased over the old method and the field is kept free from weeds.
Levees of either class ought to be of sufficient height and strength to
hold a reasonable amount of rainfall and so effect an economy of
a U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 113.
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 515
flood water. However, the downpours in some parts of the rice
country during the seasons of 1903 and 1904 were so excessive that the
depth of water on the fields would have been too great, even if the
field was in need of irrigation at the time; in such a case part of the
water must necessarily be wasted.
Water, as used in rice irrigation in Louisiana and Texas, not only
supplies a necessary condition for the growth of the plant, but also
contributes to the success of the rice crop by destroying the weeds.
Rice is an aquatic plant and thrives in water, but too great a depth
causes the stalks to “spindle * up, and later in the season to be more
readily blown down by winds and storms. Excellent rice has been
raised on ground that was not submerged, but merely moist, but to
use this method generally would require some cultivation to get rid of
the weeds. By the present system of culture the weeds are killed
when the ground is flooded with water, as few of them are aquatic.
The cool weather of April, 1904, prevented the early rice from
being flooded at the usual times, and when flooded the plants were
attacked in many sections by a white worm about one-fourth to
three-eighths of an inch in length and having a red head. These
worms flourished best in grass-infested fields. To turn the water off
and dry the land was an effective method of disposing of this pest,
but in grassy fields turning the water off meant giving up the rice to
the grass, while keeping it on the fields meant ruin from worms.
About the time water was turned off of fields that had been planted
early it became necessary to irrigate the late planting. At this time,
as already noted, water was very low in streams and in wells, while
evaporation was high. This condition gave the weeds and grass a
chance at the late rice, which went through the experience of the early
planting. The result was a thin stand in many instances. Of course,
there were some fields which produced large yields.
The condition of the soil for late planting in 1904 was such that
much rice was planted deeper than usual, and this resulted in slow
growth. The lack of moisture was relieved in part by timely rains,
which helped to save the stand.
During the season of 1904, crops in the rice country have been
diversified more than ever before. This result was brought about,
at least partially, by the low price of rice and the high price of cotton.
Farmers have raised a large part of the supplies which they need, and
in many instances have realized good returns on crops other than rice.
Cotton was planted in southwestern Louisiana in 1904 to a greater
extent than in former years. In fact, up to a year or two ago cotton
was looked upon as one of the impossible crops for that region.
Good crops were reported in some instances, but in general the season
was too wet for cotton. Another difficulty was found in the lack of
drainage, the importance of which was often underestimated, and
516 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
which was rendered difficult by the fact that the rice land is nearly
level and the amount of surface water large. v . :
The poorer grades of rice are being used to feed stock, and it is
claimed that this is the only way in which a value above the cost of
production can be realized. Rice will undoubtedly continue to be the
principal crop of the coast country, the cotton, corn, potatoes, and
garden truck being incidental. These enable the farmers to become
independent of the merchant and to live well without getting hope-
lessly in debt during years when the rice crop fails to fulfill expecta-
tions. There is a growing realization of the fact that it is a much
better policy on the part of farmers to plant only the amount of rice
that can be properly attended to rather than to sow more land
than can be thoroughly prepared, watered, and harvested.
As a money crop, rice must be of good quality to be a success, as
only the higher grades are profitable to raise at present prices. In
the future greater care will be exercised in the selection of seed,
in the preparation of the land, in applying water, and in every detail
which will tend to produce a better grade of rice.
. Much of the rice land of Texas, of recent development, is a black,
waxy soil of great fertility. The cost of working this land is perhaps.
$3 per acre more than the cost of working clay or clay-loam soils,
but the increase in yield is sufficient to more than compensate the
increased cost of production.
THE waterweBD.
A strange weed has appeared in the rice country of Southwestern
Louisiana and eastern Texas. It had been sufficiently distributed
during the season of 1903 to attract attention and cause some appre-
hension, although it had been observed in the vicinity of Gueydan,
La., about four years previous. This plant is popularly known as the
“waterweed.” Specimens sent to the United States Department of
Agriculture at Washington were identified as Pongatium 2eylani-
cum, a native of the tropics of South America, but rather widely
distributed in the tropics of both hemispheres. The mature plant
attains a height of from 4 to 6 feet. It has a hollow stalk about one-
half inch in diameter, and its leaves are about 3 inches long and 1%
inches broad. The roots are large and spongy, showing the aquatic
nature of the plant. Its growth is rapid. It is propagated entirely
from the seeds, which are abundant and very minute, and which are
doubtless distributed through the fields by the irrigating water, as
the plant grows along canals and laterals as well as in the rice fields.
Unlike most of the weeds with which the rice farmer has to contend,
this weed is not killed by the flood water of the rice fields, but, on the
contrary, flourishes in Water. -
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAs. 517
Undoubtedly this pest was introduced through imported seed rice.
As the weed has already proved a nuisance in localities where it is best
known, seed rice should be carefully selected, especially in sections
where the weed has not yet appeared. Seed production can be pre-
vented by hand pulling where thinly distributed through the fields;
on the levees the plants may be cut. Where the plant has become
abundant, it may be necessary to resort to rotation of crops, planting
Some other crop which requires thorough cultivation instead of rice.
It is absolutely necessary to destroy the plants on the levees and water-
ways before sufficiently advanced to mature seeds if the rice fields
are to be protected from its invasion. Little attention was given to
the eradication of this weed during the season of 1903 in parts of the
rice country where it was observed for the first time, and its nature
was almost unknown. -
The waterweed appeared in the Crowly district during the latter
part of June, 1904. It did not give serious trouble last year, as it was
found that Honduras rice planted early got possession of the ground
and was unaffected by the weed; Japan rice was not as successful in
combating the pest. *
While all weeds are undesirable, the waterweed will probably not
prove a greater nuisance than many others. *
DRAINAGE.
The wet seasons of 1903 and 1904 have emphasized the need of good
drainage for the rice fields, highways, etc. A fall of 1 inch in 100
feet gives good, quick drainage in removing the water from the rice
fields. The drainage necessary for cotton and other crops has already
been referred to. In some instances it has been found desirable,
where the drainage outlet for a considerable area passes under a flume
of the canal, to install a small pumping plant and return the drainage
water to the canal.
Drainage projects of considerable magnitude are being considered
for various parts of the lowlands of south Louisiana. One of the
most important of these was organized three years ago and had for
its object the reclamation of fourteen entire townships situated in the
eighth ward of Vermilion Parish. The tract extends from Bayou
Queue de Tortue on the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south,
embracing 280,000 acres of land, most of which has been unfit for cul-
tivation, owing to its being partially submerged, but which when
properly drained will be classed with the most productive in that part
of the State.
The funds for this work have been provided by means of a 5-mill
tax on all the property covered by the district, this tax enabling the
district to issue bonds to the amount of $60,000, which, it is estimated,
will be sufficient to complete the work.
518 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
Thirty-eight miles of main canals will be cut, and as many laterals
as may be required to thoroughly drain the land of the district. The
work of dredging these canals was begun in May, 1903, and up to Sep-
tember, 1904, 17 miles had been completed, 9 of which lie south of
Gueydan, leading toward Grand Lake, which is to be the southern
outlet, and 8 miles in a northwesterly direction, with drainage into
Bayou Queue de Tortue. Two dredging outfits are now constantly
at work. The main canals average 20 feet in width at the bottom on
the upper levels, and 40 feet at the outlet, near Grand Lake, the depth
being from 3 to 4 feet. It is estimated that the main system of canals
will be completed by April, 1905, and that the necessary laterals will
be finished before the end of the year. Some of the land that has
thus far been reclaimed is being broken for planting next year.
Reclamation of similar lands in the near future by private enter-
prises will doubtless add to the area of tillable land in this section.
EFFECT OF SALT WATER.
Crops were raised in 1903 on land which had been liberally irri-
gated with salt water in 1901 and 1902. During these two years,
where the salt water had been used on comparatively young rice the
result was invariably disastrous, but where the rice was well advanced
toward maturity the effect in many cases was hardly noticeable.
The heavy rains of the winter of 1902 and spring of 1903 did much
toward washing the salt out of the soil. On many fields where the
allowance of salt water for the two previous years had been liberal a
good average crop was raised during the season of 1903, and the qual-
ity of the rice was excellent. The verdict among the rice farmers
seems to be that no permanent injury to the soil has resulted from the
salt water. -
The experiences of 1901 and 1902 had taught farmers to be careful
about irrigating with salt water. There was no trouble from this
source in 1903, while in 1904 the condition looked extremely serious
for rice farms irrigating from streams subject to salt invasion.
Doubtless some damage was done by the salt water before July 1,
after which time the plentiful rains relieved the situation.
At many of the large pumping plants a close watch was kept for
salt water, and when it appeared pumping was stopped. In the lower
Mermentau district there was probably too little water applied to
the rice in some instances for this reason, but farther upstream, on
account of opportune rains, there was very little harm done.
RICE IRRIGATION IN LouisianA AND TExAs. 519
THE MERMENTAU DAM.
The seasons of 1901 and 1902 were disastrous to the rice men who
obtained from the Mermentau River and its tributaries water to irri-
gate their crops. The demand for water had become so great during
those years that salt water flowed in from the Gulf of Mexico and was
pumped into the canals and used on the rice land, doing great dam-
age to the crop. It was determined by some of the leading rice men
*
of that section that this should not be repeated in 1903. Accordingly
the Rice Irrigation and Improvement Association of Crowley was
formed. Mr. Miron Abbott was elected president and Mr. George H.
Tinker Secretary, and a thorough canvass was made of territory
affected by going to each town of the entire district, holding meetings,
and explaining the methods and plans to be employed to combat the
said water. The spirit of cooperation was sufficiently strong to insure
the success of the scheme; however, as the subscriptions were entirely
voluntary many who were to reap the benefits of the undertaking did
not contribute. Funds for carrying on the work were solicited at
the rate of 50 cents per acre irrigated.
The crop failure of the previous season and consequent financial
depression caused some delay in starting, and it was not until April
13, 1903, that the board of directors felt justified in proceeding with
the work. The first pile was driven on May 30.
The abundant rainfall during the winter and early spring of 1903
gave a supply of fresh water in the Mermentau and its tributaries
which was much greater than that of an average year. Nevertheless,
since the area of rice land using water from this source had increased
to about 200,000 acres, and in spite of the abundance of fresh water,
it was thought advisable to push the work rapidly to avoid any pos-
sible trouble with salt water. Samples of water were systematically
taken and analyzed during the early days of Summer to determine the
amount of salt present.
After the pumping season was well begun it was found that in
spite of the abundant rainfall and consequent large surface drainage,
tending to augment the supply of fresh water in the river, the salt
water had worked its way up the river 63 miles from its mouth to a
point very near Lake Arthur before it was finally cut off by means of
the temporary dam. The mixing of the fresh and salt waters was
largely due to the action of the tides, as well as to the fact that pumps
along the Mermentau and its tributaries appropriate large quanti-
ties of the normal flow. The appearance of the salt water was so
sudden and its increase so rapid that it became evident early in June
that it must be shut out if the crop of 1903 was to be saved. Accord-
ingly, the work was carried on day and night, and on June 19 the
temporary dam was completed. It is believed that this prompt action
A
520 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
wº.
saved the crop of 1903. From this date until August 2, when the
channel was again opened by removing the sheet piling forming the
dam, there was an average head of 3 feet of fresh water above low
tide held by the dam. *
The drought which set in about the time harvesting was begun in
1903 and continued through the winter reduced the flow of water in
the river and allowed the tides to mix the salt water far above the
dam before the permanent structure was in place to keep it out. As
the lock was incomplete, the opening had to be left in the dam, as the
river could not be closed to navigation.
The dam is located 1% miles below the village of Grand Chenier
and below every bayou or other intake for salt water. It is 8 miles
from the Gulf by river and 3 miles by land. This site was selected
because the Mermentau is here only 422 feet wide and the banks are
higher than at any other point below Grand Lake, the east bank being
8 feet above high tides, and the west bank, separated from the channel .
by 400 feet of marsh, is about 3 feet above high tide. From the west
end of the dam, which is 422 feet in length, is a levee extending across
the marsh to the west bank. Across the channel of the river were
driven 108 piles in two parallel lines, the lines being 18 feet apart and
the piles 8 feet from center to center. (Pl. VIII.) Piles 46 feet in
length, 14 inches in diameter at the large end, and not less than 8
inches in diameter at the small end were used. The channel is 13
feet deep. The bed is composed of silt to a depth of 8 feet. Below
the silt is hard blue clay; still lower is a layer of shells and quicksand,
below which is red clay.
Between the two lines of piles was constructed a cofferdam, wherein
was built the permanent structure, the inner rows of piles being 10
feet 10 inches from center to center. Against the upper line of out-
side piles was built the temporary dam of Wakefield piling 9 inches
thick. Each Wakefield pile consists of three planks bolted together
to form tongue and groove, which serve the double purpose of guiding:
the successive piles as they are driven and of making good joints
between them. This temporary dam formed one of the walls of the
cofferdam within which the permanent structure was built.
Still another row of Wakefield piling was used temporarily 2 feet
outside of that, placed along the two outer rows of round piles for a
large portion of the length of the dam. This was necessary because
the action of the tides had caused the temporary dam to sway back
and forth, and thus had helped to render it unfit to withstand, with-
out great leakage, the pressure due to a considerable difference of
head of water when the cofferdam was pumped out. These leaks
had to be stopped by means of a “puddle chamber,” filled with earth
between the two rows of Wakefield piling just referred to.
U. S. DEPT. OF AGR, . BUL. 1 OFFICE OF EXPT. STATIONS, IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, PLATE VIII.
SECTIONAE
SECTION CD
DETTAILS
Of
MOVABLE DAM
MERMENTA U RIVER, LA.
THE NORRIS PE TE RS CO. WASH 1 NGTON, D. C.

RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 521
In the finished dam the outside rows of sheet piling have been
removed, and the inner rows in the same have been cut off even with
the top of the crosspieces, on which the superstructure is built.
These piles were cut off after being firmly fastened to the dam proper
by cutting first the round piles and then the sheet piling as far as
possible from the inside and then breaking off the outside planks.
The entire space between the two outer rows of Wakefield piling and
the double floor shown in the cross section was “water filled ” with
earth, which contributes to the Solidity and stability of the structure.
At the north end of the dam is a lock for the passage of vessels,
with double gates both upstream and downstream. The lock is
150 feet long between the centers of its gates, is nearly 40 feet wide
in the clear, and carries 8 feet of water below mean low water. Pipes
36 inches in diameter, both above and below the dam, provided with
valves, are used to level up the water in this lock when desired. In
the superstructure of the dam there are forty 10-foot. shutters,
which may be lifted in times of high water, leaving only the frame
work to resist the passage of the water. This structure has been so
designed that the openings are ample to accommodate any flood that
is likely to occur.
All the timber used in the construction of the dam was treated
with creosote, with the exception of the inside planks of the two
inside rows of sheet piling, which are out of reach of the teredo, and
the outer rows of sheet piling on either side, which were con-
sidered as temporary and were utilized merely to strengthen the
structure. The creosote not only prevents the decay of the timber,
but also protects it from the teredo, or shipworm, which eagerly
attacks ordinary wood submerged in salt water and eventually
destroys it. One and one-half millions of feet of lumber were re-
quired. The cost of the dam was approximately $130,000.
It is believed that the dam will not only shut out salt water, but
will also be the means of storing fresh water of the great natural
reservoirs—Grand Lake, Lake Arthur, and Lake Miserie—besides
a number of small lakes and thousands of acres of marsh land. The
permanent structure of the dam was completed July 21, 1904,
while sufficient progress had been made to shut out the water about
March 1.
The estimated cost of the dam was greatly exceeded, as the magni-
tude of the undertaking was not realized until the work was well
under way. It soon became evident that it would be impossible to
pay for the dam by means of voluntary contributions, for, as already
noted, many refused to contribute; accordingly an appeal was made
to the United States Government. A committee was sent to Wash-
ington to ask Congress to contribute to the project, but without
success, State aid was next sought and a bill introduced in the
522 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904. -
Louisiana legislature providing for an appropriation of $60,000 to
complete the work. The bill was opposed on the ground that it was
unconstitutional, and was abandoned.
Near the end of the session of the generally assembly, about July,
1904, a bill was introduced creating the board of commissioners for
the Mermentau levee district, with authority to levy taxes on crops
produced, property, and land in the territory specified in the act,
which was practically the whole of the Mermentau watershed. Some
of the provisions of the act are briefly as follows:
(1) To provide a tax on products raised in the levee district. This
tax was not to exceed 24 cents per sack of rice raised by means of
water obtained from the Mermentau or its tributaries, and a similar
tax on cotton, Sugar, fruit, etc. * *
(2) To provide a levee tax of 10 mills on all property subject to
taxation for levee purposes.
(3) To provide a tax not exceeding 24 cents per acre on all land
subject to irrigation within the levee district and $50 per mile for all
standard-gauge railroads within the district.
(4) Provision prohibiting all common carriers from receiving or
removing produce on which the tax has not been paid and fixing a
penalty for the violation of this provision.
(5) Provision authorizing and empowering the board of commis-
sioners to issue bonds to the amount of $200,000, the proceeds of
which are to be used to pay for work done or in the purchase of
levees, locks, and dams, and other works erected and purchased for
the protection of the levee district.
The board of commissioners of the Mermentau levee district was
appointed by the governor about the middle of September, 1904. In
an address to the people of the district, published by the press of that
Section, they declared: -
The purpose and intent of the proposed law was no more and no less than
this : That the proposed levee district should be maintained by its pro rata of
the State’s engineer fund, and by a tax not to exceed 23 cents per bag on rice
raised on lands irrigated by water drawn from the Mermentau Or its tribu-
taries. It was contemplated that this tax should be paid by perSons Or COr-
porations actually pumping water from the Mermentau and its tributaries—
not by the users of such water, but by the pumpers of the water ; that is, by
the Canal Companies and persons maintaining private plants.
They further declared:
This pledge and public declaration means no more and it means no less than
this : That if the law stands on the statute books and we are permitted to
execute it, we shall levy no tax except the tax of not to exceed 2% Cents a bag
on rice raised on lands watered from the Mermentau and its tributaries and
contiguous lakes, which tax shall be paid by corporations or individuals actually
pumping the water, irrespective of who uses the water,
RIGE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 523
It was claimed that the tax of 24 cents per acre on land and the
10-mill levee tax would never be levied; that they were inserted to
facilitate the issuing of bonds, and without these provisions it would
be impossible to dispose of the bonds.
The opposition says that there is no guaranty that the board of
commissioners will always be of this mind, and while the board first
appointed may endeavor to carry out this plan, there is no guaranty
that this will be the policy in the future with the possibility of a
different personnel on the board. Meetings were held by men op-
posed to the act in various parts of the district, and it was decided to
fight the law in the courts. Meanwhile, the board of commissioners
had not organized and had never held a meeting.
An injunction was granted against the board on October 8, “en-
joining, restricting, and prohibiting them, individually and collect-
ively, from performing any of the functions or exercising any of the
powers conferred on them by the law creating the Mermentau levee
district, or in any way attempting to organize or carry into effect the
provisions of said act.”
Such is the present status of the case, which it is expected will be
taken up during the present term of the district court.
Mention has previously been made of the lowering of the water
behind the dam during the season of 1904 to a depth of 4 feet below
mean tide level. The lowering of the water level caused some diffi-
culty to navigation in the lower lakes. The United States engineer
in charge of the territory in which the dam was built called upon the
Rice Irrigation and Improvement Association to answer some ques-
tions regarding the dam and its effect on navigation. The answers to
the questions were in substance as follows:
The Mermentau dam has saved the crop of 1904.
There is practically no freight traffic on the Mermentau during the summer
season ; the traffic on the river is practically all dependent on the rice crop.
It is not considered that any damage has resulted ; on the contrary, naviga-
tion would be ruined through the failure of the rice crop.
Dredging has been contemplated for bars which exist at the lower end of
Grand Lake and at the mouth of the Laceasine in order to restore normal depth.
If the season could be begun with 2 feet of water impounded and the
level reduced 4 feet it is possible that the present acreage of rice could
be irrigated, for it is claimed that 2 feet above mean tide level means
considerable more than 2 feet below on account of the spreading of
the water over a large area of marsh land and swamp. Farming in
the Mermentau country is becoming more and more diversified, caus-
ing a decrease in the acreage of rice to be irrigated.
The problem of keeping out the salt water is important not only to
the rice growers along the Mermentau and its tributaries, but also to
those having interests along Bayou Vermilion and Calcasieu River
524 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
in Louisiana and Taylors and Hildebrants bayous in Texas. In
some of these cases there is a difference in the problem due to the
lack of storage capacity. Along streams with a very limited supply
of water it would be disastrous to increase the acreage of rice indefi-
nitely, as that would mean ruin to all concerned.
USE OF WATER.
In many cases much more water was used during the Season of 1903
than was absolutely needed by the crop. Two farmers along the
canals, having the right to demand water as needed, often had their
fields flooded to the full capacity of their levees to hold the water,
just before a liberal rainfall occurred. This surplus water could
not be held by the levees and would have given an undesirable depth
of water over the fields if it could have been held, and so had to be
wasted. The canal owners could but regret this waste, while the
farmer, who was paying for the irrigation by means of a portion of
his crop, regardless of the amount of water used, probably did not feel
the same interest in the problem. It seems likely that some method
of cooperation between the company furnishing the water and the
men using it might result in its more economical use. If all water
could be sold by measurement there would be a common interest which
would of necessity develop a spirit of cooperation.
The owners of small farms, with their own wells and pumping out-
fits, are the masters of their own water supplies; they have the disad-
vantage due to small plants that are comparatively wasteful of fuel
and must lose the benefits to be derived from doing things on a large
scale, which the canal companies, with their larger and more economi-
cal plants, enjoy.
In some localities the small plants and wells are alone possible; in
others, the planter may choose between the two methods. The experi-
ence of the first year in operating a large canal system has often been
unsatisfactory because of unforeseen difficulties, such as breaking
down of machinery or levees, or trouble due to inexperience. These
troubles seldom appear after the first year; yet a failure to make a
crop often leads to a desire on the part of the farmer to be able to
regulate his own supply by having an independent plant. On
the other hand, the small plants have been known to develop defects
and to cause disappointments in various ways. Among the men who
have tried both ways there are to be found advocates of each method.
The conclusion arrived at is always governed by individual experience
and must be settled according to local conditions.
Conditions during the season of 1904 were quite abnormal as regards
the use of water. The field experimented with in Texas was late
rice, and the two in Louisiana were even later. In every case the
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAs. 525
irrigating was commenced in June. The abundant rains, which
started during the latter part of June and continued throughout the
remainder of the season, had the effect of reducing the amount of flood
water to an unusually low amount in both cases in Louisiana, and to
Some extent in Texas. The conditions were different at the Texas
station, as the field was watered from a well and there was no rainfall
during the first three weeks of June and comparatively little for
nearly a month following August 15. In one case in Louisiana the
flood water was 5.01 inches of depth over the field and in the other 5.44
inches of depth. The former one was on a field near Estherwood,
La., the same one experimented with last year, when 12.67 inches
depth of flood water was required. These figures show the peculiari-
ties of the Season in a striking manner.
It is interesting to note that about four-fifths of the water used
in 1904 was applied during the first three weeks after irrigation
started, and that the rate at which it was applied was about the same
as the rate in 1903, but the flooding season was shorter,
The early rice received a much larger quantity than the late rice
in 1904, for the total water pumped into the Miller-Morris canal,
from which the field was supplied, was sufficient to cover the entire
area irrigated to a depth of 19.77 inches, the larger part of which was
used on the early rice.
Individual farmers differ in their methods of flooding rice and in
the amount of water which they consider will produce the best
results. It is probable that other fields in this section, which were
planted at the same time as those experimented with, received more
water for this reason. While the peculiarities of the season of 1904
resulted in a large amount of flood waters for early and a smali
amount for late rice, another season with different meteorological
conditions might reverse the order. Continued, well-distributed
rains are accompanied by a humid atmosphere favorable to the
growth of rice. The climatic conditions may render rainwater more
efficient than the corresponding amount of flood water. Many con-
sider rain as necessary for the successful raising of a rice crop, at
least for the best results.
While some successful planters contend that it is only necessary to
have the Soil Saturated with moisture, others claim that best results
are obtained from a considerable depth of water up to the time of
harvest. Apparently farmers are learning to use water more
economically, realizing that it is possible to have too much as well
as too little. As previously stated, water as commonly used in rice
irrigation on the Gulf coast kills grass and weeds as well as supply-
ing an essential to the growth of rice, and as the rice is not culti-
wated and weeds are rarely pulled, this function of water is impor-
tant. In the following pages yields are stated in sacks per acre.
526 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The results were obtained at the thrasher in the field. Rough rice
as it comes from the thrasher is usually placed in Sacks; the weight
of the sack varies from 160 to 200 pounds, with an average value of
about 180 pounds. Rice is sold in the rough by the barrel, which
represents a weight of 162 pounds.
The unit of clean rice is the pocket which weighs 100 pounds. In
general a barrel, or 162 pounds, of rough rice will produce 100
pounds, or 1 pocket of merchantable clean rice. The barrel, or 44
pounds, is not used as a unit in the measurement of rice in the Gulf
coast country.
The price per sack for the crop of 1904 has varied from $1.25 to
$2.30 per sack for Japan rice and from $1.25 to $3.30 per sack for
Honduras.
DUTY OF WATER AT ESTHERWOOD, L.A., IN 1903.
Two stations for the measurement of water used, of rainfall, and
of evaporation were maintained in the rice country of Louisiana

FIG. 68.—Plan of rice field at Estherwood, La.
24/6/-/
|
:
!
f
and Texas during the irrigation season of 1903. One of these sta-
tions was located on the main canal of the Miller-Morris Canal, Irri-
gation and Land Company, about 3.5 miles South of Estherwood, La.,
while the other was located on a lateral on the main canal of the San
Bernardo Rice Canal Company, of Austin County, Tex., about 10
miles northeast of Eagle Lake.
The soil about Estherwood is quite similar to that at Crowley and
is characteristic of Acadia Parish. It may be designated as a loam
clay. The subsoil is a heavy clay, in some places considerably strati-
fied. The tract of land selected was located on the farm of S. A.
Robbins and contained 170.68 acres, by accurate survey.
On this area water was used. However, the rice was not harvested
on an area of 4.35 acres, on a portion of which the crop was so poor
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 527
that it was not considered worth while to harvest, and on another
portion of which it was a total failure. About 1 acre of this latter
was covered with the waterweed (Pongativm 2eylanicum), which had
attained a height of about 4 feet, no rice growing with it. The net
area from which rice was harvested was 166.33 acres. Japan rice
was raised, the total yield being 1,860 sacks, or 10.89 Sacks per acre
irrigated.
The measuring flume was located on the main canal. Figure 68
shows the plan of the field and the location of the levees. The rain
gauge and evaporation tank were located in the field near by. The
crop was planted about April 25. Irrigation was begun on May 29
and concluded on August 22, although water was not turned off until
the following week. During this period the field received through
the flume enough water to cover it to a depth of 12.67 inches. The
rainfall during the irrigation season amounted to 19 inches, while
the evaporation was 15.69 inches. This left 15.98 inches of water to
supply that absorbed by the soil and taken up by the rice plants
during the period of growth. The rainfall was over 20 per cent in
excess of the flood water.
The following table shows the depth of water received by the
Estherwood rice field during the thirteen weeks of the irrigation sea-
son, and also the weekly rainfall and evaporation at the station:
Depth of water used on Estherwood rice field and rainfall and evaporation each
week of the irrigation season of 1903.

in or Flood lo- Evapo-
Week ending Water. Rainfall. ration.
Inches. Inches. Inches.
May 81 ------------------------------------------------------------------ 1.90 1.20 0.53
June 6------------------------------------------------------------------- .40 .00 1.00
June 18------------------------------------------------------------------ 2.01 1.00 .25
une 20---------------------------------------------------------------- 2.11 2.58 .33
June 27------------------------------------------------------------------ 1.15 3.31 1.81
uly 4------------------------------------------------------------------- .05 2.00 1.25
July 11 ------------------------------------------------------------------ .01 1.92 1.42
July 18------------------------------------------------------------------ . 64 , 79 1.91
July 25----------------------------------------------------------------- 05 .00 .94
August 1---------------------------------------------------------------- 19 3.00 1.44
August 8---------------------------------------------------------------- 1.00 1.37
Angust 15--------------------------------------------------------------- 1. 11 .54 1.42
August 22. -------------------------------------------------------------- 1.05 - TO .58
August 29--------------------------------------------------------------- .96 1.44
Total.-------------------------------------------------------------- 12, 67 19.00 15. 69
DUTY OF WATER AT EAGLE LAKE, TEX, IN 1903.
The land of the San Bernardo Rice Canal Company is a red, sandy
loam mixed with clay and has a heavy clay subsoil. The nature of
the surface soil is quite variable, being in some places nearly a pure
loam and in others composed almost entirely of clay; in general, how-
ever, it is a mixture of the two. The tract of land selected was sur-
veyed and found to contain 71.18 acres; on a part of this field Hon-
528 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
duras rice was grown and on another part Japan rice. The total
yield was 635 sacks, or 8.92 sacks per acre. The field was planted
about May 10. The measuring flume was located on a lateral, as
shown in the plat of the experimental field (fig. 69). The evapora-
tion tank was placed near the flume, while for convenience of reading
the rain gauge was located near the residence, a short distance from
the field. Irrigation was begun June 30 and concluded September 2,
while the water was turned off a week later. During this period the
field received enough water through the flume to cover it to a depth
ASºe
&&.
C
A2 vº&
FIG. 69.-Plan of lice field at Eagle Lake, Tex.
of 7.37 inches. The rainfall during the irrigation season was 13.78
inches and the evaporation 9.83 inches. This left 11.32 inches net
depth of water received by the land. During , the week ending
August 1 there was a very remarkable rainfall of 7.52 inches; the
rice field had been liberally irrigated about two weeks previous and
had received a small additional amount of water only a few days
before this abnormal rainfall. The result was that there was an
undesirable depth of water, even if the levees were capable of holding
it, and so a portion of the water was wasted by cutting the levees.


RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAs. 529
There was no accurate way to measure the amount wasted, but it was
estimated at one-half the total rainfall for that week, or 3.76 inches.
Again, a break in an outside levee during the latter part of August
caused a loss of water, which was replenished by the irrigation of
August 31 and September 1 and 2. The amount of water used dur-
ing these three days amounted to a depth of 0.77 inch. The amount
of water on the field previous to this break was probably sufficient to
mature the crop had no loss occurred at that time. All the measure-
ments at this station were taken with the greatest care and are abso-
lutely reliable; they are of great interest in spite of the fact that the
net amount of water is not definitely known. If we disregard the
two losses referred to above, the net depth of water absorbed by the
soil and taken up by the rice plants during the irrigation season was
11.32 inches, while if we accept the estimate that one-half of the rain-
fall during the week ending August 1 was wasted, the net depth is
reduced to 7.56 inches. Undoubtedly the true amount was some-
where between these two extremes, and therefore is of value, as it
represents the minimum depth of water measured previous to f{}04 in
rice irrigation.
The following table shows the depth of water received by the
Eagle Lake rice field during the ten weeks of the irrigation season,
and also the weekly rainfall and evaporation at the station.
Depth of water used on Eagle Lake rice field, and rainfall and evaporation each
'week of the irrigation season of 1903.

• Flood ir, is Evapo-
Week ending Water. | Rainfall. ration.
ſ
Inches. Inches. Inches.
July 4------------------------------------------------------------------ 2.44 2.77 0.85
July 11 ------------------------------------------------------------------ .82 .00 . 60
July 18------------------------------------------------------------------ 2.96 .00 1. 20
July 25------------------------------------------------------------------ .00 . 00 1. 20
August 1-------------------------------------------------------------- . 09 a 7.52 1. 16
August 8--------------------------------------------------------------- .00 95 1.19
August 15--------------------------------------------------------------- .00 . 37 .49
ugust 22--------------------------------------------------------------- .06 1.05 . 82
August 29--------------------------------------------------------------- . 23 . 73 . 13
September 5----------------------------------------------------------- .77 . 07 . 67
September 12----------------------------------------------------------- 00 16 ... 64
September 19----------------------------------------------------------- .00 . 16 . 88
Total.------------------------------------------------------------- 7, 37 13. TS 9.83
* One-half wasted, making total rainfall retained on field 10.02 inches.
DUTY OF WATER IN 1904.
During the irrigation season of 1904, three stations, for the meas-
urement of water used, of rainfall, and of evaporation, were main-
tained in the rice country of the Gulf coast; two of these were in
Louisiana and one in Texas. e
30620–No. 158—05—34
530 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Of the two stations in Louisiana, one was near Estherwood, on
the farm of S. A. Robbins, the field experimented with being a part
of that on which measurements had been made during the season of
1903. The other station was located near Crowley, on land owned
by Abbott Brothers. Both of these experiment fields received water
from large canal systems, the first from the Miller-Morris and the
Second from Abbott Brothers’ canal.
The station in Texas was located on the farm of Mr. S. Phelps, in
Wharton County near Nottawa, about 50 miles west of Houston.
The water used was obtained from a shallow well and the records
are the first obtained in well irrigation.
DUTY OF WATER AT ESTHERWOOD, L.A., IN 1904.
Water measurements were made, as already stated, on a portion of
the experiment field used last season, the area being 98.6 acres.
Water was received through the same flume and all observations
were taken by the same observer as during the season of 1903. The
1904 crop was later. The first flooding occurred between June 8
and June 20. Two other small floodings occurred later, but the
quantity used in both cases was very small. The long period from
June 30 to August 19 in which no flood water was applied to the field
illustrated the peculiarity of the season of 1904 in this section, the
rainfall being ample to offset evaporation and supply the needs of the
rice, for the greater part of July and a part of August.
Irrigation was begun June 9 and concluded August 27, and water
was turned off about September 3. During this period the field
received through the flume enough water to cover it to a depth of
5.01 inches. The rainfall during the irrigating season amounted to
18.52 inches, while the evaporation was 14.91 inches. This left 8.62
inches of water to supply that absorped by the soil and taken up by
the rice plants during the period of growth. The latter quantity
is comparatively small. This field of rice, after receiving one flood-
ing, experienced continued rain and the rains were accompanied by
a humid atmosphere. No water was wasted on this field, and on the
other hand, the rice did not suffer for water.
The yield, on the 98.6 acres planted, was 790 sacks, or almost ex-
actly 8 sacks to the acre, nearly 3 sacks less than the previous year.
Japan rice was raised.
The following table shows the depth of water received by the
Estherwood rice field during the thirteen weeks of the irrigation
season, and also the weekly rainfall and evaporation at the station.
* RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 531.
Depth of water used on E8therwood rice field, and rainfall and evaporation each
week of the irrigation season of 1904.

* Flood º Evapora-
Week ending— water. Rainfall.”.
Inches. | Inches. Inches.
June 11----------------------------------------------------------------- 0.12 0.52 0. 58
June 18------------------------------------------------------------------ 2.96 . 21 1.68
June 26------------------------------------------------------------------ .43 . 00 .56
July 3------------------------------------------------------------------- . 61 2.05 1.93
July 9------------------------------------------------------------------- .00 2.82 1.07
July 16------------------------------------------------------------------ .00 3.26 1.51
uly 28----------------------------------------------------------------- .00 1.40 1.33
Wuly 30------------------------------------------------------------------ .00 3.36 . 62
August 6---------------------------------------------------------------- .00 . 53 .84
August 18-------------------------------------------------------------- .00 1.73 .67
August 20--------------------------------------------------------------- .00 .44 1. 75
August 27--------------------------------------------------------------- . 89 1.40 1.34
September 8------------------------------------------------------------ .00 .80 1.05
Total-------------------------------------------------------------- 5.01 18. 52 14.91
DUTY OF WATER AT CROWLEY, LA., IN 1904.
...”
The station near Crowley was located on land owned by Abbott
Brothers, a short distance from the field on which water meas-
urements were made in 1901. The rice was sown late and was first
irrigated June 15, and continued to receive some water each day up
to and including July 11. After this date there was a period of
forty-three days in which no flood water was used. During the last
days of August a small amount of flood water was again used.
Water was turned off the field about September 17. During this
period the field received through the flume enough water to cover it
to a depth of 5.44 inches. The rainfall during the irrigation season
amounted to 20.54 inches, while the evaporation was 13.30 inches.
This left 12.68 inches of water to supply that absorbed by the soil
and taken up by the rice plants during the period of growth.
The rainfall is seen to be nearly four times the depth of the flood
water, the ratio being nearly the same as that at Estherwood during
the season of 1904.
The area of the experimental field was 62 acres. From this area
334 sacks of rice were harvested, or an average of 5.38 sacks per acre,
which is below the average yield for the Crowley district. The field
was rather grassy.
532 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS,
1904.
Depth of water used on Crowley rice field, and rainfall and evaporation each
week of the irrigation season of 1904.

in or Flood º Evapora-
Week ending— water. Rainfall. tion,
Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
June 18------------------------------------------------------------------ 0.93 3. 60 1.96
June 25------------------------------------------------------------------ . 55 * 1.44
July 3------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. 62 1.95 1, 70
July 9------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.51 , 66 . 90
July 16------------------------------------------------------------------ . 47 2.95 .91
July 38------------------------------------------------------------------ .00 1.92 1. 32
July 80------------------------------------------------------------------ .00 . 58 .*0
August 6---------------------------------------------------------------- .00 . 58 .82
August 18--------------------------------------------------------------- .00 4.38 , 44
August 20--------------------------------------------------------------- .00 . 17 . 88
August 37 --------------------------------------------------------------- .01 1. 14 .46
September 8------------------------------------------------------------ 35 1.28 .68
September 10----------------------------------------------------------- .00 1, 33 . 73
September 17 ----------------------------------------------------------- , 00 .00 , 36
Total-------------------------------------------------------------- 5.44 20. 54 13. 30
DUTY OF WATER AT NOTTOWA, TEx., IN 1904.
The soil about Nottawa is a sandy loam with clay subsoil, the clay
being 6 inches to 18 inches below the surface. There is a stratum of
water-bearing Sand and gravel underlying the clay, the thickness of
the stratum varying from 12 to 20 feet, and its top being about the
same distance below the surface of the soil. The field experimented
with was supplied with water by means of a 5-inch horizontal-shaft
centrifugal pump, rope driven from a countershaft, which in turn
was driven by means of a belt from a 20-horsepower gasoline engine.
The entire amount of water pumped by this plant was used on a 60-
acre field, on which a crop was grown consisting in part of Japan and
in part of Honduras rice. The yield was about 600 sacks, or 10 sacks
per acre. The crop was sown the last week of May. Pumping was
begun on June 3, and was continued daily up to and including August
3. By this time the rains in that section of Texas had become fre-
quent and sufficiently abundant to make it possible that further
pumping would be unnecessary. However, it was decided to resume
pumping on August 22, and for over two weeks following that date
water was again obtained from the well to flood the rice. All the
water pumped was measured by means of a weir, as there was suffi-
cient fall to allow its installation. -
From June 19 to July 17 there was more or less trouble with the
pump and rope drive, causing some delay, while both before and after
this period the amount of water furnished was fairly uniform.
.*
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 533
Duty of water used on Nottawa rice field, irrigated by means of a well; also
rainfall and evaporation each week of the season of 1904.

Week ending— ; Rainfall. Bºº 3,
Inches. Inches. Inches.
June 4------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.25 0.00 1.50
June 11------------------------------------------------------------------ 1.60 .00 1.55
June 18------------------------------------------------------------------ 1.76 .00 1.60
June 25------------------------------------------------------------------ . 82 2.87 1. 38
July 3------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.01 . 50 1.37
# *:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ; : #9;
uly 16------------------------------------------------------------------ g g &
# *------------------------------------------------------------------ 1.94 1.85 1. 10
July 30------------------------------------------------------------------ 1.26 1.35 1.10
August 6---------------------------------------------------------------- . 60 1.65 1.03
August 18--------------------------------------------------------------- .00 2.95 .82.
#: ; * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * º º * ;
ušūSt, *ſ--------------------------------------------------------------- # sº *
September 3------------------------------------------------------------ .97 .45 1.01
September 10----------------------------------------------------------- .27 . 40 . 40
September 17----------------------------------------------------------- .00 4.50 .50
September 24----------------------------------------------------------- .00 . 40 . 65
October 1--------------------------------------------------------------- . 00 1.30 .30
Total.-------------------------------------------------------------- 14. 12 19.97 . 18.25
COMPARISON OF RESULTS OF WATER MEASUREMENTS IN RICE
IRRIGATION FOR FOUR YEARS.
A comparison of the results of the measurements of the water
required in rice irrigation during the last four years is of interest,
as the dry seasons of 1901 and 1902 differed from those of 1903 and
1904 to a marked degree. The season of 1903 had a backward spring,
following a winter of plentiful rain. The soil contained much mois-
ture at the beginning of the season, and the continued and well-
distributed rainfalls furnished water not only directly to the fields,
but also gave a bountiful supply to the pumping plants.
The Season of 1904 opened very early, with the soil in good condi-
tion to receive the crop, while for later planting it was too dry. The
drought of the winter preceding the irrigating season of 1904 had
been the cause of a shortage in the supply of irrigating water in
streams and in wells. The rains of the latter part of June and on
through the remainder of the season were timely, but nevertheless
accompanied by peculiar climatic conditions, different from any pre-
viously experienced. The crop of 1904 was light in yield and poor
in quality.
534 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The table following gives a summary of results obtained in the
water measurements of the last four years:
Summary of results of measurements of the amount of water used in rice irri-
gation for the years 1901, 1902, 1903, and 1904.


Depth * - Average
Year, Location of station. from #. .# Fº Net depth..a | Season.b .
Canal. per day.
Inches. Inches. Inches. |Inches. Inches. Days. Inches.
16.47 4 26, 51 4 2.04 63. 0
c 1901 | Crowley, La----------- 10. 0 º * &
©1901 || Raywood, Tex -------- 19, 66 9, 15 28.81 | 16.03 12.78 71 , 226
d 1902 |_ _ _ _ _ do------------------ 19.71 || 11.08 30.79 11,08 13. 34 91 . 122
d 1902 || Lake Charles, La ----- 23.64 7.10 30.74 11. 53 19, 21 77 . 150
1903 || Estherwood, La------- 12, 67 || 19.00 31, 67 || 15, 69 15.98 98 . 160
1903 | Eagle Lake, Tex ------ 7, 37 13.46 | 20.83 9.83 7, 56 to 11. 32 84 . 117
1904 || Estherwood, i.a.III. 5.01 18, 52 || 23.53 || 14.91 8.62 91 . 164
1904 || Crowley, La----------- 5.44 20, 54 || 25.97 || 13, 30 12.68 98 . 136
1904 || Nottawa, Tex--------- 14. 12 | 19.97 || 34.09 | 18.25 15.84 119 . 153
Average ---------- 13.79 || 14.32 28, 10 -------- e 13.82 ---------- .162
* Water absorbed by soil and taken up by rice plants.
* Number of days in which rainfall and evaporation were measured.
* U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 113.
* U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 133.
* Using the mean of No. 6,
EWAPORATION.
The evaporation per day during the irrigation period as shown in
the last column is interesting. It will be seen that the average result
is 0.162 inch per day loss in depth, although the results show in one
week an average of 0.226 inch per day, while in another week the
amount is only 0.117 inch per day. These results were obtained for
conditions approximating those in the rice fields and not for open res-
ervoirs or canals. The methods of measuring evaporation were the
same in all these years. In each case the evaporation tank was
shaded to approximate conditions in the rice fields.
PUMPING PLANTS, .
The first pumping plant of any size used in rice irrigation in
Louisiana and Texas employed a form of pump which had been used
previous to the invention of the reciprocating steam engine. This
pump consisted of vessels of cast iron, into which steam at a moderate
pressure was introduced. On condensing the steam by means of a
spray of water a vacuum was formed and water entered through
suction pipes, partially filling the vacuum. The vessels were placed
sufficiently high to allow the water to flow from them to the land
to be irrigated. Of course valves were opened automatically to
accomplish the various steps referred to above. $
The process of pumping was necessarily slow, and consequently
the capacity of a plant of moderate size was Small when compared
to plants of similar size but operating on more modern systems.
RICE TRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 535
*
Worse than this, the pumps failed to act at a time when water was
most needed, because the water used for condensing had become too
warm, and consequently the vacuum formed was not sufficient to raise
the water to the height of the vessels.
The prototype of this pumping engine was described in 1663 by
an English nobleman, Edward Somerset, second Marquis of Worces-
ter, who had used it to elevate water at his home, Raglan Castle.
In all essentials the engine installed in 1894 on Bayou Plaquemine,
near Crowley, La., agreed with the ancient model. However, in the
older pump the water was forced from the vessels to a higher level
by the direct action of steam on its upper surface. The engine
above referred to was more of a scientific toy than a practical pump-
ing engine. Savery obtained a patent in 1698 on an improved design
of a “fire " engine of this type. His engine was the first to employ
steam in removing water from the deep mines of Cornwall, England.
It was used for many years for this purpose, and, in spite of great
defects, was a pronounced success for that time. The results of a
test of one of these engines made in 1774 show that about one-half
of 1 per cent of the energy present in the fuel was utilized as useful
work, a result which is comparable with that of many of the simple
noncondensing pumps of today, in which steam at a little less than
boiler pressure is carried for full length of stroke—such pumps as
are used for boiler feeders.
In marked contrast to this crude beginning are the large pumping
plants now used in the rice belt, many of them employing the most
approved modern machinery—the boilers, engines, and pumps often
of the latest design, furnishing water economically and in immense
quantities.
PUMPING PLANTS OF THE LARGE CANALS.
The equipment of the pumping plants of the rice irrigation canals
is, in general, good. Already the working of the law of the survival
of the fittest is weeding out the poorly designed plants and resulting
in good examples of engineering where changes have been made and
in the newer plants. Occasionally, however, examples are to be
found in which crude, wasteful machinery is used, operated by
unskilled labor, at great expense for fuel and repairs.
There are also many plants in which all the machinery is me-
chanically good, but the requirements for economy are entirely lack-
ing. The fault is usually with the engines.
Boilers of various designs are used to furnish steam to the engines.
Either the fire-tube or the water-tube type will give results that are
similar as to economy, provided they are properly designed and the
boiler capacity is sufficient to furnish steam to the engines without
forcing. Often the deciding factor in the selecting of a steam boiler
536 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
*
for a particular locality and use is the ease with which it can be
cleaned and repaired, if the water used is such that scale or sediment
is deposited.
While there is much to be learned in regard to the different types
of pumps used in the large irrigation plants, enough is already known
to enable the designer of a new plant to avoid serious errors as to
capacity or efficiency. -
The selection of a proper engine is one of the most important
considerations in the design of a pumping plant, for, as has already
been stated, the engine is a large factor in determining whether a
plant shall be economical or wasteful. The engines used vary from
the compound-condensing Corliss down to the ordinary noncon-
densing slide-valve engine. In any case, the problem is one of
adjusting and equalizing the annual interest and depreciation on the
increased cost of the more expensive plant, with the amount it would
save in fuel over the uneconomical plant. --
While individual cases will vary within wide limits, depending on
particular conditions, such as economic loading and the size of the
units employed, yet in general it may be said for the engines com-
monly used in the larger pumping plants of the rice country that the
consumption of steam per indicated horsepower hour is about as
follows:
Pounds.
Compound Condensing Corliss----------------------------- 15–20
One-cylinder Corliss ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 25–30
Plain slide Valve----------------------------------------- 30–40
If the mean values, as given above, be taken as a means of com-
parison the following results are obtained:
Pounds.
Compound Condensing Corliss––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 17;
One-cylinder Corliss --------------------------------------- 27%
Plain Slide Valve–––––––––––––––––––––––– 35
When it is remembered that the plain slide-valve engine to produce
a certain horsepower requires two times as much steam and that the
one-cylinder Corliss requires 1.57 times as much as the compound
condensing Corliss requires for the same work in the average case, it
will be seen that not only a great economy of fuel can be effected, but
that the boiler equipment for a given output may be materially
reduced by using the economical engine. The use of feed-water
heaters to utilize a part of the heat of the exhaust steam will produce
an economy of as much as 10 per cent in some instances, making the
comparison a little less striking than that given above. However,
the amount saved on the boiler equipment in an economical plant
over the cost of boilers to supply steam to wasteful engines for an
uneconomical plant is often nearly sufficient to offset the higher cost
of the better engine, making the first cost practically the same in the
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 537
two cases. Even if the first cost of the economical plant is slightly
more, the operating expenses will be reduced sufficiently to more than
compensate for the increased cost. Two plants of equal capacity,
one economical and the other wasteful, may each be entirely satisfac-
tory so far as smoothness of running and reliability are concerned,
but the cost of fuel in the two cases will be very different. The
better-designed plants furnished water at a cost for fuel, labor, main-
tenance, etc., of from $2 to $3 per acre irrigated during the Seasons
of 1903 and 1904, while with the more wasteful plants the cost
was as much as $4 per acre. The need of an economical plant is
especially felt where the water has to be lifted to a considerable
height. The cost of fuel depends on proximity to the oil fields when
fuel is crude oil or to railroads where coal is used. Many of the
large plants near the oil fields have pipe lines from the oil fields or
storage tanks on lines of railroads.
Up to the past two years the planting of rice under favorable con-
ditions has produced handsome profits and questions of economy have
been too often overlooked. But as the margin of profit has become
less the question of the economical operation of pumping plants has
become of vital importance.
RESULTS AT TWO LARGE PUIMPLNG PLANTS.
During the season of 1904 complete records were kept at two large
pumping plants in Louisiana of all important facts in connection
with the operation of the plants for the season. These records in-
cluded the hours and minutes of each day’s run, the boiler, engines,
and pumps used, the level of the water supply, and the amount of
fuel.
A comparison has been made from these daily records showing
the relative cost of pumping water in the two cases. This compari-
son is interesting, as the plants are both large, the head pumped
against, while not the same, is approximately so, and the difference
in head has been considered in the comparison. The pumps were
of different types in the two cases, but the approximate efficiency of
each type is known.
The most striking difference in the two plants is to be found in
their engine equipment, for in one case the most wasteful type is
used, while in the other a very economical type is employed.
THE MII.LER-MORRIS PLANT.
The plant of the Miller-Morris Canal Irrigation and Land Com-
pany is located near Estherwood, La., and takes its water from
Bayou Plaquemine. Its equipment consists of two boilers, 72 inches
in diameter and 16 feet in length, each containing one hundred and
538 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
twenty 3-inch tubes, and eight boilers 60 inches in diameter by 16 feet
long, each containing forty-six 33-inch tubes. All the boilers are
horizontal return tubular. There are five engines, four of which are
125 horsepower and one of 250 horsepower; all are of the simple,
noncondensing, slide-valve type.
Centrifugal pumps are used; they are connected to the engines
by means of rope drives. Four of these pumps have a nominal
capacity of 16,000 gallons per minute, or 35.6 cubic feet per Second
each. Two have a nominal capacity of 8,000 gallons per minute, or
17.8 cubic feet per second. -
The plant was visited early in May, 1904, and the flume rated
with the various pumps in use, starting with one and adding pumps
successively until the whole plant was in operation. At this time
the plan was to use a water register on the flume, and so have a
record of all water pumped, into the main canal during the entire
Season. This plan had to be abandoned, as the water of the canal
backed up into the flume, and as the level of the main canal fluctuated
the records were worthless. However, in measuring the discharge
from the pumps, the amount thrown by similar pumps in each case
was approximately the same, and the result so consistent that it was
found feasible to take the records of daily runs and, knowing the
hours and minutes that pumps were operated, to compute the dis-
charge on this basis. The level of the water in the bayou varied
somewhat during the season, but it is believed that the quantity of
water thrown in a given time by any of the pumps was practically
constant, as the speed of the engines was increased as the level of the
supply fell and the plant handled in an intelligent and satisfactory
manner throughout. Of course, it is impossible to have absolutely
accurate measurements under these circumstances, but the error is
certainly not over 10 per cent, and probably is much less. The plant
was put in order and the first pumping of the season occurred just
after the middle of April; the greater part of the pumping occurred,
however, between the dates of May 10 and July 1. Small amounts
were pumped the third week of July and the latter part of August,
and pumping was dicontinued on August 31. During this time a vol-
ume of 541,577,400 cubic feet of water, or 12,432 acre-feet, was
pumped. The area irrigated was 7,544 acres, the average yield from
which was about 8.6 sacks per acre. The water pumped was sufficient
to cover the area irrigated to a depth of 1.648 feet, or 19.77 inches.
The average head pumped against was 20.2 feet; it was computed
by multiplying the amounts of water pumped in periods of time in
which the head did not vary greatly, by the average head for each
period, and dividing the sum of these products by the total amount
of water pumped. The total amount of useful work done in pump-
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAS. 539
ing the water against the average head was 341,870,233 foot-tons.
The fuel used was crude oil and the amount used was 8,473 barrels of
42 gallons each. The cost per barrel was 70 cents delivered at the
plant. The work done per barrel of oil was 40,348 foot-tons.
THE ABBEVILLE PLANT.
The pumping plant of the Abbeville Canal Company is located on
Bayou Vermilion a short distance below Abbeville. Its equipment
consists of two horizontal return tubular boilers 72 inches in diame-
ter by 16 feet in length, each containing 70 tubes 4 inches in diameter.
There are two tandem compound condensing Corliss engines, of about
250 horsepower each, direct connected to Connersville pumps, each
having a capacity of 40,000 gallons, or 88.8 cubic feet per second.
These pumps are of the rotary or chamber-wheel type, and, unlike
the centrifugal pump, their action is positive. It has been claimed
that these pumps are meters, and that they therefore deliver an
amount of water at each revolution which is equal in volume to the
displacement of the pump; but it is probable that the slip in every
case is appreciable, inasmuch as it is impossible to make these pumps
mechanically perfect. Experience shows that this slip will amount
to 5 to 15 per cent, depending on circumstances—such as the age of
the plant, care and adjustment of pumps, the head pumped against,
etc. It is believed that the slip of the pumps at this plant during the
season of 1904 was probably as low as 5 per cent. The discharge was
computed on the basis of pump displacement, knowing the hours and
minutes pumps were operated each day and the revolutions per
minute. Pumping was begun on April 10 and ended on August 10.
During this time a volume of 450,526,231 cubic feet, or 10,343 acre-
feet, of water was pumped against an average head of 17.5 feet.
Nearly 88 per cent of this water was pumped before June 20.
The area irrigated was 5,175 acres. The water was therefore suf-
ficient to cover this area to a depth of almost exactly 2 feet. The
total yield was 46,445 sacks of rice, or an average of nearly 9 sacks
per acre. The total amount of useful work done in pumping the
water against the average head was 246,381,532 foot-tons. The fuel
used was crude oil, and 1,950 barrels were required. The cost was 81
cents per barrel, f. o. b. Abbeville.
The work done per barrel of oil was 126,350 foot-tons. A comparis
son of total cost of operating these two plants would be of interest,
but of course local conditions affect the cost of operating each plant.
The age of the plant will largely govern the amount of repairs re-
quired, while if the canal system be included the contour of the coun-
try and consequent number of wooden flumes or high embankments
will be different in individual cases. Proximity to the oil fields or
to main lines of railroad reduces the cost of fuel, as already noted.
540 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The point to which attention is particularly called is the amount
of work done per barrel of oil, which at the Miller-Morris was 40,348
foot-tons, and at the Abbeville plant 126,350. These amounts are in
ratio of 1 to 3.13. This difference in the total efficiency is not to be
entirely charged to the difference in the engines used, as the rotary
pumps of the Abbeville plant are probably more efficient than the
centrifugal pumps of the Miller-Morris plant. The truth of this
statement does not follow because one type is necessarily more eco-
nomical than the other, for both will show splendid efficiencies under
proper conditions. The centrifugal pumps must be run at their eco-
nomical speeds for best results, while the efficiency of the rotary pump
is not so dependent on speed. The economical plant had the ad-
vantage of operating larger units, which are always slightly more
efficient than small units. It had the further advantage of pumps
direct connected to engines, while the wasteful plant was rope driven.
For a contemplated plant of approximately the size of the two men-
tioned above, to furnish a stated amount of water pumped against a
required head, it has been found that the total cost erected complete,
including building, foundations, boilers, engines, pumps, accessories,
piping, etc., at the present prices will not be far from $100 per water
horsepower—that is, for every horsepower of useful work given out
by the pumps, in case compound condensing Corliss engines are used,
or engines in the same class as regards efficiency. The less eco-
nomical plant with the cheapest form of slide-valve engines will cost
about 10 per cent less. -
A comparison to determine which of these two plants would be the
better from a financial standpoint would include not only the cost of
operating, but also the interest on the money at the current rate—say,
5 per cent—and the depreciation of each plant at about 10 per cent per
annum. With fuel oil, the favorite fuel in this season, the cost for
labor of operating would be practically the same in the two cases,
while if coal is used the increased boiler capacity and fuel consump-
tion would call for more firemen and more labor in handling coal in
the wasteful plant.
When this comparison is made it will be found in the average case
that the saving in fuel with the compound condensing engines will
more than offset the difference in the interest on the investment and
depreciation and that the more expensive plant is the best proposition.
SMALL PUMIPING PLANTS.
On rice farms that are irrigated by means of wells, two general
types of engines are used—the steam engine and gasoline or oil
engine. The steam engines, being of comparatively small size, are
usually simple, noncondensing; sometimes traction engines are used
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TExAs. 541
and some of these are compound. As the pumping and thrash-
ing seasons never conflict, the small farmer is enabled to use his
traction engine for both purposes and thus effect an economy in equip-
ment. Many of these small plants consist of a stationary boiler and a
horizontal engine. Sometimes two pumps are run from a single en-
gine, the wells being 50 to 75 feet apart. These small traction and
noncondensing stationary engines are very wasteful of steam and
consequently of fuel, but are reliable and require but little skill to
operate. -
Gasoline engines are extensively used in some localities. When
properly installed and adjusted this type of engine is satisfactory,
usually requiring less attention and skill than the steam engine and
operating more economically. In at least one make of these engines
a “generator” has been used whereby the more volatile portions of
crude oil are distilled and used as fuel instead of gasoline. The heavy
residue, containing asphaltum, tar, etc., must be removed from the
generator at intervals of three or four days. This involves some labor
and trouble at a time when the rice farmer is busy attending to field
levees and the distribution of water. The experience of the men who
have used this apparatus differed; some reported that their engines
ran with crude oil quite as well as with gasoline, while others encoun-
tered difficulties. The cost of operating with crudé oil is about one-
half that of operating with gasoline. The heavy residue obtained in
the process of distillation is quite as good for burning in a furnace
to produce steam as is the crude oil. In some cases it has been ex-
changed barrel for barrel with a neighbor who used a steam plant.
Many of the men who operated engines by means of crude-oil dis-
tillate in 1903 preferred to employ gasoline in 1904, for although
gasoline is more expensive this objection was offset by increased
reliability.
A central plant in which an electric current is generated has been
employed to furnish power to run several pumps scattered over a rice
farm. A 6-inch pump will, in most localities, furnish sufficient water
for 75 to 100 acres of rice. By suitably spacing the wells a large area
may be watered economically in this way, as the canals and laterals
required by this system are comparatively small, and the cost of wire
and poles for the electrical transmission might for some conditions be
less than the canals of the usual system would cost. In case the prob-
lem is to be worked out on a large scale the units at the central station
would be sufficiently large to justify the use of very economical
machinery. $.
542 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
FUELS.
Crude oil continues to be used as a fuel in localities adjacent to the
oil fields and quite generally throughout the rice country. The oil-
producing area of Louisiana and Texas has been considerably in-
creased during the last year. Many believe that a practically inex-
haustible supply of oil will be found, and should this prove true,
crude oil will continue to be the favorite fuel of this section. The
discovery of oil in Texas preceded by a few years only the falling off
in the production of fields of Indiana and Ohio. The demand for
refined oil must be met first and the surplus crude oil used for fuel
purposes. The problem of refining the crude oil from Some Sections
of this territory is peculiar, but no doubt will eventually be success-
fully accomplished. Refineries are being established, and if the
price of the crude oil to be refined does not become too great and
therefore prohibit its use as a fuel, it will continue to be used to
generate steam. At present there appears to be an assured supply
for at least the next five years. Meanwhile, it is likely that new
fields will be discovered.
Fuel oil is used not only in the pumping plants of the rice country,
but in all kinds of service, from traction engines to locomotives, as
well as in various commercial power plants.
Coal is used in some localities, but the comparatively long distance
from the coal fields makes it expensive. It is less easily handled
than oil and requires more labor in firing.
TEXAS STORAGE DAMS.
The rivers of Texas are subject to floods, which are often sudden
and disastrous. On account of the abnormal rainfall of the winter
of 1902 and spring of 1903, the floods were unusually severe. The
beds of the rivers, in which storage dams are placed, are in many
places composed of sand and gravel to a depth of 20 or 30 feet before
clay is reached. Water percolates through this bed, so that there is
in reality more or less flow when the surface of the bed of the stream
is dry and the sand drifting over it.
The problem of designing a dam that will be able to withstand the
terrific floods which sometimes occur in these Texas streams and
rivers is a different one when the nature of the soil is considered.
Sand and gravel yield with the greatest ease to erosion, due to whirl-
pools or to rapid flow of water. For a permanent dam it is abso-
lutely necessary to guard against erosion, for in this material, when
once erosion is well started, it is almost impossible to check or stop its
action. If the dam be of any but the most substantial material and
design disaster is reasonably certain to follow a sudden downpour of
RICE IRRIGATION IN LOUISIANA AND TEXAs. 543
rain in the watershed of the stream whose waters it is desired to
impound.
During the season of 1903 two dams in Texas were visited which
are used exclusively for irrigation purposes. In both cases the dams
had failed, and in one instance had failed more than once.
JNPOLISHED RICE.
After the husk and cuticle of the rice grain are removed, the Outer
portion, which is of a dull white color, contains most of the fats and
albuminoids. Custom demands that this outer portion be removed
and a pearly luster be given to the grain, as it is sold entirely on its
appearance. The process by which this is done is called “polishing.”
*The “brush ’’ and accessories used to polish rice sometimes require
30 to 40 per cent of the total power of the mill. q
In oriental countries rice is never polished. The value of the
cereal as a food is much greater when unpolished, as polished rice
is nearly pure starch. The fats and gluten of the outer portion of
the grain give it flavor and render it far more palatable than when
polished.
The process of milling would be simplified and cheapened, as less
power would be required if the rice were not polished; a saving
would be effected, not only in the cost of milling, but also in the
quantity of rice. The amount removed by the process of polishing
amounts to 2 or 3 per cent, by weight. Unpolished rice is never
offered for sale and is never used in this country outside of the
rural districts where it is prepared by mortar and pestle in the most
primitive fashion. Many persons have never seen the unpolished
article and would not buy it if offered, as its appearance is unpre-
possessing. There are few who realize that by improving its appear-
ance its value as a food has been greatly reduced. Under these
circumstances the mill men are compelled to polish their rice in order
to sell it.
OIL AND FEED FROM RICE.
During the season of 1904 a mill has been erected at Crowley, La.,
for producing feed and corn products. Rice, rice bran, and corn are
the principal constituents of the feed produced. Oil is obtained
from the rice bran and is said to be similar to palm oil, of an excellent
quality, suitable for the manufacture of toilet soap. When it be-
comes better known it may be found suitable for many other pur-
poses.
The oil in rice bran causes it to become rancid and to heat in warm
climates. In this condition it is distasteful and harmful to stock.
The removal of the oil, therefore, not only gives a valuable by-
product, but also improves the keeping qualities of the feed.
544 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
RICE STRAW,
Some rice straw is now used as a forage for stock, and the straw
is sometimes baled and placed on the market. But only a very
small percentage of the total yield is used in this way. Thousands
of tons are allowed to waste each year, as it is considered a rather
undesirable by-product, of Small value. From a single point of
observation in the rice country it is not unusual to count as many as
a dozen immense piles of straw which are not being utilized in any
Way. ~.
The men who have so rapidly developed the rice industry in
Louisiana and Texas have had so many new problems to solve along .
other lines that the rice straw has been almost neglected. The grow-.
ing scarcity of paper material in the last few years, and especially
of wood pulp, has caused a consideration of rice straw as a substitute
in the manufacture of paper. In China and Japan an excellent
grade of paper is made from this material, and it is believed that
factories will eventually be established in this section for the manu-
facture of paper and strawboard.
RICE (RRIGATION ON THE PRAIRIE LAND OF ARKANSAS
By C. E. TAIT,
Assistant in Irrigation and Draimage Investigations.
Arkansas contains some distinctly prairie land situated in the cen-
tral eastern portion of the State. This land is very flat and has an
altitude of 216 feet. The soil is not rich and rarely exceeds 8 inches
in depth. The prairies are very wet during the spring season, but
during the late summer and fall become dry. Cotton and corn have
not been successfully grown on the prairie land, and for years the
problem has been to find out what crop would be profitable to the
farmers.
Just after the close of the civil war the prairie land could be bought
for 50 cents per acre. The value has steadily advanced since that
time, and the prices asked at present vary from $8 to $25 per acre.
It is probably safe to say that two-thirds of the land has never been
cultivated. The native grass is allowed to grow, and in recent years
a good part of this has been cut and marketed for hay, although the
growth on many acres is burned off each fall.
EARLY EXPERIMENTS.
Four or five years ago the attention of the public was called to the
small pieces of rice which were being grown in the low swampy places
along the bayou. Among the most successful in this kind of rice
culture were certain negroes, who raised enough rice for their own
table use. In 1899 Mr. W. H. Fuller, a farmer Tiving on Prairie
Longue, near Carlisle, Ark., who had come to the State from Ohio,
commenced preparations for growing rice by irrigation, believing
that rice could be grown on the prairie land as successfully as it was
in southern Louisiana. He drilled a 4-inch well and provided a
pump with such ample power that when the machinery was started
the strainer on the well collapsed. The rice sown that year was a
failure, but Mr. Fuller, being still determined to make it a success,
rented his farm and went to Louisiana, where he remained four years
in the rice district about Crowley and Jennings.
In 1902 arrangements were made for a rice experiment on the farm
of John Morris, which was just across the road from Mr. Fuller's
farm. A small stock company was organized in the town of Lonoke,
30620–No. 158–05—35 545
546 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
where a number of merchants and enterprising citizens each contrib-
uted $25 to form a fund for making preparations for the irrigation of
the rice. Judge George Sibley was president of the company and
Mr. W. H. Vivion, a fruit grower near Lonoke, was secretary. They
arranged with Mr. Morris to have the rice grown on his farm and
under his management. The Arkansas Experiment Station was in-
terested in the test to be made and furnished the seed, but having little
funds for the purpose could not lend any more material assistance.
While this attempt at growing rice was only partially successful, it
has been the means of bringing about more attempts in the same
direction.
A 10-inch well was drilled on Mr. Morris's farm. Water was
Struck at a depth of 70 feet. Twenty feet of Cook strainer was then
placed in the water-bearing stratum, making the total depth of the
well 90 feet. The well was drilled by local men who had had no
previous experience, but when it was time to place the strainer the
services of a well driller of Memphis, Tenn., were secured. When
water was struck, it rose in the well to within 27 feet of the surface.
The pump used was a 6-inch Morris centrifugal of the horizontal
type, which was placed in a pit 25 feet deep, making it necessary for
the water to be drawn 2 feet to the pump by suction. The pit was
round, 10 feet in diameter, and was curbed with brick. The power
was furnished by a 12-horsepower engine and stationary boiler. The
engine was placed with the band wheel directly over the top of the
pit, and the belt hung vertically to the 10-inch pulley on the hori-
zontal shaft of the pump below. It was found that this was a very
poor arrangement, for all the sag in the belt was at the lower pulley,
and it was almost impossible to prevent slipping. Two heavy idlers
were used before the belt would work at all. Many other difficulties
were experienced in getting the machinery to operate. The first
pump used could not be made to raise any water at all. After three
days of hard labor the pump was run backward, which also failed
to give any result, and it was then taken out and a new pump sent for.
The second pump worked fairly well, but it was found that the power
was barely sufficient. While the engine was rated at 12 horsepower,
it was probably not capable of developing that much. The pump
being above the water level, it was necessary to prime it in starting.
It finally became necessary to haul water in a portable tank and turn
it into the discharge pipe of the pump when the machinery was
started.
About 30 acres of rice was planted. After it had been flooded, the
levees, which had been carelessly made, broke and a great part of the
water which was pumped was lost, the result being that only about 5
acres received as much water as was needed. The yield on this was
very large and was enough to indicate that rice could be successfully
RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND. 547
grown if the problem of a water supply could be solved. The experi-
ment was continued in 1903 and was more successful. The levees had
Set, and while the well and pump did not furnish enough water for
the entire acreage all the water raised was used. It is claimed that
that part of the rice which received a sufficient quantity of water
yielded 90 bushels to the acre.
RICE EXPERIMENT STATION.
In 1904 arrangements were made for a cooperative experiment
with the Arkansas Experiment Station. The fund set aside for this
work by the irrigation and drainage investigations was $1,500 and
that set aside by the Arkansas Station was $1,000, making a total
of $2,500 available for carrying on the work to July, 1905.
Several things were to be determined by the experiment. It would
show whether the poor prairie soil was capable of growing rice or
not. Lonoke is 300 miles north of the Louisiana-Texas belt, and the
rice could not be planted as early as it is in the South, but the experi-
ment would show whether or not the summer season was long enough
to mature a crop. While the well at Lonoke does not extend to the
bottom of the water-bearing stratum found and while the pump does
not exhaust the well, a complete test of the amount of water that can
be secured and pumped has not been made, but the experiment would
prove whether or not water could be pumped from wells in quantities
sufficient to make rice growing possible. In addition to testing the
possibilities of rice culture the experiment was designed to determine
by the most practical method the cost of sinking Wells, of the in-
stallation of pumping machinery, and of the cost of pumping water,
and this when compared with the results would determine the prac-
ticability of the entire work. The experiment also would show the
amount of water required for the irrigation of rice.
The Arkansas Experiment Station arranged for the use of 160
acres belonging to Mr. W. P. Fletcher, located about 1.5 miles west
of Lonoke, Lonoke County, Ark. The land is among the best to be
found on the Arkansas prairies, but had never been under cultivation.
It had formerly been used as a common pasture and was not fenced.
Mr. Fletcher agreed to fence the land and to build a house on it to be
occupied by the one having charge of the raising of the rice, if it was
desired. Only about 10 acres were broken for experimental purposes,
and after the 160-acre tract had been fenced and the house built about
40 acres were inclosed by a fence which surrounded the experimental
tract, in order that the remainder might be used for pasture. It was
arranged that the irrigation and drainage investigations should
make preparations for the irrigation of the rice, which included the
sinking of a well, the installation of pumping machinery, and the con-
548 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
struction of levees around the field to hold the water, after which the
Arkansas Experiment Station was to take charge of the farm and
operate the pumping plant.
The first step to be taken toward securing the water supply was to
make arrangements for the sinking of the well. It was believed from
the great number of small wells for domestic purposes and from the
well at the Morris place that water would be found at a depth of 70
to 80 feet below the surface. It was not known how thick this water-
bearing stratum was, because no wells had yet been drilled deep
enough to go through it. It was decided that an 8-inch well having
30 feet of strainer placed entirely in the water-bearing stratum, if
possible, should furnish plenty of water for the experimental work,
and bids were accordingly received from all the well drillers in Little
Rock and Memphis. The contract was let at $4 per foot, the con-
tractor furnishing pipe and strainer. It called for the completion of
the well within twenty days of the date of the contract, or by March
24. It is believed that the price paid is reasonable and compared
very favorably with the price paid in the rice districts of Louisiana
and Texas, where there are many well drillers in competition.
The well was begun by boring with an earth auger to a depth of 27
feet, where quicksand was struck, which caved in, and other means
had to be used. The pipe was then inserted and the well was finished
by the use of the sand bucket.
The strainer agreed upon and the kind with which the well was
supplied was made by drilling 1,100 1-inch holes in 30 feet of 6-inch
well casing, the holes being arranged in 6 rows around the pipe. The
pipe was then filed and tinned, after which irrigating gauze made
of copper wire, having heavy wires running around the pipe with
lighter wire running along the pipe, was wound about the casing and
soldered in 6 rows between the rows of holes. Gauze of this kind is
sometimes woven very closely, which keeps out very fine sand, but
which, of course, does not admit much water to the well. The gauze
which was used, being of heavy wire and woven openly, served to
admit plenty of water, and as the Sand encountered was rather coarse,
the strainer was well adapted to the conditions. The crimped fashion
in which the gauze is woven allows water to pass through the strainer
at any point, whether it be directly over a hole in the well casing or
not, after which it may flow along the pipe under the gauze until it
reaches one of the holes. This gives the strainer almost the full
advantage of the entire area of the perforations, while if the water
could not enter at any point and follow along the pipe the actual
opening would be greatly reduced by the space taken by the wires
covering the holes. Several other strainers have been designed
recently which accomplish this purpose.
RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND. 549
&
One hundred feet of pipe was used in sinking the well. Water was
struck at a depth of 80 feet, and in thirty minutes a measurement was
made and the water level was found to be only 27 feet below the sur-
face. This was in the evening. The next morning when work was
begun it was found that the water had risen to within 26 feet 3 inches
of the surface, which level was maintained.
The various strata encountered in sinking the well consisted of yel-
low and brown clays 5 to 14 feet thick, separated by 5-foot layers of
white or red sand to a depth of about 70 feet, where fine sand, water
bearing to a small degree, was found. A few inches of blue clay at 74
feet separated this fine sand from a coarse white sand below, which was
also water bearing. Then 6 inches of hard clay was perforated at a
depth of 80 feet, below which was found the excellent water-bearing
sand and gravel to a depth of 114 feet, the total depth of the well.
The latter is the stratum from which the well derives its water. The
sand is rather coarse, containing gravel as large as 2 inches in diame-
ter. When the 6 inches of blue clay was perforated by the sand
bucket the force of the water, which seemed to be confined under pres-
sure below this stratum, drove the sand bucket upward several feet.
The strainer was placed by lowering it in the 8-inch pipe and using
a smaller sand bucket. It was the intention to sink the well only deep
enough to allow the entire length of the strainer to be set in the water-
bearing stratum, and had there been no obstacle in the way it would
have been necessary to place the bottom of the strainer at a depth of
only 110 feet and the 8-inch pipe could then have been withdrawn 20
feet, leaving the strainer all exposed; but since the water rose to a
depth of 26 feet 3 inches from the surface, it was desired that a joint
of the pipe be left at a depth of 30 feet, where the pump could be
attached. The joints of 8-inch pipe were in 10 and 20 foot lengths,
and it was found that the arrangement would not allow a joint to
come at a depth of 30 feet, so it was necessary to sink the strainer 10
feet farther to bring about the proper condition. An attempt was
made by the well drillers to do this, but after a depth of 114 feet was
reached the strainer could not be lowered any farther. After work-
ing two days with the sand bucket without gaining anything, it was
decided that the strainer could not be lowered any farther by this
means, for the sand and gravel rose to the bottom of the strainer as
fast as it was taken out by the sand bucket. The 8-inch pipe was then
withdrawn 10 feet, leaving the upper 6 feet of the strainer inside of
the pipe. The upper end of the strainer carried a lead packing, the
upper edge of which was expanded until it was clamped to the inner
side of the 8-inch pipe, thus making a rigid connection between the
pipe and the strainer. (Fig. 70.) This was accomplished by means
of a cone-shaped tool which was lowered in the well and allowed to
fall on the lead packing. The lower end of the strainer was then
550 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
closed by means of two disks which were fastened together on an iron
rod about 1 foot apart. This was forced to the bottom of the strainer'
and two buckets of gravel was poured in on top of it. (Fig. 71.)
The well was begun on March 20 and completed May 2. The 30
feet of strainer cost the contractors $90. The price paid them for the
well was $456. The well being completed, the next proceedure was
to dig a pit deep enough to allow the pump to be submerged. The
kind of pump decided on was a 4-inch vertical centrifugal, which
was placed in the bottom of a pit 30 feet
deep and 6 feet square. The pit was
curbed with 2-inch cypress, having corner
posts made of 4 by 4 timbers. This was
made up in four sections and was dropped
into the pit as the digging progressed. It
was possible for two men only to work
in the pit, and during the first part of the
digging two men were required for draw-
ing the earth out with block and tackle.
Heavy rains fell while the pit was being
dug and the earth caved in, clamping the
curbing so tightly that it was lowered with
difficulty. When quicksand, at a depth of
27 feet, was struck the greatest difficulty
was encountered. While this stratum did
not contain a great amount of water, it
rose from the bottom very rapidly. While
it was hard to sink the shovel in the sand,
it seemed to move upward very freely. It
required about five days to lower the pit
the last 3 feet. The curbing could not be
moved any farther, being clamped by the
sand, and it was necessary to make a sand
box out of 1-inch lumber 3 feet deep, which
Fig. 70-Method of making joint was lowered to the bottom of the pit and
lºween trainer and weneas driven with a sledge down into the sand.
Ing. This shut off some of the water which had
made the digging so difficult. When the pit had been lowered to the
joint in the pipe at 30 feet a large wooden clamp was placed just
below the joint to support the pipe to which the pump was to be at-
tached later. It was necessary to dig a small hole about 1 foot deep
and about 2 by 3 feet to allow this clamp to be placed below the
coupling of the pipe. It required fully a half day's digging to ac-
complish this. These difficulties have been encountered by the rice
growers in Louisiana and Texas, in Some cases it being impossible to
dig the pits as low as desired.
§3/awe/

RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND. 551
One dollar and a half a day was paid for labor in digging until
the quicksand was struck. After this it became necessary for the men
to work in water and $2 per day was paid. The lumber used in the
curbing cost $15 per 1,000 feet and the cost of the curbing was $28.60.
Boiler, engine, pump, and all accessories cost $858.58.
After the pit was finished the upper 30 feet of pipe was removed.
There was not room in the pit to use pipe wrenches, and it was neces-
sary to cut the coupling with a cold chisel. This was done with
great difficulty, as the water poured out into the bottom of the pit
as soon as an opening was made. The top of the pipe was tempo-
rarily closed with a wooden plug. The suction pipe of the pump was
5 inches in diameter, and it was necessary to use a reducing fitting to
make the connection between the pump and the 8-inch pipe. This
had been attached to the pump on top of the ground and the whole
was lowered into the well by block and tackle, ready to be attached
to the well pipe as soon as the wooden
plug was removed. In making this
connection the water rushed out so that
the men were working in water 4 feet
deep before it was finished. It was then
necessary to withdraw the water from
the pit by means of buckets until the
wooden framework to which the pump
was to be bolted could be placed. This
framework was made of oak timbers
4 by 6 inches and braced to the well
curbing with 2 by 4 cypress timbers.
The vertical shafting was then *:::::::
placed in the pit, being supported by FIG. 71.—Disks for closing bottom of
seven bearings attached to timbers well casing.
spiked to the curbing. At the upper end the shafting carried a 10-
inch pulley which received the power from the engine. Two bear-
ings were placed close to the pulley at this point, one just above and
one just below it, and an oak framework built at the top of the well
supported these. The 10-inch pulley was placed low on the vertical
shaft and an idler placed above the belt leading to the 10-inch pul-
ley at an angle of about 45°. The idler could be adjusted to hold the
belt down and to tighten it. The distance between the engine shaft
and the vertical shaft was 16 feet. Forty feet of belting was used,
and this was passed around the fly wheel (54 inches in diameter) and
the 10-inch pulley. Had the belt been longer it would have been
much easier to adjust. Two-ply belting 8 inches wide was used, and
it is believed that had it been a little wider it would not have given
so much trouble by stretching. Sixty inches of belt was taken out
the first three days.
A'oZZºe/-> //o/, ZX5%

552 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The total lift of water was 29 feet. Theoretically it requires only
about 33 horsepower to lift 500 gallons of water per minute this
height, but it was thought best to use a 12-horsepower engine, and
this was ordered. The contract for the machinery included a guar-
anty that the 4-inch pump would raise 470 gallons per minute with
the power and machinery furnished under a lift of 50 feet. It was
not known what effect pumping would have on the water level, and
an endeavor was made to provide ample power to raise the water,
even should it be lowered to that depth. The contractors being
anxious to have the machinery make a good showing, delivered an
18-horsepower engine, which has been used, although a 12-horsepower
was preferred and would have been large enough. It is an 8 by 13
cylinder center-crank throttling engine. The fly wheel is 54 inches
in diameter. With the first three days of pumping the engine was not
run at as high speed as may be done later, on account of the stretching
of the belt and of the necessary slight adjustments in the bearings
of the vertical shaft from the pump. The average speed was 150
revolutions per minute, which would give to the pump 810 revolu-
tions per minute, provided there was no slipping in the belt. The
engine was placed on a foundation of 9 by 12 inch oak timbers. Two
timbers 10 feet long were first placed on the ground and on top of
these three short timbers 3 feet long were laid, then two timbers 7
feet long were laid lengthwise on these and the engine bed bolted
through the entire framework. While this does not make as good a
foundation as brick, stone, or cement, it has been found to be very .
good for the small engine used and was much less expensive.
Steam is furnished the engine by a 20-horsepower boiler, which is
portable on skids, but has return flues, with smoke-box extension and
a combustion chamber just behind the fire box. This approaches the
condition of a stationary bricked-up boiler, but at the same time is
portable and may be easily moved if at any time the experimental
work should be given up and it become necessary to move the machin-
ery elsewhere. Twenty feet of smokestack was used, which gives a
strong draft. The boiler was fitted with two injectors, which draw
water from the discharge of the pump for filling the boiler.
The complete pumping outfit was purchased from one firm, at a
total cost of $858.59. The items are as follows:
One 20-horsepower boiler, with smoke-box extension door and stack saddle,
grate bars, bearing bars, bridge wall, fire-brick lining, pop safety-valve, steam
gauge, siphon water column, glass water tube, gauge cocks, feed check, and
blow-off valve, 2 Penberthy injectors, 20 feet smokestack, and 80 feet guy wire.
One 8 by 13 18-horsepower throttling center-crank engine, with 52-inch band
wheel in place of square rim fly wheel, 36-inch band wheel, automatic governor,
governor belt, throttle valve, oil cups, sight-feed cylinder lubricator, foundation
bolts, oil can, and wrench,
RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAs PRAIRIE LAND. 553
- - One No. 4 vertical centrifugal pump, with upper half of coupling bored for
13-inch shaft. -
Thirty-five feet 14-inch cold-rolled shafting.
One fitted flange shaft coupling.
Seven 1%-inch adjustable vertical boxes.
Forty feet 8-inch 4-ply Gandy belting, with 3 sets of fasteners.
Thirty-nine feet 4-inch black pipe.
One 4-inch coupling.
One 4-inch elbow.
Twenty feet 13-inch pipe.
Four 14-inch malleable elbows.
Ten feet 3-inch pipe.
Two 3-inch malleable elbows.
Seven close-pipe nipples.
One reducer, 8 inch to 5 inch.
One gallon cylinder oil.
One gallon lubricating oil.
In running the engine at a speed of about 150 revolutions per
minute, the steam pressure was maintained at about 60 pounds. It
was found that this was very easily done. Slack coal could have
been purchased in Lonoke for $1.90 per ton, but it was decided that
it would be more economical to use a better grade of coal, and the
experiment station purchased two carloads of hard coal, costing $2.80
per ton.
Arrangements were made by the experiment station for the con-
struction of a shed to protect the machinery. Since a very short belt
was used, a shed 24 by 40 feet with 8-foot posts covered the well, as
well as the engine and boiler. Galvanized-iron roofing was used.
The total cost of the shed was $95. -
The well was placed about 60 feet from the edge of the rice field, on
the highest side. The discharge pipe used on the pump was 4 inches
in diameter, and an elbow was used at the top, with a short piece of
pipe, from which the water was discharged into a pool about 10 feet in
diameter. The water was then carried from this pool to the edge of
the rice field by a small ditch, which was built slightly above the
ground, with the earth removed from the pit. In this ditch a 1-foot
Cipolletti weir was placed for measuring the water. When the water
was discharged into the pool, it settled and passed into the weir
flume with practically no velocity. The levee on the upper side of
the rice field was only about 1 foot high. It was not only necessary
to raise the water to the surface of the ground, but it had to be
raised high enough to give about 1 foot fall for the weir and 1 foot
fall where it passed over the levee into the rice field. This makes
the lift slightly higher than would be necessary had not arrangements
been made for measuring the water. A continuous record of the
depth of water passing over the weir is kept by an automatic register.
554 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
No attempt has been made to ascertain just what effect the pump-
ing has had on the water level by use of a vacuum gauge or other
means, but since the pump is submerged 33 feet it is known that the
water level is not drafted down that much, for when the pump was
first started it was stopped for just a few minutes many times in
order to make some adjustments, and it was not necessary to prime
the pump in starting again. It is not known whether the joint made
between the pump and the well is water-tight or not, but the indica-
tions are that it is, for the first three days of pumping did not lower
the water standing in the pit any perceptible amount. It is reason-
able to suppose that the pumping did lower the water in the well a
slight amount, and had there been any connection between the water
in the pump and the water in the pit the same level would have been
maintained in both.
Knowing the fatal results on account of insecure levees at the Mor-
ris farm, great care was taken in the construction of the levees about
º
*— J’ s
! ū
tº º ºs º ºs º sº º me sº tº sº tº me tº *|- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . .
r º
| |
Q ! Æce.
§ W3/e/. ºn E
| EE=ttir -- g
E=#|
isºs : Ze/<eº º n #|
SAS's sº 1. |t *P =: º gº %25/E
* º
so/A * * //
N A/ø/ea’ * Jo//
A/º
C/ay %
FIG, 72.-Section of field levee, Lonoke, Ark.
the rice field. The levees were placed about 5 feet in from the edge
of the plowed ground. A trench about 8 inches deep was first made
with a 16-inch plow, throwing the earth out in both directions. This
trench extended to the clay which underlaid the soil. The earth was
then thrown back into this trench and at the same time horses were
ridden about the field on the levee to puddle it. (Fig. 72.) The lev-
ees were constructed when the ground was so wet that it was with
great difficulty that the teams were driven through some of the lowest
places. After the trench had been filled, the levees were thrown up
by the use of the large plow and a crowder constructed of boards 2
inches thick and 12 inches wide. This machine was shaped like the
letter A, having one side 10 feet long, which in using had a tendency
to run in the direction the team was driven. The other side was only
4 feet long and was the one which crowded the earth up on the levee.
The horses were kept going over the levee as the earth was thrown


RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND. 555
up, which kept it well puddled, and the earth was packed down into
the trench which was first dug. No trouble has been experienced
with the levees. They have not broken, and practically no water has
Seeped through the bases of them.
The prairies about Lonoke are dotted with Small mounds in many
places, resembling very much the mounds found in the oil fields about
Beaumont, Tex. These rise 1 to 2 feet above the level of the prairie,
and at their base they are 10 to 75 feet in diameter. The rice field
contained five of these mounds. One of the small levees through the
middle of the fields dividing the different plats of rice was arranged
so that it crossed two of the mounds, making it unnecessary for these
to be removed. Two of the other mounds were removed by teams
and scrapers, but the remaining one was left in order that it might
be shown just what the result would be of raising rice without re-
moving the mounds.
PLANTING, WATERING, AND HARVESTING RICE.
The work of the Arkansas Experiment Station in connection with
the rice experiments was begun in February, when the sod was broken.
Soon after this had been done, heavy rains came, and it was not until
May 1 that the ground was again dry enough to be put in condition
for the sowing of the rice. It was disked and cross disked, and then
harrowed. The first sowing of rice was made with Japan seed on
May 3, and included about 5.5 acres. Soon after this more heavy
rain fell. The rainfall at Lonoke for February was 2.40 inches;
March, 5.94 inches; April, 3.14 inches; May, 2.20 inches, and in
June, up to and including the 23d, 7.12 inches. In planting the first
rice a wheat drill was used. This was set for planting to a depth of
less than 1 inch, but on examination it was found that most of the
seed was placed more than 1 inch beneath the surface. Rains fell
Soon after the Sowing was made, and when the ground dried out it
baked and crusted over on top. Examinations were made from time
to time to determine how the seed was germinating. It was found
that only a small part of the seed sprouted at all, and many of these
did not get through the crust on the surface. The small stems curled
over, and were not able to penetrate the crust, the result being that the
stand was very poor. This was probably not due altogether to the
deep planting and the crusty surface, for it is believed that the seed
was too old.
On May 171 acre of Honduras rice was drilled, the drill being set
to deposit the Seed as near the surface as was possible. This seed was
procured from Mr. Morris, who had raised it the year before on his
farm near Carlisle. On May 23 1 acre was sown with what is com-
monly known as upland rice. This seed had been grown in small
556 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
patches by farmers in the vicinity of Lonoke, and was furnished by
Mr. W. P. Fletcher. The seed resembles the Japan seed in size and
shape. On May 20 1.05 acres of the ground which had been sown
with Japan rice was disked, it being evident that the stand would
not warrant any endeavor to raise the crop by irrigation. This plat
was adjacent to the Honduras rice and was replanted with Honduras
seed. The other 4 acres which had been sown with Japan rice were
not disked, but 1 bushel per acre of new Japan seed was sown broad-
cast and harrowed in. This seed was also procured from Mr. Morris.
While the heavy rainfall throughout the spring up until the time
of planting the rice had been a great disadvantage, it is probable that
it was a great help in the sprouting of the rice later. The pumping
plant was not ready for operation until June 23, but the 7.12 inches
of rain which fell during the first twenty-three days of June was
undoubtedly a great help in bringing the rice up.
Some of the best rice growers in Louisiana advise turning water
on young rice for a short time only, when it should be turned off and
fresh water put on. They claim that the ground should be kept
moist, but that the tops should not be covered, and until the rice is
4 to 6 inches high water should not be left standing on it. After the
first sowing of Japan rice had been replanted the stand obtained was
satisfactory. From 1.25 to 1.5 bushels per acre had been sown where
only one sowing was made.
On June 23, when the pump was first operated, all the rice was
growing nicely. The earliest Honduras was about 10 inches high,
the Upland about 6 inches high, and the later Honduras and the
Japan rice about 4 inches high. The ground was still slightly moist
when water was first turned on the field, and it had not at any time
crushed over since the seed was planted.
One levee was run through the middle of the field, which separated
the two plats of Honduras rice from the plats of Japan and Upland
rice. Levels taken before the well was located indicated that the fall
from the highest to the lowest corner of the rice field was 6 inches.
This intermediate levee divided the field into two water levels, and
had it not been for this it would have been necessary to cover the
lower side of the field more than 6 inches deep in order that the upper
side be kept moist. With the present arrangement, the greatest depth
at any point on the field need be only slightly more than 3 inches to
keep the entire field moist. The greater the fall in any field where
flooding is necessary, the greater the amount of water required to
cover it, and for this reason land should be very level for rice grow-
ing. If it is necessary to make a great many levees across a field, the
space taken up by them will make a material deduction from the
total area, and it is much more convenient to use teams in large com-
partments than in small ones. The levee through the middle of the
RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND.
557
field was not made with the same precaution as the outer levee, but
was made by throwing up two furrows with a 16-inch plow.
water Seeps through this levee from the upper side to the lower side
it is not lost altogether.
The ditch from the pumping plant discharges the water on the
upper side and the middle levee is cut to admit water to the lower
side.
If any
The earliest rice is on the upper side, for it needs the water
first, and water can be held on it for some time before it is turned
onto the lower side of the field. Other things being equal, the early
rice will need to be drained first, and after the pumping has been
stopped the water can all be drained from the upper side, but held on
the lower side as long as it is needed. In the fall, when the entire
field is to be drained, it will only be necessary to cut the levee on the
lower side, which will allow the water to run to a small stream only
about one-half mile away, which will carry it to the bayou separating
Prairie Longue from Grand Prairie.
After the pumping plant had been operated three days it was
turned over to the Arkansas Experiment Station.
charge of Mr. G. E. Chase by Mr. W. G. Vincenheller, director.
It was placed in
The
entire area was covered in five days’ pumping at ten hours per day.
The following tables give the time of pumping, amount of water
pumped, and the rainfall and evaporation during the season:
Water pumped for rice irrigation at Lonoke, 1904.
June. July. | August. September.
Day. Hours Gallons | Hours | Gallons Hours Gallons | Hours Gallons
purnp- per pump- r pump- per pump- per
ing. Imin Ulte Ing. minute. 1Ing. minute ling. minute.
1 ------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------
?-----------|---------------------- 7.50 432 3.00 436 9.00 435
: m = * * * * = sº ºn s = | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.00 414
s sº as ºr m ms at am as sº ºn. I am s = sº sº, s = * * * r * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * = '---------- * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * } = * * * * * * * * = = s.
5 ---------------------|------------ 10.00 44l 7.50 467 ----------------------
g * = * * = = * * * = s.s. H. “ s = * * * = ** = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 5, 25 ; 508 ----------------------
§ III III III 4.00 || 4ii I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.III.
9---------------------|------------ 3.00 40? -------------------------------- !------------
10---------------------|---------------------------------- 8.50 442 7.00 402
11 -----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12-----------------------------------------------------------------'----------------------------------
; mºs ºs º ºs º an as * sº as ºr m. - m º ºs = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 547 8.50 885 ----------------------
4--------- * I am sº * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * 1 sº- * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = ′ = * * * * * * * * * f = * * * * * * * * * = as
15.-----------|----------|------------ 3.00 451 --------------------------------------------
16---------------------|------------ 5.50 851 ---------------------- 8.00 369
17 ------------------------------------------------------- 7.50 461 ----------------------
18--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
; * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 7.00 486 8.00 883 ----------------------
23 III III III 3.50 505 II.III.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.III
28----------- 0. 50 404 6.50 400 1---------- I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
24----------- 7, 25 390 ----------|------------|---------- !----------------------------------
§ * * * * = * * * * * * 4.25 408 ---------------------- 6.00 888 ----------------------
; III "Tº 1.25"| "T" 534 II.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.III.
28 - * * * * * 4.25 . 443 7.50 459 --------------------------------------------
29----------- 3.00 451 ------------------------------------------------------------------
30 ---------------------|------------ 8.00 886 ---------------------- 6.00 259
81 ---------------------|------------|----------|------------ 9.00 887 ----------|------------
|
Total ----- 19.50 ------------ 72.00 ------------ 63.25 ------------ 36.00 |------------
Average--|---------- 438 |---------- 438 ---------- 428 ---------- 356
|


558
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Rainfall and evaporation at Lonoke, 1904.


Week ending— Rainfallº- Week ending— Rainfanº
|Feet. Feet, Feet, Feet
June 29----------------------- 0.1375 0.0131 || September 1... ------------- 0.1050 0.0371
July 7- --- *- . 1798 .0184 || September 8----------------- .0041 ,0271
July 14----------------------- 0600 .0304 || September 15----------------|---------- . 03:36
July 21-----------------------|---------- .0357 || September 22---------------- 1 .0251
July 28----- ------------ . U200 .0385 || September 29.--------------- 01:25 . 0311
August 4---------------------|---------- .0358 || September 30a --------------|---------- .0051
August 11-------------------- ,0966 .0367
August 18-------------------- .0483 .0386 Total ------ ----------- | . 7954 .4422
August 25-------------------- ... 1025 .03b9
* One day.
The total volume of water pumped was 15 acre-feet, enough to
cover 10 acres of the experimental plat to a depth of 1.5 feet. The
rainfall for the season after pumping began was 0.8 foot, making a
total depth of 2.3 feet of water received by the rice plats.
The yields are reported as follows by Mr. W. P. Fletcher, the
owner of the land:
Honduras rice.—On the 16th day of May, 1904, 13 bushels of Honduras rice
were sowed with drill on 1 acre of ground. This rice was cut on the 4th day of
October, 1904, and thrashed on the 16th day of November, 1904. The yield was
28 bushels per acre.
On the 30th day of May, 1904, 3} bushels of Honduras rice were sown on 3
acres of land. This was cut on the 18th day of October, 1904. The water should
have remained on all of the rice at least two weeks longer, especially on the late
sowing. The last sowing of the Honduras rice was entirely too late. The water
was taken off too early and the Crop was not well filled, and on account of the
thrasher being broken no portion of this rice was thrashed.
Upland rice.—On the 24th day of May, 1904, 1 bushel of upland rice (rice
that is grown without water) was sown on 1 acre of land. One dozen bundles
was thrashed and yielded 1 bushel. There were 52 dozen bundles upon the
acre, making a yield of 52 bushels per acre. The greater portion of the upland
rice was not well filled, which may be accounted for in two ways: (1) It was
upland rice and not intended to have water applied, and (2) it was sown
later than it should have been.
Japan rice.—On the 30th day of May, 1904, 4 bushels of Japan rice were sowed
broadcast and disked in on 3 acres of land. This was cut on the 4th day of
October, 1904, and thrashed on the 16th day of November, 1904. Two dozen
bundles were thrashed and yielded 13 bushels per dozen. There were 55 dozen
bundles per acre. Estimating the yield of the Japan rice from the amount
thrashed from the two dozen bundles the yield was 96% bushels per acre, making
a total of 288% bushels of Japan rice from 3 acres.
There were only 8 acres in all sown. Three acres were not thrashed and 5
acres poorly thrashed and from actual measurements before the breaking of the
machine and estimates made from them that were thrashed the yield was 323
bushels from the 5 acres, which would be equal to 64; bushels per acre.
RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND. 559
OTHER PUMPING PLANT'S USED FOR RICE IRRIGATION IN
ARKANSAS IN 1904.
In addition to the experiment work at Lonoke, three other rice
farms were operated in 1904. One was that of W. H. Fuller near
Carlisle, another that of A. Boysen on the prairie near Wheatley, and
another the Morris farm, where work was continued. (See pp. 560,
563.) These experiments were valuable to the public as well as the
work at Lonoke, and information has been collected in regard to the
cost and results of each.
THE MORRIS PLANT.
The work at the Morris farm during the past season was conducted
by E. L. Morris, son of John Morris, who started the work two years
before. Upon the return of W. H. Fuller from Louisiana with well-
drilling machinery, Mr. Morris purchased one-half interest in the
machinery and after first sinking a well for Mr. Fuller, moved the
machinery to the Morris farm and put down another 10-inch well
beside the old well in the same pit.
The 6-inch Morris centrifugal pump
of horizontal type was then con-
nected to both wells in an endeavor
to increase the capacity of the plant.
On these wells a Cook strainer was
used. This is a brass strainer hav-
ing slots beveled in such a manner
that the opening is wider on the in-
side of the pipe than on the outside, so that any particles which enter
the slot at all easily pass into the well and either sink to the bottom
or are drawn out by the pump. (Fig. 73.) The strainer used in this
case has fine mesh, and as the wells were only 90 feet deep and as
water was struck at 70 feet, the two wells had only 40 feet of strainer
in all. It was found that no great advantage was gained by sinking
the second well so near the old one, which indicates that the amount
of water entering the well may be limited not only by the strainer
itself but by the gravel around the strainer. It is also probable that
had the additional 20 feet of strainer which the second well gave been
placed at the bottom of the old well, making it penetrate the water-
bearing stratum to a greater depth, the results would have been bet-
ter, for in this case the pressure would be greater on the lower part
of the strainer and the water level at the well would not be drawn
down to a point so near the bottom of the strainer.
Fifty acres of rice were planted on the Morris farm in 1904, but
only 25 acres were watered. This produced 1,790 bushels of very
FIG. 73.−Section of Strainer.

560 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
plump rice, making 71.6 bushels per acre. It is impossible to learn
the cost of the Morris pumping plant, but it is known that it was
much greater than it need have been, and it has been shown that it is
much cheaper in the end to construct a pumping plant with more
care and forethought. The many expensive alterations that have
been made would have been unnecessary had the plant been con-
structed properly in the first place, and it can never be made an effi-
cient one.
TEIE FULLER PLANT.
Mr. W. H. Fuller, who, as has been before stated, determined to
make rice growing a success, went to Crowley and Jennings, La., after
the failure of the well near Carlisle, to get experience in rice culture.
After spending four years there, he returned to his farm, bringing
with him machinery and pipe for sinking 10-inch wells by the jet
process. A test well of 3-inch pipe was first made, which struck the
water-bearing stratum at a depth of 70 feet and penetrated entirely
through it, reaching clay at a depth of 140 feet. Therefore Mr.
Fuller decided to use 60 feet of strainer, which was to be set entirely
in the water-bearing gravel. In this he used excellent judgment,
for he is now able to get the greatest possible amount of water out
of that stratum with one well. In the jet system it is necessary to
decide on the amount of strainer to be used before the large pipe is
started, for the strainer is first started in the ground and the joints
of pipe attached to it as the well is lowered, instead of first sinking
the pipe and dropping the strainer inside of it and then pulling
the pipe back far enough to expose the strainer, as was done with
the sand-pump process at Lonoke. In the latter case the strainer is
said to be telescoped.
The jet process is a novel one. After the test well has been with-
drawn, the first joint of the strainer is started rotating. Having
an auger attached at its lower end, it penetrates the ground following
the opening made by the test well. The accompanying sketch will
show more clearly the method (fig. 74). A is the strainer, B is the
auger attached to its lower end, C is the test pipe, which has now
been placed inside of the strainer pipe, D is packing of chaff be-
tween the strainer pipe and the test well pipe, which keeps water
out of the strainer. The auger at the bottom is slightly larger in
diameter than the strainer, which leaves a small space outside of the
strainer, marked E. The machinery not only keeps the pipes rotat-
ing, but by means of a force pump muddy water is constantly forced
down through the test pipe and by means of a specially designed
base the water passes up on the outside of the strainer, taking
out the borings of the auger with it. During the entire process,
a man is kept stirring mud into the water in a pool from which the
RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND. 561
pump takes its supply. The rotation of the pipe may be stopped,
but the muddy water is kept moving throughout the entire process,
day and night, with no interruption other than is necessary to
attach a new joint of test pipe. After all of the strainer is in
the ground the well casing above
it is attached, which, of course.
requires no packing between it.
and the test pipe. When the well
has been lowered to the desired
depth, the test pipe is unscrewed
at the bottom and, together with
the chaff packing, is taken out,
which completes the process. The
auger can not be removed and a
new one is required for each well
made. A peculiar feature is a
wooden ball valve at the bottom
of the well, marked F, which al-
lows the muddy water to pass
downward to the auger, but as
Soon as the test pipe is withdrawn
and the pressure of the muddy
water released water and sand
passing upward raise the wooden
ball until it closes the opening
permanently.
The strainer used on Mr. Ful-
ler's well was made of ordinary
casing by having slots sawed on
the outside transversely to the
length of the pipe. These slots,
of course, are not beveled as those
in the Cook strainer, and on ac-
count of the curvature of the pipe
are slightly longer on the outside
than on the inside. The slots are
about 1 inch long and about 1 inch
apart.
The water - bearing stratum,
which seems to underlie the entire
Arkansas prairie at about the
º
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FIG. 74.—Jet process of sinking wells.
same depth, was struck at a depth of 70 feet. This well is the only
one that has penetrated deep enough to throw any light on the thick-
ness of this stratum. It is the general belief that beneath the clay
underlying it there is more water and that if wells were placed
30620–No. 158–05—36



































562 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
deep enough artesian water might be had. The lift at Mr. Fuller's
plant is 27 feet, which is practically the same as the lift at the
Lonoke plant. A pit 6 feet square was dug and curbed with 2-inch
Cypress lumber. No preparation had been made for securing a
joint at a proper point to attach the pump, and the well casing was
cut off with a cold chisel and a pipe coupling was heated at the
bottom of the pit and was shrunken on to the top of the well casing
to which the pump was secured. Meanwhile the water was ex-
hausted by the force pump on the well-drilling apparatus. A 6-inch
vertical centrifugal pump was used. It was the intention to sub-
merge the pump 3 feet, but the shrinking of the coupling to the
well casing was done under such great difficulties that the pump
was submerged only 8 inches. Power was furnished by a 25-horse-
power engine, commercial rating, and a stationary boiler of 35
horsepower, commercial rating. The following list gives the cost
of the year’s work: f
**
Cost of Fuller pumping plant. -
One 25-horsepower engine
One 35-horsepower boiler ( TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT $747. 00
3,500 bricks for Setting boilers------------------------- 35. 00
Fire brick for furnace-------------------------------- 6. 40
Lime------------------------------------------------- 4. 45
Hauling brick ––––––––––––––––––––––––~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -— — 17, 25
Repairs for boiler ------------------------------------ 3. 40
Shafting for pump------------------------------------ 9. 75
One 6-inch centrifugal Kingford pump------------------ 140. 00
One belt and repairs------------------------ ---------- 33. 80
Bolts------------------------------------------------- . 80
Hard oil –––––––––––––– • * * *= - * = * * * *= * * * * = * * * * = * *-* * * * * * * * * * 1. 50
Flue cleaner------------------------------------------ 1. 00
Lumber for shed boiler, etc.--------------------------- 44. 00
Packing---------------------------------------------- 1. 25
Teapot for Cylinder oil –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– ... 10
fipes ------------------------------------------------ . 50
Rods for boiler --------------------------------------- 3. 60
Hauling engine --------------------------------------- 20. 00
Repairs for boiler ------------------------------------ 2. 00
Engine oil-------------------------------------------- 12. 00
One 10-inch well, 140 feet; 10-inch casing ; 10-inch screen,
60 feet--------------------------------------------- 630. 00
Coupling for Well ------------------------------------- 11. 35
Bolts------------------------ ------------------------- 50
Spikes ----------------------------------------------- 1. 50
Digging pit and setting pump-------------------------- 75. 00
One jet and pipe ------------------------------------- 14. 00
Rosin ----------------------------------------------- 1. 00
TWO Sticks belt dressing––––––––––––––––––------------- 1.00
Plowing, harrowing, disking, and seeding 70 acres, at
$3.50 per acre -------------------------------------- 245. 00
140 bushels seed rice on 70 acres----------------------- 140. 00
RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND. 563
55 tons Coal, at $2.20 per ton––––––––––––––––––––––––––– $121.00
Hauling coal------------------------------------------ 55. 00
Two Shovels ----- a------------------------------------- 1.85
Punchers for coal------------------------------------- 1. 75 °
35 cords wood, at $2 per Cord––.---------------------- 70. 00
Running pump for 70 acres, 50 days, 10 hours per day, 1
engineer and 1 levee tender-------------------------- 140. 00
One rice binder--------------------------------- •- - - - - - 135. O0
Harvesting ----- + -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70. 00
Shocking grain --------------------------------------- 40.00
Binder twine----------------------------------------- 33. 00
Thrashing 5,225 bushels rice, by D. B. Perkins, at 3 cents– 156. 75
Help in thrashing ------------------------------------ 120. 00
Total ------------------------------------------ 3, 147. 50
Mr. Fuller sowed 9 acres of rice April 1, but was compelled to wait
for a while on account of rains. The last sowing was made May 15.
When the irrigation was begun, it took seventeen days and eleven
nights to cover the entire 70 acres of rice which had been sown. After
this it was not necessary to run the plant continuously. When run-
ning continuously it was found that if the pump stopped for a short
time the water in the well was drawn below the pump and it was
necessary to prime the pump in starting again, but if the pump was
not started for several hours the water regained its original level,
submerging the pump. The only measurement made on the dis-
charge of this plant was a float measurement when the plant had
just been started and while the steam pressure was yet low. This
measurement indicated the discharge at that time to be about 750
gallons per minute, but it is believed that it exceeded 1,000 gallons
per minute at other times. The 70 acres yielded 5,225 bushels of rice,
being 74.6 bushels per acre.
TEIE BOYSEN IPLANT.
A. Boysen, who is a resident of Chicago, but a large owner of
land in Arkansas, made preparations in the spring of 1904 for the
growing of rice by irrigation. A pumping plant was constructed
on his 3,500-acre ranch near Wheatley. A 10-inch well was sunk
to a depth of 83 feet, on which 32 feet of second-hand Cook strainer
was used. This strainer had been used by the Memphis Water
Company, and was originally a very fine mesh, but became worn too
much for use in fine sand. It was thought suitable for the coarser
material found under the Arkansas prairies. The lower 43 feet of
the well is in water-bearing sand, and the water rose to within 32
feet of the surface. A 6-inch vertical centrifugal Morris pump was
used in a pit 6 by 6, curbed with 2-inch cypress lumber. Instead
of the pump being attached directly to the top of the well pipe and
564 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Submerged it was attached to a 7-inch drop pipe 8 feet long. This
pipe entered the top of the wall casing, leaving the pump 2 feet
aboye the water level. The power was furnished by a rated 15-horse-
power traction engine. The plant has not been efficient. When the
engine was run at full speed the water in the well was drained to the
bottom of the drop pipe, at which instant the discharge ceased, and
the engine being relieved of work ran for a short time at very high
speed; but as soon as the water level raised to the drop pipe the
pump would again begin to work. It was therefore impossible to
run the pump faster than about 500 revolutions per minute, which
did not allow the water level to be drawn as far down as the lower
end of the drop pipe. The result was that the discharge was only
about 100 gallons per minute.
The digging of the pit cost $50. The 10-inch well was made by
Memphis well drillers. The man in charge of the well machinery
was paid $15 per day and an assistant was paid $2 per day. In
addition, the entire expense of bringing the drilling machinery and
these men from Memphis and return was borne. The cost of the
entire plant was $1,850, of which $100 was for the building.
An inexperienced engineer, who was employed to superintend the
work, in addition to using bad judgment in the construction of the
pumping plant, made an error in running levels and did not locate
the well on the highest side of the rice field. This was not known
until water was turned on the field, when it was found that 5 acres
out of the total 17 which had been planted could not be irrigated.
The 12 acres produced 1,068 bushels of rice, or 89 bushels per acre.
This was Honduras rice, and the grain was finer in appearance than
the seed rice which was purchased in New Orleans. There was no
market for it in the locality and it is being fed to cattle and hogs.
Mr. Boysen believes that even this use of it makes it a profitable
crop. He also states that the yield of straw was about 6 tons to the
acre, which the cattle seemed to eat as well as hay.
DIVERSIFIED FARMING,
It is the belief of many well acquainted with the situation that
late vegetables grown by irrigation will in the long run be far more
profitable than rice, as they think that the demand for rice will not
increase as fast as the production and that the price will be lowered.
Louisiana rice growers claim that in 1903 the supply was equal to
the demand, if not greater, and many of them did not advocate any
increased acreage in 1904. While it is believed that this condition
of affairs will not come about as soon as is expected by many of the
rice growers, it is certain that the farmers may realize as much from
vegetables as from rice, provided the former can be grown success-
RICE IRRIGATION ON ARKANSAS PRAIRIE LAND. 565
fully. Recently much interest has been taken in the growing of
vegetables on the prairies. W. H. Vivion, who was one of the most
energetic in the rice experiments at the Morris farm, expects to
irrigate late vegetables from a small well on his fruit farm near
Lonoke. He will use a small gasoline engine to pump water. C. V.
Russell, a large cotton grower near Lonoke, also expects to make
preparations for the irrigation of late vegetables this season. A
great deal of interest is also being taken in the vicinity of Stuttgart,
25 miles southeast of Lonoke. E. E. Sampson, of this locality, has
purchased pumping machinery which he expects to install on Bayou
. Meto, to pump water for the irrigation of vegetables. The people
here are particularly interested in drainage, and Some of the wet
prairie lands have been drained with great success.
Sº º **
ſil, 36. Nöfes on Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. Pp. 64. ~
º: - º
Fº .*** £5"; . "
§ Bul:58. Water Rights on the Missouri River and its Tributaries. Pp. 80.
: ºº::50. Abstract of Laws for Acquiring Titles to Water from the Missouri River
* , ~ y + .
f : ..."
§: § 3. … ... and its Tributaries, with the Legal Forms in Use. Pp. 77.
Kºść. 79, Water-right Problems of Bear River. Pp. 40. * 4”
zººlºº, ºrigation in the Rocky Mountain States. Pp. 64.
ğ. : Bril, 8t. The Use of Water in Irrigation in Wyoming. Pp. 56.
:*
:sº -86. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 253.
: Bul. 87. Irrigation in New Jersey. Pp. 40.
škº, -
* ***.
º
*...* # ºf ~~
ºul. ~90. Irrigation in Hawaii. Pp. 48.
tº 3.
<º sº. A-
3. 3. Bul. 92. The Reservoir System of the Cache la Poudre Valley. Pp. 48.
ºt +, »
- -> $3. * w º + e º &
º Bül, 96. Irrigation Laws of the Northwest Territories of Canada and of Wyoming.
£ºf:, ; , " " ... Pp. 90.
*:::: º * 1'- R. - * * º - ºp • - & A- -
:* : Bùl. 100. Report of Irrigation Investigations in California. Pp. 411.
º: Bul.. 104. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 334. º
* ...-->
º ź. *Bul.105. Irrigation in the United States. Pp. 47.
§. Builios irrigation Practice among Fruit Growers on the Pacific coast. Pp. 34.
$3:…º.º. : , . •r º & - p-y
£ººl. 113. Irrigation of Rice in the United States. Pp. 77.
§ *:: * 3. . * Y- •w *...* * º º - *-y
sº. *Bgi, 118. Irrigation from Big Thompson River. Pp. 75.
* ‘Ks X.
*...*** *** *
sº tº
*::::::::Bui. 119. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1901. Pp. 401.
§º Buł. 124. Report of Irrigation Investigations in Utah. Pp. 330.
& 3.3" . *. g tº a tº
†: Bul. 130.-Egyptian Irrigation. Pp. 100.
K ... º.º.But 131. Plans of Structures in Use on Irrigation Canals in the United States. Pp.
# ... *:: - :- > 51.
“y.
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*A 133. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1902. Pp. 266.
& 3. ABul: 134. Storage of Water on Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson Rivers. Pp. 100.
§§- Bul. 140. Acquirement of Water Rights in the Arkansas Valley, Colorado. Pp. 83.
º Bul. 144. Irrigation in Northern Italy. Part I. Pp. 100.
*:::::...But ſºft. Preparing Land for Irrigation and Methods of Applying Water. Pp. 84.
Bul, 146. Current Wheels: Their Use in Lifting Water for Irrigation. Pp. 38.
* - Bul, 147. Report on Drainage Investigations, 1903. Pp. 62.
ſº Bul. 148. Report on Irrigation Investigations in Humid Sections of the United States
* -- . . in 1903. Pp. 45.
ul. 157.
~4
*. º B Water Rights on Interstate Streams. Pp. 116.
3.3 * *. FARMERS’ BULLETINs.
- : .*. … §: l tº $ º º *
:::::::: *Bul., 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. Pp. 27.
* ºf: zº. **. w t º e *
‘. . ‘s:Hul. 116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. Pp. 48.
§ 3 ; Bul. 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. Pp. 40.
*-
^-
* *~
§. .., Bul, 158, How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Pp. 28.
*: Bul. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. Pp. 40.
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ºf º-, - IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. * 2^ -
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#Ngrº-publicatiºns marked with an asterisk (*) are not available for distribution.










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: ºrror or Experiwest stations
. ... A. C. TRUE, Director. - - - . . . .
ANNUAL REPORT
OF - - -
§: . . . . . . .
ºf RRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF *
. . . ELWOOD MEAD, -
SEPARATE No. 9.
* . - - * .
3EPORT of DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
. . . By C. G. ELLIoTT, Engineer in Charge of Drainage Investigations.
s
•. Reprint from Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
... - §§ - -
WASHINGTON:
. . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. ; *
ãº, º, . . . . . 1905. *
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SEPARATES FROM OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS BULLETIN N0. 158. *
#
SEPARATE No. 1.
Review of the Irrigation Work of the Year 1904. By R. P. Teele. Pp. 1-75. º
SEPARATE No. 2.
Irrigation in Santa Clara Valley, California. By S. Fortier. Pp. 76–91. *
Mechanical Tests of Pumping Plants used for Irrigation. By J. N. Le Conte. Pp.
195—255.
SEPARATE No. 3.
The Distribution and Use of Water in Modesto and Turlock Irrigation Districts, Cal-
ifornia. By Frank Adams. Pp. 93-139.
Relation of Irrigation to Yield, Size, Quality, and Commercial Suitability of Fruits.
By E. J. Wickson. Pp. 141–174.
Irrigation Conditions in Imperial Valley, California. By J. E. Roadhouse. Pp.
175–194.
SEPARATE No. 4.
Irrigation in Klamath County, Oregon. By F. L. Kent. Pp. 257–266.
Irrigation Investigations in the Yakima Valley, Washington, 1904. By O. L. Waller.
Pp. 267–278.
Irrigation Conditions in Raft River Water District, Idaho, 1904. By W. F. Bartlett.
Pp 279–302. *
* SEPARATE No. 5.
Irrigation Investigations at New Mexico Experiment Station, Mesilla Park, 1904.
By J. J. Vernon. Pp. 303–317. *
Irrigation Investigations in Western Texas. By Harvey Culbertson. Pp. 319-340.
Pumping Plants in Texas. By C. E. Taiu. Pp. 341–346.
*
**,
SEPARATE No. 6. * .A. *
Irrigation in Southern Texas. By Aug. J. Bowie, jr. Pp. 347–507.
SEPARATE No. 7.
Rice Irrigation in Louisiana and Texas in 1903 and 1904. By W. B. Gregory. Pp. ,
509–544. r
Rice Irrigation on the Prairie Land of Arkansas. By C. E. Tait. Pp. 545–565.
SEPARATE No. 8. as”
Irrigation Experiments at Fort Hays, Kansas, 1903 and 1904. By J. G. Haney: Pp.
567–583.
Irrigation near Garden City, Kansas. 1904. By A. B. Collins and A. E. Wright.
Pp. 585–594. w **.
Pumping Plants in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas. By O. V. P. Stout. Pp. 595–
,608.
Irrigation near Rockyford, Colorado, 1904. By A. E. Wright. Pp. 609–623.
The Irrigation and Drainage of Cranberry Marshes in Wisconsin. By A. R. Whitson.
Pp. 625–642. -
SEPARATE No. 9.
Report of Drainage Investigations, 1904. By C. G. Elliott. Pp. 643-743.
II C
A-
* * ...
x', ; *
a c.
•rd,
**
***
•42
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
4s. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS,
A. C. TRUE, DIRECTOR.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
ELWOOD MEAD,
CHIEF OF IRRIGATION AND DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS.
SEPARATE NO. 9:
REPORT OF DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
By C. G. ELLIOTT, Engineer in Charge of Drainage Investigations.
[Reprint from Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 158.]
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1905.
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
A. C. TRUE, Ph. D., Director.
IE. W. ALLEN, Ph. D., Assistant Director.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
ELwooD MEAD, Chief.
C.G. ELLIOTT, in Charge of Drainage Investigations.
S. M. WooDward, in Charge of Irrigation Investigations.
R. P. TEELE, Ezpert in Irrigation Institutions.
C. J. ZINTHEO, in Charge of Farm Mechanics.
SAMUEL FoRTIER, in Charge of Pacific District.
F. C. HERRMANN, Eapert in Irrigation as Related to Dry Farming.
II
*
& 4
0-0 + - 43-
CO N T E N T S.
Page.
Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------- 643
Ground-water records ---------------------------------------------------- 645
Drainage in Utah -------------------------------------------------------- 652
Cleaning dredged drainage ditches ---------------------------------------- 656
Construction and maintenance of large ditches through sandy lands- - - - - - - - - - 657
Plans for the drainage of the bottom lands of the Missouri River in South
Dakota ---------------------------------------------------------------- 658
Survey -------------------------------------------------------------- 659
Topography---------------------------------------------------------- 661
Sources of Water------------------------------------------------------ 661
Plan of drainage ----------------------------------------------------- 663
Size of ditches --------------------------------------------------- 663
Estimate of cost-------------------------------------------- ------ 664
Effect of river backwater---------------------------------------------- 665
Cooperation of two counties required ---------------------------------- 665
Drainage laws-------------------------------------------------------- 666
Suggestions as to organization ----------------------------------------- 666
Reclamation of overflowed lands ------------------------------------------ 667
Illinois River -------------------------------------------------------- 668
Pekin-Lamarsh levee and drainage district ------------------------- 669
Lacey levee and drainage district ---------------------------------- 670
Coal Creek levee and drainage district ----------------------------- 672
Individual farms protected by levees ------------------------------ 674
Wabash River-------------------------------------------------------- 675
Mississippi River----------------------------------------------------- 676
Meredocia flat---------------------------------------------------- 677
Muscatine Island------------------------------------------------- 678
Muscatine Island irrigation------------------------------------ 679
Flint Creek-Iowa River levee-------------------------------------- 680
Warsaw-Quincy levee -------------------------------------------- 682
Sny Island levee ------------------------------------------------- 684
Levee construction --------------------------------------------------- 691
Levee maintenance--------------------------------------------------- 696
Levee failures-------------------------------------------------------- 700
Drainage ------------------------------------------------------------ 703
Value of overflowed lands--------------------------------------------- 713
Florida Everglades ------------------------------------------------------- 714
Wisconsin marsh lands --------------------------------------------------- 718
Hillside erosion of farm lands --------------------------------------------- 728
Indiana tile drainage ----------------------------------------------------- 731
Madison County------------------------------------------------------ 731
Ellsworth farm--------------------------------------------------- 732
Lukin, Thomas, Matthews, Corey, and Davis farms- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 734
Miami County-------------------------------------------------------- 738
Howard County------------------------------------------------------ 738
Tipton County ------------------------------------------------------- 741
Comments ----------------------------------------------------------- 74.1
I L L U S T R AT I O N S.
PLATES.
PLATE IX. Map of Missouri River Valley, Yankton and Clay counties, S. Dak-
X. Map of portion of Illinois River Valley, showing Hartwell, Roberts,
and Lowenstein levees --------------------------------------
XI. Crevasse in Warsaw-Quincy levee where the embankment has been
XII. Fig. 1.-Wooden outlet in Hartwell ranch levee. Fig. 2.-Outlet
FIG. 78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
98.
99.
100.
end of outflow culvert in Flint Creek-Iowa River levee, showing
wooden valves. Fig. 3.−Outlet end of outflow culvert in Flint
Creek-Iowa River levee, showing method of counterbalancing
cast-iron Valves----------------------------------------------
TEXT FIGURES.
Rise of ground water near Fresno, Cal - - - - - - - - - - - ------------------
Weekly record of fluctuation of ground water levels at Fresno, Cal - -
Record of well No. 19, Sunnyside, Wash - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Record of well No. 3, Sunnyside, Wash - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Map of lower field, St. George, Utah ------------------------------
Profiles across Missouri River Valley, from river to bluff - - - - - - - - - - -
Section of the old Iowa River levee, built in 1858, now a part of the
Flint Creek-Iowa River System - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. Map of Pekin-Lamarsh levee and drainage district - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. Map of Lacey levee and drainage district --------------------------
. Lacey district—change in section of levee since first constructed.-----
. Map of Coal Creek levee and drainage district- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. Coal Creek district
. Specified Section of Sugar Creek levee------------------------------
. Specified Section of Brevoort levee --------------------------------
. Map of Meredocia levee and drainage district ----------------------
. Map of Muscatine Island levee district.-----------------------------
. Map showing location of Flint Creek-Iowa River levee - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. Specified section of enlarged Flint Creek-Iowa River levee ----------
. Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section on firm land which did not
section of levee constructed with dipper dredge-
. Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section exposed to waves, protected
by riprap, has never failed--------------------------------------
Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section where slough occurred on
inner slope, afterwards strengthened by banquette - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section at northern part of Zieglers
Slough, sloughed in 1908 ---------------------------------------
Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section at Iowa Slough, where slough-
ing occurred in 1908 --------------------------------------------
Page.
660
674
702
706
647
651
651
653
662
667
669
671
671
673
673
676
676
677
679
681
681
681
681
Vi
IDIUSTRATIONS.
FIG. 101
. Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section at Campbell Slough, where
sloughing was checked in 1903 by sand Sacks -------------------
102. Map of Warsaw-Quincy levee ------------------------------------
103. Hunt district levee—section where crevasse occurred - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
104. Indian Grave district levee—section where Houghton crevasse
occurred -----------------------------------------------------
105. Section across Bear Creek waterway------------------------------
106. Map of a part of Sny Island levee and drainage district - - - - - - - - - - - -
107. Map of a part of Sny Island levee and drainage district - - - - - - - - - - - -
108. Sny levee—section across old channel known as the “cut-off,” pub-
lic roadway on the crown--------------------------------------
109. Sny levee—section near Hannibal, Mo., public roadway on the
banquette ----------------------------------------------------
110. Hunt district levee—section of new levee built to close the crevasse
111. Proposed section of levee for closing the Houghton crevasse- - - - - - - -
112. Section showing plan for improving the original Sny levee---------
113. Section showing trace of a muskrat burrow across a levee of small
section -------------------------------------------------------
114. Section showing trace of a muskrat burrow across a levee of ample
section -------------------------------------------------------
115. Section showing formation of a boil inside of a levee- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
116. Map of break No. 1, Indian Grave district - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
117. Section across Otter Creek showing dredged channel and spoil-bank
levees --------------------------------------------------- - - - - -
118. Sketch of valve for riveted-plate outflow culvert- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
119. Sketch of wooden valve for outflow culvert - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
120. Sketch of cast-iron valve for outflow culvert - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
121. Method of protecting cultivated hillsides from erosion - - - - - - - - - - - - -
122. Plan of underdrains for Georgia hillside experiment- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
123. Ellsworth farm -------------------------------------------------
124. Lukin farm-----------------------------------------------------
125. Thomas farm ---------------------------------------------------
126. Matthews farm -------------------------------------------------
127. Phelps farm ----------------------------------------------------
128. George Ehrman farm--------------------------------------------
129.
Bennett farm ---------------------------------------------------
Page.
682
683
683
683
684
685
686
687
687
692
692
693
697
REPORT OF DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
By C. G. ELLIOTT, Drainage Engineer.
INTRODUCTION.
Drainage investigations as conducted during the past year have
included the consideration of questions pertaining to farm and field
drainage as well as the larger projects requiring the united action of
many landowners under provisions of State laws. In view of the
fact that drainage is an essential factor in the productive value of
farm lands, it is important that the best information upon the theory
and practice of drainage for agriculture should be made available
to all who desire a knowledge of this subject. Personal examina-
tions of conditions, and in some cases surveys, have been made by
engineers connected with this Office in order to render needed assist-
ance and promote and encourage the best practice. The following
outline presents the work of this Office relating to the drainage and
protection of agricultural lands:
The construction of the larger works in the Middle West is quite
often necessary before thorough farm drainage, which is the object
ultimately sought, can be successfully accomplished. The annual
rainfall for a few years preceding 1902 was below the normal, while
since that date it has exceeded the average and has been unevenly dis-
tributed. It has been observed that the field drains put in during the
Seasons of light rainfall are in many instances inadequate for the
service required by reason of insufficient outlets. The years of large
rainfall have taught in a most emphatic manner that more careful
attention should be given to the construction and improvement of
main drainage channels and to their subsequent care and maintenance.
It is also found in some of the localities where drainage work was
first done, and which for a term of years was satisfactory to land-
owners, that better work in field construction, more complete outlets,
and in some cases a general revision and reconstruction of the work
done in former years are now being carried out. A study of the
necessities of such localities has been made in Indiana.
Coon River drainage district, Buena Vista County, Iowa, was ex-
amined and plans proposed. This district includes the land at the
headwaters of Coon River, 25,000 acres of which will be benefited by
the proposed improvements, estimated to cost $150,000. The water
from an area of 128,000 acres must be provided for by the improve-
643
644 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
ment of natural water courses in such a manner that the lower lands
will not be injured by flooding.
Soldier River cut-off and other improvements in Harrison County,
Iowa, proposed for the protection and drainage of 33,000 acres of
Missouri River bottom lands and estimated to cost $111,000, have been
carefully examined and reported upon.
The plans for the proposed main drainage channels for the im-
provement of 43,000 acres of river-bottom lands in Burt County,
Nebr., to cost $98,000, have been reviewed with the local engineers.
An investigation of the best methods to be followed in the subsequent
drainage of individual farms in that locality was also made and pre-
sented to the landowners at a conference called for that purpose.
The improvement of Nemaha River in Richardson County, Nebr.,
for the protection of 30,000 acres of lowland from overflow, has re-
ceived a preliminary examination. The estimated cost is $205,000.
Wisconsin has large areas of marsh lands, some of which have been
drained and brought under cultivation. An examination of a district
organized in Marathon, Portage, and Wood counties and consisting
of 32,000 acres of muck and peat marsh land, the proposed drainage
of which is estimated to cost $192,000, was made and some of the
peculiar features reported upon quite fully.
An important work is contemplated in Clay and Yankton counties,
S. Dak., involving the drainage of 70,000 acres of bottom land. By
special request a preliminary survey was made by this Office from
which plans and estimate of cost were developed. Suggestions were
offered regarding State legislation needed to enable owners to unite
and execute this and other similar large drainage projects.
A careful examination has been made of the methods of protecting
the fertile farm lands along the bottoms of the Illinois River from
Peoria to Kampsville by means of levees and of the best methods of
drainage applicable to such lands.
The methods used and the cost of cleaning dredge ditches and their
behavior when constructed through sandy land in different locali-
ties are matters which have received attention.
Surveys and plans have been made for the drainage of 2,000 acres
of cotton land in the Yazoo Delta, Mississippi, where an experiment
station for the purpose of testing the efficiency of tile drains in the
heavy soils of that locality is located.
A preliminary examination of a portion of the Everglades, in Dade
County, Fla., was made in conjunction with the Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, with a view to draining
a field for experimental purposes, and a report with the plan pro-
posed for such drainage has been submitted.
Investigations of a special character were made in Cache, Washing-
ton, and Emery counties, Utah, where lands under irrigation have
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 645
been seriously injured by seepage water and alkali. An experiment
at Hyde Park, Cache County, was begun in September, 1904, to deter-
mine the most efficient plan of draining seeped lands not yet injured
by alkali. This Office cooperates with the owners of the land and the
State experiment station in conducting this work.
Soil-water records have been kept at Hyde Park and also at Hunt-
ington, in Emery County, Utah, Fresno, Cal., and Sunnyside, Wash.
Investigations in Indiana have included special examinations of
levees and reclaimed lands along the Wabash River and of farms in
the upper Wabash Valley which have been tilo drained. The object
of the latter investigation was to ascertain the ordinary drainage
practice of farmers in the section mentioned.
A detailed discussion of all the questions which have received atten-
tion from this Office during the year is not attempted in this report.
A variety of these problems has been considered, all of them impor-
tant in the localities where the examinations were made, but as some
are covered in their essential points by the treatment of similar ones
which have received attention elsewhere, it is not thought necessary
to discuss them all in detail. Some investigations are of a tentative
character, the results of which will be given in a future report.
The field work for this report has been done as follows: John T.
Stewart prepared reports on the reclamation of overflowed lands along
the Missouri River in South Dakota and along the Mississippi and
Illinois rivers; Prof. W. D. Pence, of Purdue University, studied the
levees along the Wabash River in Indiana and farm drainage along
the upper Wabash; A. B. Collins reported on the excavation of
ditches through sandy lands in Missouri. In addition, all of these
agents have given advice in individual cases, where farmers have ap-
plied to them for aid.
GROUND-WATER RECORDS.
The rise of ground water can be detected easily by the aid of test
wells. The wells are used as gauges for determining the upper limit
of the saturated soil, the surface of the water in them corresponding
to the water line of the soil. Measurements made at any time indi-
cate the relation of the water plane to the surface of the ground and a
series of such measurements shows the rate of the rise of ground
water, giving the data for determining the quantity of water which
must be removed by drainage. The test wells at Fresno, Cal., are
wooden boxes 6 inches Square and 8 feet long, placed in the ground
with their tops nearly flush with the surface. The distance from the
surface of the ground to the water surface in the wells has been meas-
ured once and a part of the time twice each week during the irrigat-
ing season. The records of these wells for the season form an in-
structive study and should be considered in connection with those
secured last year.
646
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
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should be removed from this soil is the volume of its interspace.
This is found to be about 55 per cent by volume, which when filled
with water produces a Saturated Soil, but when filled with air only

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 647
an arid soil. Twenty-five per cent by volume is capillary space and
the water retained by it, termed “capillary water,” is required for
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648
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
should be removed by drainage.
A graphical representation of these
conditions is shown in figure 78, and the water curves of each of the
Seven Fresno wells, together with the line to which drainage should
reduce the water table, are shown in figure 79.
The problem which here engages our attention is to ascertain the
amount of drainage water which must be handled and the method of
controlling the rise of soil water which the records show takes place
during the irrigating season.
The average daily rise of ground water
in the Fresno district from March 17 to June 2, when the ground water
began to fall, and the fall from June 2 to September 1 are shown in
the following tables:


Fluctuation of water table at Fresno, Cal., March 17 to June 2, 1904.
Well No. 1:
Total rise
Average daily rise
* = * * me as mº m 'm º ºs m. sº * * * * * * m ms sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
ſº daily rise
Well NO. 3:
Total rise º
Average daily rise
"Well No. 4;
Total rise g
Average daily rise
Well NO. 5:
Total rise -----------------------------------------------------------
Average daily rise
Well No. 6:
Total rise *
Average daily rise
Well No. 7:
Total rise e
i Average daily rise
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
a = s. sº a m = ** = * * = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = & - º º ºs = º ºr * * * *-* - m = ** - * * sº sº ºr * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * = - amº m am m as * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *m, ºr * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* = * * * * s = * * * * * = * * * * * = * * = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* = ** = * * * = * * * * * * m sº mº m 'm º ºs ºr sº lºs as sº m 'm as as as * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Average daily rise º
30 per cent average daily rise to be removed by drainage
* * * * * * * * * * =
Mar. 17 *}. 3 to May 5 to
to Apr. 3 ay 5 June 2
(17 days). (32days). (28 days).
Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
12.0 11.0 4.25
.705 . 152
11.0 5.0 5.50
. 647 . 156 , 196
11.50 2.50 7.0
.676 .078 .25
11. 75 10. 75 .00
. 691 .335 .00
12.0 9.50 1.50
. 705 .297 .037
34.50 12.75 a 1.50
2.029 . 398 a .037
6.50 12.50 6.50
. 382 | T .291 . 233
. 832 . 271 . 113
. 249 .081 .034
a Fall.
Fluctuation of water table at Fresno, Cal., from June 2 to September 1, 1904.
June 2 July 7 || Aug. 4
to July 7 to Aug. 4|to Sept. 1
(35days). (28days).|(26days).
Well No. 1: Inches. | Inches. Inches.
Total fall------------------------------------------------------------ 1. 75 8.50 13.0
Average daily fall-------------------------------------------------- .033 .305 . 50
Well NO. 2:
Total fall------------------------------------------------------------ 19.50 ----------|----------
Average daily fall-------------------------------------------------- -556 --------------------
"Well NO. 3:
Total fall------------------------------------------------------------ 20.50 ----------|----------
Average daily fall-------------------------------------------------- .585 --------------------
Well NO. 4:
Total fall.-------------------- * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13.75 7.0 l---------.
*Average daily fall-------------------------------------------------- . 393 * £º sº as w is as ºs ºr * * *
Well No. 5:
Total fall------------------------------------------------------------ 9.50 7.25 14.75
flººge daily fall-------------------------------------------------- . 271 , 259 . 567
Well No. 6;
Total fall------------------------------------------------------------ . 75 4.75 9.75
ñº.” daily fall-------------------------------------------------- .002 . 17 .357
Well No. 7:
Total fall.-------- +--------------------------------------------------- 5.0 .75 11.75
Average daily fall-e----------------------------------------------- . 143 .026 , 457
Average daily fall------------------------------------------------ .283 . 144 .267
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 649
Water was turned into irrigation canals the first week in January
and turned out the second week in September.
The average daily rise, in inches, during the part of March in which
water appeared in the wells was 0.832; in April, 0.271, and in May,
0.113. Deducting 25 per cent for the capillary water required leaves
30 per cent to be removed by drainage. This amounts to 0.249 inch
in depth daily in March, 0.081 inch in April, and 0.034 in May. It
should be observed in this connection that during a part of the time
a portion of this water may be used to supply needed moisture to
the Soil above the water plane, the amount depending greatly upon
the kind of crops grown on the land and the frequency of its irriga-
tion. This is necessarily an indeterminate amount and may in some
cases be nothing. #
The plans submitted in 1903 for the main drainage of this area
provided for the removal of 0.098 inch in depth each day, with drains
located to hold the plane of saturation at a depth of 5 feet from the
surface. After the water first appears in the wells in March the rise
is quite rapid, the first measurement being made when the water is
below the 5-foot horizon; hence the rate of rise for the first period is
greater than will be necessary to offset by drainage.
The data furnished by the records of the two years indicate that the
capacity of the drains proposed will be sufficient, though not greater
than it will be wise to provide. The facts bearing upon the solution
of this drainage problem are herein pretty clearly presented. It
should be observed that though water was turned into the canals
during the first week in January, water did not appear in many of the
wells until March 17, but that the rise was rapid during the remainder
of the month. The rate was approximately the same in all of the
wells, indicating that the rise was not materially interfered with by
local differences in the soil. This water represents waste from canals
and from early irrigation in sufficient quantity to raise the level of the
soil water to within 24 inches of the surface before it began to decline.
The soil is sufficiently permeable to water to respond readily to the
action of drains should they be provided, with the exception of areas
where hardpan is found. This material affects the distribution of
irrigation water locally, but not the general water level as it rises dur-
ing the irrigation season. Drainage will not be required after June
10 of each season, as the water then begins to decline and reaches the
bottom of the 8-foot wells in September. In view of these conditions
it may be urged that drainage by pumping is especially practicable.
A single well into which drains are discharged may be pumped
and local drainage provided. Investigations thus far lead to the
opinion that a well or drainage sump may be employed in this way
with greater effect than was at first supposed, so that a few land-
owners may, in the absence of more comprehensive plans, unite and in
650 IRRIGATION AND DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
this way effect such drainage as they need. It could not be expected,
however, to restrict the benefit of such work to the land it is intended
to serve, because of the readiness with which water passes through the
soil of adjoining lands. This plan is worthy of careful consideration
and experiment.
Soil-water records kept at Sunnyside, Wash., for a period of eight-
een months show a condition quite different from that in the Fresno
district, California. At the latter place the surface is a plane with
uniform slope of 4 to 5 feet per mile, with no ditches for drainage.
As may be learned from figures 78 and 79, the water table rises to the
5-foot horizon during the first part of the irrigating season, reaches
its maximum height in June, then declines and falls below the 5-foot
depth limit in September. The surface of the Sunnyside district is
more broken, the larger unbroken areas having a slope of 20 to 50 feet
per mile, with a final drainage relief in a valley ditch. The profiles
(figs. 80 and 81) represent the fluctuations of the water table at two
locations. Well No. 19 is situated near the lower border of a tract of
irrigated land extending fully 1 mile back, the seepage and drainage
of which gravitate toward the well whose record is represented.
Well No. 3 is on the opposite side of the same valley and has back of
it only two fields from which seepage and drainage are derived.
In the first soil water reaches its lowest level in August of the first
season, from which time it rises until November 1 at an average daily
rate of 0.43 inch, then maintains this level until April 16, when it
begins to descend, reaching its lowest level again in July and August.
During the second season the daily rise is 0.312 inch, and reaches its
maximum November 1, as in the first season.
In the second well the same general movement takes place, but the
area of land behind it being much smaller, the water level does not
retain any one position as persistently as it does in well No. 19, where
the supply area behind it is larger. The rise begins in May, reaches
its maximum September 1, which it retains three months before it
begins to decline. The average maximum rate of rise during the first
season was 0.261 inch per day and during the second season 0.348 inch.
The records of other wells indicate similar fluctuations, but with
modifications which evidently are the result of the slope of the land
and of local irrigation.
The period of high soil water occurs during fall and winter and
continues three to five months, while at Fresno it is in midsummer
and maintains its maximum height only one month. It appears from
these records—
(1) That the highest and longest continued water level of the soil
is maintained near the foot of the more extended and uniform surface
slope,
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
651
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652 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
(2) That the daily rate of rise at any point depends upon the
degree of surface slope, the openness of the soil, and amount of water
applied to the land lying above it.
(3) That the daily rise of the water plane varies from 0.26 to 0.43
inch and that the daily drainage that should be provided is a depth of
0.08 to 0.13 inch over the land to be drained.
(4) That the drainage required for each 40 acres which show
injury by Saturation is 0.1 to 0.2 cubic foot per second, requiring a
6-inch pipe drain or its equivalent for the greater amount.
These deductions are made from averages obtained from the meas-
urements of rise of soil water. A minute study of these changes, as
well as experience in dealing with soil water as affected by irrigation
and rainfall, suggests that, while drains of the capacity indicated may
be sufficient for the work, local conditions may necessitate a doubling
of the drainage capacity provided, which may be accomplished either
by enlarging drains or increasing the number of drains of the smaller
size. The minimum size for underdrains, to be used in loose soils
under irrigation should be 28 to 36 square inches in section where
they are laid across the slope upon a minimum grade of 0.2 per cent.
DRAINAGE IN UTAH,
There is scarcely an irrigated valley in the State of Utah which has
been cultivated for a term of years in which some of the best land has
not become too wet for cultivation and abandoned or from which only
uncertain crops of inferior value are now obtained.
Among the several counties examined in Utah none affords a better
example of the conditions which produce boggy lands, the resulting
serious losses suffered by their owners, and the difficulties in the way
of their reclamation than are found in Washington County, near St.
George. The tract, which was examined in June, 1904, was at one
time a barren lake bed, but when it was irrigated by an extension of
the St. George and Washington canal it became the most productive
land in the Rio Virgin Valley. The map of this tract (fig. 82) shows
that the canal passes on three sides of it. The water applied flows
from the boundary toward the interior lower part of the tract, result-
ing in a concentration of waste water in the lower levels to such an
extent that the ground is filled with water and the surface so highly
charged with alkali that much of it is useless. The surface slopes
about 36 feet per mile. The soil is deep red in color and without
apparent stratification, a mass of material washed in from the sur-
rounding hills. A drainage ditch has been opened, into which the
side ditches receiving the waste of irrigation discharge.
All attempts thus far made to drain this tract have proved unsuc-
cessful. The central drainage ditch, 3 feet and in some places 4 feet
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 653
deep, fails to drain the land quite near it. Water flows from the
ditches, yet the soil contiguous to them is wet. Alkali in injurious
quantities is found on the surface where there is no water. A rim of
productive land borders the canal, but much of the interior is
abandoned.
The soil possesses one characteristic quite common to irrigated lands
which has much to do with its facility of drainage. It is not disposed
in horizontal layers or strata, as is the case with most of the soils in
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FIG. 82.-Map of lower field, St. George, Utah.
the humid areas, but is a heterogeneous mass, porous, but not strati-
fied. While it permits water to move among its particles, its structure
does not materially aid the passage of water laterally, as is the case
in a stratified soil. For this reason surplus water goes downward
until it fills the permeable soil below, after which it flows to the lower
levels and then rises by reason of the head furnished by water occupy-
This accounts in part for the presence of
ing higher elevations.
They receive the excess of water after
water near drainage ditches.




654 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
the soil has been filled, but do not relieve the soil of its water of satu-
ration. This condition is especially noticeable when land has as much
slope as is found in this tract. In the process of irrigation water is
applied to the higher land first; this fills the lower levels with a
supply greater than can pass through the soil, so that a part is forced
to the surface at various points along the downward slope.
The plan of drainage outlined on the map (fig. 82) is but a more
complete development of one upon which work has already begun.
The main ditch, upon which considerable work has been done, is
necessary to receive waste and drainage water and is located in the
proper place. It is now narrow, with nearly vertical sides, which are
constantly caving and obstructing the ditch. It should be made
wider at the top and the excavated earth moved several feet away
from the bank, so that the ditch can be easily maintained at the de-
sired depth. The drainage of the land should be accomplished by
field drains constructed across the greatest slope, as indicated on the
map, and discharged into the waste ditches, which should be enlarged
and deepened. Each of the field drains will intercept a portion of
the soil water coming down from the upper levels or from below the
level of the drains, as the case may be, and conduct it to the outlet
or waste ditch, which in turn will discharge into the main passing
through the lowest part of the tract. The lateral or field drains will
lie at right angles to the greatest surface slope and in position to
intercept soil water before it passes to the lower levels of the field. .
Lumber is the best material for drains in this section, if for no
other reason than that it is the only material which is not prohibited
on account of its cost. In many respects box drains are not only
the most practical but will prove the most efficient drains that can
be used. Boxes made of boards 1} inches thick, with three sides
solid, the fourth side being open, with crosspieces to hold the two
adjacent sides in position, are serviceable drains. The box, which
is made in sections of convenient length, is placed in the trench, which
has been dug to grade, with the open side down, and the Sections then
joined closely together. The adaptability of such drains to land of
this character consists in their being in sections sufficiently long to be
self-supporting in Soft, wet ground and also in their being closed on
top so securely that soft and fluidlike soil can not enter them. All
water will enter the drains from the bottom and flow along the earth
floors until discharged into the outlet. Field drains 80 rods long
may be made with sides of boards 6 inches wide and a top board 8
inches wide, having cross-ties on the bottom 4 feet apart. A drain
with these dimensions has a sectional area of 33 Square inches.
No lands in Utah are more seriously affected by seepage and alkali
than those in the vicinity of Huntington, in Emery County. Many
acres formerly productive are entirely destitute of vegetation. Some
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 655
lots in the village formerly occupied by buildings have been aban-
doned and are now boggy and covered with alkali. Seepage is mak-
ing rapid inroads upon productive areas, and the people realize that
they must reclaim their lands or Soon abandon them.
The surface is undulating and cut into Small valleys, which will
facilitate the action of any drainage ditches. The soil is underlain
by black shale or slate in many places, by the disintegration of which
the soil has been largely formed and which also serves to prevent
the even distribution of the soil water, concentrating it at various
points, where it speedily produces saturation and later alkali. It is
noticed that the action of water disintegrates the shale in places,
thereby producing changes in the subsoil which continually modify
the drainage condition. Farmers have made no attempts to open
main drainage channels or to relieve the land of surplus water in
any effective way; on the contrary, additional water has been used
on those lands which show alkali for the purpose of washing it out
and encouraging the growth of certain plants which flourish in wet
alkali soils, to give the land a better appearance by reason of the
green vegetation, which also affords some pasturage.
Some surveys were made in the vicinity of Huntington and a sys-
tem of drainage outlined and recommended, preliminary to detailed
plans which could be executed later. Some soil-water wells were put
in and observations of the fluctuations of the water have been made
weekly during the season for the purpose of determining more fully
the difficulties that must be overcome in draining these lands. The
results of these observations indicate that the land in that locality
must be treated according to the peculiar conditions which develop
in the several slopes and that examination of individual tracts will
be required preparatory to adopting plans for adequate drainage.
However, a few main intercepting drainage ditches should be con-
structed and will be of general service. These conditions were
pointed out and suggestions made with a view to impressing upon
landowners the necessity of immediate steps being taken toward con-
structing the main ditches preliminary to more complete drainage of
farm lands and village lots.
In Cache County the land in the vicinity of Logan rises from the
streams in a series of benches, the lower lands being underlaid with
clay and the higher with gravel. Only the higher benches have
escaped injury from the excessive use of water. The flow, in many
instances, is apparently through crevices or channels in the soil, but
there appears to be no hardpan or shale formation such as is found
in the locality in Emery County previously described. The water
flows to the lower levels and makes its appearance at the surface in
July and August, indicating that there is a comparatively free flow
through the soil when the land above becomes Saturated. No alkali
656 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
appears, but the land is made boggy to such an extent that frequently
only water grasses thrive. *
A large number of soil-water wells have been put down near Hyde
Park and weekly measurements made to determine the water condi-
tions peculiar to the soils of both bench and bottom lands. Coopera-
tive arrangements have been made with several farmers under which
this Office and the Utah Experiment Station furnish the drain tile
and the farmers the labor for making an experiment in draining
some land which has become seeped from the underflow of gravel land
above and unfit for the production of the best crops. Drains were
constructed in September, 1904, so that while the observations so
far are interesting they are only preliminary and the results, when
obtained, will be made the subject of a later report.
CLEANING DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES.
In localities where the construction of dredged drainage ditches
is contemplated, inquiry is often made regarding the permanency
of these channels and the frequency of repairs that it may be nec-
essary to make upon them. Ditches of this class were first con-
structed for the drainage of level areas in Illinois and Indiana about
twenty-five years ago. The adaptation of the steam shovel and river
dredge to the work of excavating ditches through level lands gave a
marked impetus to the reclamation and improvement of farm lands
in those States. Usually but little care has been bestowed on the
ditches after their construction, and in many instances they have
been neglected to such an extent that grass, willows, and other vege-
tation have grown up in the channels and silt has been deposited,
thereby impairing their efficiency. The difficulties met in cleaning
the smaller dredged ditches—those 6 to 8 feet wide on the bottom—
are the small amount of excavation required on each linear foot of
ditch, the mucky and sticky nature of the material, and the height
to which it must be raised. Under such conditions the price of exca-
vation will be high. The first work of this kind noted in Illinois
is in Iroquois County, a description of which will serve to indicate
the character of the work already beginning elsewhere. &
The ditches to which reference is made were excavated with small
drag dredges seventeen years ago. They were 6 to 8 feet wide on
the bottom, 6 to 9 feet deep, and had side slopes of 1 to 1. The
grades upon which they were dug were 3 to 4 feet per mile. The
side slopes have remained approximately as made, but silt and wash
have accumulated until the bottoms have been raised 2 feet or more.
The entire district of 17,000 acres for which the ditches give drain-
age outlets is tile-drained, the efficiency of the several systems
depending upon the maintenance of the dredged ditches at their
original depths.
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 657
The conditions found here favor the growth of luxuriant vegeta-
tion in many sections of the ditches. The area served by the drain-
age system is in the belt of artesian wells, so that in places there is a
constant supply of waste water flowing into the ditches, furnishing
the best possible condition for the growth of flags, water grasses, and
willows. Failure to remove these growths annually has permitted
trees of considerable size to grow in the ditches. In localites where
there is no artesian water it is not uncommon to find the ditches
dry during a part of the summer, in which condition they may be
cheaply cleared of growing vegetation. Some parts of the ditches
are obstructed by fine earth which has been carried by winds from
adjoining plowed fields during the late fall or early spring and
intercepted by the ditches. 4.
A contract for cleaning 16 miles of these ditches was let in 1903,
at 224 cents per cubic yard. The bottoms were to be finished 6 feet
wide and the side slopes of the excavated portions made 1 to 1, but
the side slopes above the plane of excavation were not to be changed.
The excavation ran about 1 cubic yard to the linear foot of ditch.
The work was done with drag dredges, but they were operated down-
stream, contrary to the usual manner of working these machines, in
order that water for the boilers might be constantly obtained. There
were two boats on the work, each with 8 miles of ditch to complete,
and the work accomplished by each was 300 to 400 feet of ditch in
twelve hours. The outfits had three small houses on wagons which
moved from place to place for the accommodation of the men. Four
men on a boat and one man and team to haul coal constituted a shift.
With the exception of a few places all the ditches pass through firm
earth and are finished upon good clay bottoms.
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF LARGE DITCHES
THROUGH SANDY LANDS.
In digging lateral ditches in the Cypress drainage district, near
Shawneetown, Ill., a fine river sand caused some trouble. The speci-
fied size of these ditches was 6-foot bottom, with 1 to 1 slope, and
depth ranging from 4.5 to 10 feet. The excavating was done with
a floating dredge. Trouble occurred in cutting across small ridges
where sand was encountered 2 feet below the surface. The motion
of the dredge kept the water agitated to such an extent that a great
deal of fine sand was taken up by the water and held in suspension.
It also caused the sandy material in the banks to cave in back of the
machine. After the dredge had passed a sufficient distance for the
water to become quiet the suspended matter was deposited in suffi-
cient quantities to raise the bottom of the ditch 0.3 to 0.6 foot above
the line to which it had been excavated. To obviate this difficulty
30620–No. 158—05—42
658 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
the ditch was excavated wider and deeper through those places than
the specifications called for. It is the opinion of those who have had
experience in this work that ditches excavated through sandy land
will require cleaning about two years after construction.
In southeastern Missouri a great deal of dredge work has been
done during the past few years in material of a more or less sandy
nature. The country is underlaid by a sand stratum 5 to 12 feet
below the surface, and it is customary to excavate the ditches so
that the bottom will be 2 to 3 feet below the top of the sand, as better
underdrainage is Secured when this stratum is opened. The specified
slopes of the ditches are 1 to 1. The contractors dig the ditches 1
foot deeper and 1 to 2 feet wider on the bottom than specified, to avoid
going over the work again in case of any filling in of the ditch after
the dredge has passed. Usually very little material falls into the
ditch during construction. Occasionally in cutting through a sand
ridge it caves to such an extent that the dredge must pass over it the
second if not the third time before the ditch will maintain its speci-
fied dimensions. However, these stretches are short and infrequent
and are not regarded by the contractors as serious difficulties. The
greatest trouble in these ditches is due to the caving of the banks
during the spring thaws. Experience so far indicates that ditches
with 1.5-foot fall per mile will keep reasonably clean, as the caved
material is carried away in suspension by the water. Where the fall
is less than 1.5 feet per mile the ditches fill rapidly, and it has been
found necessary to clean them in a year after construction. It is
thought that thereafter once every three years will be sufficient.
It should be noted in this connection that the ditches in Southeastern
Missouri have no free outlet at grade, but are extended southward
through the valley until their waters are discharged by overflow on
the lower-lying lands or into shallow and obstructed channels. Under
such conditions a much larger percentage of sediment will be depos-
ited in the lower reaches of channels than if they were free to dis-
charge into an adequate outlet stream.
PLANS FOR THE DRAINAGE OF THE BoTToM LANDS OF THE
MISSOURI RIVER IN SOUTH DAKOTA.
Between the bluffs of Clay Creek on the east and the Missouri
River and James River on the South and west is a large and fertile
valley comprising 71,000 acres. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St.
Paul Railroad passes through the central portion of this tract. The
towns of Meckling and Grayville, on this road, are conveniently situ-
ated for the commercial accommodation of this territory. Large
portions of it have been cultivated and are always found productive
in favorable seasons. No complaint has been entered against the
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 659
land except that it is often too wet for profitable cultivation, it often
being difficult to secure the crop of wild grass because of the wet
condition of the soil.
Not only are the owners of the land vitally interested in its im-
provement, but the towns of the valley depend largely upon the land
for their business. The loss of production for either of the last two
years amounts to a sum which if applied to drainage would easily
pay for all of the main ditches required. It is a matter of public
concern that land of this character, with ready market and transpor-
tation facilities, be drained. Roads may then be established, farm
improvements made, and the land cultivated in the most approved
Iſla, Illſle]".
The questions arise: How may this result be brought about?
What are the preliminary steps to be taken toward its accomplish-
ment? What will be its cost? What laws, if any, should be enacted
to enable owners to combine and drain large areas and distribute the
cost equitably over the land improved?
For the purpose of obtaining answers to these questions and
getting at the matter in a comprehensive way, some of the citizens .
petitioned the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States
Department of Agriculture for such assistance as the Department
might be able to give. The matter was referred to the irrigation and
drainage investigations, and the report herewith submitted gives the
result of such investigations. A preliminary plan and estimate were
made and suggestions were offered relative to State legislation upon
drainage.
SURVEY.
In the absence of knowledge concerning levels, slopes, nature of
streams, and natural depressions of the area to be drained, it was
decided to make a level survey from which a drainage plan could
be developed. This was done in August, 1904, by John T. Stewart,
in charge of field surveys. A description of the manner in which
this survey was made may be of Service to engineers and others inter-
ested in similar projects.
The first step was to collect such information concerning the land
in question as could be obtained from the county records. Con-
venient plats for field use were made upon Land Office township
blanks on a scale of 2 inches to the mile. Upon these were traced all
Land Office data and such roads, ditches, and sloughs as were shown
on the county maps. A day was then spent in making a general
reconnoissance by driving over the area, in order to become somewhat
familiar with its general topography. In this reconnoissance it was
seen that the section lines could be easily followed, as where they
660 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
were not marked by highways there were fences or turning rows
located on them, and nearly all the one-quarter and one-sixteenth
section lines could be approximately located on the ground by fence
or field lines.
From the reconnoissance and the field plats it was found that field
measurements could be obviated by using land lines for locations,
and all additional data necessary could be obtained by running
levels. The plan decided on and carried out consisted in running
levels along parallel north-and-south Section lines 2 miles apart, ex-
tending from the ridge which marks the high-water bank of the
Missouri River to the foot of the bluff. A permanent bench mark
of the Missouri River Commission survey furnished the datum for
the levels. Levels were recorded at each one-quarter mile along the
lines surveyed, the instrument being set midway between the one-
quarter mile turning points. Turning points were taken on short
wooden pegs driven to the natural surface of the ground. A target
rod was used and read by both levelman and rodman.
A light two-horse rig, with driver, was kept on the line and used
to convey the rodman from one turning point to another. As the
rodman moved one-quarter mile at a time and there was usually a
good road, there was a considerable saving of time in the use of the
rig, which was also used for conveying the party to and from work
and for carrying water, lunch, and such survey stakes as were needed.
From 5 to 10 miles of level lines were run per day. The growth
of high grass and weeds often retarded the work. The number of
side shots which were necessary to secure desired data also cut down
the day's run. Side lines were also run to the lowest points in sloughs
or depressions 1 mile each side of the main line. Where there was
water in the sloughs the elevation of the water surface was taken
and the depth found by Sounding from a boat or wading. The
level of the surface of the water of both Missouri and James rivers
was also obtained. The high-water marks were obtained from points
located by residents, and the low-water marks were determined from
the plats of the Missouri River Commission. Bench marks were
established at nearly all section corners and were made by driving
30-penny spikes into corner fence posts or telephone poles at the
surface of the ground, a blaze being made about 4 feet above the
spike and the elevation marked upon it. Each night the elevations
were recorded in their proper locations upon the field plats.
After the completion of the level work, the line between the cul-
tivated and wet land was sketched upon the field maps by personal
inspection. After the data had all been collected and platted the
interior watershed boundaries and lines of proposed ditches were
located on the field maps. A corrected map on a scale of 1 mile to
U. S. DEPT. of AGR., Bull, 158, office of ExPT. STATIONS. RRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
PLATE IX.
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Irrigation & Drainage Investigations.
DRANAGE NAAP OF A PART OF THE
MI55OUR RVER WALLEY
YANKWON& CLAY COS, aſ
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DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 661
1 inch was afterwards made up from the field maps and is here
shown. (Pl. IX.) The cost of this survey was as follows:
Cost of running 82 miles of levels and making field plans and estimates,
Engineer, 14.5 days’ leveling, at $6 per day________________ $87. 00
Engineer, 5.5 days’ special field examinations, at $6 per day_ 33.00
Rodman, 14.5 days, at $1.75 per day---------------------- 25. 37
Livery hire, team and driver, 20 days, at $3 per day------- 60.00
Railway fare------------------------------------------- 2. 2.5
Total cost of Survey–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 207. 62
Engineer, 12 days’ office work, at $6 per day_____ _________ 72. 00
Drafting supplies--------------------------------------- 1. 50
Total Cost of plans–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 73. 50
Total Cost of Survey and plans_____________________ 2s1. 12
Regarding this preliminary Survey, it should be said that only suf-
ficient work was done to furnish the information required for devel-
oping a general plan, yet all levels are accurate and are connected
with and checked upon Government river survey bench marks. A
list and description of bench marks, which were fixed at each section
corner of the surveyed lines, accompany the report and map which
were filed with the auditor of Clay County, the expense of which is
not included in the above memorandum. The survey was inexpen-
sive, yet sufficiently full for forming a comprehensive plan for the
drainage of 70,000 acres of land, and established a sufficient number
of points from which future surveys for detail and construction work
can be made whenever required.
tº
TOPOGIRAPHY.
A profile or section of three of the lines running from the river to
the bluff shows that the surface near Clay Creek is, in every case, 2
feet or more lower than the surface of the land one-half mile distant
from the Missouri River banks; that the banks of the river are, with
a few exceptions, higher than any land found in crossing the valley
directly toward the bluff, and that the valley has a slope of 8 to 12
inches per mile from the river directly toward the bluff (fig. 83). It
is also observed that the general slope down the center line of the
valley in a southeasterly direction toward Vermilion River is about
1 foot per mile.
SOURCES OF WATER.
The water to be considered in draining the valley comes from three
sources: (1) Clay Creek and its tributaries; (2) overflow from James
River between Mission Hill and its junction with the Missouri; and
(3) direct rainfall upon the surface of the tract. Water from all of
these sources contributes at times to the injury of the land, for which
699
'#06T ‘SNOILVOILSGIANI (IowNIVAICI ONV NOILVoIHHI
FIG. 83.—Profiles across Missouri River Valley, from river to bluff.

DRAIN AGE IN VESTIGATIONS. 663
no adequate remedy has been provided. Clay Creek brings the
drainage from a watershed of 60,000 acres, and Turkey Creek that
from 39,000 acres, all near the head of the valley and 17 miles from
any river outlet. The entire area to be drained through the outlet of
Clay Creek channel is 160,000 acres, about 39,000 acres of this being
valley land and the remainder hill land.
PLAN OF DIRAINA.G.E.
The plan outlined on the map (Pl. IX) contains the following fea-
tures:
(1) A large channel on the line of Clay Creek ditch, extending
from the bridge about 2 miles above the town of Vermilion upstream
to the north line of sec. 15, T. 94, R. 54, a distance of 17 miles.
(2) What may be called the Meckling ditch, to take the general
course of the old ditch bearing that name, as shown upon the map,
the same to discharge into Clay Creek ditch and form a part of the
Clay Creek ditch system. Its total length, as mapped, will be 10.75
miles.
(3) The Gayville ditch, which provides the main drainage for the
land south of the railroad. Its source, or head, is east of Mission Hill,
in Yankton County. It passes through and drains a chain of sloughs
and discharges into Vermilion River near the railroad bridge west of
the town, having a total length of 20.5 miles.
(4) Two levees 5 feet high along James River, one at Mission Hill
and the other near the mouth of that stream, to prevent the ordinary
high-water floods from breaking over.
The main ditches named divide the valley into areas of such size
that drainage by laterals can be accomplished without great difficulty.
Clay Creek ditch may be used for draining 30,000 acres of the valley,
Meckling ditch for 8,700 acres, and Gayville ditch for 32,600 acres.
The tract north of the Milwaukee Railroad may be drained independ-
ently of that on the south side, and vice versa, though by reason of
the level character of the land one portion can not be drained without
incidentally benefiting the other.
SIZE OF DITCHES.
The Clay Creek ditch watershed has some peculiarities which
should be considered in determining the size of its channels. The
larger portion of the water to be carried is received at or near the
upper end. The run-off of 39,000 acres from Turkey Creek and
60,000 acres from the head of Clay Creek is delivered to the ditch
along the upper 2.5 miles of its length, coming to it through natural
channels. The ditch also receives the drainage from about 39,000
acres of valley land, brought to it by lateral ditches, as well as from
22,000 acres of hill land below Turkey Creek.
664 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Starting at the bridge 1 mile above the junction of Clay Creek
with Vermilion River as an outlet point, the ditch will have a grade
of 1 foot per mile for 11 miles and of 1.5 to 2 feet per mile for the
remaining distance of 6 miles. The width of the bottom of the ditch
for the lower 11 miles will be 50 feet and its depth 6 to 9 feet. From
a point where the grade increases to 2 feet per mile to Turkey Creek,
a distance of 3.5 miles, the bottom width will be 35 feet. From that
point to the end, a distance of 2.5 miles, the bottom width will be 30
feet. This ditch is designed to carry one-fourth of an inch of water
each twenty-four hours from the entire head end of the watershed,
which extends from the upper end of the ditch northward about 40
miles. -
The Gayville ditch will drain 32,000 acres. It will have a bottom
width of 16 feet at the outlet, which is at Vermilion River, and will
diminish in size as the upper end is approached. It will be 6 to 13
feet deep, except in the deep sloughs, and 20.5 miles long.
ESTIMATE OF COST.
The estimates herein submitted indicate the approximate cost of
executing the main drains described. The valley may be taken up in
two separate systems—the upper and the lower—or, as the map shows,
the Clay Creek ditch and the Gayville ditch, with their several
tributaries.
Clay Creek system.
Clay Creek ditch excavation -------------------------- $112, 507
Turkey Creek ditch excavation------------------------- 740
Meckling ditch excavation ---------------------------- 20, 880
Damage claims, Clay Creek--------------------------- 10,000
Damage claims, Meckling ditch------------------------ 3,000
Organization and contingent expenses, 5 per Cent-------- 7, 356
Total cost ------------------------------------- 154, 483
(Number of acres benefited, 38,700; average cost per
acre, $3.99.) . -
Lateral ditches for more complete drainage of lands and
I'Oads:
Main systern, laterals discharging into Clay Creek -
ditch, 33 miles --------------------------— — — — — — – $29, 100
Meckling ditch System, 5.75 miles------------------ 4, 728
Contingent expenses, 10 per Cent------------------- 3,383
Total Cost ------------------------------------- 37,211
(Average cost per acre, $0.96.)
t DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 665
Gayville ditch system.
Gayville ditch excavation –––––––––––––––––––––––––––– $54, 384
Levee on James River, 3 miles––––––––––––––––––––––––– 4, 120
Damages -------------------------------------------- 6,000
Contingent expenses, 7 per Cent–––––––––––––––––––––––– 4, 515
Total cost ------------------------------------- 69,019
(Number of acres benefited, 25,000; average cost per
acre, $2.76.)
Laterals for Gayville ditch system, 31 miles------------ $25,614
Contingent expenses, 10 per Cent----------------------- 2, 561
Total Cost ------------------------------------- 28, 175
(Average cost per acre, $1.13.)
The estimates on lateral systems are here given to indicate the
probable final expense of such drains as will be required for both
farm and road improvement. They are shown upon the map for the
»urpose of indicating the general plan, but should be constructed in
col nection with the improvement of the road system.
These estimates are of a preliminary nature and indicate only the
general and average elements of expense which may be encountered.
Damages to property and right of way for ditches may be placed
at high figures by some boards. Legal expenses are an exceedingly
variable feature in ditch cases. It should be understood in all cases
that the property affected by the improvement must pay the cost
of construction of the main ditches. Any unnecessary increase of
expense merely reacts upon those who, under the laws relating to
drainage, must pay the bills. These estimates may be regarded as
sufficiently close to determine the practicability of the project herein
proposed for the drainage of the valley.
EFFECT OF RIVER, BACE WATER,.
The two main ditches will discharge into Vermilion River. The
low watermark recorded by the river survey at the mouth of Vermil-
ion River is 24.6 feet. As near as can be determined, the high water-
mark is 20 feet above this. According to these figures it may be
expected that the high-water stage of Vermilion River will affect
the flow of the ditches for a distance of 10 miles upstream, but that
it will not seriously affect the drainage of adjoining land for more
than 4 miles back unless the extreme high stage should be long
continued.
COOPERATION OF TWO COUNTIES BEQUIRED.
The plans outlined involve the improvement of land in two coun-
ties, Clay and Yankton. The portion lying in Yankton County, if
drained at all, must be drained through Clay County to Vermilion
River, as indicated in the described plan. Cooperation of the two
666 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904,
**
counties in this work is the only proper way to handle the proposi-
tion.
It will be noted from the estimates given that while the aggregate
expense is large the amount per acre, when distributed over the whole
area, is small. The main outlets for drainage should be constructed
at the expense of all the land affected, and thus become common
outlets.
IXIEAINAGE LAWS.
A project of this magnitude can not be worked out without the
assistance of a drainage law. South Dakota has a law intended to
meet the requirements of citizens who wish to drain their farm
lands, but in the absence of an affirmation by the court its constitu-
tionality is questioned. In any event some amendments will be
required to make the present law applicable to projects requiring
combined drainage. The statute as it now stands makes no pro-
vision for the issue of drainage bonds Secured by liens upon the
lands assessed for the improvements. It is better economy for land-
owners to pay interest on bonds for a time, while their land is being
reclaimed and brought into a more productive condition, than to pay
the entire amount in cash. Money applied in developing farm land
will bring much greater interest than is called for by the bonds.
The method of making assessments for benefits and the preparation
of assessment rolls is not sufficiently defined in the present law. The
liability of the district and county in the construction of highway
and field bridges is not provided for. No provision is made for
securing right of way for ditches by condemnation proceedings,
which may sometimes be necessary in carrying out a project.
It is distinctly stated that all ditches shall be completed from the
outlet upstream, a thing that is impracticable in large works. The
matter of giving proper legal notices to all landowners through the
different stages of work is not sufficiently provided for.
A careful perusal of the later enactments on drainage of other
States, when compared with the South Dakota law, will bring to
light the fact that the latter is legally and physically deficient in
many important respects. A drainage law should form a complete
rule of procedure from start to finish. It should be of such a charac-
ter that it may be followed step by step, with the assurance that when
it is so followed the legality of proceedings can not be attacked.
SUGGESTIONS AS TO ORGANIZATION.
Before any drainage project can be carried out harmoniously a
large majority of the landowners should appreciate the necessity of
the work and favor it. The law merely permits the county commis-
sioners to presecute such work under provisions which will secure to
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 667
each property owner an equitable division of the cost, and his rights
in the works when completed. While under the law one or more
owners may legally present a petition, it is desirable to have as many
owners as practicable signify their indorsement of the project by
signing the petition. 2:
The drainage of the valley under consideration may be taken up in
two divisions. Any further division would be unwise. The interior
or lateral ditches outlined upon the map may or may not be included
in a petition for main ditches. A petition for either of the main
drainage plans may be drawn describing the territory to be included
and the ditches to be constructed. Such a petition, when accompanied
by a sufficient bond and filed with the auditor, brings the matter
under the jurisdiction of the county board. The board must then
proceed as directed by law. The history of this class of work in
other States emphasizes the necessity of having a clear and well-
established drainage law in force and of a close adherence to the let-
ter of the same in every essential particular.
RECLAMATION OF OWERFLOWED LANDS.
The fertile overflowed lands lying along the alluvial streams in
Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa attracted the attention of settlers many
years ago. As early as 1858, a ru-
dimentary system of protection for r-----ſo----------sº
these bottom lands was begun (fig. 3.
84), but no well-organized plan of %
improvement was carried out until º - -
1873. The greater par t of these FIG. 84.—Section of º º River levee, built
lands, now included in drainage
districts, has been improved since 1890. The difficulties encountered
in making this class of improvements have in many instances been
greater than landowners expected, so that the results of the work
have not uncommonly been disappointing. In order that the experi-
ence thus far gained in reclaiming overflowed lands might be col-
lected and made available to those desiring to repair injured works
or execute new ones, an investigation of the peculiar conditions upon
which the success of such improvements depends was carried on dur-
ing a part of the year. An examination was made of the lands lying
along the Wabash River in Indiana, the Illinois River from Peoria
to Kampsville, in Illinois, and the Mississippi River from Albany,
Ill., to Louisiana, Mo., and information obtained through interviews
with engineers, attorneys, commissioners, landowners, and others who
were familiar with this class of work, and by personal inspection
and measurement of the structures of different reclamation systems,



668 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
ILLINOIS IRIVER,.
The bottoms along the Illinois River vary in width from 1 to 3
miles. The river usually flows nearer to the bluffs on one side of its
valley than to those on the other, leaving the bottom lands at any
point largely on one side of the river. The stream has been improved
for navigation by means of locks and dams, there being three of these
structures on this section for the purpose of maintaining a navigable
channel throughout the low-water period. On account of these
improvements the river does not reach the old low-water stage
between Peoria and Kampsville, where the lower dam is located.
The gauge readings now used are often based upon a different datum
from that employed before the dams were built. At Havana, Ill.,
the lowest gauge reading since 1890 is 1.7 feet, recorded in September,
1896, and the highest is 19.9 feet, recorded in March, 1904. The lat-
ter is the highest flood ever recorded at that place and is notable by
reason of the fact that the water remained above the 19-foot mark for
ten days. From 1890 to 1898 the high water ranged from 9.9 to 17.8
feet, during two years of which time it failed to reach the 12-foot
mark. From 1897 to 1904 it ranged from 13.7 to 19.9 feet, reaching
during four of these years the 18-foot mark.
Near the mouth of the river the flood did not rise as high in 1904
as in 1903, due to the stage of water in the Mississippi River. In
1904 the Mississippi was not unusually high, so the flood water of the
Illinois had a free discharge, while in 1903 the extreme floods on
the Mississippi produced an upstream current in the Illinois which
was quite perceptible at Kampsville and its effect was noticed as far
up as Beardstown. Consequently the 1903 flood in the lower reaches
of the Illinois River was higher than the one of 1904. -
During the period covered by the gauge readings the maximum
yearly floods have occurred from March to July, that of 1904 occur-
ring the latter part of March, while the next highest, 19.2 feet,
recorded on the Havana gauge, occurred late in July, 1902.
The river channel along the bottom lands is skirted by a ridge or
bank, which is approximately 12 feet above low water. The surface
slopes to 1 to 4 feet below this ridge, so that the lands lie 8 to 12 feet
above low water. In places there are old channels and sloughs
which are much lower than the surrounding land.
With the exception of an occasional sand ridge these bottom lands
have a gray alluvial soil, becoming black when mixed with vegetable
matter. They are covered with a dense growth of timber, and in
their native condition furnish some pasturage in the late summer
and fall months. When cultivated the higher parts yield crops about
two years out of three, but the lower parts are flooded so frequently
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 669
that their cultivation is unprofitable. All of these bottom lands when
sufficiently drained and properly cultivated produce large crops of
corn and wheat.
PEKIN-LAMARSHI LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT.
This district lies across the river from the city of Pekin (fig. 85).
It covers an area of 2,500 acres and is protected on all sides by
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FIG. 85.—Map of Pekin-Lamarsh levee and drainage district.
levees except about 1.5 miles on the northwest, where the bluff forms
the back line of the district. An organization was effected in 1889
and work completed in 1890. The Peoria and Pekin Union Railway
grade was used for 1.5 miles as a levee on the northwest side from
the river to the bluff. Five miles of new levee were constructed
along the river bank and up Lamarsh Creek to the bluff. The







670 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
work was done with scrapers and the levee finished with a 14 to i
slope on the river or out side, 1 to 1 slope on the district or in side,
and 3-foot top. The foundation for the embankment was not pre-
pared in any way, stumps and logs being left, and in some instances
trees not being even cut, and the earth for construction was taken
from both sides in such a manner as to leave a large continuous
ditch on the inside. The railway company filled in a trestle and
raised their track in the section used as a levee, burying the old
timbers and ties in both cases.
The drainage ditches were constructed with scrapers. A pumping
plant was built at the upstream corner of the district and a circular
outlet 4 feet in diameter was made at the downstream corner for
gravity drainage. The only hill water flowing into the district is
that which falls on the slope of the bluff bordering the back line of
the district. The present pumping plant consists of a Menge pump
with two wheels, having a capacity of 500,000 gallons per hour.
The district was flooded in 1902 from a break in the railway grade
caused by the water seeping along the old ties until it carried the
levee away. During March, 1904, the water ran over the lower
part of the river levee and also over the railway grade, causing
a break at each of these places. After the interior became filled with
water great damage was done to the levees by wave action on the
inside.
It is now acknowledged by those interested in the district that the
original cross section of the levee was too small, and that it was
faulty construction to build a levee without first preparing the foun-
dation to prevent seepage, to use banks with timbers running trans-
versely across them, and to have borrow pits on the inside; also that
it is not economy to buy inferior or secondhand machinery. The
drainage system would have been more efficient if the ditches had
been made with a dredge and the pumping plant located at the down-
stream corner of the district.
LACEY LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT.
This district lies across the river from Havana (fig. 86). It
covers an area of 5,180 acres and is protected by 9.5 miles of levees,
7 miles being new levee and 2.5 miles on the north side an old unused
railway grade. The bluff forms the back line of the district for a
distance of 1 mile. /
Work was begun in 1897. The river part of the levee was built
on the ridge which marks the river bank in ordinary high water,
with a 2 to 1 slope on the outside, 1 to 1 slope on the inside, and
8-foot top (fig. 87). It varies in height from 6 to 13 feet, averaging
8.1 feet. The foundation was prepared by clearing, grubbing, and
1DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 671
thoroughly plowing the entire width of the base of the embankment,
one short section having a 4-foot muck ditch under it. The work
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was done with scrapers, the earth being taken from the outside and
a 10-foot berm left between the borrow pit and the toe of the slope.
The only storm water coming into the district is that which falls on
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the slope of the bluff. The land is drained by a system of dredge
ditches 6 feet deep, but with no fall. The pumping plant is located












672 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
near the middle of the river levee and consists of two high-speed
engines, two horizontal fire-tube boilers, and two horizontal cen-
trifugal pumps with 20-inch discharge pipes, each pump having a
capacity of 750,000 gallons per hour.
This levee failed because it was not built high enough. The top
was supposed to be 20 feet above low water. In 1902 the river rose to.
19.2 feet and ran over the old railway grade which served as the
north levee, flooding the district. In March, 1904, the river rose to
19.9 feet and ran over the low places in the levee. A break in the
railway grade was caused by a wave which came from a crevasse in
an old levee on Spoon River. After the district was flooded there
were high winds, which greatly injured the levee by wave action on
both inside and outside where not protected by timber.
COAL CREER LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT.
This district, inclosing 7,000 acres lying across the river from
Beardstown, was organized in 1897 (fig. 88). The Chicago, Bur-
lington and Quincy Railway grade is used as a levee from the river
to the bluff on the east side. Six miles of new levee were built on
the south and west sides, it not being necessary to levee against the
river water on the north side. With the exception of a short section
at the north end of the west levee, work was done with a dipper
dredge. The levee was raised to 3 feet above the 1844 high water-
mark and was built with a 3 to 1 slope on the outside, 2 to 1 slope
on the inside, and no specified width of top (fig. 89). The foun-
dation and the land used for the borrow pit were cleared, the stumps
dynamited and pulled, and roots taken out to a depth of 3 feet. The
earth was all taken from the outside, a 20-foot berm being left
between the edge of the borrow pit and the toe of the slope.
The levee as built by the dredge is rough and irregular both on top
and on the slopes, caused by the dumping of the dirt 2.5 yards at a
time. In finishing, many places were a little low and required only
a small amount of material, but a whole dipperful of earth was nec-
essarily dumped, making some places a foot or more higher than nec-
essary. The lowest places were brought to the required height, but
the entire surface of the levee is covered with a series of humps of
varying heights above the required grade. There was a tendency of
the banks to run and slide during construction, due to the soft con-
dition of the material dug out of the water and the successive drop-
ping of the heavy material on the bank. On account of this running
of the banks only a part could be put up at a time, so the dredge
boat had to pass two or three times before the levee was completed.
Because of this sliding a great deal of extra material had to be
* DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 673
moved. When the material finally settled in place the levee became
more solid than if it had been put up dry by scrapers.
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Coal Creek runs diagonally across the district from the river to the
bluff. This stream was diverted where it comes out of the hills by a
ditch which was constructed along the foot of the bluff, intercepting
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in its course several small creeks which come out of the hills and
leading their waters around the north end of the west levee and
thence to the river. The channel of Coal Creek was dredged out to
30620–No. 158–05—43











674 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
t
form the main ditch of the interior drainage system of the district.
The pumping plant is located at the lower end of this channel and
consists of one 24-inch and two 15-inch horizontal centrifugal pumps,
having a combined capacity of 1,583,000 gallons per hour. Power is
furnished by one boiler and a Corliss condensing engine.
The land has not yet been fully reclaimed. It has not been flooded
by river water since the completion of the levee, but the water from
the hill streams has not been controlled, so that repeated inundations
have occurred from that source. Coal Creek and the little streams
which flow out of the bluff are so heavily charged with sediment that
they fill the channel of the intercepting ditch and cause its water to
flow over the waste bank in such quantities that the pumping plant
can not remove it. Owing to this difficulty, the interior drainage
system has never been completed. During high water there is a great
deal of Seepage through the railway grade and some through the
district levee. It is thought that if a muck ditch had been dug in the
foundation of the levee and refilled there would have been no seepage,
as the water does not go through the embankment, but through the
upper 3 feet of the original earth, which contains a great deal of
vegetable matter. º
INDIVIDUAL FARMS PROTECTED BY LEVEES.
In the vicinity of Hillview there are three tracts of land which
have been leveed by owners without the aid of the State law. (Pl. X.)
The Hartwell ranch, containing an area of 4,000 acres, was leveed
in 1889. The levee was cheaply constructed, having steep slopes and
a narrow top and the greater part of the dirt being taken from the
inside. The land inclosed receives a large amount of bluff water, and
several dredge ditches have been made for the interior drainage.
During low water drainage is effected through a sluice gate into
Apple Creek. During high water the gate is closed and the water is
raised with a Menge pump, but it has not sufficient capacity to remove
the water as rapidly as it collects. The levee was broken by waves
during the flood of 1904 and the ranch was flooded.
The Roberts ranch, situated between the Hartwell ranch and the
river and covering an area of 3,000 acres, is entirely surrounded by
levees whose construction was similar to those of the Hartwell ranch.
The levee broke in 1903 and 1904, due to the action of the waves and
of the water running over the top. This was the only point in the
Illinois River levees where a deep crevasse was formed similar to
those which occur in the Mississippi levees. The drainage water is
carried by open ditches to the pumping station, which is on the river
levee. The pumping plant consists of a 24-inch horizontal direct-
connected centrifugal pump having a capacity of 1,200,000 gallons
per hour.
U. S. DEPT. OF AGR., BUL. 158, office of EXPT. STATIONS. RRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. —--- r - . . . . . . ~. -- PLATÉ X.
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DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 675
The Lowenstein farm, consisting of 600 acres, is protected by a
levee built with a 2 to 1 slope on the outside and a 1% to 1 slope on
the inside, with a 4-foot top. The foundation was grubbed and
plowed and the dirt was all taken from the inside. The land receives
the bluff water from an area 1.5 miles long by 1 mile wide. During
low water it drains by a gravity outlet. For high water a Menge
pump with two wheels was provided. This plant failed because the
pump could not be kept in working order, and So it has not been run
the past two years. The levee broke in 1903, due, it is thought, to
burrowing by muskrats. In 1904 the water stood for ten days within
1 foot of the top of the levee, but it did not break. Part of the land
on the inside, however, became too wet for cultivation, because the
pumping machinery could not be operated.
The levees have failed to fully reclaim these tracts of land from
the following causes: In the Hartwell ranch the levee did not have a
sufficient cross section, was poorly constructed, and the pumping
machinery was not of sufficient capacity to handle the large quantity
of water which came from the bluffs through the district. In the
Roberts ranch the levee was not high enough, nor of sufficient cross
section. In the Lowenstein farm the levee was not of Sufficient
height and cross section to withstand the water, and the pumping
plant, though in place, was not in working order.
WAIBASEI RIVER-
The lower Wabash River has a range of 21 feet between low and
high water, the channel banks averaging 12 to 15 feet above low
water. At various points along the river between Clinton and Vin-
cennes organizations have been formed under the State laws and the
work of protecting these lands from flood water has begun. The
Brevoort levee at Vincennes was begun forty years ago, and has been
in its present condition for sixteen years. All other reclamation
work has been done within the past ten years.
A levee opposite Clinton protects 1,500 acres. This district is
drained by gravity through an outflow culvert consisting of four 24-
inch sewer pipes. During construction deep borrow pits were left
on the inside of the levee and in times of high water they fill with
seep water, but otherwise the drainage of the district is good. This
levee failed in 1904. The maximum flood overtopped the embank-
ment by 1.5 feet, but crevasses were formed before the flood height
was reached. One crevasse was attributed to the effect of borrow
pits and the others were probably due to faulty construction and
insufficient cross section.
The Blocksom levee, near Terre Haute, was completed in 1904, and
has not yet been subjected to a flood.
The Sugar Creek levee, on the opposite side of the river from
676 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Terre Haute, protects 1,500 acres. This was built at a slope of 14
to 1 on each side with a 6-foot crown raised 1.5 feet above high-water
mark (fig. 90). The district has gravity drainage through one 42-
inch and one 24-inch outflow culvert.
In the west part of Sullivan County there are two levees. One,
the Island levee, near Sullivan, is 8 miles in length, protecting an
area of 6,000 acres. The other, the Gill Township levee, protects an
area of 12,000 acres. The cross sections of these levees are the same
as the Sugar Creek levee described above. Considerable water passes
through these districts and each has several outflow culverts, the
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larger ones being 3 feet in diameter, constructed of masonry. In
the Gill district two Menge pumps, each of 500,000 gallons per hour
capacity, are now being installed.
The Brevoort levee at Vincennes protects 12,000 acres. It has a
slope of 2 to 1 on the river side and 1% to 1 on the land side, with a
3-foot crown raised 4 feet above high-water mark (fig. 91). This
district is drained by two large ditches which discharge under the
levee through stone outflow culverts 3 feet in diameter. During
high water the low part of the district is flooded by back water, and
a pumping plant is necessary for complete drainage. This levee was

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FIG. 91.-Specified section of Brevoort levee.
the only one on the river which withstood the 1904 flood without a
crevasse, although it required constant patrolling and strengthening
of weak places to hold it intact.
MISSISSIPPI RIVER,.
Along the Mississippi River the larger tracts of bottom lands usu-
ally lie opposite the bluffs nearest the river, but in some localities
there are extensive flats on both sides of the stream which are more
or less cut up by old channels and bayous that in high water become
navigable, but in low water either dry up entirely or become lakes
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 677
and sloughs of stagnant water. The soils of these bottom lands vary
from a black “gumbo” to a coarse Sandy loam, a light sandy loam
being the more common. They are all very fertile and when culti-
Vated yield large returns of corn and vegetables.
The average fall of the reaches of the river which border the low-
land is approximately 6 inches per mile. The river has a rise and
fall of 23 feet, the high-water period occurring from March to June.
During low-water period the river is approximately 0.5 mile wide,
while during high water it varies from 1 to 6 miles. The low-water
channel has been improved for navigation by wing dams built out
from the shore and by dams thrown across the head of side channels
and bayous, the object of these structures being to concentrate the
water in the main channel 2%
and keep it free from bars
by the eroding force of the %
Water.
On both sides of the river Leº
these bottom lands have #
been partially reclaimed by
organizations under the
State laws for drainage
purposes, by the United
States Government for river
improvement, or by a combi-
nation of the two for drain-
age and river improvement.
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MEREDOCIA FLAT. 2,
At Albany, Ill., is a sec-
tion of lowland known as
the Meredocia flat, bounded
on either side by highland
and extending from the
Mississippi River to Rock
River. Previous to its im-
provement the water of
either river at flood time *
flowed through this flat. *alsº
During low-water periods it *%.
formed a continuous string |
of sloughs. The land was | º
improved in 1897 by the FIG. 92–Map of Meredocia levee and drainage district.
Meredocia levee and drainage district. (Fig. 92.) On the divide
between the two rivers 7,800 feet of levee with a maximum height of
8 feet were built to prevent the flooding of the district by Rock River.
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678 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
A levee 7,400 feet in length, with an outside slope of 3 to 1, inside
slope of 2 to 1, 10-foot crown, and maximum height of 23 feet, was
built at the lower extremity of the flat to shut out the Mississippi
River floods. In the bed of the flat the levee was built on a natural
foundation of 7 feet of “gumbo’ underlaid by sand and gravel. A
muck ditch constructed under the entire length of the levee and the
embankment itself were built of “gumbo.” Twenty per cent was
added to the height for shrinkage. During low water drainage is
through an outflow culvert consisting of two 48-inch pipes. During
high water drainage is effected by a 30-inch horizontal centrifugal
pump direct connected to a double vertical engine, the pump having
a capacity of 1,500,000 gallons per hour. While the district contains
an area of only 8,000 acres, it is estimated that the drainage of 25,000
acres is handled at the pumping station. During extreme high water
a few “boils " have developed in the flat. With these exceptions the
levee has since its construction withstood all floods without any special
patrol or repairs and is in good condition. All of the land is not
thoroughly reclaimed for the reason that it has never been sufficiently
ditched to make good farm land of the lowest part of the flat, yet
many acres have been redeemed, and the entire district is sufficiently
drained for meadow land.
MUSCATINE ISLAND.
Muscatine Island is a 20,000-acre tract near Muscatine, Iowa (fig.
93), cut off from the highland by an old river channel known locally
as Muscatine slough. The surface differs from the lowlands usually
found along the river in that it is more undulating, the sand ridges
on the upper end of the island rising in many places above high water,
and there is one quite prominent sand hill near the river bank. The
land contiguous to the slough is low and flat. An attempt to protect
this island from flood water was begun as early as 1858, but on account
of legal difficulties work was discontinued until about twenty years ago,
when it was again taken up and completed.
A levee was constructed along the river bank from the head to the
mouth of the slough. At the upper part of the island for a distance
of 4 or 5 miles the only work done was to fill in the low places between
sand ridges. At first the lower end of the island was left open be-
tween the mouth of the slough and the bluff, but experience soon
proved that the plan was faulty, as the flood water from the river
backed up the slough, caused it to overflow, and flooded the lowlands
of the island. To prevent this a levee was built from the river to
the bluff a short distance above the mouth of the slough. The drain-
age of the slough was provided for by an outflow culvert, consisting
of three 36-inch pipes laid in the bed of the old channel under the
levee. At present there are 13 miles of levee, ranging in height from
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 679
zero to 12 feet, the maximum height occurring only in the lowest
places. The levee was probably built at a 2 to 1 slope on each side
with a 4-foot crown, which was a small cross Section for sandy mate-
rial. Erosion and settlement have reduced this section until the
levee is prevented from breaking during extreme high water only by
the vigorous efforts of residents. At high-water periods the valves
at the outflow culvert close and the slough acts as a reservoir to hold
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the storm water until the river falls sufficiently for the valves to open
and gravity drainage to begin. As a result there is a great deal of
land lying along the slough too wet for cultivation.
FIG. 93.−Map of Muscatine Island levee district.
MUSCATINE ISLAND IRRIGATION.
In the Southern part of the district ordinary field crops are raised,
but in the northern part, near Muscatine, vegetables and melons are
the principal products. On account of the sandy nature of the soil
and the rapidity with which it dries out in summer irrigation was
tried in 1894 and has since been practiced more or less extensively.
An irrigation well consists of a pointed 8-inch pipe driven approxi-
mately 20 feet into the earth, in which the water stands 9 to 12 feet
below the surface during the irrigation season. The part of the pipe
which extends down into the water stratum is perforated with slots
one-fourth inch wide and 12 inches long, staggered so as not to weaken
the pipe. On top of the well pipe is attached a collar, to which the
pump is bolted. Some of the wells consist of three or four 4-inch
pipes connected at the top in place of one 8-inch pipe. Centrifugal


680 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
pumps with 5-inch and occasionally a 6-inch discharge are used. The
pump is mounted on a cast-iron frame bolted to two timber sills which
rest in two small trenches dug in the earth. The suction pipe is
bolted to the collar of the well tube. The pump can be moved on a
small sled from one well to another in about three hours. Power is
furnished by a portable engine. The cost of a well, complete, is $75,
and of a 5-inch pump ready to attach to it, $145. The engines used
are either secondhand thrashing engines or those kept for other pur-
poses. No record has been kept of irrigation operations, so that the
data collected are those furnished by the gardeners from memory.
The average cost of irrigating is as follows:
Cost of irrigation.
Cents per hour.
1 man to run engine_------- * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * sºme sºm. * *me mº, º sº. 20
1 man to tend Water -------------------------------------- 12. 5
Ruel ---------------------------------------------------- 22. 5
Total cost of running pump one hour 55
Area irrigated in one hour, 0.5 acre.
Total cost of irrigating 1 acre, $1.10.
During the summer of 1900, the last extremely dry season, 14
pumps were operated and approximately 1,000 acres irrigated. As
the irrigating plants are not used every year, and during only a part
of the season in dry years, there is no special preparation of the soil
for irrigation.
The well is located on the highest part of the area to be watered.
The pump is started, and a head ditch is made with a plow, the water
following in the furrow after the plow. When the head ditch has
been carried as far as it is désired to take the water, the water is
turned down between the rows at the lower end of the head ditch.
As soon as it has reached the farther end of the rows the head ditch
is dammed and the water turned between new rows, thus working
from the outer end toward the well.
Forty acres have been irrigated from a single well, but usually 10
to 15 acres is as large a tract as can be economically watered from one
well. Water is applied one to three times a season. The crops irri-
gated are sweet potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage, watermelons, and canta-
loupes. The cash value of the crops varies from $35 to $200 per
acre with an average of $60 per acre. Everyone interviewed on the
subject considers it a paying investment to have an irrigating plant
installed so that it can be used any time a crop is in danger from
drought.
FLINT CREEK-IOWA RIVER LEVEE.
From 1894 to 1900, 35.25 miles of levee were built on the Iowa side
of the river by the United States Government for river improve-
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 681
ment (fig. 94). This levee begins at the bluff and extends down
the south bank of the Iowa River to its mouth, thence down the
až4/> 5//OW/WG ZOC47/OW OF
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FIG. 94.—Map showing location of Flint Creek-Iowa River levee.
Mississippi to Flint Creek, where it again joins the bluff, thus
protecting 44,000 acres from overflow. It was constructed with a
•–6—º
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FIG.95.—Specified section of enlarged Flint Creek-Iowa River levee.
3 to 1 slope on the river side throughout its entire length. The
first sections constructed had a 2 to 1 slope on the land side with
4-foot crown, but the last sections had a 2 to 14 slope with 6-foot
crown (figs. 95, 96, and 97).
The foundation was cleared 1-4-r---o-º-º-º-o-º-º-º:
of all vegetable matter, 3% % 6. ! gº!
grubbed, and thoroughly z/ - 2
plowed, a muck ditch 4 feet º
FIG. 96.-Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—Section. On firm
deep and 4 feet wide con- land which did not fail.
structed where considered
necessary, and the slopes at completion were smoothed off and sown in
grass. Mile posts were set in the crown and iron bench marks on the
land slope near the mile posts. Since construction, sections exposed
to wave action and not
protected by growing tim-
ber have been riprapped.
º % ºf Jºe In 1903 occurred the
4%zº/º/7% highest flood ever recorded
FIG. 97.-Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section exposed to º -
waves, protected by riprap, has never failed. at New Boston, which ls
near the upper end of this
levee. At that time the levee was patrolled and weak places strength-
ened. At no point was a crevasse formed, although 23 weak places







682 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
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developed. , These were caused by seepage and sloughing on the inner.
slope in the high sections of the levee (figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101).

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FIG. 98.—Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section where slough occurred on inner slope, afterwards
strengthened by banquette.
The drainage of the land back of this levee is by gravity, outflow
culverts being constructed through the levee at different points.
2-&- - - - - - - -----j- - - - - - "T" ºff % ----- ge-, -ºo- T - - --/O- º - - - -/69- - - -
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FIG. 99–Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section at northern part of Ziegler's Slough, sloughed in 1903.
*
Each culvert is composed of one to four 36-inch pipes with automatic
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FIG. 100.—Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section at Iowa Slough, where sloughing occurred in 1903,
valves. The sloughs and channels act as reservoirs to hold the storm
water until the river falls and the valves open.
**-------/6---------3--------4----------.
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FIG. 101.-Flint Creek-Iowa River levee—section at Campbell Slough, where sloughing was checked
in 1903 by sand sacks.
WARSAW-QUINCY LEVEE.
This extends from Warsaw along the Illinois bank of the river to
Quincy (fig. 102). It was constructed and is controlled by three
*
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 683
Separate districts: The Hunt district, extending from Warsaw to
the Adams County line; the Lima Lake district, from Adams County
line to the mouth of Bear Creek, thence along the north bank of the
creek to the bluff; and the Indian Grave district, from the bluff on
º
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agoza crºſo, wººd At
FIG. 102.-Map of Warsaw-Quincy levee.
the South side of Bear Creek; thence down the river and across to
the bluff at the head of Quincy Bay.
Several years after the levee was constructed a muck ditch was put
in at the foot of the outer slope and the embankment strengthened
by the United States Government. The cross section is 3 to 1 slope
on the outside and 2 to 1
slope on the inside, with
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6-foot crown. The greater tº: % % ”s $3%
part of the levee is built of ºzº. % * , *
a sandy loam in which the *…*
Sand is very fine. For 2 or
3 miles at the Warsaw end
the material is very sandy, but the sand is coarse, and this section is
said to be the best in the Hunt district. There is an occasional section
of gumbo, which has never given any trouble.
During the flood of 1903 the Hunt levee broke in two places,
caused by lateral pressure (fig. 103). Several other breaks occurred
in this and in the Lima Lake district, but they were due to water
FIG. 103.—Hunt district levee—section where crevasse
occurred.
Q
----ZO---- -----20----&o-s3g. #2-ses--------// O-----F - - - - - - - - - - - /6. O--------4----Z O-------
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Ž%zº/º/º////º/////#/º
FIG. 104.—Indian Grave district levee—section where Houghton crevasse occurred.
on the inside after the districts had flooded from the preceding breaks.
The Indian Grave levee broke at Houghtons Landing when the water
was 4 feet below the top of the levee (fig. 104). Several other breaks
occurred in this levee, caused by the water on the inside, which came
from the previous break. -

684 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
A waterway approximately 1,000 feet wide was left for the flow
of Bear Creek between the Lima Lake and Indian Grave levees
(fig. 105). There is no distinct channel in this waterway, and it
becomes overgrown with weeds and bushes; when the creek rises
the growth obstructs the flow of water and causes it to overtop the
levees. This waterway has a grade of 4 feet per mile, which causes
a ready flow in the ditches along the levees, and as a consequence
the districts have been at considerable expense to prevent the water
flowing down the borrow pits and washing out the levees. By
plowing each year in the center of the waterway a good channel is
being made which in time will be large enough to carry the water,
as the channel erodes rapidly after it has once been cut through the
“gumbo’ to the Sand strata. On account of the heavy deposits of
sediment in the Waterway, the levees have been raised several times.
The storm water of Hunt and Lima Lake districts is discharged
through outflow culverts, made of 4-foot pipe fitted with automatic
&O.A.R.
Arizº Pººr /.393.
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FIG. 105–Section across Bear Creek waterway.
valves, located near the mouth of Bear Creek. The Indian Grave dis-
trict drains through similar culverts into Quincy Bay. The interior
sloughs and old channels act as reservoirs to hold the storm water
until it can escape by gravity. Some dredge ditching has been done
in Lima Lake district, but because of poor outlets it has been of no
benefit. Much valuable land is rendered unfit for cultivation on
account of these interior sloughs overflowing during long seasons
of high water.
SNY ISLAND LEVEE.
The Sny Island levee and drainage district was organized in 1871
and the levee constructed in 1872–73 (figs. 106 and 107). The levee
begins at Bluff Hall, on the Illinois side of the river, and extends to
Hamburg Bay, a distance of 52 miles, protecting 110,000 acres, of
which 90,000 are in cultivation. The district is drained by an old
channel called the Sny, which leaves the river near Bluff Hall and

DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS.
685
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686
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
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DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 687
empties into Hamburg Bay. It was originally connected with the
river between Bluff Hall and Hamburg Bay, but the head of the
channel, as well as all other points along its course, were cut off by
the levee, so that the only connection the Sny has with the Missis-
sippi at present is at the mouth of the former through Hamburg Bay.
The district is open at the lower end and that part is flooded each
year by backwater.
The levee was originally built with a 3 to 1 slope on the river side
and a 2 to 1 slope on the land side, with a 5-foot crown. The average
height for its entire length was 8.2 feet. The specifications called

º - /6
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FIG. 108.—Sny levee—section across old channel, known as the cut-off, public road on the crown.
for the foundation to be cleared of all timber and vegetable matter
and thoroughly plowed after the stumps and brush had been grubbed
and for a muck ditch 18 inches wide on the bottom and 3 feet deep,
filled with black dirt. Subsequent events proved that the specifica-
tions had not been complied with in regard to the muck ditch and the
clearing, grubbing, and plowing of the foundation, and the borrow
pits which were opened up in many places near the foot of the inner
slope were a source of continual trouble and danger until they were
refilled. During the first few years after construction the levee was
frequently broken by floods. In time the height was raised, the
* o try
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FIG, 109.-Sny levee—section near Hannibal, Mo., public road on banquette.
inside borrow pits filled, and the slopes flattened or strengthened by
a banquette, so that the levee held intact from 1888 to 1903. The
Louisiana crevasse of the latter year was over 300 feet wide and 60
feet deep and cost the district $25,000 to refill. Up to 1894 more
material had been used in repairing and strengthening than had been
used in the original construction (figs. 108 and 109).
A history of the construction and maintenance of the levee up to
December, 1893, was given in the testimony to the courts in the Sny
Island bond suit by H. P. Dodge, who during construction worked
on the levee as an employee of the contractor and later as a Subcon-
688 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
tractor, and since construction has been on the levee an average of
three months each year and has repaired several of the breaks. He
testified in effect as follows:
When the contractors first began work the specifications were carried out,
but they soon began slighting their work. The engineers passed over the
ground between 8 and 10 a. m. and 3 and 4 p. m. Between times the contractors
would cover up stumps, logs, and brush, refill the muck ditch with Sand and vege-
table matter that had been thrown out of it, and poorly plow rooty ground.
These defects would be Govered up and look all right when the engineers came
along. When the freezing weather came On the muck ditch was omitted entirely
and the plowing was more poorly done. The inside borrow pits were often
Worked out 6 to 7 feet deep and everything was hauled into the levee that would
make a bank. The big cut-off was filled during the winter of 1872–73. Piles
were driven and brush filled in to keep the bank from sliding. South of Black
Wood Bend the levee was built on top of roots and drift sand.
The levee as originally built was not high enough nor wide enough and the
siopes were too steep. The deep borrow pits on the inside were extremely
injurious, and the failure to Complete the muck ditch and clear the foundation
of vegetable matter has been the cause of serious trouble. After construction
seepage caused by trash in the foundation of the embankment came out at one
point on the inside of the levee and finally resulted in a crevasse. Before the
Goodman Crevasse Occurred Springs were formed On the inside, and when the
break came it washed the levee away, but it did not wash out below the original
surface, showing that the ground had not been plowed. In a distance of 300
feet along this break there were 22 Stumps 2 to 4 feet high. The break at
Government Circle revealed the fact that the muck ditch had been omitted,
the brush not removed, and the ground not plowed. Before the crevasse devel-
oped at Murphy's Bay the water came through between the surface of the
ground and the levee, where there was a layer of decomposing vegetation.
The breaks of 1876 and at Black Woods Bend were repaired in the following
manner: The ground was cleared and well plowed, a muck ditch dug 3 feet deep
and 3 feet wide, which was refilled with black earth well tamped, and the levee
constructed with a 3 to 1 slope on each side. The Government used the same
method in repairing the break at Murphy's Bay. None of these repairs has given
any trouble, although in the most treacherous places along the levee.
E. J. Chamberlain, who had been engineer of the district since 1884,
testified in effect as follows:
There were defects in the Original location and construction of the levee. In
many places it was located so near the bank of the river that material for its
Construction had to be taken from the land side. The opening up of these land- .
side borrow pits, which are 2 to 6 feet deep, has been the cause of much trouble
and expense, as quicksand was often exposed and when the surface soil was
removed there was nothing to hold the quicksand in place. The hydrostatic
pressure forces the water through the quicksand, forming springlike streams,
When the work of destruction is rapid. The Crewasse of 1876 came from this
cause alone. In many places it would have been better if the levee had been
far enough from the river so as to have left a fore shore of timber and brush
as a protection from wave action, as where the levee is located near the river
and not protected by brush and timber great injury has been done to the slopes
by currents and wave action.
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 689
The errors of construction may be placed under four heads: (1) Insufficient
grade; (2) insufficient preparation of foundation ; (3) insufficient cross section ;
(4) improper location of borrow pits.
The original notes show that the data for determining the grade of the crown
were the high-water marks of 1851 at Hannibal and Louisiana. The difference
in elevation between these marks gave a grade line of less than 6 inches per
mile for that flood plane of the river, and this was adopted as the grade line of
the levee crown. No allowance was made for any change, such as Confining the
river within a narrower channel, as at the Hannibal and LOuisiana bridges,
where the width of the river at flood height has been reduced from 6 miles to
Something less than 1,500 feet.
Theoretically the river is supposed to descend at a certain grade, but that is
affected by circumstances. For instance, a sudden rise in Salt River causes the
plane of high water in the Mississippi River immediately below the mouth of
Salt River to raise above the uniform plane, the water becoming “piled up,” as
we say in common parlance. While agreeing to the theory that water will find
depth when ...the banks are contracted, there are reasons for believing that the
water is higher at Hannibal and Louisiana than in 1872. The effect of nar-
rowing the channel at these places, as found from notes actually taken in the
field in 1888, and also in 1892 at the time when the river was at or near its
highest stage, has been to elevate the plane of water at these points, and there
has also been more or less change in the grade of the water at other points.
Above the Hannibal Bridge for 4 or 5 miles the plane or surface of the Water is
level, and at another place at the head of the levee it is nearly level. Then there
is a section below the Hannibal Bridge where there is a fall of 2 feet or more.
In a number of places between Cincinnati and Louisiana there are reaches of
the river extending for half a mile where the plane of the river was level, as
observed in 1892, then there would be a rapid fall for a short distance. Above
the Louisiana Bridge it is level for some distance. While local conditions cause
the grade to vary at different points, the average fall of the high-water plane
from One end Of the levee to the Other is about 6 inches per mile.
The original grade of the levee was not even theoretically correct unless the
levee had been composed of a hard substance that would have kept it up to
grade and prevented burrowing animals from making tunnels 6 to 24 inclies
under the surface from standing water on one side of the levee to standing
water on the other. Mole tunnels about 2 inches under the surface caused
much injury to the levee in 18S8 in localities of insufficient grade, where the
water Came to Or within a few inches of the Original grade.
The levee was not high enough. It was supposed to be to the high-water
plane of 1851, but even that height was not theoretically correct, for it would
be insufficient from the fact that the Wind would throw Waves Over the Crown,
gutting the material away unless it were of stone. The levee would also settle
and become much lower. It was found on rerunning levels over the levee that
in one section, just above the head of Gilgal Prairie, for a distance of 3 miles
the crown was 2 to 3 feet below grade. At another place for half a mile it
was 2 feet below grade, and there were a number of other places where it was
below the original grade. The plane of the water having been raised at the
Hannibal and Louisiana bridges, the levee would have been insufficiently high
to have withstood the 1851 water. It was known from working on the levee
prior to 1888 that the sections above Hannibal were at the original grade. In
that year the water was 6 inches to 2 feet above the crown of the levee where
it was at the original grade, although records from other points on the river
show that this flood did not equal that of 1851. In 1888 the grade of the origi-
30620–No. 158–05—44
690 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
nal levee was generally 2.5 feet below the 1851 water mark. To make a levee
reasonably Safe the grade of the crown should be not less than 3 feet above
the highest known water. The present plans are based on a grade line estab-
lished from the flood plane of 1888 and confirmed by the flood of 1892.
The next defect was in the preparation of the foundation. In filling around
the Old CrevaSSes at Kings Lake and Bay Island some of the original levee was
removed, and in the foundation were found stumps and vegetable matter which
are very objectionable. Unless the foundation is cleared of all perishable
matter, a seam will be formed and the new embankment will not become
mortised to the ground, but will permit water to flow between the levee and
the Original surface. This has been observed in small embankments and was
Seen here in 1887, when the road on the inner berm had considerable water on
it, all coming from under the levee. The river was high enough to have sub-
merged the land with no levee, but not high enough to cause the water to
percolate through the embankment. Seepage under the levee did not occur
where the muck ditch had been made and the foundation properly prepared.
All repair levees constructed since 1884 by the district or the Government have
had all roots and connections between the river side and the land side cut off
by muck ditches. The best way to form a bond between the new levee and the
original ground is to make a ditch 4 to 6 feet wide and tamp with impervious
material. This protects the joint and mortises the embankment.
Insufficient Cross section means insufficient thickness and size of embank-
ment, and a great deal of trouble has been experienced from this cause. In
sections where there is quicksand the levee has been giving way on the land
side by sloughing, but where the material is black clay or gumbo there has been
no trouble from this cause. In regions of quicksand a levee will stand at Only
a very flat slope.
The improper location of borrow pits has further weakened the cross section.
In many places borrow pits 6 feet deep were made within 10 feet of the levee
On both the river and land sides. So far as the strength of the embankment
is concerned this would have the effect of adding 6 feet to the height of the
levee without sufficiently increasing the base. For instance, a levee 10 feet
high of the original cross section would have a base of 55 feet, but if borrow pits
6 feet deep were dug 10 feet from the toe of each slope it would be equivalent
to a levee 16 feet high, with a base of 75 feet, instead of 85 feet, as it should be.
It was found from observation that the river banks and also the levee itself,
where exposed to wave action, took slopes of their own varying from 4 to 1 to
8 to 1. Nature’s slopes were adopted as far as the district was able to pay
for them. In 1888, a new grade line and system of construction were adopted
after study of the high-water plane for that year, and it was decided to make
the slopes on the river side 3 to 1, 4 to 1, and 5 to 1, depending on the location.
Where there was a good foreshore of timber and brush and the levee composed
of impervious material, 3 to 1 on the river side, and 2 to 1 on the land side were
sufficient, but where exposed to wave action a 5 to 1 slope on the river side was
decided on. In regions of quicksand a 4 to 1 slope on the land side has been
used. This slope has R8t been Carried quite to the top of the levee on account
of expense, but as high as there was likely to be percolation from the river.
To keep the quicksand in place a coating of heavy material 2 to 6 feet deep
and 10 to 20 feet wide was placed over the land side borrow pits. Where prac-
ticable material was hauled from the river side of the levee, otherwise it was
obtained on the land side Some distance back.
Bushes growing on a levee are an injury, as the roots penetrate the embank-
ment and, decaying, leave an opening for a waterway through the levee. They
also prevent the detection of weak places in time of high water.
BRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 691
The action of the elements is always a source of great danger, wave action
being especially injurious. Burrowing animals are also a constant menace to .
Safety. It is absolutely necessary to provide for the repairs of a levee as it
Would not be safe to put up an embankment for flood protection and then give
no attention to its maintenance.
To protect a levee in time of high water requires constant watching because
the material of which it is built is not such as would be used in building a
reservoir for constantly retaining a body of water. Where construction is
defective more vigilant watching in time of danger is necessary than if prop-
erly built.
In a general way the commissioners and all interested prepare to protect
the levee in times of danger by organizing a patrol and getting materials, such
as Sand bags, burlap, brush, and straw in readiness. Loose-woven burlap
Spread over the slope and held in position by sand bags has been found to be
the best means of stopping sloughing. Several times overtopping has been
prevented by setting on edge boards 1 foot wide; in a few places a second board
has had to be added to the first. As the danger increases the patrol is increased
and is kept going night and day from One end of the levee to the other. The
levee is divided into districts which are subdivided into 1-mile sections. As
Occasion requires the landowners turn out and give assistance. In 1892, a
large body of men had to be secured in a short time and many were obtained
from outside the district. Many residents of the district who could not go
personally sent help or supplies. In that year $14,000 was spent in patrolling
and strengthening the levee.
From the completion of the levee to 1888, there were 18 breaks which de-
stroyed altogether 4.1 miles of the old levee. The large breaks were repaired
by circling around the old crevasses. On account of the extra length this
involved, 4.8 miles of new levees were required, 3.3 miles being on new loca-
tion which required new right of way. None of the new work has given any
trouble.
The Government has placed some dikes in the river for improving navigation,
but they have little or no influence on high water.
The United States engineer’s report on the high water of 1903
says of the Sny levee:
Many boils and seeps were developed, but no danger of breaks. Where there
was a good wide banquette on the inside, boils and seeps were eliminated and
the ground solid enough to drive over with a wagon at all times. The danger
of a break at Hannibal and the break at Louisiana were caused by using rail-
way grades as a part of the levee.
LEVEE CONSTRUCTION.
In selecting a route for a levee care should be taken to locate on
stable ground where there is sufficient room for borrow pits on the
river side, to keep a foreshore of timber between the location and
open water, to cross sloughs and old channels by the shortest courses,
and to avoid places where the levee would be exposed to erosion by
currents Or Waves.
The height should be not less than 3 feet above high-water mark.
This is necessary to prevent overtopping of the levee by waves, by
an unexpected rise in the flood plane, or by the lowering of the crown
by the crossing of animals, erosion, etc.
f
692 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The cross section required for a levée depends on its height, the
material, and the length of time it is exposed to high water. An
embankment of an impervious material does not need the cross section
of one built of a material easily saturated and a levee of pervious
material which would withstand a flood for five days might fail
under the same height of flood if it continued ten days; this would
depend upon the rapidity with which the material becomes saturated.
The injurious effect of waves and currents is materially decreased
as the slope is flattened and of burrowing animals as the area of the
cross Section is increased. A flat slope is cheaply maintained as grass
z O

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FIG. 110.-Hunt district levee—section of new levee built to cross crevasse.
grows more readily and is not injured by the tramping of animals,
and vegetable growth can be kept down by the use of mowing
machines.
In heavy material such as is found on the Illinois River it is desir-
able to make the slopes 3 to 1 on both sides. For the river side the
most economical slope under all conditions is 3 to 1, but for the land
side a 2 to 1 slope may have sufficient strength in the heavier
materials, though it is believed that 3 to 1 would be more economical
in the end. Where light material is used, such as is found on the
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FIG. 111.—Proposed section of levee for closing the Houghton crevasse.
Mississippi, the greater bulk should be placed on the inside of the
center of the cross section. The inside slope should not be steeper
than 3 to 1 and in Some localities it is necessary to increase this to 4
to 1 or to reenforce the land side by a banquette, the top of which
should be kept 8 feet below the top of the levee. The width of its
crown may vary from 20 to 30 feet. The inside slope below high-
water line should be not less than 3 to 1 and, in some special cases,
should be increased to 5 to 1. In a few places on the Warsaw-
Quincy levee the inner slope has been increased from 2 to 1 to 4 to 1.
In the Sny levee the old 2 to 1 slope has been strengthened by a
24-foot banquette or increased to a 4 to 1 slope (fig, 112). In places
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 693
where exposed to wave action the river slope of 3 to 1 has been
increased to 5 to 1.
In levee construction on the lower Mississippi, 8 feet has been
accepted as a common top width, but 6 feet is thought sufficient
width for the levees just described. Many levee builders now advo-
cate adding 1 foot vertical to the crown and grading to an apex
(fig. 112). The object of this addition is to furnish a supply of
material on top of the levee for use in emergencies, to induce moles
and muskrats to burrow above the high-water plane, and to increase
the height of the levee against an unforeseen rise in the flood plane.
The underdrainage of farms and the improvement of creek chan-
nels in the uplands concentrate the storm water and deliver it to the
main drainage channels rapidly. In leveeing overflowed lands large
areas which have served as reservoirs to hold the water and deliver it
gradually to the streams are cut off, as well as channels and currents
occurring throughout the overflowed area. After these improvements
have been made the same amount of water must necessarily pass
through a narrower channel in less time. Under this condition the
velocity of the stream increases, and observations indicate that the
."
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FIG. 112.—Section showing plan for improving the Original Sny levee.
flood height is also raised. Hence the following conclusion may be
drawn: The ordinary improvement of land within the watershed of a
stream tends to raise the flood plane of the stream and decrease the
duration of the flood. In constructing levees along streams where
large projects of improvement are likely to be carried out in the
future the structures should be planned to provide, as far as possible,
for this increased rise.
The greater percentage of levee failures are due to using cross
sections barely sufficient to hold floods under ordinary conditions.
During the unusual high water of 1903 on the Mississippi and of 1904
on the Illinois and Wabash the leveed lands were flooded because no
preparation had been made for those exceptional conditions. The
levees were patrolled and weak places strengthened, yet these precau-
tions were ineffectual because the levees were of such small cross
sections that every trivial injury to the original embankments pro-
duced a serious weakness and there was not sufficient foundation nor
material at hand to work with. In consequence much money and
labor were lost in maintaining and rebuilding the levees, besides the
damage done to property inside the district.

694 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
#
&
Levees are usually constructed with wheeled and drag Scrapers.
Slips are used in some of the smaller levees, and occasionally they are
put up by wheelbarrows. The Coal Creek levee was successfully con-
structed with a 2.5-yard dipper dredge. The only objection to this
method of construction is the large borrow pit which is necessarily
left close to the levee. On a stream of slow current and tenacious
material, such as the Illinois River, this is not objectionable, but along
a stream with rapid current or through sandy material this pit might
cause a current down the levee and lead to caving.
Near Hannibal, Mo., a section of the South River levee is being
constructed by means of a hydraulic dredge. This section crosses
gumbo land covered with water, where scrapers can not be used. The
levee averages 14 feet in height. The borrow pit is kept at 150 feet
from the toe of the slope. The gumbo varies in depth from 10 to
30 feet and is underlain by sand. The suction pipe of the dredge is
kept in the Sand, and as the gumbo drops down it is taken up with the
sand, so that the material which goes into the levee is a mixture of
gumbo and sand laid down in water. On account of the fluidity of
the material as it leaves the discharge pipe, it is difficult to hold in
place, but by using earth ridges and planks the embankment is raised
to within 7 feet of the grade line and is then completed by scraping up
the waste material with drag scrapers. The completed levee was
put up for the same price per yard as sections of the same height with
scrapers, and it has the advantage of containing an immense amount
of waste material—100 feet on each side of the embankment. This
material deposited along the foundation of the levee in swampy
ground is of great value in the maintenance of the levee, and it also
decreases the height of the levee actually subject to the pressure of the
Water.
This dredge will undoubtedly occupy an important field in future
levee work, as it can fill up sloughs and low land where scraper work
would be extremely difficult and expensive. It also has the advan-
tage of constructing the levee without injuring the timber or making
a borrow pit near the foot of the slope.
The foundation for a levee should be prepared by cutting all tim-
ber for a distance of 20 feet on either side of the toes of the slopes.
Roots in the foundation should be grubbed to a depth of 3 feet and all
vegetable matter removed. The foundation should then be plowed
deep and thoroughly. A muck ditch should be constructed under
the center of the levee of sufficient depth and width to cut through any
vegetable matter, roots, holes, or sand strata which may lie under
the surface. The object of the muck ditch is to unite the embankment
to the earth and cut off any material which might cause seepage.
This ditch may vary from 2 feet in width and 3 feet in depth to 4
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 695
feet in width and 12 feet in depth, its cross section depending entirely
upon the kind of material through which it passes. It should be
filled with the best material obtainable. The shallower ditches can
be tamped by driving the teams across them, the deeper ones by lead-
ing a horse back and forth through them as they are filled.
Where the soil is tenacious and a muck ditch is not considered
necessary, the foundation should be plowed outward, leaving a deep
dead furrow in the center. A berm not less than 10 feet in width
should be left between the toe of the slope and the edge of the borrow
pit. When this is done the side of the borrow pit next to the levee
should have a slope not less than that of the levee. In sandy or
loose material or where deep borrow pits are to be made with a dredge
the berm should be not less than 20 feet in width. Where there are
strata of quicksand or unstable earth the slope of the borrow pit next
to the levee should be as flat as practicable. Earth should not be
taken from the inside if it can be avoided and never nearer than 60
feet in the best material. The pits should be shallow. Where levees
are built with scrapers the material should be deposited in layers not
exceeding 2 feet in depth so that it may be tamped by the teams pass-
ing back and forth over it. The embankment should be started at
the full width of the slope stakes and carried to the crown at the width
of the finished embankment, for it is not good construction to dump
material over the sides.
The shrinkage of levees allowed by engineers varies from 5 to 20
per cent. Under ordinary conditions 10 per cent for scraper work
and 20 per cent for untamped wheelbarrow work is sufficient, sandy
material shrinking less than clay. On the Coal Creek levee the dredge
work has settled only 3 per cent and the scraper work 10 per cent at
the end of a year, and no further shrinkage was perceptible the second
year. Oftentimes several feet of settlement takes place under the
weight of the embankment. The heaviest settlement is liable to
occur in the beds of sloughs.
For convenience in maintenance and description of localities mile-
posts should be set in the crown. A white post 3 by 4 inches, standing
3 feet above the crown and having the number of the mile painted in
black, makes an economical and neat marker. A bench mark should
be established near each milepost. A metallic post set near the toe
of the inner slope would be more desirable, as it would be permanent.
It should be set in such a position as not to be affected by the settle-
ment of the levee. -
After the levee is completed the slopes should be smoothed off and
sown in grass. In latitudes where it will grow, Bermuda is the best,
as it makes a thick sod and grows readily on slopes. In other lati-
tudes a mixture of bluegrass and redtop gives better service. The
bluegrass will grow on the upper part of the slopes and the crown,
696 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
while the redtop will grow on the berm and borrow pits. These
grasses make a tougher and better sod than any other tame varieties.
On levees which have been built with dredges some difficulty will be
experienced in getting grass started, as the slopes are rough and
uneven and the material on the surface has often come from the bot-
tom of the borrow pit, but after the slopes have weathered two or
ihree seasons they can be smoothed down and grass started on them.
Observation shows that it is difficult to get grass set on slopes steeper
than 3 to 1; however, occasional short sections of steeper slopes well
Sodded are found.
LEVEE IMAINTENANCE.
On the completion of a levee efficient measures should immediately be
taken for its maintenance. One of the first features to be looked
after is the protection of the slopes from high water, currents, and
waves. Where there is a foreshore of thick-growing timber there
will not be much trouble from this source. Thick, small timber,
which will not bend before the force of the water, is better than large
timber, as it breaks up the waves more effectually. Where there is
no native timber a good protection can Soon be secured by planting
willows, maples, and cottonwoods in and along the borrow pit. No
timber should be allowed nearer the slopes than 20 feet, as the roots
will penetrate the base of the levee, and when they decay will cause
Seepage. Occasionally a green root will cause seepage of water under
pressure. ---
Another protection to the levee slope is a covering of tough sod,
which retards erosion occasioned by rain storms, currents, and waves.
The vegetable growth on the levee and berms on each side should be
kept cut, since weeds growing and dying on the slope loosen the Sur-
face. Bushes also keep the surface loose and increase the danger of
injury by waves and currents. Any neglected growth over the levee
affords protection to burrowing animals, making it difficult for
hunters to locate them. ---
Another method of protecting the slopes which is lasting but ex-
pensive is a revetment of rock 6 to 10 inches in depth laid over the
exposed slope.
Muskrats do more damage to a levee than does any other animal,
their nature being to begin their burrows below the water surface,
continuing them into the bank 12 to 24 inches beneath its surface.
Where water stands on both sides of the bank, as it does where a levee
crosses a slough, they frequently make burrows from one side to the
other not more than 2 feet below the surface of the embankment at any
point. At no place is there any evidence that a rat has burrowed
directly through an embankment. These burrows are a serious injury
to a levee of small cross section with the crown near the flood plane
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. O 697
(figs. 113 and 114). Where the levee has ample dimensions they
seldom cause serious injury. Where the burrows are numerous near
the foot of the slope they frequently cause sloughing when the bank
becomes saturated. Such animals as opossums, skunks, and ground-
hogs may burrow in a levee to Secure dry retreats, but their burrows
Jo/-/?ce o/* ,
3/oz/2/?
TTL-º- *
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FIG. 113.-Section showing trace of a muskrat burrow across a levee of small section.
seldom extend through an embankment, the injury done by them
being due to weakening of the cross Section which permits seepage
water to pass through more readily. Crawfish usually work straight
down, and where there is a stratum of pervious material near the sur-
face they work into it, causing seepage. An example of this may be
Jø/~/?ce o/f
5/222/? ~~~ ~ J
%;%:/º/e/e/e/#/e/E/F/E/s/º/E/E/=/=%
FIG. 114.—Section showing trace of a muskrat burrow across a levee of ample section.
found in the district back of the Warsaw-Quincy levee; this is under-
laid by a sand stratum 6 feet below the surface from which water
often flows through crawfish holes during times of flood (fig. 115).
There are many conflicting opinions regarding the pasturing of
levees, and a special effort was made to obtain definite information
///g/ bºxer Z §
Zevee §
7, º
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7 tº Æorrow Air g--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
s' ºa -º Goy/774) o. º
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FIG. 115.—Section showing the formation of a boil inside of a levee.
on this point. In the Flint Creek-Iowa River levee pastured sections
alternate with those bordering cultivated fields which are not pas-
tured. In the former the 2 to 1 slopes showed more injury from the
tramping and slipping of the live stock than the 24 to 1 slopes.
Cattle had also injured the steeper slope with their horns by tearing
up the Sod and loosening the surface. No injury, however, was






698, IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
done on the 3 to 1 slopes. Where there were no fences trails were
made transversely across the levee, which wore 6 to 10 inches below
the surface, but they were narrow, easily located, and the depressions
made by them are easily repaired.
Observations on small pastured sections of various other levees
showed similar conditions. Where it is impracticable to keep down
the growth of vegetation with mowing machines the levee should be
pastured, since the injury done by live stock is less than that occa-
sioned by an unchecked growth of weeds and bushes. +.
Where it is necessary to construct a fence on a levee it should
either pass across the embankment at right angles to its course or
parallel to it along the crown. The objection to all fences upon levees
is that animals make trails along them, which are undesirable, espe-
cially on the slope.
The crown is sometimes used as a road, but this practice is objec-
tionable, as in a 6 or 8 foot crown the edges are cut off by the wheels,
ruts and chuck holes form low places, and in loose material fine
particles are blown off by the wind, which in time materially lessens
the top width and the height of the bank. Another serious objection
is that in times of heavy rain storms the ruts collect the water, carry
it some distance, and turn it down the slope, causing injury. The
better place for a road is at the foot of the inner slope. If the levee
has a banquette, the top of that makes an excellent roadway. Where
it is necessary to use the crown of a levee for a road, the crown should
be made wide. -
An embankment built for railway purposes should not be included
as part of a levee system unless it has been especially prepared for
such use by placing a heavy layer of good material over the Outer
slope after a muck ditch has been put in at the foot of the old grade.
A railway embankment is usually constructed on the surface without
any preparation of the foundation, and in Swampy lands layers of
vegetable matter are often buried, which will prove fruitful sources
of seeps if the grade is used as a levee. After construction, tracks
are often raised and long trestles filled; timbers and old ties are
buried and become sources of weakness in the bank. There can be no
objection to a railway on top of a levee if the embankment has been
prepared for levee purposes.
Experience in the management of levees has demonstrated quite
clearly that they must be patrolled and inspected systematically.
During the first year after construction the settlement of a levee
should be looked after, particularly where it crosses sloughs or unsta-
ble ground, as settlement is liable to lower the crown below the flood
plane. The best protection against burrowing animals is to occa-
sionally patrol the levee with dogs, repair the injury done to the
bank by animals, and keep the brush and weeds cut. During the
DRAIN_AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 699
flood season the patrol should be increased so that any threatened
weakness may be at once detected and strengthened. Where a levee
is threatened by overtopping the crown can be raised by setting
planks on edge, holding them in place by stakes, and backing them up
with earth taken from the inner slope. Where there is a current
sacks filled with earth may be used with good effect. Wave action
can be checked by putting sacks filled with sand along the line of
erosion. Cornstalks, brush, and lumber will also serve the same pur-
pose when held in position by stakes and wires. Planks set on edge
at the surface of the water and held on the outside by posts driven in
the embankment, while the inside is packed with straw, have been
successfully used.
Sloughing on the inner slope can be checked by packing brush or
other material on the slope and holding it down with wire fas-
tened to stakes driven in the berm and crown. Sheets of burlap
stretched over the inner slope and held in position by stakes or sand
bags are also a quick and effective remedy. When seeps are found
they can be effectually cut off by sand bags if the location on the
outer slope can be discovered. If not, it will be necessary to wall
them in by Sand bags from the inner slope, for which purpose the
bags should not be filled quite full and should be laid around the seep
in the form of a wall, within which the water will rise until it can
do no more injury.
The most convenient material for levee repairs in an emergency
is the sand bag. When practicable the bag should be filled with sand
in preference to other material, as it is more quickly handled and is
useful for any form of repairs. For walling in seeps and preventing
Sloughing and overtopping, any material with which the bag can be
filled will serve the purpose, but to prevent cutting by waves and
strong currents it is necessary to fill them with a material so coarse
that it can not wash out of the bags. Sand bags used for this pur-
pose should be placed systematically on the bank, so as to get the
greatest good from the least number. Where it is necessary to build
them up it is often advisable to lay one course header and the next
stretcher, while under other conditions two courses stretcher could
be laid to one header. -
If repairing a large crevasse it is found more economical to build
a new levee around the inside of the crevasse than to refill on the old
line. This new embankment is semicircular in form and is known
in levee parlance as a “circle.”
The Indian Grave district specifies that in repairing small crevasses
and slopes which have been injured by erosion the dirt shall not be
taken nearer than 100 feet nor more than 200 feet from the toe of the
levee on the inside, and never nearer than 25 feet on the outside.
Before filling the base should be plowed down and outward, so as to
700 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
leave a deep dead furrow in the center. The end of the levee, where
it can not be plowed, must be dug down. When necessary a muck
ditch shall be dug or planks set on end for the purpose of uniting the
new and old embankments. Unless otherwise specified the new fill
shall have the same crown and slope as the old levee. *
LEVEE FAILURES.
Experience has shown that the stability of a levee is dependent
upon its location, cross Section, material used in construction, and
maintenance. If all these conditions were ideal there would be no
levee failures, but in practice it is not often possible to get them.
Locations must be used which leave the foundation and slopes
exposed to erosion by currents and waves. Such material as is at
hand must be used, and the funds available often determine the size
of the cross section. The ideal material for levee construction is a
heavy tenacious earth which will not erode or dissolve when sub-
jected to the direct action of water and will resist percolation under
hydrostatic pressure. Of the available materials found in river bot-
toms gumbo and “buckshot ” are the best.
The material of the low land bordering the Illinois River is excellent
for levee construction. It yields very slowly to the eroding action of
running water and only small crevasses are formed in case the water
breaks the embankment. A number of places were observed where
the water had run over the top for several days without injuring the
bank. Where crevasses had been formed the foundation of the
embankment was not cut below the original surface. Even where the
water had been running out from the inside through crevasses for
weeks the material under and at the sides of the running water was
solid, and it was necessary to use a spade to deepen the crevasses suf-
ficiently to relieve the inclosed district of surface water.
Wave action causes the most serious injury to levees composed of
this material. Where the levee is exposed to an expanse of open
water, during a high wind the waves undereut the embankment at the
surface of the water and dissolve the material. As the waves cut
back into the levee the overhanging material falls into the water and
is rapidly broken up and carried away, while the material above the
point of the eroding force assumes a vertical position. The length of
time a levee can withstand wave action is dependent upon the width
of the levee at the water line and the intensity and duration of the
storm. If the water is falling during a series of storms of short
duration the slope will be worked into steps, the dimension of each
step being determined by the stage of the water and the duration of
the storm.
Much of the material of the lowland bordering the Mississippi
River is a sandy loam, in which the sand is very fine. This is poor
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 701
material for levee construction, as it erodes rapidly under the action
of water. A number of crevasses 500 to 1,000 feet in width were
observed in levees of this material in which the inflow of the water
had eroded the foundation 20 to 30 feet below the original surface.
(Fig. 116.) The crevasses in the Warsaw-Quincy and Sny levees
were of this nature, and also the crevasse formed in that part of the
Roberts levee on the Illinois River, which had been constructed on
a sand ridge. The material readily permits the percolation of water,
and becomes soft and unstable when under hydrostatic pressure.
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Embankments built of it, when subjected to long periods of high
water, become trembling, shaking masses when disturbed, and so
soft that long poles may be thrust down into them.
Waves cut rapidly into a sandy material, but the sand, not dissolv-
ing, will be rolled back, and thus the superincumbent mass will not
assume a vertical form, but will be continually sliding down to the
water's edge. Consequently, wave action is to some extent retarded
by the material from above the water line and the slope is gradually
flattened. A heavy Sandy material will permit seepage, but it is


702 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
better than a sandy loam, since it is not so unstable. When cavities
are formed it will drop down and fill them and for a time retard
erosion.
Overtopping is due to the following causes: Insufficient height
when first made, Settlement after construction, or excessive and un-
usual floods. Overtopping is usually followed by crevasses, their
size and the rapidity with which they are formed depending on the
nature of the material. The failure of a number of the Illinois and
Wabash river levees was due to overtopping.
Failure from seepage is due to water working its way through
the levee under pressure, thus forming a small channel, which is
enlarged by erosion until a crevasse results. In this way roots, bur-
rowing animals, or a stratum of loose sand weaken the levee. Any
material which will permit an opening through the levee or its foun-
dation may be the cause of a failure from seepage. The cross tim-
bers in the railway section of the Pekin-Lamarsh district caused
the failure in 1902, the Houghton break on the Warsaw-Quincy
levee was said to have been caused by a small hole through the levee,
and numerous crevasses and dangerous seeps in the Wabash, Illinois,
and Mississippi river levees owe their origin to animals or foreign
materials. (Pl. XI.) -
The crest of the levee is sometimes cut off by the waves and over-
topping follows. The greatest damage from this source occurs after
a crevasse has been formed and the area back of the levee has filled
with water. This has occurred in several of the Illinois and Wabash
districts. Where a direct current strikes against the slope it may
cut off the crest and then overtop the levee, but when the river is at
its lower stages the danger from erosion of banks arises from the
undermining of the levee.
When saturation is the direct cause of failure the water running
down the inner slope erodes the material and causes it to slough.
This sloughing, not dangerous at first, may continue until the inner
slope is weakened to such an extent that the crown sinks and over-
topping results. Saturation indirectly causes many crevasses in
levees built of light soils. It lessens the resistance of the material
to the action of the water and facilitates seepage, so that any small
weakness will be developed, resulting in failure that might otherwise
have been averted. - - -
Boils may occur near the toe of the slope and for an indefinite dis-
tance back. They are caused during high water by water-bearing
strata lying below the surface. Where there is an opening to the sur-
face pressure forces the water out in the form of a spring (fig. 115,
p. 697). So long as the spring runs clear, there is no danger, but if it
spouts muddy water sufficient material may be carried from under the
Irrig, and Drain. Invest. PLATE XI.
U. S. Dept. of Agr., Buſ. 158, Office of Expt. Stations
CREVASSE IN WARSAW-QUINCY LEVEE, wHERE THE EMBANKMENT HAS BEEN SWEPT OFF.

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 703
levee to cause it to sink, and overtopping results. If these boils are
seen in time, crevasses may be prevented by filling in on top of the
levee as rapidly as subsidence takes place.
IXERAINA.G.E.
One of the first problems to be disposed of in considering a project
for the improvement of overflowed lands is the disposal of the storm
water which comes from the higher lands back of the district.
Where there are wide bottoms along streams having good falls it is
often practicable to carry both the hill and the storm water of the
district in a channel extending for a long distance near the foot of the
bluff and parallel to the main river, finally discharging it at the lower
end of the levee into the main stream. This is the plan of drainage
in the Sny district and is common in the districts of the lower Missis-
sippi. In many sections of the Illinois Valley this plan is impracti-
cable, and it is necessary to lead small streams by the most direct route
to the main channel. In order to accomplish this, frequent cross
levees from the river to the bluff are required, which divide the re-
claimed lands into districts, depending in size upon the width of the
bottoms and the distance between the drainage systems that must be
provided. Each district organized in this way is practically inde-
pendent, being protected by its own levees, which extend along the
river and laterally to the bluffs. This form is spoken of as a closed
district to distinguish it from the open district of which the Sny is
representative.
The location of the levees and boundaries of the various districts
are shown on the accompanying plats. Some of the districts are
almost entirely surrounded by levees, while others are leveed on two
sides only. In an open district the drainage water is disposed of by
ordinary gravity drainage, the only drawback to this system being
that the land at the lower end of the district is necessarily flooded by
the backwater from every overflow. The amount of land thus wasted
depends upon the gradient of the river and the width of the bottom
of the outlet channel.
In the closed districts the most serious problem is the disposal of
the highland drainage, known as “hill water.” When it has been
concentrated into larger creeks or drainage channels before leaving
the highlands, it can be carried through the bottoms in a channel
leveed on both sides to prevent overflow during the seasons of high
water. As a rule, these side streams have a good grade during the
iow-water period, and if a proper channel is constructed they do not
overflow as long as there is no backwater from the outlet stream,
but during high water, the flood plane being higher than the surface
of the bottoms, the tributary stream is without grade from the point
704 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
where it enters the district, and hence its flood must be carried on top
of the river flood. The difficulty of handling streams of this charac-
ter arises from the silting up of their channels by reason of the Sud-
den breaking of the current. The streams coming from the culti-
wated lands are heavily charged with sediment, and as they have a
rapid gradient the silt is carried along until the current is broken by
the backwater of the lowlands, when it is deposited and the channel
rapidly fills, often causing the bed of the stream to rise until the water
flows over the levees.
In constructing the Warsaw-Quincy levee it was necessary to lead
Bear Creek directly across the bottom from the bluff to the river
between the Indian Grave and Lima Lake districts. To do this, a
waterway of 1,000 feet was left between the cross levees. This
was thought to be ample for the highest water that could occur in
the creek; yet the levees have been overtopped and they have been
raised several feet above the first height. The trouble was caused
by vegetable growth and the deposition of silt in the waterway.
During the summer season a heavy growth of weeds chokes the chan-
nel and checks the current during times of high water, allowing silt

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to be deposited. During low-water periods the stream is spread over
Such a large surface that the channel will not keep clean, although
there is a good fall.
At Otter Creek, on the Illinois River, a similar improvement was
made, but instead of building cross levees 1,000 feet apart a deep
channel was dredged from the river to the bluff, the waste material
being deposited on either side in the form of levees (fig. 117). The
excavated channel is of sufficient capacity to carry the ordinary floods
at times of low water, while during the high-water season the spoil
banks act as levees to hold the flood water in the channel. By
reason of the narrow channel in which the water is confined it retains .
its velocity and thus carries the greater part of the silt through
the channel. Whenever silt is deposited in the ditch under these
conditions, it is removed as soon as the water in the river falls, as
this produces an increased velocity in the channel of the ditch in
which the water is concentrated.
During the past spring a break occurred in the Otter Creek levees,
caused by the ice breaking in the creek before it did in the river, and
a jam was formed near the lower end, causing the water to overtop
the levees. Near the point where this break occurred an area of
DRAIN_AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 705
ë
approximately 20 acres was covered about 3 feet in depth with silt
deposited by the water after it had escaped from the channel of the
creek. So far experience shows that narrow, deep channels of not
more than sufficient capacity to carry the floods of the watershed will
clean out better than larger ones.
In some localities the hill water emerges from the highlands in
numerous small streams, as in the Coal Creek district before described.
These streams are difficult to control, as they come into the bottom
with very rapid currents, heavily charged with sediment, which is
deposited immediately upon the checking of the current. Where it is
desired to prevent the hill water from entering the district it is
nécessary to unite these streams by an intercepting ditch running
along the outer edge of the bottom until a point is reached where it
can be carried to the river between cross levees. As the intercepting
ditch is of lighter grade than the streams coming from the hills, it has
less velocity, and as a result is rapidly filled with sediment, only a
few days of flood water being necessary sometimes to entirely destroy
its efficiency as a drainage channel. No satisfactory plan for pre-
venting this has been devised.
In one class of closed districts, such as the Warsaw-Quincy, Flint
Creek-Iowa River, and others in the Mississippi, where the bottoms
are intercepted by old channels and sloughs, no effort is made to
carry the hill water around the district, but it is permitted to run
directly into the district, filling up the channels and sloughs, which
act as reservoirs until the water in the river falls sufficiently for
gravity drainage to take place. In all closed districts it is necessary
to provide means for gravity drainage during low water, and this is
accomplished by variously constructed outflow culverts, so arranged
that they can be closed against the river water during the flood season
and opened during the low-water season.
For this purpose both earthen and iron pipes are used. A few
wooden sluices have been used, but on account of the short life of
wood and its contraction and expansion when alternately wet and
dried they have not been satisfactory. On the Flint Creek-Iowa
River levee cast-iron water pipe 3 feet in diameter has been used.
On the Warsaw-Quincy levee pipe 3 or 4 feet in diameter, made of
boiler plates, has been exclusively used. A private levee on the
Illinois River and also the South River levee near Hannibal, Mo.,
which are in process of construction, are using 36-inch vitrified sewer
pipe, with one joint of cast-iron water pipe on the outer end, but
neither of these culverts has yet been tested.
All the culverts examined showed the effect of settlement imme-
diately under the levee, the weight of the levee having caused the
culvert to settle faster in the center than at the ends. This settle-
30620–No. 158—05—45
706 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
ment has a tendency to distort and flatten some of the riveted pipes,
while in the cast-iron pipes it springs the outer joint, causing them
to leak. In Several instances the flow of water through the outer
joint has eroded away a great deal of the earth covering the culverts
back of the abutment. In all cases where cast-iron pipes have been
used for outflow culverts the outer end is protected by a masonry
abutment and the inner end by masonry or riprap. Some of the
steel-plate culverts have their ends protected by masonry, others by
riprap or timber sheathing, while a few have no protection whatever.
There is as much variety in the form and construction of the valves
which open and close the culverts as in the culverts themselves. In a
few cases the valve is merely a heavy iron lid, made to fit the pipe, and
fastened to its upper side by a hinge, and designed to open and close by
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FIG. 118.-Sketch of
valve for riveted- FIG. 119.—Sketch of FIG. 120.-Sketch of
plate outflow cul- Wooden Valve for cast-iron valve for
Vert. Outflow Culvert. Outflow Culvert.
hand. Those for the outflow culvert at the Meredocia district are
rectangular cast-iron valves, opened and closed by means of a capstan
placed on a pier which is built on the outer abutment of the culvert.
They are not satisfactory, from the fact that they require constant at-
tention and are hard to manipulate. In the greater number of the
districts attempts have been made to secure automatic valves. Where
steel-plate culverts are used the valves are usually made of one-quarter
inch plate, hinged to the upper side of the pipe by two strap hinges
(fig. 118). The section of pipe which acts as the seat of the valve
is sometimes cut at a slight angle and reenforced by a 2-inch angle
iron bent around the pipe so as to fit along the edge. Both wooden
and cast-iron valves are used on the cast-iron pipes. Wooden valves
are made of three thicknesses of 2-inch plank cut in a circular form,
the inside diameter being 6 inches Smaller than the outside (fig. 119).

















U. S. Dept. of Agrº, Bul. 158, office of Expt. Stations. Irrig, and Drain. Invest. PLATE X||.
†:
ºil.
º
-
- - - - -
-
- -
ºf
FIG. 1.-WooDEN OUTLET IN HARTWELL RANCH LEVEE.
FIG. 2.-OUTLET END OF OUTFLow CULVERT IN FLINT CREEK-low A RIVER LEVEE,
SHOWING WooDEN VALves.
FIG. 3.-OUTLET END OF OUTFLow CULVERT IN FLINT CREEK-low A River LEVEE,
SHOWING METHOD OF COUNTERBALANCING CAST-IRON VALVES.



DRAIN AG E INVESTIGATIONS. 707
This gives a bevel shape to the edge of the valve and permits it to
close by the inner face fitting the inside of the pipe, while the outer
face does not enter it. The valve is attached to the upper side of the
pipe by a cast-iron hinge seat bolted to the pipe. The cast-iron
valves are heavy plate, planed to fit the end of the pipe, which has
been cut with a small angle and also planed, and is hung to the
upper side of the pipe by a cast hinge (fig. 120).
The iron valves, being heavy, close easily, but require considerable
head of water to open them. In a test on the Flint Creek-Iowa River
culverts it required 12 inches of head to open the valve. This diffi-
culty was obviated by counterbalancing the valve with an iron rail.
(Pl. XII, fig. 3.) The wooden valves give good satisfaction, as they
will open under a small head of water, but they are not easily kept in
working order, as the alternate wetting and drying causes them to
warp and twist until they do not fit properly. During the dry sea-
son they close, and then expand when wet until they will not open.
They should be so constructed that they can not rise above a horizon-
tal position.
There is no valve, regardless of its mechanism, that can be depended
on to operate perfectly at all times. When it is closed drift and silt
may lodge against it and prevent its opening, or when opened the
drift and silt may lodge on the seat and prevent its closing. Hence
it should be looked after and kept free from accumulations of this
character. It should also be so constructed that if desired it can be
locked either open or closed. In timbered districts drift is a con-
tinual source of annoyance at the outflow culverts, as it lodges in
the valve or around the inlet, preventing the free flow of water.
Where there is drift in the interior drainage channels the outflow
culverts should be protected by screens made of timbers or wire cables,
which will catch and hold the drift before it comes in contact with
the inlet ends of the culverts.
In some of the low-lying bottoms the elevation of the general sur-
face above that of low water is so slight that it is necessary to use
pumps, and a number of districts have installed pumping plants.
Pumps of the rotary pattern, like the Menge, and the horizontal cen-
trifugal pumps are used. In the Lacey and Meredocia districts the
discharge pipes are arranged as siphons, so that the actual lift of the
pump is only the difference in elevation of the water on the two sides
of the levee. In some districts the water is discharged from the
pump directly through the levee, so that there is no loss of power due
to lifting the water to an unnecessary height in order to discharge it
over the levee. Some of the rotary pumps raise the water over
the top of the levee regardless of the surface of the water on either
side, while others have arrangements by which the water can be dis-
&
708 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
charged at various heights through the levee. Whatever the style of
pump, a method of discharge should be adopted in which there would
be as little waste of power as possible due to raising the water higher
than necessary to give it a free escape on the outside of the levee.
The pumping plant should be located at the natural drainage outlet
of the district.
In a number of districts the results obtained from the first pump-
ing plants have been disappointing, due partly to failure to provide
for the volume of water that it is necessary to raise in order to drain
the land inclosed and partly to failure to take into account the sources
of the water that must be removed. In a closed district the water to
be removed is storm water which actually falls on the area and seep-
age water which percolates through and under the levee. Where a
district is not entirely inclosed by a levee the drainage from the high
lands that comes through the district should also be provided for.
Where drainage conditions are similar to those of Illinois, storm
water can probably be removed by pumping plants having capacities
of one-fourth inch in depth per acre every twenty-four hours. This
is the experience along the Illinois River, but it should be noted that
the amount of Seepage to be removed may require considerable addi-
tional capacity in the pumping outfits.
Where closed districts are protected by well-constructed levees
and all hill water taken care of outside the levee, it is believed that
pumping plants can furnish efficient interior drainage at reasonable
cost, but it is not practicable to remove hill water from a district by
this method except for quite Small areas. Where pumps are required
they should be started in the spring as soon as water appears in the
ditches and should keep the water down to the lowest limit until the
flood season has passed. By So doing the soil will be thoroughly
drained and it will serve as a reservoir during times of heavy rains or
excessive flood heights of the river, thus preventing all injury to
growing crops from oversaturation of the soil.
The cost of reclaiming a tract of land subject to overflow varies
with its area and shape, a wide tract being cheaper proportionately
than a narrow one, as the expense of the river levee is the same
regardless of the width between the river and the bluff. The follow-
ing tables give these costs in the various districts as nearly as it was
possible to obtain them.
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
709
Nature and cost of reclamation worles in different districts.
PEKIN-LAMARSHI DISTRICT.
Organized in 1889. Length of levee, including 1.5 miles of rail-
way, 6.5 miles. Area protected, 2,500 acres.
Cost of levee -------------------------------------- $12,500.00
Paid railway company for use of grade______________ 3, 200.00
Cost of drainage system---------------------------- 7,000. 00
Cost of pumping plant ----------------------------- 3, 500.00
General expenses----------------------------------- 5, 800. 00
Average annual expenses--------------------------- 1, 200.00
Average Operating expenses for 12-hour shift :
1 engineman----------------------------------- 2. 00
Oil and Waste---------------------------------- . 125
3.5 tons of coal (when river was at 15-foot
stage).--------------------------------- $5.77
2.5 tons of coal (when river was below 15-
foot stage) ------------------- –––––––– 4. 12
4.95
Average expense per 12-hour shift----------- 7. 08
One year it was not necessary to run the pump ; another year
it ran only two weeks. In the remaining years it was operated
through March, April, and May, but part of the time only twelve
hours per day.
LACEY DISTRICT.
Organized in 1897. Length of levee, including 2.5 miles of rail-
way grade, 9.5 miles. Area protected, 5,180 acres.
Cost of levee-------------------------------------- $30,000. 00
Cost of drainage System---------------------------- 11, 550.00
Cost of pumping plant–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 12,000. 00
General expenses----------------------------------- 9, 950. 00
Cost of pumping after break of 1902––––––––––––––––– 4,000. 00
Cost of repairs after break of 1902–––––––––––––––––– 4,000.00
Cost of patrolling during flood of 1904_______________ 500. 00
Average operating expenses for 12-hour shift:
Engineman ------------------------------------ 2. 00
Fireman--------------------------------------- 1. 75
Oil and Waste---------------------------------- . 375
9 tons coal, at $2.15 (when river is above
15-foot stage) ------------------------ $19. 35
7 tons coal, at $2.15 (when river is at 15-
foot stage).--------------------------- 15. 05
*mºmº-º-º-º: 17. 20
Average expense per 12-hour shift --_______ 21. 33
The Cost of pumping has ranged from $1,500 to $5,000 per annum,
the daily cost ranging from $30 to $45 per 24 hours. The pumps
usually start the latter part of February and run until after the
high-water period is over, in May or June. In 1901 the pump was
operated only 20 days.
ſ
710
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
COAL CREEK DISTRICT.
Organized in 1896. Length of levee, including 4 miles of railway
grade, 10 miles. Area protected, 7,000 acres.
Clearing right of way, per acre------------------------ $40.00
Constructing levee with dredge, per yard--------------- , 09
14 by 36 Corliss engine ---- *-* * * * = m. me sº sº me mºs. sº- * * * * * * * * * * 1,400.00
Cartage and Setting engine---------------------------- 600, 00
18 by 72 inch boiler, set-------------- * 1, 500.00
Condenser, set --------------------------------------- 400, 00
24-inch centrifugal pump ----------------------------- 1,050.00
Cartage on pump------------------------------------- , 50, 00
Setting pump---------------------------------------- 100.00
190 feet 26-inch riveted pipe with valve in place________ 1,000. 00
Two 15-inch Centrifugal pumps, at $500---------------- 1,000.00
Cartage and Setting pumps, at $75––––––––––––––––––––– 150.00
Two 20-inch discharge pipes with valve (each pipe 290
feet long), at $550--------------------------------- 1, 100.00
Average Operating expenses for 12-hour shift:
Engineman –––––– * *-* * * *-* * * * *-* * * * * *-* -- * * * =º ºn 2.00
Oil and Waste ----------------------------------- . 20
3 tons coal, at $2--------------------------------- 6. 00
Average expense per 12-hour shift----______s_-_ 8. 20
Annual maintenance of pumping plant----------------- 50. 00
If the hill water were shut out of the district it is thought that
the pump would drain it thoroughly with an average of four months
pumping per annum, beginning in February and ending in June. It
would be necessary to run two shifts only part of the time.
MEREDOCLA DISTRICT.
Organized in 1897. Length of levee, 2.9 miles. Area protected,
8,335 acres.
River levee, at 8 cents per yard----------------------- $7,997. 20
Divide levee, at 7.5 cents per yard––––––––––––––––––––– 1,987. 50
Outflow culvert-------------------------------------- 3, 320. 14
Pumping plant--------------------------------------- 7,096.47
General expenses------------------------------------- 3,399. 10
Dredging ditches, at 8 Cents per yard_-________________ 8, 100. 32
Annual Operating expenses of pumping plant :
For year ending July 1, 1900—
Engineman --------------------------------- 205, 00
Coal ---------------------------------------- 514. 14
Repairs and Small bills––––––––––––––––––––––– 74. 58
Insurance of plant––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 35, 00
Total for 82 days of 12 hours--------------- 828. 72
Average per day--------------------------- • 10. 10
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
711
Annual operating expenses of pumping plant—Continued.
For year ending July 1, 1901—
Engineman --------------------------------- $352. 50
Coal --------------------------------------- 1, 319.49
Repairs ------------------------------------- 99.73
Oil and waste ------------------------------- 38. 88
Kindling ------------------------------------ 9. 50
Insurance –––––––––––––––––– * * 35. 00
Total for 141 days of 12 hours_-____________ 1, 855. 10
Average per day------------ 13. 16
For year ending July 1, 1902—
Engineman --------------------------------- 160. 00
Coal ---------------------------------------- 412. 58
Oil -------------- - - * 5. 36
Repairs ------------------------------------- 47. 15
Insurance ----------------------------------- 35. 00
Total for 64 days of 12 hours–––––––––––––––– 660. 09
Average per day ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 10. 31
For year ending July 1, 1903—
Engineman ---------------------------------- 418. 00
Coal ----------------- 1, 887. 72
Insurance ----------------------------------- 35.00
* Total for 167 days of 12 hours––––––––––––––– 2, 340. 72
Average per day ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 15. 21
For year énding July 1, 1904—
Engineman ––––––––––––––––– - * - 470. 00
Coal ------------- - - ___ 2,083. 24
Repairs and Sundries___ 285. 00
Insurance ––––––––––––––––––– * 44. 00
Total for 188 days of 12 hours_______________ 2,882. 24
Average per day ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 15. 32
FLINT CREEE-IO WA RIVER LEVEE.
Built by United States Government and completed in 1900.
Length of levee, 35.3 miles. Area protected, 44,722 acres.
Levee at 12.6 cents per yard------------------------- $233, 963. 97
Superintendence and inspection --------------------- 29, 555.05
14,770 linear feet of levee revetment__________________ 5,457. 64
6,876 linear feet of shore protection__________________ 9, 645. 97
Outflow culverts ----------------------------------- 10, 618.23
Right of Way -------------------------------------- 444. 75
Surveys for final location_______ 5, 794. 72
712 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
WARSAW-QUINCY LEVEE.
This protects three districts. Original cost and maintenance does
not include $85,000 spent by the United States Government in
strengthening the levee. w
Hunt district :
Organized in 1886. Length of levee, 16 miles.
Area protected, 180,000 acres.
Original cost of levee--------------------------- $102, 387.45
Annual expense of maintenance----------------- 4, 500.00
Estimated value of property destroyed in flood of
1908 ---------------------------------------- 200,000. 00
Cost of repairing break of 1903–––––––––––––––––– 8, 762. 00
Lima Lake district :
Organized in 1886. Length of levee, 10 miles.
Area protected, 14,000 acres.
Original COSt Of levee-------------------------- 94,000, 00
Annual expense of maintenance----------------- 3, 125.00
Estimated value of property destroyed in flood of
1908 ---------------------------------------- 210,000. 00
Cost of repairing breaks of 1903–-_______________ 9, 000. 00
Indian Grave district :
Organized in 1880. Length of levee, 21 miles.
Area protected, 17,926 acres.
Original Cost of levee-------------------------- 178,000.00
Estimated value of property destroyed in flood of
1908----------------------------------------- 270,000. 00
Cost of repairing breaks of 1903–-______________ 10,000. 00
Each of the above districts was flooded in 1892, 1895, and 1897,
With a total estimated loss as great as that of 1903.
SNY ISLAND LEVEE.
Organized in 1871. Length of levee, including 3 miles of rail-
way grade, 52 miles. Area protected, 110,000 acres.
Original cost of levee-------------------------------- $500, 000
Estimated value of property destroyed in flood of 1876- 174,000
Estimated value of property destroyed in flood of 1880– 249,000
Estimated value of property destroyed in flood of 1881- 500,000
Estimated value of property destroyed in flood of 1888– 1, 434,000
Amount expended for repairs prior to 1893–––––––––––– 446, 438
Expense of patrolling levee during flood of 1892–––––––– 14,000
Estimated value of property destroyed in flood of 1903– 415,000
Cost to district of filling in Crevasse of 1903–––––––––––– 25,000
Where levee construction is comparatively new, the contract and
specifications for the work as drawn often contain requirements
which are unnecessarily exacting. Some require a large percentage
to be added for shrinkage and the work to stand to grade for a num-
ber of days after completion, etc. Such specifications often prevent
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 713
responsible contractors from bidding on the work or lead them to bid
So high that the contract is awarded to irresponsible and poorly
equipped contractors who are not able to carry on the work in a
Satisfactory and efficient manner. It is better economy for a dis-
trict to assume more risk and responsibility in the construction than
to charge the contractor with all contingencies that may arise. The
most economical work is done where the specifications are clear and
explicit on all points and where risks and uncertainties which con-
tractors must assume are reduced to a minimum. Ten per cent for
shrinkage is usually ample to require of the contractor, and as soon
as a given section is brought to grade it should be accepted and the
contractor released from responsibility. Where settlement occurs it
should be filled at district expense. The contractor could be re-
quired to put up any structure necessary to show that undue settle-
ment was taking place and by which the amount could be deter-
mined. The contract and specifications should set forth clearly the
amount and character of the work to be done, bids called for on each
item, and the contract let to a responsible contractor who is fully
equipped to execute the work.
It should be remembered that no class of work should be more
thoroughly done than that required in reclaiming overflowed lands.
One weakness in a levee system may cause an almost inestimable loss
of crops and farm property as well as great injury to the works
themselves. Levees can not be made a piece at a time or cheaply
constructed with the intention of improving and strengthening them
later without the risk of having the entire system destroyed before
the contemplated improvements can be made. Consequently a
reclamation project should be carefully planned and then rapidly
executed in the most thorough manner.
VALUE OF OVERFLOWED LANDS.
These lands range in price from $5 to $60 per acre. The lower .
value is for land which floods every year and will furnish no valuable
timber, the higher price being that at which owners hold improved
high land which overflows only at times of extreme high water.
During the low-water years of the nineties large yields of corn and
wheat were grown on Such lands as were then reclaimed, which caused
their price to advance to $60 per acre. Had they been successfully
protected during the floods of 1902, 1903, and 1904 the value of these
lands would have been greatly increased, as uplands which are not as
. productive are now valued at $125 to $150 per acre. The following
estimate, showing the financial side of the improvement of these
lands, has been made by calculating the costs and profits of 1 acre
714 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
under the same conditions as have been found on a 160-acre farm in
the Lacey district:
Estimated cost per acre:
Original cost of land––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– $5.00
Clearing--------------------------------------------- 15, 00
Buildings and improvements _ _ _ 10, 00
Levee assessment * - - - - * * * * * * * * *-* ºn 14.00
Additional assessment necessary to construct the levee
Sufficiently strong to withstand high water in the
river ---------------------------------------------- 10. 00
Total cost--------------------------------------- 54.00
Estimated annual eXpense per acre :
Interest on total cost ($54) -- 3. 24
Taxes, insurance, and repairs 1. 00
Pumping tax ---------------------------------------- 1. 00
Total annual expense------------------------------- 5. 24
Average annual rental------------------------------------ 7. 50
Annual net profit----------------------------------------- 2. 26
The productive possibilities of these lands are now being appre-
ciated and renewed interest is being taken in the work of their recla-
mation. The problems to deal with and the nature of the work nec-
essary to be done are being better understood by landowners, so that
more profitable results will doubtless be obtained in the future than
have been realized in the past.
FLORIDA EVERGILADES.
The Everglades of southern Florida are attracting attention by
reason of their ability, under proper drainage and management, to
produce vegetables for the northern winter market and subtropical
fruits of acknowledged excellence. A reconnaissance of lands in the
vicinity of Miami was made for the purpose of determining upon the
feasibility of draining a small tract of everglade land for experi-
mental use. *
The part examined comprises a belt of land extending about 60
miles north and 25 miles south of the city of Miami and for various
distances from the coast line toward the Everglades. The topog-
raphy of the land near the coast and its relation to the Everglades
which occupy the interior are interesting and important. The rise
of the general surface from the coast line westward for a distance of
3 or 4 miles is 9 to 16 feet. From this westward across the Ever-
glades the rate is about 0.3 foot per mile, as ascertained by two
separate Surveys made under the direction of the Florida East Coast
Railway Company. The dividing line between the slopes toward
the Gulf and the Atlantic is about 22 feet above tide and extends
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. º 715
south from near the center line of Lake Okeechobee. The belt of
land 3 or 4 miles wide first mentioned may be regarded as a rim which
prevents the ready flow of water from the Everglades southeasterly
to the ocean. Numerous small streams extend from the edge of the
glades proper through this rim and are the only natural facilities
for draining the glades.
The rock found in this part of the State is the coral breccia, which
crops out at the surface over the entire width of the rim and is
covered with pine timber and palmetto, with the exception of Small
areas termed “hammocks,” which are covered with hard-wood trees.
Arms of the glade land 0.5 to 2 miles wide extend from the head end
of these small streams back into the Everglades proper for a distance
of 2 or 3 miles, bordered by pine woods, beyond which is the open
expanse known as the Everglades. These lands are called “prairies'
and are covered with saw grass. Two types are best known, the
marl and the sand prairies. The soil varies in depth from 1 inch
to several feet and in all cases rests upon a base of coral rock. In
some instances the rock is known as “plate rock,” which is apparently
smooth and solid. In other cases the rock is filled with potholes,
making an irregular base upon which the soil rests. In some por-
tions of the northern part of the tract examined muck and peat lands
are found in quite extended beds, but they usually thin out and pass
into the prevailing marl formation.
A great deal of money has been expended in drainage works by
the Florida East Coast Railway Company. The operations of this
company so far have been directed toward opening and enlarging
the natural streams for the purpose of lowering the water of the
arms of the glades during the winter season, in order to facilitate
the growing of winter vegetables. This drainage has also permitted
Some fruit growers owning small detached tracts of glade land to so
drain them that trees are now successfully grown.
The average annual rainfall of that portion of the State is about 63
inches. The so-called dry season or portion of the year in which
there is the least rainfall occurs between the months of November and
March, during which time the normal precipitation is about 11.5
inches, ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 inches per month. During this season
portions of the prairie lands are planted to vegetables, principally
tomatoes, which are more profitable for shipping to the northern
market than others and when properly fertilized produce large
crops. The remainder of the year these lands are frequently covered
with water and are largely abandoned until the opening of the winter
Season, when they are again plowed and planted.
None of the glade land proper, as far as examined, has been so
drained as to be suitable for the growing of trees or of vegetables
requiring the entire season, except openings which are sufficiently
716 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
high to be protected from the volume of water of the interior, and
which, by reason of their more elevated situation, have been arti-
ficially drained.
There are some features of climate, soil, and geological structure
peculiar to this section which have an important bearing upon the
success of any reclamation project that may be considered. The Soil,
both the marl and the sand, lacks those natural elements of fertility
commonly found in other low-lying lands, and requires the liberal
use of artificial fertilizers to produce either fruits or vegetables.
The soil-water table may be 8 to 20 inches from the surface without
injuring the growth of fruit trees, and it is observed that plants usu-
ally are not as sensitive to a Saturated condition of the soil as they
are in colder latitudes, where clay is a leading element in the composi-
tion of the soil.
The porous and absorbent nature of the coral rock has an impor-
tant effect upon the water problems of the country. It is known that
cavities exist in the rock at various depths, as shown by drilled wells,
which occasionally penetrate reservoirs of water 4 to 6 feet in depth.
It is also noted by truck farmers occupying cleared land near the
coast that water comes upon their fields in some cases from the under-
lying rock when the water of the glades is at high stages. It is quite
probable that this open and irregular structure is more strongly
characteristic of the rim or coast belt than of land nearer the glades,
since as we approach the latter the plate or Solid rock seems to pre-
dominate. This point, however, has not been demonstrated and is
one of the undetermined factors entering into the drainage of this
portion of the Everglades.
The channels of the streams which now. form the overflow outlets
of the interior prairies disappear at the outer border of this vast
expanse at an elevation of 9 to 13 feet above tide. As a result of
surveys made across the glade, as before stated, it is reported that
they have a slope of 0.3 foot per mile in a southeasterly direction.
Should these streams be deepened, enlarged, and extended through
the prairies, a grade of 0.4 foot per mile might possibly be obtained
for the channels, part of which would necessarily be excavated
through the rock.
In case only one channel should be made, it would tap the waters
of the entire area at flood time, but would afford no more than flood
relief, even if the canal were fully ample to carry the water of the
entire area, for the reason that this expanse is practically level, and
the water will not flow to this channel rapidly enough to give good
drainage. This makes it necessary to dredge all of the natural
streams into or through the glades as far as the divide between the
eastern and western slopes, which is reported to be 22 feet above
tide and to lie in a line extending South from the center of Lake
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 717
Okeechobee. For the reasons above mentioned, all of this work must
be done before this area of approximately 3,500 square miles can be
drained sufficiently for summer culture.
The practicability of draining small tracts about the border of the
glades has been demonstrated only for the production of winter vege-
tables. While these areas may be somewhat increased and the risk
of winter flooding diminished by the improvement of natural chan-
nels, it will be impossible to extend the area of these lands for fruit
growing or make the glades more than temporary winter fields until
more effective drainage is provided. The problem which confronts
the investor and cultivator is not so much the possibility of draining
the tract as a whole as what may be done in this direction within the
limit of individual means to fit portions of this land for the produc-
tion of crops.
Investigation of this portion of the glades was made with the view
of ascertaining whether some plan might not be devised for reclaim-
ing small areas. An experimental plan for determining whether por-
tions of the marl land could not be inclosed by dikes to protect them
from outside water and the interior be kept dry by pumping was pro-
posed and a tract selected for the experiment, but it has not yet been
put in operation.
The success of this method of drainage will depend upon whether a
good dike can be made of the marl soil and also whether the head of
water back of the dike may not force water through the underlying
porous tracts into the inclosed area in greater quantities than can be
profitably removed. The plan merits a trial. Such a method of
improvement would admit of gradually pushing the drainage of the
glades away from the higher rock lands, leaving an overflowed space
of sufficient width to allow for the passage of the interior water. The
dikes would be 4 feet high, and the total lift of water about 6 feet.
The economic advisability of such work will depend upon the value
of the product. The prestige of Florida fruit in the market is en-
couraging and indicates that the State may easily lead in the quality
of many of her fruits. The value of fruit products during the last
two years, as reliably reported, has been $200 to $1,000 per acre, which
amount would justify considerable expenditure for reclamation
improvements. The expense of preparing the rock land for trees is
not less than $100 per acre, while the reclamation by levees, if such
were found practicable, will not be more than $50 per acre, though
there would be a continuous expense for maintenance. Shallow
drainage channels should accompany the levee system to provide
relief from flood water from the glades and to carry off the water
pumped from the land inclosed by levees. .
A combination of the two plans will admit of the gradual develop-
ment of the glade lands as the demand for their products increases.
*~
718 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
WISCONSIN MARSH LANDS.
It is estimated that there are 300,000 acres of marsh land in Wis-
consin which at present have little or no value. Much of it is muck
or peat derived from the sphagnum moss, and constitutes a class
of land somewhat different from swamps found elsewhere, some of
which have been drained and converted into productive farms. At
the request of parties interested in the improvement of 32,000 acres
of this marsh land lying in Marathon, Wood, and Portage counties,
and organized under the name of the Dancy drainage district, this
Office made a preliminary examination of the general characteris-
tics of the project, and also of two similar ones in counties adjoining.
A portion of the report submitted to the district is here given, which
embodies such deductions and suggestions as seem justified by exami-
nations So far made. *
The purpose of drainage, aside from its benefit to the general
health, is to prepare the land ultimately for the production of profit-
able crops. Therefore it is quite essential that a tract of land be
drained with reference to its subsequent use.
The drainage and management of peat lands have occupied the
attention of agriculturists and engineers in England, Scotland,
Sweden, and other European countries for at least one hundred
years. In these countries they are found in areas of considerable
extent. While the origin and composition of moss lands in different
localities vary widely, their general characteristics with respect to
drainage are quite similar. In the first place, moss-peat lands
have in many instances not responded to the ordinary methods of
drainage. The secretary of the Orebro Agricultural Society of
Sweden, in referring to this matter, says that there has been more
money wasted upon the drainage of these lands than upon any other
improvement attempted. It was not until a new system of drainage
was devised by Joseph Elkington, of England, and put into practice
in Sweden by George Stephens, an English engineer, that these lands
were successfully drained.
The practice of one hundred years ago in the treatment of these
lands should not be disregarded at this time, since the methods then
used with success may be now applied when the character of the
land and conditions are similar. The methods of drainage used by
Elkington, Smith, Stephens, and many other English engineers
were for a period of fifty years or more found eminently successful
where other methods had failed. The following is a brief descrip-
tion of them: Af
The water which supplied the marshes was in almost every case
found to have its source in outlying Sandy or porous land occupying
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 719
higher elevations. The water flowed directly through this permeable
layer into the lowlands, thus forming the bogs. The rainfall upon
the bog land direct was an insignificant matter compared with the
outside feeders which supplied such land. The rainfall itself was
not sufficient to produce the moss growth which characterized the
land. These beds of peat were often 20 to 30 feet deep, lying upon
clay or sandy bottoms. Attempts to drain the lands by numerous
parallel ditches of ordinary depths proved futile, although no expense
was spared. It was found that the proper method was to intercept
and cut off the supply of water coming from the higher levels. This
was done by means of deep ditches located along the borders of the
marshes and placed at the bottom of the peat formation wherever
possible. Where it was not possible to reach the bottom of the peat
the ditches were supplemented by wells, which were sunk below the
bottom of the drains into the water-bearing material below the bed of
the marsh. These wells offered free flow to the water beneath, which,
impelled by the head furnished by the higher lands, rose to the level
of the drains and passed away. Other ditches were constructed at
somewhat wide intervals through the interior of the marsh for the
purpose of receiving the storm water which it was necessary to
remove, and also to intercept any bottom water that might pass
under the outer drains. In case these wells failed to cut off the
“bottom water,” as it was called, wells were sunk at various points,
as before described. Interior shallow surface ditches were added to
remove heavy rainfall, and especially the water from melting snows
which could not pass through the soil with sufficient freedom to
leave the surface dry. ---
The history of this work, especially in Sweden, as given by Mr.
Stephens in his book called “The Practical Irrigator,” published in
1854, is instructive and suggestive to anyone engaged in the treatment
of peat lands. The various accounts given in the proceedings of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England and of the Highland Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland, which include prize papers upon the
reclamation of marsh lands, form a valuable compendium of early
practice and indicate that the subject was regarded as of great im-
portance to English and Scottish farmers. We find, however, some-
thing of a reaction in later practice from the fact that while the zeal
of the early drainers was entirely exercised in making the land dry;
it was soon found that its subsequent moisture content was a matter
of no little importance. Mr. James Anderson, a noted agricultural
writer, in his treatise on peat moss refers to the fact that in many
cases the lands had become too dry, and in order to make them pro-
ductive water should be in some way artificially provided. This is
very strikingly set forth in the following quotation, which is given
720 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
because it apparently represents the close observation and wide expe-
rience of a practical man:
MOSS, when thus reduced to a dead state ato a sufficient depth, is in little
danger of ever being too damp, unless the main drains are choked up so as to
force the Water to rise very near to or above the surface. Indeed, if no manure
be given to it, moss is never extremely productive either of grass or corn (grain)
unless it be kept moderately moist at all times. The soil is of itself so light that
When dry it ceases to give nourishment to any useful plant whatever. Such
dry moss Spontaneously produces little else than the narrow-leaved sorrel
(Rumea, acetosella), and if plowed and sown with oats, though the corn (grain)
may Spring up and appear healthy enough for some time, yet when it gets into
ear it becomes weak and soft in the stalk and falls over and withers before
there be the smallest mark of a kernel in the grain. This disease is well known
in all moss countries, and as it was originally believed to be occasioned by witch-
Craft, the name still remains, and it is called witched corn (grain). If, on the
Contrary, the land be laid flat and it be kept moderately moist without being
Wet, it produces luxuriant crops of excellent corn (grain) and grass, which,
under proper management, it may be made to afford alternately forever with-
Out any manure Whatever. This I myself have experienced for more than
twenty years together, so that I reckon it one of the most profitable soils,
Where Water can be commanded and duly regulated, that can anywhere b
found. 3:
But where the moss lies high, and no water can be commanded (very little
will do), some kinds of manure are required to render this a very productive
Soil. Of all the manures that have ever been tried upon moss, no one can be
Compared to calcareous matter, under whatever denomination it may be applied,
whether lime, marl, chalk, or shell sand.
No bottom is better for a mossy soil than quick moss, and if there be about
2 feet deep of dead moss, which in future I shall call moss earth, above it, it
will admit of being properly managed either for grass or corn (grain) at all
times; for the moss earth, acting as a sponge, allows the water during severe
rains to sink slowly through it to the surface of the quick moss, so as never to
render it, then, too wet. And when the plants are established upon it in the
spring, these by their roots and leaves attract moisture both from above and
below, so as to keep the surface mold in a due state for promoting vegetation.
Even during the greatest droughts in summer the moss earth which lies next to
the quick moss is kept perpetually moist, so that the roots which penetrate
down to it find always abundant moisture to keep the surface mold in a proper
state for promoting vegetation.
But that this effect may be fully felt, the surface of a mossy soil should be
laid perfectly flat and as Smooth and even as possible. It should on no account
be laid up into ridges, but should be plowed into broad lands, without any open
furrows at all, or with as few as may be. As the whole moss earth for 2 feet
deep is, in fact, one continued covered drain, not one drop of hurtful water can
be allowed to remain upon the surface, but sinks directly down till it reaches
the quick moss, from whence it readily will find its way to the main drain if
the initiatory operations shall have been properly conducted.
From these considerations, perhaps no Soil can be made so proper for being
Converted into watered meadows as moss. Superabundant moisture can be drained
from moss land when thus managed perhaps more quickly and more thoroughly
than from any other soil, and this is a circumstance that has been found to be
highly favorable to watered meadows. The only difficulty in this case for pas-
ture land is the softness Of the Surface Of the moss.
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 721
When the situation is dry a narrow border of quick moss should be left
untouched all round the field, through which the small drains going into the
main drain should pass; and in this place the drains ought to be left uncovered,
SO as to admit of being stopped up at pleasure with a little quick moss. They
Ought thus to be stopped immediately after sowing corn (grain) and the water
to be let off Occasionally only as circumstances might indicate.a
It was later found that no soils respond more readily to irrigation
than these peat lands after drainage. Their use in what were termed
“Water meadows" has existed to the present time, resulting in the
production of large crops of hay and pasture grasses. The matter
is strikingly set forth in an old work, called “Smith on Water Mead-
ows, Draining Peat Bogs, and Other Improvements,” from which the
following quotation is taken :
All live peat bogs are composed of vegetable substances which abound with
Seeds Or roots of many aqueous grasses, forming land which is fit for irrigation
Wherever the degree of moisture can be appropriated. But if the peat be entirely
Čeprived of all moisture and left exposed to the summer sun it is then little
better than a barren substance. The plants on the surface, being totally deprived
of their former subsistence, cease to grow, and the vegetable matter (for in
this case there is little or no soil) being unfit for the support of plants suited
to dry land, the most perfect sterility must be the consequence. It is well
known that peat once dried will not readily receive moisture again. and this
may serve to account for the uncommon sterility of some peat bogs which I
have seen plowed up after drainage.
Though these works are all old, they give experiences which are
extremely valuable, and in the light of later investigations suggest
methods of handling the peat lands with which we now have to deal
in this country. Some attention has already been given to the sub-
ject in this country, though it may be said that the use of peat for
fuel and land fertilizing has formed the principal subject of investi-
gations.
About fifty years ago Prof. S. W. Johnson, of Yale University, took
up the investigation of peat with reference to its value as a fertilizer,
and for the purpose of obtaining information regarding the location,
peculiarities, and condition of peat beds issued a circular containing
questions arranged to secure such information. The answers to this
circular are instructive in considering the question of the use of these
lands for producing crops, since in many cases the landowners
described the drainage and the kind and yield of crops produced.
From these answers it appears that the land had proven profitable
in all cases for the production of hay, and in many cases for cabbage,
onions, celery, and some other garden crops.
Coming down to more recent times, we find that the matter has
received attention from the Pennsylvania State Experiment Station,
and that a report was issued in 1895 entitled “Some Pennsylvania
a A Practical Treatise on Peat Moss, 1794, pp. 99 et seq.
80620–No. 158–05—46
722 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
Peats.” “ In this report analyses of samples from different parts of
the State are given and the samples are discussed with reference to
their value as fertilizers. The cultivation of peat beds is referred to,
and we quote the following paragraph relating to that phase of the
subject:
To accomplish the transformation of peat into a substance readily available
for plant food two or three very simple operations are sufficient: First, the
peat must be thoroughly aired, as a consequence of which the poisonous lower
Oxids of iron and sulphids will be reconverted into valuable plant foods. Sec-
Ond, if there is a deficiency of mineral matter, especially lime, the latter must
be added ; the acidity of the organic matter is thus neutralized, the helpful
bacteria come in and soon begin the conversion of the inert nitrogen into
ammonium compounds and salts of nitric acid capable of sustaining the most
vigorous Crop development if Other essential food materials be at the command
of the plant.
Bulletin No. 95 of the Indiana State Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, published in 1903, treats of the unproductive black soils found
in that State. Instances are cited in which the drainage of these
lands, which are of a peaty nature, has failed, to which fact is
attributed much of the difficulty in making them productive. Drain-
age was attempted by the Ordinary method of laying parallel lines of
tile through the bog. Upon examination, water was found to stand
6 or more inches above the tile. The failure of the tile to lower this
water table is explained in the bulletin upon the theory that the water
would not readily enter the tile when laid in muck land. The true
explanation, derived from descriptions of the conditions given in the
report, is that the upward pressure of the water by reason of the head
derived from outside the bog is greater than the weight of water
above the tile. It is stated as a conclusion from many of the investi-
gations made that the permanent improvement of such lands demands
efficient drainage and that this drainage should usually be of a special
character. It is further advised that before making any outlay for
the permanent improvement of such lands a preliminary drainage
survey should be made and the system of improvement should be
based upon the results of such survey.
The improvement of peat and muck Swamp lands in Illinois is the
subject of Bulletin No. 93 of the experiment station of that State.
It deals principally with fertility problems. It is concluded, how-
ever, that before any system of improvement can be successful the
soils must be well drained. The soils mentioned, however, are of
different origin from those known as moss peats. They may prop-
erly be called grass peats, which, though similar in structure and the
way in which they are affected by drainage, are different in chemical
composition. In that State they are found resting upon clay, some-
a Pennsylvania Sta. Rpt. 1895, pp. 148–156.
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 723
times upon sand. The treatment of muck lands upon a clay founda-
tion is more simple as far as the fertility problems are concerned,
from the fact that the clay subsoil, when mixed with the muck mate-
rial, has a marked effect on its productiveness. An instance of this
kind is cited in the treatment of the soil in the Vermilion swamp, in
Ford County, in which the plowing of the soil sufficiently deep to
bring some of the clay subsoil to the surface converted a compara-
tively unproductive soil into one which produced 60 bushels of corn
to the acre.”
In looking over the history of this matter it seems that work pertain-
ing to the reclamation of peat lands has not been done in such a way as
to derive definite conclusions concerning their productiveness. The
efforts of those who have had charge of drainage have been directed
toward drying the lands, while those who have investigated with ref-
erence to their fertility or use for fuel have examined them with refer-
ence to these points alone. In the bulletins referred to efforts have
been directed toward ascertaining the fertility of these lands from
the standpoint of the chemist. The value of free water or of moisture
conditions in these soils as elements of their productiveness does not
seem to have been made the subject of experiment. We learn from
the experience of engineers with moss lands in England and Sweden
that they can be made too dry, in which state they are as valueless for
prôduction as when too wet. The remarkable yields of grasses
reported from these drained lands after being irrigated show that
their proper water content is of vital importance in their productive-
ness. It is quite possible that this feature has been lost sight of in
later investigations, yet it is admitted by all capable of giving an
opinion upon the subject that these lands must be well drained before
they can be fitted for the production of land instead of water plants.
It is also noted, in a study of these marshes in various countries,
that they are as frequently found resting upon sand as upon clay,
and that there appears to be no material difference in the structure of
the two or in their value after reclamation. Those underlaid with
clay are more difficult to drain, since the water must be taken from
the moss itself by means of frequent and deeply laid underdrains.
The clay bottom aids in retaining needed moisture and, where it can
be reached in the cultivation, forms an excellent material for mixing
with the peat, supplying in a measure, as it is claimed, the potash
frequently wanting in these lands.
Through some inquiries instituted by the writer during the season
of 1901 it was learned that the turf lands in the valley of the Kanka-
kee River in Indiana, which had been drained, suffered more from
drought than ordinary loam lands. Mr. E. M. Pike, of Chenoa, Ill.,
a Illinois Sta. Bul. 93, p. 293.
724 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONs, 1904.
who has had eight years’ experience with a tract of land in the Kan-
kakee Valley, near South Bend, Ind., describes the soil as a grass turf
resting upon a clay bottom. After tile-draining the land with lines
20 rods apart he burned the turf, which was 13 inches thick, and in
the fall sowed timothy grass directly upon the surface without further
preparation. He raised a crop of excellent timothy hay the follow-
ing season, 300 acres giving him 400 tons of hay. He has since sup-
plemented the first drainage by placing a line of tile between those
first laid, making the drains now 10 rods apart. He has also found it
necessary to place them not less than 4 feet deep, as the soil, which is
about 4 feet thick, settles one-half. In his eight years’ experience he
finds that the turf is gradually becoming more compact and forming
what he thinks will eventually prove a first-class corn soil, though up
to the present time it has not produced that crop successfully. The
clay at the bottom gives a continuous supply of moisture, which, when
the soil has reached its final condition, will, he thinks, make it exempt
from the effects of drought. He expresses the opinion that it would
be better, if possible, to pasture these lands for a term of years, until
they become fully settled and the wild grasses have been completely
destroyed. He has raised potatoes and all kinds of vegetables with
success, and continues to get about 1.25 tons of hay per acre from his
meadow land.
In Bulletin No. 80 of the Wisconsin State Experiment Station,
issued in 1900, Professor King describes a large number of labora-
tory experiments made for the purpose of determining the fertility
of the Wisconsin swamp lands. His experiments show that the
application of lime does not produce any improvement. One of his
experiments was made to determine whether the difficulty with these
soils might not arise from the presence of soluble salts which might
be washed out. After passing 42 inches of water through a sample
of soil it was learned from a culture test that its fertility had been
decreased in a marked degree, showing that excessive washing of the
soil and removal of the drainage water produced an injurious rather
than a beneficial effect upon the productiveness of the soil.
The experience of Mr. Ingraham, of Babcock, Wis., as well as of
other farmers, indicates that these lands will grow tame grasses in
great luxuriance under favorable conditions. Onions and cabbage
of good quality and in large quantities have been grown, but the land
thus far cultivated for these purposes seems unaccountably fickle in
its behavior, and the factors controlling its peculiar productive prop-
erties are not yet understood.
With these preliminary notes, we may now take up the discussion
of the problems to be considered in the drainage of the 32,000 acres of
land included in the Dancy drainage district. While there may be
DRAIN_AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 725
some clay and loam soil bordering the stream and at the lower parts
of Bear and Howe creeks, we may regard the entire area as a moss
peat or muck swamp resting upon a sand bottom, the thickness of the
vegetable formation being 4 to 5 feet. The survey shows that the
basin included in this district receives the drainage of 122,520 acres
of outside land. The light fall of the main stream—less than 6 inches
per mile—and the modifications made in its channel to fit it for slack-
water log floating produce conditions most favorable to the perma-
nence of the swamp. The Weather Bureau records show that the
annual precipitation is about 32 inches, reasonably well distributed.
The large snowfall and consequent spring run-off produce floods
which do not depend for their volume upon the immediate precipita-
tion, but often upon local conditions of temperature, which require
that the main drainage ditch have ample capacity. The main chan-
nels shown on the engineer's plans are designed to remove one-fourth
inch in depth of water in twenty-four hours from their respective
watersheds. These are none too large for the work which will be
required of them during the spring months. Under the conditions
of a northern climate the run-off will be as great from peat and muck
lands as from surfaces of any other character. The quantity to be
removed during the growing season, however, will be greatly modified
by absorption and the peculiar physical structure of the soil. It is
expected that the drainage of the entire area will be accomplished
by lowering the water table of the sand sufficiently to permit the sur-
plus water contained in the muck to pass directly downward into the
sand, the latter, when drained, affording the best possible underdrain-
age to the muck.
The facility with which water may be expected to pass laterally
through the Sand to the ditches is somewhat problematical, but from
observations made in other localities it is probable that ditches 3
feet in the sand will afford reasonably free drainage for land one-
half mile distant. The extension of the lateral system farther than
is now indicated in the plan is not advised, except in one respect,
and that is this: It will be found that the supply of underground
water will seep into the basin at the base of all the ridges and will keep
the muck wet, which condition the interior ditches will not materially
relieve. An intercepting ditch constructed parallel with the bases
of the ridges and connecting with the most convenient laterals or
with the main channels will probably be required. It may not be
practicable in every case to excavate intercepting ditches sufficiently
deep to reach the sand, in which cases they may be supplemented
by box-curbed wells at various points, their location being governed
by the contour and slope of the outlying land. These wells should
be sunk 3 to 4 feet into the sand and be connected with the ditches
726 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
*.
at their grade lines. This method has proven successful in the West
in relieving land of seep and spring water resulting from irrigation
at higher levels, and is practically the same method at one time used
in Europe and described in the preceding pages.
Another addition to the plans of the engineer may in time be
found necessary. While the removal of the floods of spring and pos-
sible heavy downpours by means of the large ditches and by under-
draining the land, which can be accomplished through the medium
of the bottom sand, will be necessary, it may be just as important
to Subirrigate the muck land by holding back the water contained
in the sand so that it may be kept in contact with and feed the
muck soil during the summer season. When we drain soils contain-
ing loam and clay we rely upon the power of such soils to retain
capillary moisture in sufficient quantities to feed vegetation when
the moisture from rainfall direct is insufficient. The lands under
consideration lack this property and must rely for their supply upon
the free water carried by the sand. The complete removal of the
surplus water at first will permit air, heat, and frost to ameliorate
the raw condition of the partially decayed vegetation, but later the
soil must be kept constantly moist, especially in its lower horizon,
in order that the process may be continued and that the plants may
have sufficient moisture. That is, the soil should always be dry on
top but moist below. Much more water is required to secure this
condition in turf soils than in loams or clays. To regulate this
moisture supply, it is suggested that all of the lateral ditches be pro-
vided with adjustable gates or dams by means of which the flow may
be retarded or stopped and the water raised or lowered at the will
of the cultivator until the required state of moisture is obtained.
It is probable that no such devices will be required in the large main
channel or two creek ditches, but may be in all of the others. In
this connection it should be observed that it is difficult to drain some
muck soils in certain stages of their decomposition, as they retain
water against gravity with great tenacity, but the ability to regulate
the level of the water table will be desirable in the management of the
lighter forms of turf. *
Keeping in mind the results of examinations thus far made and
information gathered from various Sources concerning drainage and
management of turf lands, the following condensed outline of pro-
cedure for their reclamation is suggested:
(1) Construct the system as represented upon the engineer's plans,
adding the intercepting drains bordering the marshes, where thought
necessary, in the manner previously described. The lateral ditches
should reach not less than 2.5 feet into the sand. All ditches should
have their waste banks deposited in such a way that a clear berm of
10 feet will be secured.
JDRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 727
(2) At the end of the first year after completion of the ditch sys-
tem make provision for regulating the water in the lateral ditches
during the summer, as suggested.
(3) Provide shallow field ditches to lead spring flood water into
the lateral district ditches. ſº
(4) Remove the moss turf by burning when the land contains such
an amount of moisture that the burning process will not reach deeper
than desired, after which sow the grass.
(5) In all subsequent management give careful attention to mois-
ture conditions, as it is believed that this is important in getting crops
from these lands. Subsequent treatment with both farm and com-
mercial fertilizers may be found valuable, and experiments should be
made with them, but the efficiency of nature's ordinary means of soil
improvement should be tried first, for they will in any event be
required as a preliminary to any more complete treatment.
It is generally conceded that lands of this character will settle 50
per cent after the moss or top turf has been removed. This will take
place gradually as the turf becomes changed into muck, so that the
space between the surface of the ground and the bottom sand will
diminish from year to year until the muck soil assumes a practically
stable condition. This suggests that the quantity of soil water
required may be decreased as the process of decay and consequent
Settling of the turf goes on.
There may be differences in the mechanical make-up and chemical
character of several of the swamp tracts in Marathon, Wood, and
Portage counties, but where they are underlain with sand the drainage
treatment of each should be similar, with possibly the exception of a
few details. By reference to the geology of the State it is seen that
the section covered by the Dancy marsh was not glaciated. It belongs
to that area found in the middle of the glacial drift of the State
which for some cause, variously explained by geologists, was passed
around by the lobes of the glaciers which moved southwesterly over
the State and was left like an island in a sea of ice. The prevailing
rock is granite, from which the sand underneath the marsh appears
to have been derived. It is possible that this sand, when exposed to
the weather in the form of a top dressing for the muck, may become
valuable as a fertilizer by reason of the feldspar it contains. The
question whether or not feldspar has been dissolved by the water
in which it has lain so long has a direct bearing upon its value in this
respect and merits investigation.
It may be here observed that the amount of moisture required by
different soils for maximum crop production has not received such
attention from investigators as the importance of the subject deserves.
It is known that a sandy Soil containing 8 per cent of moisture will
often produce good vegetable growth, while a clay loam requires
728 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
20 to 27 per cent of moisture to produce the best results. Some soils
apparently moist will not readily give up their water content to
plants. Peat and muck soils have a large capacity for water, yet
Some of them, owing to their open structure, yield it up rapidly
when exposed to dry atmospheric conditions, while others retain it
with great tenacity. The conversion of peat formations into muck,
their succeeding stage, is accomplished most rapidly through the
agencies of air, heat, and moisture. They must be deprived of such
water as will flow by gravity, yet, by reason of the open nature of
the material, capillary water will be most rapidly removed by
air, which will fill every space not otherwise occupied. For this
reason large evaporation takes place, producing a low temperature
in such soils until they become covered with a coat of well decom-
posed and finely divided soil. Special investigations along this
line would be of great service to those who contemplate the reclama-
tion of peat marshes. Drainage and fertility are coordinate prob-
Iems, which should be investigated in the field as well as in the
laboratory, the solution of which will have an important bearing
upon the reclamation and development of the Wisconsin marshes.
HILLSIDE EROSION OF FARM LANDS.
The surface washing of hillsides in the Southern States results
in great loss to farmers by depleting the fertility of the cultivated
land, not infrequently causing the abandonment of entire fields to
briers and broom grass. The terrace system which is commonly em-
ployed to prevent washing consists of a series of small ridges con-
structed across the slope on contour lines at intervals the width of
which depends upon the degree of the surface slope. These ridges
are sometimes placed as close together as 20 feet. As the ridges are
at least 4 feet in width, 16 per cent of the land is thus occupied. It
is not uncommon to find entire fields terraced at 100-foot intervals,
in which cases 4 per cent of the land is occupied by the ridges. The
object of their construction is to retain the rainfall until it can pass
into the soil by slow percolation. In some cases the trench on the
upper side of the terrace is given a gentle grade for the purpose of
leading the water to some point where it can be taken to the stream,
at the foot of the slope. The ridges serve as a series of small dams
which, when they break, as they frequently do, cause the water to wash
away considerable soil, and break one or more of the terraces below.
Such breaks often open out washes during a single rainstorm, which
are costly to repair and which, if neglected, seriously injure the field.
The permeability of hill-land soil to water varies greatly, as does the
slope and contour of the surface. Farmers usually vary but little
their practice of terracing, applying the same system of construction
to all hill lands.
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 729
From some studies of the different situations and close observations
upon the behavior of terraced hills it is believed that there is much
room for the exercise of skill in adapting various means to their
improvement. It is desirable to conserve a good portion of the
rainfall in the subsoil, and to accomplish this its removal should be
as slow as practicable. A special effort should be directed toward
preventing its concentration in depressions which are found on the
hillsides, as this causes gullies to be formed, which will increase in
size and destructiveness with every considerable rainfall.
An improvement in the laying out of terraces is suggested and prac-
ticed by Hon. L. G. Hardman on his farms in Jackson County, Ga.
Instead of a ridge or dike being made for the retention of the surface
water, the terrace is made level and seeded to meadow grass, which is

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FIG. 121.-Method of protecting cultivated hillsides from erosion.
mowed for hay each season. The effect of a terrace of this kind is
to check the flow of water and cause such part of it as is not absorbed
by the soil to pass to the next tier of land without concentration. The
growing grass in summer and its stubble in winter serve to arrest the
soil matter suspended in the water. The location of such terraces
may be easily changed, so that land at one time occupied by a terrace
may subsequently be cultivated.
It was noted in the report of drainage investigations for 1903 " that
an experiment was made on hillside land in Jackson County, Ga., to
test the efficiency of tile drains for preventing the erosion of the land,
and thus doing away with terraces altogether. These drains have
been in operation two years. Two crops have been produced and the
land is now seeded to the third. A portion of a field having an
a Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 147.
730 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
average slope of one foot in ten, which had been abandoned because
of excessive erosion, was selected, and drain lines were laid out and
the drains constructed in the spring of 1903 according to the plan
shown in figures 121 and 122. The soil is red sandy loam of good
depth, with firm clay Subsoil containing scattering gravel stones. It
is much more permeable to water than hills made up of light-colored
clay material, which
condition is favor-
able to treatment by
underdrainage.
It had been ob-
Served that seepage
Water appeared in
Small quantities at
points part way
down the slope, caus-
ing the earth to sof-
ten and readily yield
to the eroding action
of surface water as
it flowed down the
hill. Ditches soon
resulted, which gath-
ered the water in
greater quantities
732 of ///// than could be con-
|. trolled by the ordi-
\\ nary methods em-
\ e’ ployed. In the ex-
* \ periment described
\ underdrains were
*~~. p 1 a c e d at points
`---.......… * where seepage water
*** * * * * * * * * appeared to inter-
cept the water of
percolation and thus preserve the firmness of the surface soil. The
drains do not conduct all the water away from the land, but permit
an outflow through the joints of the drains into the subsoil in case it
has sufficient porosity to receive it. The drains thus assist not only in
arresting the surface water, but distribute and conserve it in the sub-
soil. To accomplish this end it is desirable to lay the drains on a
comparatively light grade, though that must be largely dependent
upon the contour of the land treated.
The cost of the improvement under this experiment was $10 an
acre for the land regained. The high price of drain tile, 4-inch
FIG. 122.-Plan of underdrains for Georgia hillside experiment.

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 731
costing $41 per 1,000 feet, made the work more expensive than similar
drainage should be ordinarily. The gross receipts of either of the
two crops produced from the land previously abandoned would pay
the cost of the improvement.
It is here sugguested that underdrains judiciously located in such
soils or the use of level terraces where the former plan can not be
readily employed greatly facilitate the cultivation of hill lands and
increase the crop area of each field so treated. Four to 16 per cent of
the land can often be saved for cropping purposes, besides the annual
expense of cutting the briers and grass which grow luxuriantly on the
terrace lines. The level system permits the terraces to be used for
hay and the product will fully pay for their care. It is not here urged .
that terraces may be abolished, but that underdrains may frequently
be employed in lieu of them, that they will conserve the moisture of
hill soil, and at the same time prevent the formation of surface
washes. When abandoned hillside land can be restored to producing
fields at a cost of $7 to $10 an acre, it is an improvement that will
commend itself to the owners of such fields. Too great care can not
be taken to adapt such improvements to the soil and surface slopes.
Subsequent cultivation should as far as possible fill up ditches and
depressions that would serve to collect the surface flow.
sº INDIANA TILE DRAINAGE.
For the purpose of ascertaining the process by which the tile drain-
age of many farms in the upper Wabash Valley has been developed,
a few farms in Madison, Miami, Howard, and Tipton counties have
been examined, and such information as could be obtained is herewith
given. Some of the details were collected by local surveyors who
were familiar with drainage methods and were in some instances sup-
plemented by the visits of our regular field assistant. As might be
expected, much of the work described has been done in a haphazard
manner, yet along lines which have in the end secured fairly satis-
factory results.
MIADISON COUNTY.
The swamp lands of this county, when first occupied, had little
value except for the fine growth of timber which covered them. The
first occupants began to drain them by removing the undergrowth,
fallen trees, and other obstacles which were found along the natural
depressions, thus obtaining some relief from overflow. In subsequent
work it was not uncommon for the settler to use a small section of a
tree from which the heavy limbs had been removed to within 6 or 8
inches of the main trunk and, attaching a team, drag it through the
opening previously cleared, and so deepen and enlarge the drainage
course. These channels were afterwards gradually deepened and
732 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
widened, ranging from 4 to 6 feet in depth and 12 to 20 feet wide on
top, and eventually became the main outlets for drainage systems.
Underdrainage was begun and carried out along the lines first made
for open drains, the farmer following the meanderings of slight de-
pressions and later making branch ditches to parts of fields which
most needed draining. As his circumstances or opportunity per-
mitted, branch drains were laid from time to time through the lowest
ground, so we find very few instances in Madison County where
drains have been placed at regular intervals.
Some of the first underdrainage was accomplished by “timber
ditches,” which were made by digging trenches 1 to 2 feet wide, in
which timber 6 to 8 inches wide was placed on each side and covered
by slabs, usually rived from elm trees, laid crosswise, and then the
earth backfilled over them. This made an underdrain 6 to 8 inches
deep and 8 to 20 inches wide. Such drains are reported to have done
good Service and lasted many years.
No material advancement in the drainage of swamp lands was made
until drain tile came into general use. A description of the drainage
of a few of the farms will give an insight into the character of the
improvement, the present location of the drains, and the results which
may be attributed to the drainage of the area involved.
ELLSWORTH FARMI.
This is a farm of 80 acres situated 4 miles west and 2.5 miles north
of Summitville. Its surface is quite level, there being no more than
3 or 4 feet difference in the extremes of elevation. The soil is made
up of about 6 or 8 inches of vegetable mold, which is quite permeable
to water, below which is a stratum of bluish clay which, before being
underdrained, is close and tenacious and through which water per-
colates slowly. It is seriously injured if cultivated while wet and
requires some time and subsequent treatment to restore it to its best
condition. After being drained, however, the subsoil becomes quite
permeable and, with cultivation sufficiently deep to mix the subsoil
with the surface, it becomes very productive.
The first effort toward the drainage of this farm was to construct
an open drain diagonally across the north half of the tract 3 feet in
depth and 10 feet wide on the top (fig. 123). Tributary drains
of 5 and 6 inch tile, laid approximately 20 rods apart, were discharged
into this ditch. Lateral branches of 4-inch tile were used to complete
the drainage. The sizes of tile used were suggested to the owner by
observation and experience in draining other lands.
No records were kept of the work, and information only approxi-
mately correct can be obtained. No Survey was made, the tile being
laid by water level about 30 inches deep upon grades approximately
0.1 to 0.2 foot per 100 feet. Ditches were dug by hand and the bot-
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 733
toms were finished with the draw Scoop. The drainage on this farm
was done when labor was cheap, so that the cost for trenching and
laying was 15 to 20 cents per rod, and tile were at least 25 per cent
less than list prices now quoted by factories. It is noted that the
quality of the crops
w a s greatly im- —w- APO307 |-
proved and the Sö S —
quantity about dou- & Co… ea º
bled; also that ma-
1 a ri a 1 diseases,
which were very
prevalent be for e
drainage, have en-
tirely disappeared.
The owner suggests
that better results
would have been ob-
tained by making
the drains deeper
and laying the lat-
erals not over 10
rods apart. The
land was purchased
in 1882 at $18.125
per acre. After
draining, as de-
scribed, and one
crop being raised
the land was rated
at $35 per acre, or
about double the
original cost.
The open ditches
first used as outlets
for the drainage of
this farm had slight &
fall, perhaps not 9/S
greater than 0.08 ſyk
foot per 100 feet. &O/OOX5 /62//7 º-
The Water flowed “T Aſoº’& 1 F-
with sluggish CUII*— FIG. 123.-Ellsworth farm.
rent and the channels were easily obstructed by growing weeds which
retained silt, so that the outlets to the tile were in many cases covered
with earth and their efficiency impaired. During the past two years
large tile have been substituted for the open ditches, the largest being
t
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734 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
15-inch, which were placed at an average depth of 4.5 feet or 1.5 feet
deeper than the open channels. The size used was necessary, because
of the area of land lying above the drains through this course.
The entire farm can now be cultivated.
While no record was kept of the grades, it is probable that the line
of 15-inch tile was laid on a grade of 0.04 to 0.06 foot per 100 feet
and the Smaller tile on slightly increased grades. No tile drains have
been taken up, the later lines having in all cases followed the general
direction of the old open ditches. The farm yields large crops of
corn, oats, and rye, to which the land seems to be adapted. It is
now considered worth $100 per acre.
LUKIN, THOMAS, MATTHEWS, COREY, AND DAVIS FARMS.
The conditions of these farms as to Soil, topography, drainage, and
crops are similar to those of the Ellsworth farm just described. The
land is slightly rolling, diversified by Swales and ridges forming
pockets which collect the rainfall. With the exception of the ridges,
where spots of white clay occur, the soil is generally a bur oak or
black loam. The subsoil of the black lands permits the ready pas-
sage of water, while that of the clay lands is tenacious, requiring
drains at frequent intervals. Five, 6, and sometimes 8 inch tile are
used as mains and submains, and the lateral drains are 4-inch tile.
With regard to the size of main drains, Mr. Davis, a tile manufac-
turer, of Madison County, says that an 8-inch tile will drain 80 acres,
a 12-inch 200 acres, and a 15-inch 500 acres. Aside from such rules
as these, no method of estimating the size of drains appears to have
been used. The farmers have usually followed the plan of adding
lines of 4-inch tile year by year as needed. If the drainage proved
insufficient, another line of 4-inch tile was laid a few rods distant. In
some instances lines of tile were laid only in the swales, while in
others a systematic arrangement of 4-inch laterals at intervals of 2
to 3 rods in clay soil and 6 to 8 rods in black soil was followed.
Concerning the depth at which tile should be laid, there seems to
be some difference of opinion. Some owners of the farms here noted
advocate the laying of tile 4 feet deep, while others contend that 30
inches is sufficient. It is also claimed that tile may be laid deeper in
clay land than is generally practiced, for though the land may not
drain so well during the first year after construction, it has been
found that the tile will operate satisfactorily after two or three years,
since the soil becomes more open and aerated by the action of the
drains. It is said that drains 4 feet deep may be laid twice as far
apart as those 2.5 to 3 feet deep. This “rule of thumb' method is
followed by the farmers in this locality to a considerable extent.
As a rule, no grade was established before laying the tile. The
ordinary method followed was to begin at the outlet and use the flow
DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 735
of the water in the trench as a guide in preparing the bottom of the
ditch. On this account most farm tiling was and is yet done in the
spring, when there is an abundance of water. Some of the lines are
apparently laid almost on a level, as the head of water in the soil is
considered sufficient to cause a flow.
Few records of the cost of the work can be obtained, as it was
mostly done by the
farmers them-
selves, who have -
kept no accounts.
The drainage of
these farms has N
made a better
method of culti-
vation possible and
permitted an in-
telligent rotation,
of crops to be fol-
lowed, which was
not the case before
the entire farm
was fitted for cul-
tivation. It is
commonly asserted
that crops have
been doubled and
even trebled by M
these improve- cº %
ments, instances &
being given º in %
Which the yield ||
of corn per acre A
has been increased
from 25 to 80 22 / *::/2
bu S h e I S. Of T - -z/2.
t ARoaa.
---
77/27/0ſoposed.
ºº
i
§
22
6//2
4/2
*/
course a part of A2
this increase may
be attributed to
7-
/
FIG. 124.—Lukin farm.
better methods of farming and the use of proper fertilizers. Not
among the least of the benefits may be mentioned the increased
healthiness of the community, everyone consulted stating that fevers
and ague, which prevailed previous to the drainage of the lands, are
now unknown.
Lukin farm.—The farm of Mr. Lukin contains 100 acres and was
in some respects quite difficult to drain because of a large flat or pond

736 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
near its center. The first attempt at drainage was made near the
center of the farm, at which place two large wells were dug into the
gravel stratum, which lies 6 to 7 feet below the surface, and lined
Several lines of tile were discharged into
with brick (fig. 124).
2O/Tod's
-2//7
Zº,5/"OO3
Ż//7
S
NS
§
Q
$) §
\S /9/242
§ S –77,
N. NS S
§ Sºº 2
s] …as
NI /3^oaz
%22
Žse \ssºgºs § -
s3% &/S
A6, 2. W
} E473/7 /2 § Ascog:
O § Sºs 24//?
& & /2
(WW
/7”/oa's
§ - J:#//?
8|S *(\
§l") S 6)
O || S 6.
S2A/oo's - § & &
aord? 22 T 2%
sº90S
Sºzáž
J22
/9/Too's
=- 4//7 *-
s'
FIG. 125.-Thomas farm.
these wells, the water
passing through the
gravel, which served
as an excellent out-
let except during the
Spring months, when
it failed to operate
satisfactorily be-
cause the water was
delivered into the
wells faster than the
gravel could remove
it.
During the year
1904 the owner suc-
ceeded in getting a
county tile drain
through his farm,
which affords him a
good outlet, and he
now proposes to drain
his place thoroughly.
The plat represents
what has been done
to the present time,
and also the work
proposed. In de-
signing the system
the owner has fol-
lowed the local prac-
tice, and proposes to
lay his tile 2 to 3
rods apart in clay
soil and 6 to 8 rods
apart in the more
porous, black soil.
The depth of drains is about 30 inches in clay and a few inches deeper
in the black soil.
Thomas farm.—The Thomas farm of 120 acres, located 3 miles east
of Pendleton, is slightly rolling and, like the one previously described,
has a soil of black loam, with some spots where a tough white clay is

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 737
found. The present owner has been identified with its drainage since
1871. Wooden drains 4 to 5 inches high and 12 to 15 inches wide
inside, built of split timber and laid without bottom, were first used
(fig. 125). Nothing is known of the method of laying these drains
except that they were 18 to 24 inches below the surface. They were
used because earthen pipe was at that time difficult to get and costly.
When tile could be obtained at a reasonable price a 6-inch main was
laid through the center of the Swale, as shown upon the plat. Each
succeeding year a string of tile was added. The owner soon found
his 6-inch main too small and supplemented it by an 8-inch tile,
which he laid by the side of the first drain. Some farmers object
to laying two lines of tiling close together, as, in Some instances. the
water forms a channel between them and undermines the tile. No
trouble, however, has been experienced with these drains. Nearly all
the laterals are 4 inches in diameter and laid where most needed,
usually through surface depressions. Marked success has attended
/3/2 />/////ar ZO/3//? /a22 AV/A//ar ZX/a/o /o/a Ax/5/rc Zºrºro APoacy
-º-º-E M-S-S-
& 3) Sloº. §
42
ess §
Sº, §
fy
& Aono.
'O. Afā’//7.
2
FIG. 126.—Matthews farm.
the tiling of wet clay spots, which, when drained, can be plowed the
day following any ordinary rainfall. The depth at which tile were
laid in this farm varies from 18 inches to 6 feet, though 30 inches is
regarded as the standard.
The owner did the work with the assistance of his farm help, locat-
ing the lines as his experience year by year suggested, and grading
the ditches by the water method. Neither the exact location of the
drains nor the cost of the work is known. It is learned that the first
lot of 4-inch tile used cost 80 cents per rod, which is at least double
current prices.
Matthews farm.—The Matthews farm of 120 acres, lying about 6
miles northeast of Anderson, up to fifteen years ago had no drainage
except a small open ditch extending from a pond to the public road
(fig. 126). The farm is generally quite level with the exception of a
knoll in the center, upon which the buildings are located. The soil
30620–No. 158—05—47

738 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
&
is the usual black oak loam interspersed with spots of clay, the subsoil
being tenacious and wet, except when artificially drained. *
The work has been done entirely by the owner, no system being fol-
lowed except to lay lines of tile from time to time where the ground
appeared to be wet. No record of the work has been kept, the plat
here given showing only such particulars as could be described by the
owner from memory. On the east side the work is unfinished, but
elsewhere the farm is drained to the satisfaction of the owner.
Corey farm.—Mr. Corey, near Anderson, has drained his land more
systematically than many. His experience in tiling Several farms
indicated to him that tile were usually of too small size and laid too
shallow. In revising his drainage plans he gives no attention to
existing lines, but locates the drains as systematically as possible. He
has tile laid upon hillsides and also upon the top of the hill land. In
clay soils he lays his lines 2 to 3 rods apart, but in the black loam the
intervals are 8 rods or more. He advocates laying the lines as deep
as 3 feet in clay and deeper in black soil.
Davis farm.—Mr. Davis, a tile manufacturer located southwest of
Anderson, owns a farm of 200 acres, most of which is systematically
drained. In clay land he places the lines at intervals of 2 to 3 rods,
and in black land 7 to 8 rods. His practice is to locate the lines irre-
spective of the Swales, which sometimes necessitates placing the drains
at a depth of 9 to 10 feet.
MIAMI COUNTY.
The farm of Andrew J. Phelps, consisting of 160 acres, is located
1.5 miles east of Bennetts Switch. The surface is slightly rolling.
The soil is black, underlaid with quite permeable clay, and is injured
greatly if worked when wet. The original drains, which were put in
about 1875, were made of timber and placed in lines. 16 to 25 rods
apart (fig. 127). The general depth is 30 inches, though in some
cases a depth of 7 feet is reached in passing through ridges. The
grades varied from to 3 inches per rod. The size of tile used
upon this land varied from 4 to 8 inches. The plat shows the general
arrangement of the drains. No accurate account of the cost was
obtainable.
EIOWARD COUNTY.
The George Ehrman farm, of 160 acres, located 7 miles west of
Kokomo, is reported upon quite fully by the county Surveyor (fig.
128). The soil is black Sandy loam, 18 to 24 inches deep, underlaid
with clay. It was formerly covered with timber, the sugar tree,
black walnut, and poplar being the prevailing kinds. As in other
farms described, the drains are placed about 30 inches deep, and on
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 739
this farm nearly all discharge into natural outlets. They are re-
ported as giving good service. It is noted that the grades are all
good, varying from 2 to 3 inches per 100 feet. The usual price paid
– | Z - .fs= Aroadſ
37.
4/m | \S 3%
S| Crib S S.
*S S& SH S S. c
4//? s S Ys 2. Slă § & o
:S S& 0.
$) º Börſ, S * s _^
4//? $ `ss 42.Zºº, 26°
-*.
4/7 St. Tºssºs _* (2
§ S *º-º-
S S S § *
* \l I Š § §
§ 6.
§ S. Z/2 4/7 -2
S
$ \ 5//7
65/. &
º
S 42 K x- &
W. f S.2 2
322
S S S
N- \ W \s
|- 5 & 6//? NG|
YS º S
§ W
Qº S
§ $ WD
6//?
* = * * * * * * * * ———
#4260/3/7&
FIG. 127.-Phelps farm.
for excavating the ditches and laying and covering the tile was about
25 cents per rod. The cost of the tile used was as follows:
CentS
per rod.
3}-inch ---------------------------------------------------- 16
4-inch ----------------------------------------------------- 20
5-inch ----------------------------------------------------- 25
0-inch ----------------------------------------------------- 30
7-inch ----------------------------------------------------- 40
The report upon the effect of the drains says that the soil is made
more porous, permitting it to dry more readily after heavy rainfall
and affording better aeration. In dry weather a greater amount
of moisture is retained, the effect of which is to increase the usual
corn crop in a wet season about 50 per cent and in a dry season about


740 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
25 per cent. The effect upon the land for wheat growing is more
marked, since drainage prevents the heaving out and consequent
destruction of the plants.
No drains have been taken up and relaid, all seeming to now oper-
ate satisfactorily. It is noticed that malaria, which was formerly
Wood/??&
* * * * * 2 / * =yee gº tºº
4//7 2-mºmºmºm- &e %
c
* ºs
§l S ye
S. S.
49 Š
§
WS
S 2
§ NS S ſ -N
Š } } }
NS & V
S S $ § Moſe://nes Wo 29 &%
N N #|Weſe org/pa/y Wood.
Slen boxeº Aſºº’ s
N1/2/379–30 w/ſh CŞ
.* 77/e
& s
§ Š
sº
§ /Woź/4///e/ºpe
00%)3 //, /ö//pes
| w//ch emory//ö
+
W//a/ Cºyº Cree/<
Grºve/ AFoºd/
FIG. 128.-George Ehrman farm.
prevalent, has disappeared and there is a marked improvement in
the healthiness of the locality, as instanced by the fewer, cases of
typhoid and other diseases.
The following table is given by Mr. William A. Ehrman, county
surveyor, for determining the sizes of tile for drainage in this vicinity,
laid upon different grades:






DRAIN AGE INVESTIGATIONS. 74.1
Size of tiles for different grades.
h- i
* . Grade ' -- Grade
Size of g Area Size of Area.
Éie." | P.” drained. #ie." | Pº." armed.
g !
Inches. Foot. Acres. | Inches. Foot. Acres
4 0.15 23 6 0.15 62
4 . 20 26 6 . 20 72
4 . 25 29 6 .25 80
5 . 15 40 | 7 . 15 92
5 . 20 46 | 7 20 106
5 .25 50 | 7 25 128
TIPTON COUNTY.
The Bennett farm, consisting of 40 acres. 6 miles west of Sharps-
ville, has been satisfactorily drained at quite small expense (fig. 129).
The soil is 10 to 14
inches deep, under-
laid with heavy
clay. The first As 3 iſ
370
drains were made
by placing split Ç
rails 10 to 15 feet 4//7
long in the bottom
of trenches and
covering the rails
with slabs. The
drain tile first used
were 2.5 and 3
inches in diameter
and were laid only 4/7
18 to 24 inches deep.
Later larger tile
were used and were \
laid at a depth of
40 inches. The owner has attended to all of the draining person-
ally and has located the lines where in his judgment they were needed.
The grades are 1 to 3 inches per 100 feet. Drainage has cost about 1
cent per rod for each inch of depth, and hauling, laying, and filling
about 5 cents per rod. The land which he bought for $25 an acre is
now valued at $95. He estimates that the drainage, aside from other
improvements, has enhanced the value of the farm fully one-half.
ë
§
&
j
§§
&
FIG. 129.-Bennett farm.
COMIMIENTS.
An examination of the tile drainage of Indiana farms herein de-
scribed brings out the manner in which the work was ordinarily
accomplished in the earlier development of the improvement. Atten-
tion may be profitably directed to a few of the characteristics which
appear.

742 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS, 1904.
The black loam soil is open and consequently easy to drain, so that
it has not been found necessary to place the lines of tile at frequent
intervals except where the surface soil is quite largely composed of
clay. The plan generally followed has consisted in placing the drain
tile where open ditches were first made, and supplementing these by
lines of tile through the wet places. The surplus water readily passes
through the soil to these drains with the assistance of such few laterals
as have been used, thus reducing the number of lines to the minimum.
The distance between laterals where they are in parallel lines appears
to be no less than 12 rods, while it is not uncommon to find drains 24
rods apart.
The presence of a clay subsoil at a depth of 24 inches or less, in such
sharp contrast to the top soil, has led to the placing of drains 30
inches deep, except where greater depth was necessary to obtain suffi-
cient grade. The upper line of the tile is just below the level of the
permeable soil, and at this depth they appear to render efficient Serv-
ice, though it should be noted that experiments with deeper drains
have given satisfactory results.
The size of the drains used is perhaps the most variable feature of
the work. While the farms are, in the estimation of the owners, sat-
isfactorily drained, it is readily seen that as far as the size of tile is
concerned, unnecessary expense has been incurred on Some of the
farms, provided all are equally well drained. In one instance it is
moted that on the same farm 6-inch tile is used on one part for the
drainage of 2 acres, while in another part the same size serves 20
acres. But little difference in size is noted between the drains laid
upon light and upon heavy grades, lines having been added until the
land was drained to the satisfaction of the owner. It is noticed that
the sizes of pipes used for mains and submains are far larger than
those suggested in the table of Mr. Ehrman, Surveyor of Howard
County (see p. 741). Even with careful work in location and con-
struction it is doubtful if the sizes suggested will meet the require-
ments of drainage for field crops except where relief by supplementary
drains is provided. However, later practice elsewhere may be cited
to show that where grades are carefully adjusted and followed in
construction, the size of drains may be considerably diminished with-
out affecting their efficiency. As examples of the sizes of outlets or
their equivalents used on some of the farms described, the following
may be mentioned:
40 acres, one 9-inch tile.
80 acres, one 10-inch and one 9-inch tile.
80 acres, one 9-inch tile.
80 acres, two 10-inch tiles.
160 acres, four 9-inch tiles.
160 acres, one 6-inch and one 8-inch tile.
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. 7.43
The farm which has the largest drainage outlet capacity per acre
has drains laid on the steepest grade, so that it is quite evident that
there is much room for modifications in the size of drains were the
work to be done in accordance with our present knowledge of such
Imatters.
The lack of facts regarding the cost of these improvements, as well
as lack of method in constructing the drains, might be expected in
the instances described, especially since the work was largely one of
experiment from year to year.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ON
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE.
kotº.—Publications marked with an asterisk (*) are not available for distribution.
l. 36. Notes on Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. Pp. 64.
58. Water Rights on the Missouri River and its Tributaries. Pp. 80.
. 60. Abstract of Laws for Acquiring Titles to Water from the Missouri River
and its Tributaries, with the Legal Forms in Use. Pp. 77.
t 70. Water-right Problems of Bear River. Pp. 40.
*Buy. 73. Irrigation in the Rocky Mountain States. Pp. 64.
Bul. 81. The Use of Water in Irrigation in Wyoming. Pp. 56.
Bul. 86. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 253.
Bul. 87. Irrigation in New Jersey. Pp. 40.
Bul. 90. Irrigation in Hawaii. Pp. 48. *
Bul. 92. The Reservoir System of the Cache la Poudre Valley. Pp. 48.
Bul. 96. Irrigation Laws of the Northwest Territories of Canada and of Wyoming
Pp. 90.
Bul. 100. Report of Irrigation Investigations in California. Pp. 411.
Bul. 104. The Use of Water in Irrigation. Pp. 334.
*Bul. 105. Irrigation in the United States. Pp. 47.
Bul. 108, Irrigation Practice among Fruit Growers on the Pacific Coast. Pp. 54.
2. Bul. 113. Irrigation of Rice in the United States. Pp. 77.
Bul. 118. Irrigation from Big Thompson River. Pp. 75.
Bul. 119. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1901. Pp. 401.
Bul. 124. Report of Irrigation Investigations in Utah. Pp. 330.
Bul. 130. Egyptian Irrigation, Pp. 100.
Bul. 131. Plans of Structures in Use on Irrigation Canals in the United States. Pp.
51.
Bul. 133. Report of Irrigation Investigations for 1902. Pp. 266.
Bul. 134. Storage of Water on Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson Rivers. Pp. 100.
Bul. 140. Acquirement of Water Rights in the Arkansas Valley, Colorado. Pp. 83.
Bºl. 144. Irrigation in Northern Italy. Part I. Pp. 100.
Bul. 145. Preparing Land for Irrigation and Methods of Applying Water. Pp. 84.
Bul. 146. Current Wheels: Their Use in Lifting Water for Irrigation. Pp. 38.
... Bul. 147. Report on Drainage Investigations, 1903. Pp. 62.
}, 148. Report on Irrigation Investigations in Humid Sections of the United States
- in 1903. Pp. 45.
pal 157. Water Rights on Interstate Streams. Pp. 116.
&
FARMERS’ BULLETINs.
Bul. 46.
Irrigation in Humid Climates. Pp. 27.
ſtion in Fruit Growing. Pp. 48.
ation in Field and Garden. Pp. 40.
w to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Pp. 28.
ainage of Farm Lands. Pp. 40. *.
III C
**