A 529625
pada kam váĦA
*****R_{¸*****i a
と
​(** Mark
MAKTA

PUMIMA
INJERIUMIEZENAS
ARTES
LIBRARY
1837
VERITAS
PLUMBUS UNUM
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
TUŁ BOA
CHTLININ
SCIENTIA
OF THE
KOMASIAKASTAJASI RLAR.
FSi QUAERIS PENINSULAM AMOENAMA
CIRCUMSPICE
THE
WING
VEDOMURKAASAMMEN!
MAA/ID KUPOTENTIAL PSE
I
13
1
3
AD
308
.A 42
1853

Vol. 4.
BORAL
www
Battle of the Nile
WHIMP
p. 189.
HISTORY OF EUROPE
FROM THE
COMMENCEMENT OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
IN MDCCLXXXIX
TO THE
RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS
IN MDCCCXV
BY
SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON, BART.
F. R. S. E.
NINTH EDITION
VOL. IV.
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
MDCCCLIV
-
A
CONTENTS OF VOL. IV.
CHAPTER XXII.—INTERNAL TRANSACTIONS AND NAVAL CAMPAIGN OF
GREAT BRITAIN IN 1797.
G
Approach of a crisis in the war, 1.-Aspect of public affairs in the beginning of
1797, ib.-Crisis of the Bank, and Order in Council suspending cash pay-
ments, 2.—Parliamentary reform brought forward, 4.-Arguments on the
war, 7.-Supplies voted, ib.-Naval preparations of France and Spain, 8.-
The mutiny in the fleet, ib.-Firmness of the king and government, 10.-
Suppression of the mutiny, 11.-Conduct of Mr Pitt on this occasion, ib.-
Firmness of Admiral Duncan at this crisis, 12.-Mutiny in the fleet at
Plymouth and off Cadiz, 13.—Battle of Cape St Vincent, 15.-First appear-
ance of Nelson and Collingwood, ib.-Early history and character of Nelson,
17.-Biography of Lord St Vincent, 19.-Earl Howe, 20-Collingwood, 21.
-Lord Duncan, 23-De Saumarez, 24.-Expedition of Nelson to Teneriffe,
26.-Suppression of the mutiny in the fleet off Cadiz, 27.-Preparations of
the Dutch, 28.—Battle of Camperdown, ib.—Honours bestowed on Admirals
Duncan and Sir John Jarvis, 30.-Descent in Pembroke Bay: capture of
Trinidad, 31.-Death of Burke, ib.-His character, ib.
CHAPTER XXIII.-CAMPAIGN OF 1797-FALL OF VENICE.
Russia recedes from the measures of Catherine, 33.-Plans of the Directory:
Bernadotte and Delmas join Napoleon, 34.-Preparations of the Imperialists,
ib.-Description of the theatre of war, 35.-Napoleon's proclamation, 36.-
Interest excited by the contest, and character of the generals, ib.-Passage
of the Tagliamento, 37.-Operations of Massena, and passage of the Isonzo,
38.-Actions at the Col de Tarwis, ib.-Bayalitch's division surrenders, 39.—
Napoleon occupies Klagenfurth, ib.-Operations of Joubert, ib.-Action at
the pass of Clausen, 40.-Joubert advances to Sterzten, ib.-He marches to
join Napoleon, ib.—Perilous condition of Napoleon, 41.-He makes proposals
of peace, ib.-Preliminaries agreed to at Leoben, 43.-The preliminaries
agreed to, 44.-Injustice of this treaty as regards Venice, ib.-State of
Venice, ib.-Napoleon's perfidious measures toward that state, 46.-Demo-
cratic insurrection in the Venetian provinces, 47.-Massacre at Verona, and
at Lido, 50.-War declared by Napoleon, 51.-The senate abdicate, 52.-
Fall of Venice, ib.-Passage of the Rhine at Diersheim, 54.-Biography of
Davoust, note, ib.-Armistice, 55.-Operations of Hoche, ib.-State of Prussia:
death of the king, 56.-Accession of Frederick-William III., and his early
measures, 57.-Retrospect of the successes of Napoleon, ib.-Negotiations at
Udina, 58.-Revolution at Genoa, ib.-Negotiations between France and
England opened at Lisle, 60.-Terms of the treaty of Campo Formio, 63.-
Results of the campaign to the Italians, ib.-Sensation excited by the fall of
Venice, 64.-Conduct of Napoleon, 66.-Conduct of Austria, 68.-Weakness
of the Venetian aristocracy, ib.
137038
1
:
iv
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIV.-INTERNAL GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE, FROM THE ESTABLISH-
MENT OF THE DIRECTORY TO THE REVOLUTION OF 18TH FRUCTIDOR.
Previous changes of the Revolution, 69.--The great object of government, 70.
-Provision against democratic anarchy, ib.-State of manners in France, 71.
-Choice of the Directory, 72.-Penury of the government, ib.-Character
of the Directors, ib.-Their measures, ib.-Liberation of the Duchess d'An-
goulême, 73.—Cessation of the distribution of food: territorial mandates, ib.
-Starvation of the fundholders, and all the public functionaries, 75.-State
of the armies, ib.-Abandonment of the paper system, 76.-Two-thirds of
the national debt confiscated, 77.-Efforts of the Directory to restore order,
ib.-The Theophilanthropists, 78.-Conspiracy of Baboeuff, 79.-Attempts
of the royalists, 84.-Manners at this period, ib.-Young generals and others
in the salons, 85.-Result of the elections, ib.-Barthélémy is chosen a direc-
tor, 86.-Clubs of Clichy and Salm: reaction in favour of the royalists, ib.
-Measures of the Directory: Camille-Jourdan's speech in favour of reli-
gion, 87.-Return of the emigrants and clergy, ib.-Alarm of the Directory,
88.-They collect troops around Paris, ib.-Napoleon supports the republi-
cans, 89.—Addresses from the soldiers, ib.-Military force at command of
the opposite party: reorganisation of the national guard decreed, 90.—Re-
volution of the 18th Fructidor, 91.-Measures of the minority of the Coun-
cils, 92.-Extinction of the liberty of the press, and transportation of the
royalist leaders, 93.-Escape of Pichegru from Guiana, 94.-Despotic mea-
sures of the Directory, ib.-Defect in the constitution of 1795, 96.—A more
equitable government was impossible, ib.
CHAPTER XXV.-FROM THE PEACE OF CAMPO FORMIO TO THE RENEWAL OF
THE WAR. OCTOBER 1797—MARCH 1799.
Views of parties on the war, 97.-Estimates for the year in Britain, 99.-Pitt's
new financial policy, ib.-Establishment of the volunteer system, ib.—French
finances, 101.-External policy of the Directory, 102.-Attack upon Hol-
land, ib.-State of Switzerland, 104.-Physical description of Switzerland,
ib.-Political divisions which prevailed, 112.-Inequality of rights in the
cantons, 113.-Policy of the French, ib.-Origin of the revolutionary passion
in Switzerland, ib.-Measures of the French to bring on a contest, 114.—
Hostilities commence in the Pays de Vaud, 117.-Resolute conduct of the
Senate of Berne, 118.-Heroic conduct of the mountaineers, ib.—Surrender
of Soleure and Fribourg, 119.—Bloody battle before Berne, ib.-Excesses of
the Swiss after defeat: capture of Berne and its treasures, 120.-Contribu-
tions levied by the French everywhere, 121.-New constitution, ib.-Efforts
of the mountaineers, 122.-Aloys Reding, ib.-First successes and ultimate
disasters of the peasants, 123.-The Grisons invoke the aid of the Austrians,
125.-Impolicy of the attack on Switzerland, ib.-Attack on the Papal States:
state of the Pope, 127.-Intrigues of the French at Rome, 128.-Duphot
slain in a scuffle, 130.-War declared against Rome, ib.-Revolution at Rome,
131.-Cruelty of the Republicans to the Pope, ib.-His death, ib.-Pillage of
Rome, 132.-Confiscation of the whole church property, ib.-Great mutiny
at Rome and Mantua, 133.-Revolt of the Roman populace, 134.-The Papal
States revolutionised. New constitution, ib.-Revolutions effected in the
Cisalpine republic, ib.-Discontent excited by these changes, 135.-The
spoliation of the King of Sardinia, ib.-Affairs of Naples, 137.-Intrigues of
the French, 138.-The Neapolitans commence hostilities, 139.-They are
defeated, 141.—Championnet invades Naples, 142.-Description of Naples,
143.-Resistance of the lazzaroni, 146.-Capture of the city, 147.-Estab-
lishment of the Parthenopeian republic, ib.-State of Ireland: reflections
CONTENTS.
on the history of that country, 148.-Combination of Orangemen to uphold
the British connection, 152.-Treaty of the Irish rebels with France, ib.—
The insurrection breaks out, 153.-Suppression of the rebellion, 154.-
Efforts of the Directory to revive it, 155.-Firmness of the British govern-
ment, 156.-Maritime affairs of the year, 157.-Disputes of France with the
United States, 23.-Contributions levied on the Hanse towns, 158.-Retrospect
of the late encroachments of France, ib.-The negotiations at Rastadt, 159.
-The secret understanding between France and Austria, ib.-Insult to the
French ambassador at Vienna, 161.-Conferences at Seltz, ib.-Rupture be-
tween Austria and France, 162.-Financial measures of the Directory, ib.—
Adoption of the law of the conscription, ib.
S
CHAPTER XXVI.-EXPEDITION TO EGYPT.
Importance of Egypt, 163.-Napoleon's ideas regarding it, 164.-His parting
address to the Italians, 165.-His journey across Switzerland, ib.—His life at
Paris, 166.-His reception by the Directory, ib.-Fêtes given by public bodies,
167.-Napoleon's private views in regard to his future life, 168.-Views of the
Directory: preparations for a descent on England, ib.-Napoleon's horror of
the revolutionary system, 169.-Reasons which determined him against the
English expedition, 170.-Preparations of the British government, ib.-
Napoleon persuades the Directory to undertake the Egyptian expedition, ib.—
Preparations for the expedition, 171.-The expedition sets sail, 173.—Capture
of Malta, 174.-Movements of Nelson, 175.-Napoleon lands and advances
against Alexandria, ib.-His first proclamation, 176.-Description of Egypt,
ib.-Policy of Napoleon in invading Egypt, 180.-His proclamation to the
Egyptians, ib.-His arrangements for advancing to Cairo, 181.-March across
the desert, ib.-Actions with the Mamelukes, 182.-Battle of the Pyramids,
184.-Napoleon enters Cairo, 185.—Proclamations of the Scheiks in his
favour, ib.-His civil government: he affects the Mussulman faith, 186.—
Discontents of the army, ib.-Expedition to Salahieh: Ibrahim Bey retires
into Syria, 187.-Intrigues of Napoleon with Ali Pasha, ib.-Treachery of
France towards Turkey, 188.-Nelson arrives at Alexandria, 189.—Battle of
the Nile, 190.-Honours bestowed on Nelson, 194.-Effects of this blow to
the French army, 195.-Passage of the Hellespont by the Russian fleet, 197.
-Situation of the French army: efforts of Napoleon, ib.-Expedition of
Desaix to Upper Egypt, ib.-Suppression of a revolt at Cairo, 198.-Expedi-
tion of Napoleon to the Red Sea, ib.-His designs, 199.-Passage of the Syrian
desert, 200.-Storming of Jaffa, ib.-Massacre of prisoners, 201.-Siege of
· Acre, 203.—Sir Sidney Smith's preparations for its defence, 204.-His
biography, note, ib.-Battle of Mount Thabor, 206.-Renewal of the siege,
207.-Napoleon retreats, 208.-Retreat of the troops to Egypt, 210.-Poison-
ing the sick at Jaffa, ib.-Contests during Napoleon's absence, 211.-Discon-
tents in the army, 212.-Battle of Aboukir, 213.-Desperate conflict between
the lines, 214.-Imprudent irruption and total destruction of the Turks, ib.
-Napoleon secretly sets sail for Europe, 215.-He lands in France, 216.

CHAPTER XXVII.-CAMPAIGN OF 1799-FROM THE RENEWAL OF THE
WAR TO THE BATTLE OF THE TREBBIA.
Revival of the spirit of Europe by the battle of the Nile, 217.-Preparations of
Austria and Russia, 218.-Treaty between England and Russia, ib.-The
income-tax imposed, ib.-Forces voted, 219.-Discontent at the French gov-
ernment, ib.-State of the forces of France, 220.-Their disposition, ib.—
Forces of the Imperialists, 221.-Operations in the Grisons, 222.-The Aus-
trians driven back into the Tyrol, 223.-Massena defeated at Feldkirch, 224.
·

vi
CONTENTS.
:
}
i
-Battle of Stockach, 226.-The Congress of Rastadt, 227.-Its dissolution,
and assassination of the French plenipotentiaries, ib.-Commencement of
hostilities in Italy, 229.-Success of the French, 230.-Serurier defeated, 231.
-Battle of Magnano, 232.-Corfu surrenders to the Russo-Turkish fleet, 233.
-Operations in Germany, ib.-Attack upon Massena's line, 234.-Insurrection
of the Swiss, ib.-General attack by the Austrians on the French in the
Grisons, 235.-Massena's position at Zurich: he is attacked by the Arch-
duke, 237.-—Massena retreats, 238.—Arrival of the Russians under Suwarroff
on the Mincio, 239.-Character of these troops and their commander, ib.—
Early history of Suwarroff, 240.-Plan of the Allies, and condition of the
French army, 243.-Moreau retreats behind the Adda, ib.—The passage of
the Adda forced, ib.-Suwarroff enters Milan, 244.-Check of the Russians,
245.-Moreau retreats, 246.-Suwarroff surprises Turin, and the castle of
Milan is taken, ib.-Suwarroff overruns Piedmont and Lombardy, 247.—
Errors of the Austrians, 248.-General revolt at Naples, ib.-Macdonald re-
tires to Tuscany, 249.-Position of the Allies, ib.-Battle of the Trebbia, 252.
-Retreat of the French, 254.-Operations of Moreau against Bellegarde, 255.
-Fall of the citadel of Turin, ib.-Moreau retreats, and Macdonald regains
Genoa, ib.-Reorganisation of both armies under Moreau, ib.-Suwarroff's
conduct in the preceding movements, 256.-Efforts of the Directory to get
back the army from Egypt, ib.-Expulsion of the republicans from Naples,
ib.-Violation of the capitulation by the Neapolitan court, 257.-Reflections
on the campaign, 259.
CHAPTER XXVIII.-CAMPAIGN OF 1799. PART II.-FROM THE BATTLE OF
THE TREBBIA TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE CAMPAIGN.
Dangerous position of France, 261.-Preparations of the Allies, 262—and of the
republicans, ib.-Levy of troops by the Directory, 263.-The Aulic Council
restrain Suwarroff, 264.-Separation of the Russian and Austrian forces, ib.
-Resumption of hostilities: siege of Mantua, 265.-Fall of Alessandria, and
siege of Tortona, 266.-Conduct of Moreau on Joubert's assuming the com-
mand, 267.—Battle of Novi, 268.-Moreau maintains himself on the Apen-
nines, and the victorious army separates, 270.-Operations of Championnet:
fall of Tortona, ib.-Situation of Massena and the Archduke at Zurich, 271.
-The theatre of war, ib.-Plan of the Allies, and of Massena, 273.-Attack
by Lecourbe on the St Gothard, ib.-Successes of the French left, 274.—At-
tempt of the Archduke to cross the Limmat, 275.-The Austrian left de-
feated in Glarus, 276.-Expedition of the Archduke against Mannheim, ib.—
Plan for a combined attack by Suwarroff and Korsakoff on Massena, ib.-De-
feat of Korsakoff at Zurich, 277.-Success of Soult against Hotze, 279.-
Operations of Suwarroff: forcing of the St Gothard, 280.-Struggle at the
Devil's Bridge, 281.-Passage of the ridge of Mutten, ib.-Is there surrounded,
and forced to retreat, 282.-Struggle at Näfels, ib.-Passage of the Alps of
Glarus, 283.-Descent into the Grisons, ib.-Conflict with Korsakoff, 284.-
Treaty for an expedition to Holland, ib.-The expedition sails: action at
the Helder, 285.-Early biography of Abercromby, note, ib.-Capture of the
Dutch fleet, 286.-The British attacked by the republicans, ib.-Early history
of Vandamme, note, ib.-Disasters of the Russians, 287.-Success of the
British, ib.-Removal of the Dutch fleet to England, 288.-Critical situation
of the Duke of York, 289.-Retreat of the British, ib.-They agree to evacu-
ate Holland, 290.-Affairs of Italy, 291.-Actions around Coni, 292.-Battle
of Genola, ib.-Success of St Cyr, and siege and fall of Coni, 293.-Attempt
of the Imperialists upon Genoa, 294.-Fall of Ancona, ib.-Position of the
parties at the conclusion of the campaign, 295.-Death of Championnet, ib.
-Jealousy between the Russians and Austrians, ib.-Suwarroff retires into
•
CONTENTS.
vii
Bavaria, 296.-Rupture between the cabinets of Vienna and St Petersburg,
ib.-Operations on the Lower Rhine, 297.-Success gained by the Allies in
the campaign, ib.—Internal situation of the republic, ib.-Rupture of the
alliance, 298.-Comparison of the Archduke Charles' and Napoleon's military
writings, 299.-Character of the Archduke, ib.-Comparison of the passage
of St Gothard by Suwarroff, and the St Bernard by Napoleon, 300.-Illness
and death of Suwarroff, 301.-Insignificance of the part which England took
in the struggle, ib.-Cause of the fall of the French power in 1799, 302.
CHAPTER XXIX-CIVIL HISTORY OF FRANCE, FROM THE REVOLUTION OF
THE 18TH FRUCTIDOR TO THE SEIZURE OF SUPREME POWER BY NAPOLEON.
SEPTEMBER 1797-NOVEMBER 1799.
Apathy after the revolution of the 18th Fructidor, 303.-Difficulties of govern-
ment, ib.-Dissatisfaction after the elections, 304.-Restoration of the liberty
of the press, ib.-League against the government, 305.-Revolution of the
30th Prairial, 306.-The new Directory, ib.-Efforts of the Jacobins to revive
the revolutionary spirit, 307.-Forced loan and conscription of 200,000 men,
308.-Law of the hostages, ib.-Insurrection in Brittany and La Vendée, ib.
-Violence of the Jacobins, 309.-Fouché appointed minister of police: his
character, 310.-He closes the Jacobin Club, ib.-State of France at this
period, 312.-Arrival of Napoleon, ib.-His reception by the Directory, 313.
Their intrigues with Louis XVIII., ib.-Junction of all parties to support
Napoleon, 314.-Dissimulation of his conduct, ib.-He resolves to join Sièyes,
315.-Measures resolved on, 316.-He tries in vain to gain Bernadotte, ib.—
Banquet at the Hall of the Ancients, 317.-Revolution of the 18th Brumaire,
318.-Formation of the consular constitution, 328.-Accession of Napoleon
to the consular throne, 330.-Durable freedom had been rendered impossible,
331.—Effects of the irreligion of France, 332.-Identity of courtiers and de-
mocrats, 333.-Centralisation of power introduced by the revolution, ib.—
Impulse given by the changes of the Revolution to the spread of Christianity,
335.
CHAPTER XXX.-FROM THE ACCESSION OF NAPOLEON TO THE CONSULATE, TO
THE OPENING OF THE CAMPAIGN OF MARENGO.
Napoleon's letter proposing peace to the British government, 336.—Answer
to it, ib.-Arguments of the Opposition for peace, 339.-Arguments of the
government for refusing to treat, 341.-Napoleon's views on the necessity
of conquest to him, 345.—Error of the English Opposition at this period, 346.
-Supplies voted, 347.-Mr Dundas's India budget: the union of Ireland,
ib.-Prosperity of the British empire, and rise of prices, 349.-Scarcity in
1800, 350.—Efforts of government to relieve it, ib.-Measures for the prose-
cution of the war, ib.-Treaties with Austria and Bavaria, 351.-Prepara-
tions of the Imperialists, ib.-State of the French affiliated republics, 352.
Measures of Napoleon to restore public credit, ib.-Effect of Napoleon's
government, 353.-Pacification of La Vendée, ib.-Execution of Count Louis
de Frotté, 354.—Submission of Bourmont and Georges, ib.-Napoleon effects
a reconciliation with the Emperor Paul, 355.-Revival of the military spirit
in France, ib.—Suppresses the liberty of the press, 356.-Fixes his residence
at the Tuileries, 357.--Commencement of court etiquette, 358.--Recall of
emigrants, 359.—The secret police, ib.-Comparison of his system of govern-
ment with the Byzantine, ib.-Napoleon's eulogy on Washington, 360.-His
designs for the architectural embellishment of Paris, 361.-Suppression of
the fête on the 21st January, and elevation of Tronchet, 362.-Correspon-
dence between Napoleon and Louis XVIII., ib.—APPENDIX, 364.
+
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
CHAPTER XXII.
INTERNAL TRANSACTIONS AND NAVAL CAMPAIGN OF GREAT BRITAIN IN 1797.
1. ALTHOUGH the war had now con- | superiority, she had in the preceding
tinued four years, and it was obvious winter narrowly escaped invasion in the
to all the world that Britain and France most vulnerable quarter, and owed to
were the principals in the contest, yet the winds and the waves her exemption
these two states had not as yet come from the horrors of civil war.
into immediate and violent collision.
Inferior powers required to be struck
down, weaker states to be removed from
the field, before the leaders of the fight
dealt their blows at each other; like
the champions of chivalry, who were se-
parated in the commencement of the
affray by subordinate knights, and did
not engage in mortal conflict till the
field was covered with the dead and the
dying. The period, however, was now
approaching when this could no longer
continue, for the successes of France
had been such as to compel Britain to
fight, not merely for victory, but for
existence. All the allies with whom,
and for whose protection, she had en-
gaged in the contest, were either strug-
gling in the extremity of disaster, or
openly arrayed under the banners of her
enemies. Austria, after a desperate and
heroic resistance in Italy, was prepar-
ing for the defence of her last barriers
in the passes of the Alps. Holland was
virtually incorporated with the conquer-
ing Republic. Spain had recently join-
ed its forces to its already overwhelm-
ing power. The whole Continent, from
the Texel to Gibraltar, was arrayed
against Great Britain; and all men were
sensible that, in spite of her maritime
2. The aspect of public affairs in Bri-
tain had never been so clouded since the
commencement of the war, nor indeed
during the whole of the eighteenth cen-
tury, as they were at the opening of the
year 1797. The return of Lord Malmes-
bury from Paris had closed every hope of
terminating a contest, in which the na-
tional burdens were daily increasing,
while the prospect of success was con-
tinually diminishing. Party spirit raged
with uncommon violence in every part
of the empire. Insurrections prevailed
in many districts of Ireland, discontent
and suffering in all. Commercial em-
barrassments were rapidly increasing,
especially in the commercial towns and
manufacturing districts of Great Bri-
tain; and the continued pressure on the
Bank of England in consequence of the
vast exportation of the precious metals
for the use of the Continental armies,
and the general tendency to hoard which
the dread of invasion had occasioned at
home, threatened a total overthrow of
public credit. The consequence of this
accumulation of disasters was a rapid
fall of the public securities; the three
per cents were sold as low as 51, having
fallen to that from 98, at which they
stood shortly before the commencement
VOL. IV.
2
[CHAP. XXII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
ƒ
of the contest in 1792; petitions for a
change of ministers and an alteration
of government were presented from al-
most every city of note in the empire,
and that general distrust and depres-
sion prevailed which is at once the cause
and the effect of public misfortune.
3. The first of these disasters was
one which, in a despotic state, unac-
quainted with the unlimited confidence
in government that, in a free state, re-
sults from long continued fidelity in
the discharge of its engagements, would
have proved fatal to the credit of gov-
ernment. For a long period the Bank
had experienced a pressure for money,
owing partly to the demand for gold
and silver which resulted from the dis-
tresses of commerce, and partly to the
great drains upon the specie of the
country which the extensive loans to
the Imperial government had occasion-
ed, and the vast expenditure of the Re-
publican and Austrian armies in Italy
and Germany had required. Their
requisitions and contributions, all of
which required to be paid in cash, oc-
casioned a prodigious demand for the
precious metals on the Continent, and
gave rise, of course, to a correspond-
ing drain on this country. So early as
January 1795, the influence of these
causes was so severely felt, that the
Bank Directors informed the Chancellor
of the Exchequer, that it was their wish
that he would so arrange his finances
as not to depend on any further assist-produced a constant fall in the value
of bank-notes, a rise in the price of all
the articles of human consumption,
augmented expenditure, and a continu-
ance of the insane and costly expedi-
tions, from which both the national
honour and security had already so se-
verely suffered. On the other hand, it
was contended by the friends of the ad-
ministration, that it never was the in-
tention of government to make bank-
notes a legal tender; that the measure
adopted was not a permanent regula-
tion, but a temporary expedient, to en-
able the bank to gain time to meet the
heavy demands which unexpected cir-
cumstances had brought upon it; that
the Bank of England was perfectly able
ultimately to make good all its engage-
ments, and so the public had already
4. This great and momentous mea-
sure, fraught with such lasting and im-
portant consequences to the prosperity
and fabric of society in Great Britain,
was immediately made the subject of
anxious and vehement debate in both
Houses of Parliament. On the one
hand, it was urged that this suspension
of credit was not owing to any tem-
porary disasters, but to deep, progres-
sive, and accumulating causes, which all
thinking men had long deplored, and
which had grown to a head under the
unhappy confidence which the House
had reposed in the king's ministers;
that the real cause of this calamity was
to be found in the excessive and extra-
vagant expenditure in all departments
of government, and the enormous loans
to foreign states; that the consequences
of this measure were certain, and might
be seen as in a mirror in the adjoining
Republic of France. They necessarily
ance from them; but the necessity of
remitting the subsidies to Austria in
cash rendered this impossible. It proved,
however, such a drain upon the Bank,
that, during the whole of that and the
following year, the peril of the con-
tinued advances for the Imperial loans
was strongly and earnestly represented
to government. The pressure arising
from these causes, severely experienced
through the whole of 1796, was brought
to a crisis in the close of that year, by
the run upon the country banks, which
arose from the dread of invasion, and
the anxiety of every man to convert his
paper into cash in the troubled times
which seemed to be approaching. These
banks, as the only means of averting
bankruptcy, applied from all quarters to
the Bank of England; the panic speedily
reached the metropolis, and such was
the run upon that establishment, that
it was in the last week of February re-
duced to paying in sixpences, and was
on the verge of insolvency. An Order
in Council was then, at the eleventh
hour, interposed for its relief, suspend-
ing all payments in cash, until the sense
of Parliament could be taken upon the
best means of restoring the circulation,
and supporting the public and com-
mercial credit of the country.
1797.]
3
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
become convinced, in the short interval | of revolutionary France, which ruined
all private fortunes.
which had elapsed since the Order in
Council was issued; that it was indis-
pensable, however, that Parliament
should be satisfied of this solvency, and
the necessity which existed for the
measure which was adopted, and there-
fore that the matter should be referred
to a secret committee, to report on the
funds and engagements of the Bank of
England, and the measures to be taken
for its ultimate regulation.
5. This measure having been carried
by Mr Pitt, a committee was appointed,
which reported shortly after that the
funds of the Bank were £17,597,000,
while its debts were only £13,770,000,
leaving a balance of £3,800,000 in favour
of the establishment; but that it was
necessary, for a limited time, to suspend
cash payments. Upon this, a bill for
the restriction of payments in specie
was introduced, which provided that
bank-notes should be received as a legal
tender by the collectors of taxes, and
have the effect of stopping the issuing
of arrest on mesne process for payment
of debt between man and man. The
bill was limited in its operation to the
24th June; but it was afterwards re-
newed from time to time, and in Nov-
ember 1797 it was ordered to continue
till the conclusion of a general peace;
and the obligation on the Bank to pay
in specie was never again imposed till
Sir Robert Peel's Act in 1819. The
effects of this great measure were soon
apparent. It administered enough, and
not more than enough, of the restorative
draught to the nation. Industry was
thereafter secured in remunerating
prices for its fruits; the life-blood cir-
culated in sufficient quantity through
the state. A currency was provided
adequate to the increased warlike and
pacific expenditure of the people, and
which supplied the place of gold, when
it was almost entirely draughted away
during the commercial and military
crises which followed. No difficulty
was thenceforward experienced by the
nation in the payment even of the
enormous taxes imposed before the close
of the war. The increased circulation
provided for everything, while it was
not issued with the senseless prodigality
6. Such was the commencement of
the paper system in Great Britain,
which ultimately produced such aston-
ishing effects; which enabled the em-
pire to carry on for so long a period so
costly a war, and to maintain for years
armaments greater than had been raised
by the Roman people in the zenith of
their power; which brought the struggle
at length to a triumphant issue, and ar-
rayed all the forces of Eastern Europe,
in British pay, against France, on the
banks of the Rhine. To the same sys-
tem must be ascribed ultimate effects
as disastrous as the immediate were
beneficial and glorious; the continued
and progressive rise of rents, the un-
ceasing, and to many calamitous, fall in
the value of money during the whole
course of the war; increased expendi-
ture, the growth of sanguine ideas and
extravagant habits in all classes of so-
ciety; unbounded speculation, prodi-
gious profits, and frequent disasters
among the commercial rich; increased
wages, general prosperity, and occa-
sional depression among the labouring
poor. But these effects, which ensued
during the war, were as nothing com-
pared to those which have since the
peace resulted from the return to cash
payments, and consequent contraction
of the currency by the bill of 1819.
Perhaps no single measure ever pro-
duced so calamitous an effect as that
has done. It has added at least a third
to the national debt, and augmented in
a similar proportion all private burdens
in the country; while, at the same time,
it has taken as much from the remu-
neration of labour and means of paying
it enjoyed by the community. It has
thus occasioned such a fall of prices as
has destroyed the sinking fund, ren-
dered great part of the indirect taxes
unproductive, and compelled in the end
a return to direct taxation in a time of
general peace. Thence has arisen a
vacillation of prices unparalleled in any

* BANK OF England NOTES IN CIRCULATION.
1796 £10,729,526 1799 £12,959,620
1797
1800
1798
11,114,120
13,095,830
16,854,809
16,203,281
1801
-See Chap. xcv., Appendix.
•
•
·
·
•
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXII.
{
|
age of the world, a creation of property | paid in gold or silver, but an extraor-
in some, and destruction of it in others, dinary difference between prices when
which, in its ultimate consequences, all discharged in a paper and ametallic cur-
but equalled the disasters of a revolu- rency. Notwithstanding all that the
tion.
spirit of party may have alleged, there
does not appear ever to have been any
traces of the latter effect in this coun-
try; or that at any period a higher
price was exacted for articles when
paid in bank-notes than in gold. There
was doubtless a very great enhance-
ment of the price of gold compared
with silver; insomuch that a guinea,
in 1810 and 1811, sold in England
for twenty-seven shillings. But that
was not because paper was depreciated
as compared with the precious metals,
but one of these metals-gold-on ac-
count of its portability, had become
enhanced in value as compared with the
other, from the great demand for it
during the wars in Germany and the
Peninsula. This species of deprecia-
tion, however, appeared in the highest
degree in France, where, when the credit
of government was almost extinct, a
dinner which, when paid in gold, cost
a louis, could only be discharged in
assignats for twenty-eight thousand
francs. But the former consequences
prevailed long, and with the most wide-
spread effects, in this country. Every
article of life was speedily doubled in
price, and continued above twenty years
at that high standard; and upon the
recurrence to a metallic currency in
1819, and consequent reduction of
prices to a corresponding extent, the
distress and suffering among the indus-
trious classes long exceeded anything
ever before witnessed in our history,
and produced effects which probably
never can be recovered from, and which
have implanted the seeds of death in
the British empire. But the full eluci-
dation of this all-important subject
must be reserved for the concluding
chapter of this work.
7. The way in which these extraor-
dinary, and in the end disastrous effects
have resulted from this change, and the
subsequent return to cash payments, is
as follows:-When government paper
is made, either directly or by implica-
tion, a legal tender in all the transac-
tions of life, two different causes may
conspire to affect prices, tending to the
same effect, but in very different de-
grees. The first is the general fall in
the value of money, and consequent
rise in the price of every article of life,
which results from any considerable
issue of paper; and this effect takes
place without any distrust in govern-
ment, from the mere increase in the cir-
culating medium, when compared with
the commodities in the general market
of the nation which it represents, or is
destined in its transmission from hand
to hand to purchase. This change of
prices proceeds on the same principles,
and arises from the same causes, as the
fall in the money price of grain or cattle,
from an excess in the supply of these
articles in the market. The second is
the far greater, and sometimes un-
bounded, depreciation which may arise
from distrust in the ultimate solvency of
government, or the means which the na-
tion possesses of making good its en-
gagements. To this fall no limits can
be assigned, because government may
not be deemed capable of discharging
a hundredth part of its debts; where-
as the variation of prices arising from
the former seldom exceeds a duplica-
tion of their wonted amount: an effect,
however, which is perfectly sufficient,
if continued for any considerable time,
and followed by a return to the old me-
tallic system, to make one half of the
property of the kingdom change hands.
8. The true test of the former effect
is to be found in a general rise in the
prices of every commodity, but with-
out any difference between the money
value when paid in specie and when
paid in paper; the mark of the latter
is, not only a rise in prices, even when
9. The Opposition deemed this a fa-
vourable opportunity to bring forward
their favourite project of Parliament-
ary Reform; as the disasters of the war,
the suspension of cash payments by the
bank, the mutiny of the fleet, which
will be immediately noticed, and the
failure of the attempt to negotiate with
1797.]
5
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
זי
1
France, had filled all men's minds with | could exist while the House was con-
stituted as it then was; that the voice
of complaint could not be silenced by
a sullen refusal to remedy the griev-
ance, and though this road might be
pursued for a season, yet the end of
these things was death. "Give, on the
other hand," said he, "to the people
the blessings of the constitution, and
they will join with ardour in its de-
fence; and the power of the disaffected
will be permanently crippled, by sever-
ing from them all the rational and vir-
tuous of the community."
consternation, and disposed many true
patriots to doubt the possibility of con-
tinuing the present system. On the
26th May, Mr (afterwards earl) Grey
brought forward his promised motion
for a change in the system of repre-
sentation, which is chiefly remarkable
as containing the outlines of that vast
scheme which convulsed the nation
when he was at the head of affairs in
1831, and subsequently made so great
a change on the British constitution.
He proposed that the qualification for
county electors should remain as it was,
but that the numbers they returned
should be increased from 92 to 113;
that the franchise should be extended
to copyholders, and leaseholders hold-
ing leases for a certain term; and that
the whole remainder of the members,
400 in number, should be returned by
one description of persons alone, name-
ly, householders. His plan was, that
the elections should be taken over the
whole kingdom at once, and a large
portion of the smaller boroughs be dis-
franchised. By this scheme, he con-
tended, the landowners, the merchants,
and all the respectable classes of the
community, would be adequately re-
presented; and those only excluded
whom no man would wish to see retain
their place in the legislature—namely,
the nominees of great families, who ob-
tained seats, not for the public good,
but for their private advantage. Mr
Erskine, who seconded the motion, fur-
ther argued, in an eloquent speech,
that, from the gradual and growing in-
fluence of the Crown, the House of
Commons had become perverted from
its original office, which was that of
watching with jealous care over the
other branches of the legislature, into
the ready instrument of their abuses
and encroachments; that there was now
a deep and widespread spirit of disaf-
fection prevalent among the people,
which rendered it absolutely indispen-
sable that their just demands should be
conceded in time; that further resist
ance would drive them into republican-
ism and revolution; that the head of the
government itself had once declared,that
10. On the other hand, it was con-
tended by Mr Pitt, that the real question
was not whether some alteration in the
system of representation might not be at-
tended with advantage, but whether the
degree of benefit was worth the chance of
the mischief it might possibly, or would
probably induce. That it was clearly
not prudent to give an opening to prin-
ciples which would never be satisfied
with any concession, but would make
every acquisition the means of demand-
ing with greater effect still more exten-
sive acquisitions; that the fortress of
the constitution was now beleagured on
all sides, and to surrender the outworks
would only render it soon impossible
to maintain the defence of the body of
the place; that he had himself at one
period been a reformer, and he would
have been so still, had men's minds
been in a calm and settled state, and
had he been secure that they would rest
content with the redress of real griev-
ances; but, since the commencement
of the French Revolution, it was too
plain that this would assuredly not be
the case. That it was impossible to be-
lieve that the men who remained un-
moved by the dismal spectacle which
their principles had produced in a neigh-
bouring state-who, on the contrary,
rose and fell with the success or decline
of Jacobinism in every country of Eu-
rope-were actuated by similar views
with those who prosecuted the cause
of reform as a practical advantage, and
maintained it on constitutional views;
and he could never give credit to the
assertion, that the temper of moderate
reformers would induce them to make
no upright or useful administration | common cause with the irreconcilable
6
[CHAP. XXII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1.
:
enemies of the constitution. That re- | probably lead to nothing but increased
form was only a disguise assumed to confusion, and more extravagant ex-
conceal the approaches of revolution; pectations. Examples exist illustrating
and that rapine, conflagration, and mur- both these results: the gradual relaxa-
der were the necessary attendants on tion of the fetters of feudal tyranny,
any innovation since the era of the and the emancipation of the boroughs,
French Revolution, which had entirely led to the glories of European civilisa-
altered the grounds on which the ques- tion; while the concessions of Charles
tion of reform was rested, and the class I., extorted by the vehemence of the
of men by whom it was espoused. That Long Parliament, brought that unhappy
these objections applied to any altera- monarch to the block; the submission
tion of the government in the present of Louis to all the demands of the
heated state of men's minds; but, in States-General, did not avert, but ra-
addition to that, the specific plan now ther hastened his tragic fate; and the
brought forward was both highly ex- granting of emancipation to the fierce
ceptionable in theory and unsupported outcry of the Irish Catholics, instead of
by experience. On a division, Mr Grey's peace and tranquillity, brought only
motion was lost by a majority of 258 increased agitation and more vehement
against 93.
passions to the peopled shores of the
Emerald Isle.
11. In deciding on the difficult ques-
tion of Parliamentary Reform, which
has so long divided, and still divides,
so many able men in the country, one
important consideration, to be always
kept in mind, is the double effect which
any change in the constitution of gov-
ernment must always produce, and the
opposite consequences with which, ac-
cording to the temper of the times, it
is likely to be followed. In so far as it
remedies any experienced grievance, or
supplies a practical defect, or concedes
powers to the people essential to the
preservation of freedom, it necessarily
does good; in so far as it excites de-
mocratic ambition, confers inordinate
power, and awakens or fosters passions
inconsistent with public tranquillity, it
necessarily does mischief, and may lead
to the dissolution of society. The ex-
pedience of making any considerable
change, therefore, depends on the pro-
portions in which these opposite ingre-
dients are mingled in the proposed mea-
sure, and on the temper of the people
among whom it is to take place. If the
real grievance is great, and the public
disposition unruffled, save by its con-
tinuance, unalloyed good may be ex-
pected from its removal, and serious
peril from a denial of change. If the
evil is inconsiderable or imaginary, and
the people in a state of excitement from
other causes, or the contagion of suc-
cessful revolutions in the adjoining
states, concession to their demands will
12. Applying these principles to the
question of Parliamentary Reform, as
it was then agitated, there seems no
doubt that the changes which were so
loudly demanded could not have re-
dressed any considerable real grievance,
or removed any prolific source of dis-
content; because they could not have
diminished in any great degree the pub-
lic burdens without stopping the war;
and experience has proved in every age,
that the most democratic states, so far
from being pacific, are the most ambi-
tious of military renown. From a greater
infusion of popular power into the le-
gislature, nothing but fiercer contests
and additional expenses could have
been anticipated. The concession, if
granted, therefore, would neither have
been to impatience of suffering, nor to
the necessities of freedom, but to the
desire of power in circumstances where
it was not called for; and such a con-
cession is only throwing fuel on the
flame. And the event has proved the
truth of these principles. Reform was
refused by the Commons in 1797, and,
so far from being either enslaved or
thrown into confusion, the nation be-
came daily freer and more united, and
soon entered on a splendid and un-
rivalled career of glory. It was con-
ceded by the Commons, in a period of
comparative tranquillity, in 1831, and
a century will not develop the ultimate
effects of the change, which hitherto

1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
7
at least, has done anything rather than
augmented the securities of durable
liberty, or removed the lasting causes
of popular discontent. Still less was it
called for in the former period as a
safeguard to real freedom, because,
though it was constantly refused for
four-and-thirty years afterwards, the
power of the people steadily increased
during that period, and at length ef-
fected a great democratic alteration in
the constitution.
13. The question of continuing the
war again occupied a prominent place
in the debates of Parliament. On the
side of the Opposition, it was contended
that, after four years of its maintenance,
the addition of £200,000,000 to the na-
tional debt, and £9,000,000 annually to
the taxes, the nation was farther than
ever from achieving the objects for
which the war had been undertaken;
that Holland and Flanders had succes-
sively yielded to the arms of the Re-
public, which, like Antæus, had risen
stronger from every fall; that all the
predictions of failure in its resources
had only been answered by increased
conquests and more splendid victories;
that the minister was not sincere in
his desire for a negotiation, or he would
have proposed very different terms from
those actually offered, to which it was
impossible to expect that a victorious
enemy would accede; that the real ob-
ject, it was evident, was only to gain
time, to put France apparently in the
wrong, and throw upon its government
the blame of continuing hostilities,
which had been unfortunately gained
through the diplomatic skill evinced
by the British ministers in the course
of a negotiation begun with most hol-
low intentions.
14. Mr Pitt lamented the sudden and
urforeseen stop put to the negotiations,
by which he had fondly hoped that a
termination would be put to a contest
into which we had been unwillingly
dragged. This failure was a subject of
regret and disappointment; but it was
regret without despondency, and dis-
appointment without despair. "We
wish for peace," said he, "but on such
terms as will secure its real blessings,
and not serve as a cover merely to secret
preparations for renewed hostilities;
we may expect to see, as the result of
the conduct we have pursued, England
united and France divided; we have
offered peace on the condition of giving
up all our conquests to obtain better
terms for our allies; but our offers have
been rejected, our ambassador insulted,
and not even the semblance of terms
offered in return. In these circum-
stances, then, are we to persevere in
the war with a spirit and energy worthy
of the English name, or to prostrate
ourselves at the feet of a haughty and
supercilious republic, to do what they
require, and submit to all they shall
impose? I hope there is not a hand in
his Majesty's councils which would sign
the proposals, that there is not a heart
in the House that would sanction the
measure, nor an individual in the Brit-
ish dominions who would serve as
courier on the occasion."

15. Parliament having determined,
by a great majority in both Houses, to
continue the contest with vigour, sup-
plies were voted proportioned to the
magnitude of the armaments which were
required. The sums for the expenses
of the war, in two successive budgets,
amounted, exclusive of the interest of
the debt, to £42,800,000. In this im-
mense aggregate were included two
loans, one of £18,000,000 and another
of £16,000,000, besides an Imperial
subsidy of £2,500,000, guaranteed by
the British government. To defray the
interest of these loans, new taxes to the
amount of £2,400,000 were imposed.
The land forces voted for the year were
195,000 men, of whom 61,000 were in
the British islands, and the remainder
in the colonial dependencies of the em-
pire. The ships in commission were
124 of the line, 18 of fifty guns, 180
frigates, and 184 sloops. This great
force, however, being scattered over the
whole globe, could hardly be assembled
in considerable strength at any parti-
cular point; and hence, notwithstand-
ing the magnitude of the British navy
upon the whole, they were generally
inferior to their enemies in every en-
gagement.
16. On the other hand, the naval
forces of France and her allies had now
8
[CHAP. XXII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
become very considerable. Then ap-
peared in clear colours the great peril
to British independence from the junc-
tion of the fleets of France and Spain,
and the wisdom which had guided the
cabinet of Anne, and sustained the ef-
forts of Marlborough and Eugene, to
avert so menacing a coalition of these
formidable powers. Powerful as the
British navy was, it was now decidedly
overbalanced, in numbers at least, by
the combined fleets of France, Spain,
and Holland. The Treaty of Utrecht
now brought forth its true fruits: the
policy of Bolingbroke and Harley, a
century before, now exposed England
to imminent peril. Nowise discouraged
by the unfortunate issue of the previous
attempt against Ireland, the indefati-
gable Truguet was combining the means
of bringing an overwhelming force into
the Channel. Twenty-seven ships of the
line were to proceed from the Spanish
shores, raise the blockade of all the
French harbours, and unite with the
Dutch fleet from the Texel, in the
Channel, where they expected to as-
semble sixty-five or seventy ships of
the line-a force much greater than any
which England could oppose to them
in that quarter. To frustrate these de-
signs, the British government had only
eighteen ships of the line, under Lord
Bridport, in the Channel, fifteen under
Admiral Jarvis, off Corunna, and six-
teen under Admiral Duncan, off the
Texel-in all forty-nine; forces much
inferior to those of the enemy, if they
had been all joined together. This is
sufficient to demonstrate by what a
slender thread the naval supremacy of
England was held, at the very time when
the victories of France enabled her to
combine against these islands all the
maritime forces of Europe; and how
vast is the debt of gratitude she owes
to those heroic minds who compensated
this inferiority in physical resources, by
an energy and patriotism never sur-
passed in the annals of mankind.
enemies of Britain were most formid-
able, and her finances most embarrassed,
threatened to deprive her of her most
trusty defenders, and brought the state
to the very verge of destruction. Un-
known to government, or at least with-
out their having taken it into serious
consideration, a feeling of discontent
had for a very long period prevailed in
the English navy. This was, no doubt,
partly brought to maturity by the de-
mocratic and turbulent spirit which
had spread from France through the
adjoining states; but it had its origin
in a variety of real grievances which
existed, and must, if unredressed, have
sooner or later brought on an explosion.
The sailors complained, with reason,
that while all the articles of life had
nearly doubled in price in the last cen-
tury and a half, and risen with extra-
ordinary rapidity since the present war
commenced, their pay had not been
augmented since the reign of Charles
II.; that prize-money was unequally
distributed, and an undue proportion
given to the officers; that discipline
was maintained with excessive and un-
due severity; and that the conduct of
the officers towards the men was often
harsh and revolting, and suited rather
to the severity of feudal discipline, than
the more liberal ideas of modern times.
These evils, long felt and murmured
against, were rendered more exasperat-
ing by the inflammatory acts of a num
ber of persons of superior station, whom
the general distress arising from com-
mercial embarrassment had driven into
the navy, and who persuaded the sailors,
that, by acting unanimously and de-
cidedly, they would speedily obtain re-
dress of their grievances. The influ-
ence of these new entrants appeared in
the secresy and ability with which the
measures of the malcontents were taken,
and the general extension of the con-
spiracy, before its existence was known
to the officers of the fleet.
17. But great as this peril was, it
was rendered incomparably more alarm-
ing, by a calamity of a kind and in a
quarter where it was least expected.
This was the famous Mutiny in the
Fleet, which, at the very time that the
18. The prevalence of these discon-
tents was made known to Lord Howe
and the Lords of the Admiralty, by a
variety of anonymous communications,
during the whole spring of 1793. But
they met with no attention; and, upon
inquiry at the captains of vessels, they
1797.]
9
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
were so ill informed that they all de- | Board of Admiralty was immediately
clared that no mutinous dispositions transferred to Portsmouth to endeavour
existed on board of their respective ships. to appease it. Earl Spencer hastened
Meanwhile, however, a vast conspiracy, to the spot, and, after some negotiation,
unknown to them, was already organ- the demands of the fleet were acceded
ised, which was brought to maturity on to by the Admiralty, it being agreed
the return of the Channel fleet to port that the pay of able-bodied seamen
in the beginning of April; and on the should be raised to a shilling a-day; that
signal being made from the Queen Char- of petty officers and ordinary seamen
lotte, by Lord Bridport, to weigh anchor in the same proportion, and the Green-
on the 15th of that month at Spithead, wich pension augmented to ten pounds.
instead of obeying, its crew gave three This, however, the seamen refused to
cheers, which were returned by every accept, unless it was ratified by royal
vessel in the fleet, and the red flag of proclamation and act of Parliament;
mutiny was hoisted at every mast-head. the red flag, which had been struck, was
In this perilous crisis, the officers of the rehoisted, and the fleet, after subordi-
squadron exerted themselves to the ut- nation had been in some degree restored,
most to bring back their crews to a state again broke out into open mutiny. Gov-
of obedience; but all their efforts were ernment, upon this, sent down Lord
in vain. Meanwhile, the fleet being Howe to reassure the mutineers, and
completely in possession of the insur- convince them of the good faith with
gents, they used their power firmly, but, which they were animated. The per-
to the honour of England be it said, sonal influence of this illustrious man,
with humanity and moderation. Order the many years he had commanded the
and discipline were universally observ- Channel fleet, the recollection of his
ed; the most scrupulous attention was glorious victory at its head, all con-
paid to the officers; those most obnox-spired to induce the sailors to listen
ious were sent ashore without molesta- to his representations; and, in conse-
tion; delegates were appointed from all quence of his assurance that government
the ships to meet in Lord Howe's cabin, would faithfully keep its promises, and
an oath to support the common cause grant an unlimited amnesty for the past,
was administered to every man in the the whole fleet returned to its duty, and
fleet, and ropes were reeved to the yard- a few days afterwards put to sea,
arm of every vessel as a signal of the amounting to twenty-one ships of the
punishment that would be inflicted on line, to resume the blockade of Brest
those that betrayed it. Three days harbour.
afterwards, two petitions were forward-
ed, one to the Admiralty, and one to
the House of Commons, drawn up in
the most respectful and even touching
terms, declaring their unshaken loyalty
to their king and country, but detailing
the grievances of which they complain-
ed; that their pay had not been aug-
mented since the reign of Charles II.,
though every article of life had ad-
vanced above one-third in value; that
the pensions of Chelsea were £13, while
those of Greenwich still remained at
£7; that their allowance of provisions
was insufficient, and that the pay of
wounded seamen was not continued till
they were cured or discharged.
19. This unexpected mutiny pro-
duced the utmost alarm both in the
country and the government; and the
VOL. IV.
20. The bloodless termination of this
revolt, and the concession to the sea-
men of what all felt to be their just de-
mands, diffused a general joy through-
out the nation; but this satisfaction
was of short duration. On the 22d May
the fleet at the Nore, forming part of
Lord Duncan's squadron, broke out into
open mutiny, and on the 6th June they
were joined by all the vessels of that
fleet, from the blockading station off
the Texel, excepting his own line-of-
battle ship and two frigates. These
ships drew themselves up in order of
battle across the Thames, stopped all
vessels going up or down the river, ap-
pointed delegates and a provisional gov-
ernment for the fleet, and compelled the
ships, whose crews were thought to be
wavering, to take their station in the
R
10
[CHAP. XXIL
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
middle of the formidable array. At the red-hot balls were kept in constant readi-
head of the insurrection was a man of ness; the fort of Tilbury was armed
the name of Parker, a seaman on board with a hundred pieces of heavy cannon,
the Sandwich, who assumed the title of and a chain of gun-boats sunk to debar
"President of the Floating Republic," access to the harbour of London. These
and was distinguished by undaunted re-energetic measures restored the public
solution and no small share of ability. | confidence; the nation rallied round a
Their demands related chiefly to the monarch and an administration who
unequal distribution of prize-money, were not wanting to themselves in this
which had been overlooked by the Chan- extremity; and all the armed men, sail-
nel mutineers; but they went so far in ors, and merchants in London, volun-
other respects, and were couched in such tarily took an oath to stand by their
a menacing strain, as to be justly deem- country in this eventful crisis.
ed totally inadmissible by government. 22. The conduct of Parliament on
At intelligence of this alarming insur- this trying occasion was worthy of its
rection, the utmost consternation seized glorious history. The revolt of the
all classes in the nation. Everything fleet was formally communicated to
seemed to be falling at once. Their both Houses by the king on the 1st
armies had been defeated, the bank had June, and immediately taken into con-
suspended payment, and now the fleet, sideration. The greater part of the
the pride and glory of England, appear- Opposition, and especially Mr Fox, at
ed on the point of deserting the national first held back, and seemed rather dis-
colours. The citizens of London dread- posed to turn the public danger into
ed a stoppage of the colliers, and all the the means of overturning the adminis-
usual supplies of the metropolis; the tration; but Mr Sheridan came nobly
public creditors apprehended the speedy forward, and threw the weight of his
dissolution of government, and the ces- great name and thrilling eloquence into
sation of their wonted payments from the balance in favour of his country
the treasury. Despair seized upon the "Shall we yield," said he, "to mutin-
boldest hearts; and such was the gen-ous sailors? Never; for in one mo-
eral panic, that the three per cents were ment we should extinguish three cen-
sold as low as 45, after having been turies of glory." Awakened by this
nearly 100 before the commencement of splendid example to more worthy feel-
the war. Never, during the whole con- ings, the Opposition at length joined
test, had the consternation been so great, the Administration, and a bill for the
and never was Britain placed so near suppression of the mutiny passed by a
the verge of ruin.
great majority through both Houses of
Parliament. By this act it was declared
death for any person to hold communi-
cation with the sailors in mutiny after
the revolt had been declared by procla-
mation; and all who should endeavour
to seduce either soldiers or sailors from
their duty were liable to the same
punishment. This bill was opposed by
Sir Francis Burdett, and a few of the
most violent of the Opposition, upon
the ground that conciliation and con-
cession were the only course which
could insure speedy submission. But
Mr Pitt's reply that the tender feel-
ings of these brave but misguided men
were the sole avenue which remained
open to recall them to their duty, and
that a separation from their wives, their
children, and their country, would pro-
|
21. Fortunately for Great Britain,
and the cause of freedom throughout
the world, a Monarch was on the throne
whose firmness no danger could shake,
and a Minister at the helm whose capa-
city was equal to any emergency. Per-
ceiving that the success of the muti-
neers in the Channel fleet had aug-
mented the audacity of the sailors, and
given rise to the present formidable in-
surrection, and conscious that the chief
real grievances had been redressed, gov-
ernment resolved to make a stand, and
adopted the most energetic measures
to face the danger. All the buoys at
the mouth of the Thames were removed;
Sheerness, which was menaced with a
bombardment from the insurgent ships,
was garrisoned with four thousand men;
+
1797.]
11
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
A
24
bably induce the return to duty which | associates. Several of the other leaders
could alone obtain a revival of that in- of the revolt were found guilty, and
tercourse of affection-was justly deem-executed; but some escaped from on
ed conclusive, and the bill accordingly board the prison-ship, and got safe to
passed.
Calais, and a large number, still under
sentence of death, were pardoned, by
royal proclamation, after the glorious
victory of Camperdown.·´
24. The suppression of this danger-
ous revolt with so little bloodshed, and
the extrication of the nation from the
greatest peril in which it had been
23. Meanwhile a negotiation was con-
ducted by the Admiralty, who repaired
on the first alarm to Sheerness, and
received a deputation from the mutin-
eers; but their demands were so un-
reasonable, and urged in so threatening
a manner, that they had the appearance
of having been brought forward to ex-placed since the time of the Spanish
clude all accommodation, and justify, Armada, is one of the most glorious
by their refusal, the immediate recur- events in the reign of George III., and
rence to extreme measures. These par- in the administration of Pitt.* Dis-
leys, however, gave government time daining to submit to the audacious de-
to sow dissension among the insurgents, mands of the mutineers, refusing to
by representing the hopeless nature of treat with them even when they held
the contest with the whole nation in the capital blockaded, they remained
which they were engaged, and the un-resolute in presence of the "floating
reasonable nature of the demands on republic" at the mouth of the Thames,
which they insisted. By degrees they without withdrawing a single ship from
became sensible that they had engaged the blockade of Brest, Cadiz, or the
in a desperate enterprise, and that the Texel. The conduct adopted towards
majority, even in their own profession, the insurgents may be regarded as a
would not stand by them. The whole masterpiece of political wisdom; and
sailors on board the Channel fleet gave the happiest example of that union of
a splendid proof of genuine patriotism, firmness and humanity, of justice and
by reprobating their proceedings, and concession, which can alone bring a
earnestly imploring them to return to government safely through such a crisis.
their duty. This remonstrance, coupled By at once conceding all the just de-
with the energetic conduct of both par- mands of the Channel fleet, and pro-
liament and government, and the gen- claiming a general pardon for a revolt
eral disapprobation of the nation, gra- which had too much ground for its jus-
dually checked the spirit of insubordi- tification, they deprived the disaffected
nation. On the 9th June, two ships of of all real grounds of complaint, and
the line slipped their cables and aban-detached from their cause all the pa-
doned the insurgents amidst a heavy triotic portion of the navy; while, by
fire from the whole line; on the 13th, resolutely withstanding the audacious
three other line-of-battle ships and two demands of the Nore mutineers, they
frigates openly left them, and took re- checked the spirit of democracy which
fuge under the cannon of Sheerness; had arisen out of those very concessions
on the following day, several others
followed their example; and at length,
on the 15th, the whole remaining ships
struck the red flag of mutiny, and the
communication between the ocean and
the metropolis was restored. Parker,
the leader of the insurrection, was
seized on board his own ship, and, after
a solemn trial, condemned to death; a
punishment which he underwent with
great firmness, acknowledging the jus-
tice of his sentence, and hoping only
that mercy would be extended to his
* The magnanimous conduct of the British
government on this occasion was fully appre-
ciated on the Continent. "Let us figure to our-
selves," says Prince Hardenberg, "Richard
revolt, taking at Sheerness the title of Ad-
Parker, a common sailor, the leader of the
miral of the Fleet, and the fleet itself, con-
sisting of eleven sail of the line and four
frigates, assuming the title of the Floating
Republic; and, nevertheless, recollect that
the English, but recently recovered from a
financial crisis, remained undaunted in pre-
sence of such a revolt, and did not withdraw
one vessel from the blockade of Brest, Cadiz,
or the Texel! It was the firmness of ancient
Rome."- HARD, İv. 432.
:
:

N

12
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXII.
*
|
themselves. For such is the singular | loyalty, and resolution to abide by him
combination of good and bad principles in life or death. Encouraged by this
in human nature, and such the dispo- heroic conduct, he declared his deter-
sition of man to run riot, on the least mination to maintain the blockade, and,
opening being afforded, that not only undismayed by the defection of so large
do our virtues border upon vices, but a part of his squadron, remained off the
even from acts of justice the most de- Texel with his little but faithful rem-
plorable consequences frequently flow. nant. By stationing one of the ships
Humanity borders on weakness; char- in the offing, and frequently making
ity itself may lead to ruin.
lead to ruin. Unless a
Unless a signals, as if to the remainder of the
due display of firmness accompanies fleet, he succeeded in deceiving the
concessions, dictated by a spirit of hu- Dutch admiral, who imagined that the
manity, they too often are imputed to vessels in sight were only the inshore
fear, and increase the very turbulent squadron, and kept his station until the
spirit they were intended to remove. remainder of his ships joined him after
the suppression of the insurrection.
25. Admiral Duncan's conduct at this
critical juncture was above all praise.
He was with his fleet blockading the
Texel, when intelligence of the insur-
rection was received, and immediately
four ships of the line deserted to the
mutineers, leaving him with an inferior
force in presence of the enemy. They
were speedily followed by several others;
and at length the admiral, in his own
ship, with two frigates, was left alone
on the station. In this extremity his
firmness did not forsake him : he called
his crew on deck, and addressed them
in one of those speeches of touching
and manly eloquence, which at once
melt the human heart.* His crew were
dissolved in tears, and declared, in the
most energetic manner, their unshaken
* "My Lads,-I once more call you to-
gether, with a sorrowful heart, from what I
have lately seen of the disaffection of the
fleets: I call it disaffection, for they have no
grievances. To be deserted by my fleet, in
the face of the enemy, is a disgrace which, I
believe, never before happened to a British
admiral, nor could I have supposed it possible.
My greatest comfort, under God, is, that I
have been supported by the officers, seamen,
and marines of this ship, for which, with a
heart overflowing with gratitude, I request
you to accept my sincere thanks. I flatter
myself much good may result from your ex-
ample, by bringing those deluded people to
a sense of the duty which they owe not only
to their king and country, but to themselves.
"The British navy has ever been the sup-
port of that liberty which has been handed
down to us from our ancestors, and which, I
trust, we shall maintain to the latest poster-
ity; and that can only be done by unanimity
and obedience. This ship's company, and
others who have distinguished theinselves by
their loyalty and good order, deserve to be,
and doubtless will be, the favourites of a
grateful nation. They will also have from
their inward feelings a comfort which will be
|
26. It was naturally imagined at the
time that this formidable mutiny had
been, in part at least, instigated by the
arts of the French government. But
though they were naturally highly elat-
ed at such an unexpected piece of good
fortune, and anxious to turn it to the
best advantage, and though the revolu-
tionary spirit which was abroad was un-
questionably one cause of the commo-
tion, there is no reason to believe that it
arose from the instigation of the Direc-
tory, or was at all connected with any
treasonable or seditious projects. On
the contrary, after the minutest inves-
tigation, it appeared that the grievances
complained of were entirely of a do-
mestic character, that the hearts of the
lasting, and not like the fleeting and false con-
fidence of those who have swerved from their
duty.
J
"It has been often my pride to look with
you into the Texel, and see a foe which dread-
ed coming out to meet us. My pride is now
humbled indeed!-my feelings cannot easily
be expressed. Our cup has overflowed, and
made us wanton. The all-wise Providence
has given us this check as a warning, and I
hope we shall improve by it. In Him, then,
let us trust, where our only security is to be
found. I find there are many good men
among us; for my own part I have had full
confidence in all in this ship, and once more
beg to express my approbation of your con-
duct.
"May God, who has thus far condutted
you, continue to do so; and may the British
navy, the glory and support of our country,
be restored to its wonted splendour, and be
not only the bulwark of Britain, but the ter-
ror of the world. But this can only be ef-
fected by a strict adherence to our duty and
obedience; and let us pray that the Almighty
God may keep us all in the right way of think-
ing.-God bless you all!"-Ann. Reg. 1797,
214.
1797.]
13
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
sailors were throughout true to their | spirit of disaffection in that fleet, that
even the glorious victory of St Vincent,
to be immediately noticed, could not
extinguish it. A dangerous member
of the London Corresponding Society,
country, and that, at the very time
when they were blockading the Thames
in so menacing a manner, they would
have fought the French fleet with the
same spirit as was afterwards evinced in
the glorious victory of Camperdown.
And, how alarming soever in its com-
mencement, the ultimate consequences
of this insurrection, as of most other
popular commotions which originate in
real grievances, and are candidly but
firmly met by government, were highly
beneficial. The attention of the cabi-
net was forcibly turned to the sources
of discontent in the navy, and from
that to the corresponding grievances in
the army; and the result was a series
of changes which, in a very great de-
gree, improved the condition of officers
and men in both services. The pay
of the common soldiers was raised to
its present standard of a shilling a-day;
and those admirable regulations were
soon after adopted in regard to pen-
sions, prize-money, and retired allow-borough, Lion, and Centaur, part of
ances, which have justly endeared the Sir Roger's squadron, which had with
memories of the Duke of York and great difficulty been kept in a state of
Lord Melville to the privates of both subordination during the voyage from
services.
Spithead. A court-martial was forth-
with assembled on board the flag-ship,
and one of the principal ringleaders
having been sentenced to be hanged,
St Vincent, according to his invariable
which had been checked, but not ex-
tinguished, by the trial of Hardy and
Horne Tooke,-named Bott, had got
on board, and spread far and wide the
seditious spirit by which that Society
was animated. It extended through
nearly all the ships in the fleet. In the
Romulus it first appeared; and the
captain only succeeded in appeasing it
for the time by a promise that the ves-
sel should on a certain day proceed to
England. St Vincent ratified it, but,
the day before the ship sailed, he draft-
ed every man out of her, and sent her
home with another crew. But it was on
the arrival of Sir Roger Curtis' squadron,
which joined the fleet from the Chan-
nel in September 1797, that the mutiny
became most alarming. It broke out
with great violence on board the Marl-
"
27. It was not in the Channel and
North Sea fleets alone, however, that this
dangerous mutiny had its ramifications.
Disturbances of a less conspicuous, but
not less serious kind, soon after appear-practice, ordered him "to be executed
ed at Plymouth, where they were only by the crew of the Marlborough alone,
suppressed by an extraordinary exer- no part of the boats' crews from other
tion of courage and energy on the part ships assisting on the occasion.' The
of Lord Keith.* The danger was still commander of the Marlborough, Cap-
more imminent in the fleet off Cadiz, tain Ellison, represented that the crew
which, had an admiral less firm and of his vessel would not obey the order,
energetic than Earl St Vincent been at and requested the aid of other boats'
its head, would in all probability have crews as usual on such occasions; but
been attended with the most disastrous St Vincent sternly replied, "Captain
consequences. So widespread was the Ellison, you are an old officer, have
* Lord Keith went on board the Saturn, suffered severely in the service, and
and gave the crew his opinion of their con- lost an arm in action; that man shall
duct, telling them that, if they surrendered be hanged at eight o'clock to-morrow
morning, and by his own ship's company,
for not another hand from any other
ship in the fleet shall touch the rope.
He took, however, the most effectual
measures to support Captain Ellison in
the discharge of this trying duty. All
the launches in the fleet, armed with
heavy carronades, and provided with
""
fourteen of their ringleaders, he should be
satisfied; but if they did not, he had a list of
fifty. After an appearance of crowding on
him, and a threat from him to run the first
man through who stirred, fourteen men were
delivered up to him and immediately put in
irons. This firmness and resolution instantly
restored subordination to the fleet.-PELLEW'S
Life of Lord Sidmouth, i. 190; a very valuable
and interesting life of a patriotic and intrepid
statesman.
143
14
[CHAP. XXIL
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
twelve rounds of ball cartridge, were of the law. What principally tended
ordered to be in attendance, manned to keep alive this alarming spirit, was
by trusty crews and gunners, under the frequent arrival of ships from Eng-
the command of an iron veteran, Cap- land, several of which were in a state
tain Campbell of the Blenheim. The of open mutiny, and nearly all brought
orders of St Vincent to him were, "if a spirit of disaffection with them. Fre-
any symptoms of mutiny appeared in quent mutinies broke out during the
the Marlborough, any attempt to open winter, and the dreadful sentence of
her ports, or any resistance to hanging the law was again and again inflicted;
the prisoner, he was to proceed close but they were all suppressed, and sub-
to the ship, fire into her, and continue ordination at length, though not till a
to fire till all mutiny or resistance considerable period had elapsed, was
should cease; and, if it should become restored throughout the fleet, by the
absolutely necessary, to sink the ship unflinching energy and iron determina-
in the face of the fleet."
tion of Earl St Vincent. The mutin-
28. At seven next morning, all the ous spirit was not now entirely con-
launches, thus armed, proceeded to the fined to the redressing of domestic
Marlborough, and took a position within grievances, or evils complained of in
pistol-shot of that vessel, athwart her the service. Excited by the agents of
bows: their guns were then loaded. the Corresponding Society in England,
At half-past seven, on a signal from the it aimed at revolution, and tended to
admiral's ship, all the hands on board an alliance with the enemies of their
the fleet were turned up to witness the country. The mutineers on board the
punishment, and at a quarter before Princess Royal pointed to Cadiz as
eight a powerfully armed boat quitted their future country. It required all
the flag-ship, bearing the prisoner to be St Vincent's firmness and energy to
executed by his own crew. It speedily extinguish the widespread spirit, but
neared the Marlborough; the man was he was equal to the crisis. When the
taken up, placed on the cat-head, and St George arrived from England with
the halter put about his neck. An some rebels in irons, whom Captain
awful silence of a few minutes ensued; | Peard had with dauntless courage seized,
every eye in the fleet was bent in in- a court-martial was immediately sum-
tense anxiety on the prisoner: the moned, who pronounced sentence on
crisis was come; discipline or mutiny | Saturday on the principal mutineers,
in a few seconds would prevail. The and it was carried into execution next
watch-bells of the fleet at length struck morning, though it was Sunday—a de-
eight; a gun at the same moment was viation from established usage which
discharged from the flag-ship, and in- made a great impression on the fleet,
stantly the man was hoisted in the air; as evincing the unflinching deter-
he soon dropped again, however, for mination of the commander-in-chief.
the men at the rope had unintention- At length the disaffection wore out,
ally let it slip. The anxiety through- the rebels finding that their reasonable
out the fleet now became unbearable, demands had been conceded by govern-
for it was thought the crew had resist-ment, and that their traitorous designs
ed the order. Presently, however, he were met with ceaseless vigilance, and
was hauled up to one of the yard-arms chastised with unbending rigour.
with a run. Lord St Vincent, for the
first time turning aside his eye, then
said, "The law is satisfied: discipline
has been preserved."
29. This was the crisis of the mutiny;
its spirit was indeed far from being ex-
tinguished, and dangerous disturbances
afterwards broke out on board particu-
lar vessels; but there was no disposi-
tion evinced again to contest the power
30. But whatever may have been the
internal dissensions of the British fleet,
never did it appear more terrible and
irresistible to its foreign enemies than
during this eventful year. Early in
February the Spanish fleet, consisting
of twenty-seven ships of the line and
twelve frigates, put to sea, with the de-
sign of steering for Brest, raising the
blockade of that harbour, forming a
1797.]
15
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
junction with the Dutch fleet, and other ships followed, opening a dread-
clearing the Channel of the British ful fire on the right and left as they
squadron. This design-the same as passed through. No sooner had he
that which Napoleon afterwards adopt- crossed the enemy's line, than Trou-
ed in 1805-was defeated by one of the bridge tacked again, and, followed by
most memorable victories ever record- the Blenheim, Prince George, Orion,
ed even in the splendid annals of the and Irresistible, engaged in close com-
English navy.
Admiral Jarvis (Earl bat the weather division of the enemy,
St Vincent), who was stationed off the which had been separated from the rest
coast of Portugal, had, by the greatest of the fleet. He thus succeeded in
efforts, and a degree of vigour almost engaging the enemy, who were loosely
unparalleled even in the glorious an- scattered, and still straggling in dis-
nals of the British navy, at length suc-orderly array, in close combat, before
ceeded in repairing the various most they had time to form in regular order
serious losses which his fleet had sus- of battle. By a vigorous cannonade,
|
tained during the storms of winter, these ships drove the nine Spanish ves-
and at this period lay in the Tagus sels which had been cut off to leeward,
with fifteen sail of the line, and six frig- so as to prevent their taking any part
ates. The moment he heard of the in the engagement which followed.
enemy's having sailed, he instantly put The Spanish admiral upon this endea-
to sea, and was cruising off CAPE ST voured to regain the lost part of his
VINCENT, when he received intelligence fleet, and was wearing round the rear
of their approach, and immediately of the British line, when Commodore
prepared for battle. He bore down on NELSON, who was in the sternmost
the starboard tack, the ships being in ship, perceiving his design, disregarded
the most compact order, standing to his orders, stood directly towards him,
the south before the wind; and, no- and precipitated himself into the very
thing daunted by the great superiority middle of the hostile squadron.‡
of force, nearly two to one, which they
presented to his own squadron, suc-
ceeded in breaking the enemy's line
between the eighteenth and nineteenth
ships of the Spanish fleet, where there
was a considerable opening.* Captain
Troubridge, in the Culloden, led the
van of the leading column, and, passing
slowly through the line, poured two
tremendous broadsides, double-shotted,
into the enemy's three-deckers; the
31. Bravely seconded by Captain
COLLINGWOOD in the Excellent, Nelson
wore and made all sail to aid the Cul-
loden, now closely engaged. He ran
his ship, the Captain, of 74 guns, be-
tween two Spanish three-deckers, the
Santissima Trinidada, of 136 guns, com-
manded by Admiral Cordova, and the
San Josef, of 112; and succeeded, by a
+ So delighted was St Vincent with this
movement, that on seeing it he said:
"Look
at Troubridge! He tacks his ship to battle
as if the eyes of all England were upon him;-
and would they were, for then they would
see him as I know him to be, and, by heaven,
sir! as the Dons will soon feel him."
TUCKER, i. 258.
|
* Lord St Vincent's expressions on this oc-
casion as they neared the combined fleet,
and the numbers of the enemy were an-
nounced, were highly characteristic. He was
walking the quarterdeck when the successive
ships were called out-"There are eighteen
sail of the line, Sir John."-"Very well, sir."
"There are twenty sail of the line, Sir John."
-“Very well, sir.” "There are twenty-five
sail of the line, Sir John."-"Very well, sir."
“Very well, sir."
There are twenty-seven sail of the line, Sir
John; near double our own. "Enough,
sir-no more of that, sir: the die is cast: if
there were fifty sail of the line, I will go
through them."-"That's right, Sir John!"
cried Hallowell, his worthy flag-captain;
"that's right! and add good licking we
shall give them." Such were the men, such
the spirit, by which the British empire in
those heroic days was saved.-TUCKER'S Life
of St Vincent u. 255-6.
""
This gallant movement of Nelson's was
in opposition to his orders, though impera-
tively called for by change of circumstances,
and on this account it was, in all probability,
that Nelson's name was not mentioned in St
Vincent's official despatch. But he fully ap-
preciated the importance of the movement.
Captain Calder having in the evening hinted
that the spontaneous movement of Nelson
and Collingwood was unauthorised, St Vin-
cent answered, "It certainly was so; and if
ever you commit such a breach of your
orders, I will forgive you also." After the
engagement, St Vincent received Nelson on
board his flag-ship in the most flattering
manner.-TUCKER's Life of St Vincent, i. 262.
V
16
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIL
-
ير
tremendous fire to the right and left, | decker, the Santissima Trinidada, on
in compelling the former to strike, al- the other. So close did he approach
though it escaped, in consequence of the former of these vessels, that, to use
Nelson not being able, in the confusion his own words, you
"could not put a
of so close a fight, to take possession of bodkin between them," and the shot
his noble prize. The action, on the from the British passed through both
part of these gallant men, continued for the Spanish vessels, and actually struck
nearly an hour with the utmost fury Nelson's balls from the other side. Af-
against fearful odds, which were more ter a short engagement, the Spaniard's
than compensated by the skill of the fire ceased on that quarter; and Col-
British sailors and the rapidity of their lingwood, seeing Nelson's ship effec-
fire. Meanwhile the Principe de Astu- tually succoured, moved on, and en-
rias, bearing the Spanish vice-admiral's gaged the Santissima Trinidada, which
flag, made a gallant effort to break the already had been assailed by several
British line, but was frustrated by Jar- British ships in succession. No sooner
vis in the Victory throwing in stays; was Nelson relieved by Collingwood's
and, in her attempt, the Spanish vessel fire, than, resuming his wonted energy,
received a dreadful broadside from that he boarded the San Nicholas, of 74
ship. At the same time, Collingwood guns, which had fallen on board the
engaged the Salvador del Mundo, of San Josef, of 112 guns, now entirely
112 guns. The action began when the disabled by the Captain's fire. Berry,
two ships were not more than fifty Nelson's first-lieutenant, was the first
yards apart, but such was the tremen- who got on board, by jumping into the
dous effect of the Englishman's broad- enemy's mizen-chains; he was quickly
sides that in a quarter of an hour the followed by the soldiers of the 69th,
Spanish three-decker struck her col- who were on board, and Nelson him-
ours, and her firing ceased; upon which self was as quick as lightning on the
that noble officer, disdaining to take enemy's deck. Resistance was soon
possession of beaten enemies, and see- overcome, they speedily hoisted the
ing his old messmate, Nelson, ahead, British colours on the poop; and, find-
hard pressed by greatly superior forces, ing that the prize was severely galled
passed on; and the Salvador, relieved by a fire from the decks of the San
from her antagonist, again hoisted her Josef, with which she was entangled,
colours, and recommenced the action. Nelson pushed on across it to its gigan-
But she was again compelled to strike, tic neighbour, himself leading the way,
and finally taken possession of by one and exclaiming, "Westminster Abbey,
of the ships which followed. Colling- or victory!" Nothing could resist such
wood immediately came alongside the enthusiastic courage; the Spanish ad-
San Isidoro, 74, so close, that a man miral speedily hauled down his colours,
might leap from the one to the other, presenting his sword to Nelson on his
the two vessels engaging thus at the own quarter-deck, while the British
muzzles of their guns. The combat ship lay a perfect wreck beside its two
was not of long duration; in ten mi- noble prizes.
nutes the Spaniard struck, and was
taken possession of by the Lively frig-
ate, to whom signal was made to secure
the prize.
33. While Nelson and Collingwood
were thus precipitating themselves, with
unexampled hardihood, into the centre
of the enemy's squadron on the lar-
board, the other column of the fleet,
headed by Sir John Jarvis in the Vic-
tory, of 100 guns, was also engaged in
the most gallant and successful man-
ner; though, from being the van on the
starboard tack, by which the enemy's
32. Though Collingwood had thus,
with 74 guns only, already forced two
Spanish line-of-battle ships, one of
which was a three-decker, to strike to
him, yet he was not contented with his
achievement, but pushed on yet farther
to relieve Nelson, who was now en-line was pierced, they were the rear on
gaged with the San Nicholas and San the larboard, where Nelson had begun
Josef on one side, and the huge four- his furious attack. The Victory, pass-
1797.]
17
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
ing under the stern of the Salvador del | board Nelson's ship, while above five
Mundo, followed by the Barfleur, Ad- hundred were lost on board the Spanish
miral Waldegrave, poured the most ships which struck alone-a signal
destructive broadsides into that huge proof how much less bloody sea-fights
three-decker, which surrendered and are than those between land forces, and
was secured, having previously been si- | a striking example of the great effects
lenced by the Orion, Captain Saumarez. which sometimes follow an inconsider-
These ships, moving on, engaged in suc-able expenditure of human life on that
cession the Santissima Trinidada, whose element, compared to the trifling re-
tremendous fire from her four decks sults which attend fields of carnage in
seemed to threaten destruction to every military warfare. Admiral Jarvis fol-
lesser opponent which approached her.lowed the beaten fleet to Cadiz, whither
At length, after having been most gal- they had retired in the deepest dejec-
lantly fought by Jarvis and Colling- tion, and with tarnished honour. The
wood, she struck to Captain, now Lord defeat of so great an armament by little
de Saumarez, in the Orion; but, that more than half their number, and the
intrepid officer, being intent on still evident superiority of skill and seaman-
greater achievements, did not heave-to, ship which it evinced in the British
in order to take possession; but think- navy, filled all Europe with astonish-
ing it sufficient that she had hoisted ment, and demonstrated on what doubt-
the white flag on her quarter, and the ful grounds the Republicans rested their
British union-jack over it, passed on, hopes of subduing these islands. The
leaving to the ship astern the easy task decisive nature of the victory was speed-
of taking possession. Unfortunately, ily evinced by the bombardment of
in the smoke, this vessel did not per- Cadiz on three different occasions, un-
ceive the token of surrender, but mov- der the direction of Commodore Nel-
ed on ahead of the Santissima Trini- son; and although these attacks were
dada after the admiral, so that the cap- more insulting than hurtful to the
tured Spaniard was encouraged, though Spanish ships, yet they evinced the
dismantled, to try to get off, and ulti- magnitude of the disaster which they
mately effected her escape. The remain- had sustained, and inflicted a grievous
der of the Spanish fleet now rapidly wound on the pride of the Castilians.*
closed in, and deprived Captain Sau-
marez of his magnificent prize; but the
British squadron kept possession of the
San Josef and Salvador, each of 112
guns, and the San Nicholas and San
Isidoro of 74 each. Towards evening,
the detached part of the Spanish fleet
rejoined the main body, and thereby
formed a force still greatly superior to
the British squadron; yet such was the
consternation produced by the losses
they had experienced, and the imposing
aspect of the British fleet, that they
made no attempt to regain their lost
vessels, but, after a distant cannonade,
retreated in the night towards Cadiz,
whither they were immediately fol-
lowed and blockaded by the victors.
35. Horatio Nelson, who bore so glo-
rious a part in these engagements, and
who was destined to leave a name im-
mortal in the rolls of fame, was born
at Birnam-Thorpe, in the county of
Norfolk, on the 29th September 1758.
His father was rector of that parish, of
respectable, but not noble descent. The
young Horatio early evinced so decided
a partiality for a sea-life, that, though
of a feeble constitution, he was sent on
shipboard at the age of thirteen. Even
before that first rude separation from
the paternal roof, however, the charac-
ter of the future hero had shown itself.
When a mere child he strayed far from
home, with a peasant boy of his ac-
34. This important victory, which
delivered England from all fears of inva-
sion, by preventing the threatened junc-
tion of the hostile fleets, was achieved
with the loss of only three hundred
men, of whom nearly one-half were on
* St Vincent was well aware of the vast
importance of a victory to Britain at that
critical moment. He said, when bearing down
on the enemy when going into action, "Our
captains have their ships in admirable order:
I wish they were well up with the enemy: a
victory is very essential to England at this
moment.
moment."-TUCKER'S Life of St Vincent, i. 255.
+

18
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXII.
C
turn for such rashness, "Sir," said he,
“I wished to kill the bear, that I might
carry the skin to my father." Subse-
"Iquently he distinguished himself as a
subaltern in various actions during the
American war. Early in the revolu-
tionary contest, he was employed in the
siege of Bastia, in the island of Corsica,
which he reduced--a singular coinci-
dence, that the greatest leaders both at
land and sea in that struggle should
have first signalised themselves in oper-
onations on the same island. After the
battle of St Vincent and the bombard-
ment of Cadiz, he was sent on an expe-
dition against the island of Teneriffe;
but though the attack, conducted with
his wonted courage and skill, was at first
successful, and the town for a short time
was in the hands of the assailants, they
were ultimately repulsed, with the loss
of seven hundred men and Nelson's
right arm. His ardent spirit chafed in
inaction, and he eagerly sought out
every occasion in which danger was to
be fronted, or glory won.
""
quaintance; and after being absent the
whole day, he was discovered alone,
sitting composedly by the side of a
brook, which he could not get over.
wonder," said the lady who found him,
that hunger and fear did not drive
you home."
"Fear!" replied the fu-
ture champion of England, "what is
it? I never saw Fear." On another oc-
casion, when his elder brother and he
were returning to school, on horseback,
they were obliged to return by a severe
snow-storm. Mr Nelson, however,
their coming back, suspected there was
some sham to avoid going to school,
and sent them again on their journey.
"If the road is dangerous, you may re-
turn," said he; "but recollect, I leave
it to your honour." The snow was
deep enough to have allowed them a
reasonable excuse for returning home,
but Horatio insisted on going on. "We
must go on," said he; "remember,
brother, it was left to our honour."
There were some fine pears growing in
the schoolmaster's garden, which all
the boys desired, but none of them ven-
tured to take. Horatio volunteered
upon the service, was lowered at night
by sheets from the bed-room window,
brought away the pears, and divided
them among the boys, keeping no part
to himself. "I only took them," said he,
"because every other boy was afraid."
36. He first entered the navy as a
midshipman, on board the Raisonnable,
of which his maternal uncle was cap-
tain; but that vessel was soon after
paid off. Nelson's love of adventure
made him volunteer on board the Race-
horse, which was sent by the Admir-
alty on a voyage of discovery to the
North Pole. The marvels of the North
Seas, the perilous adventures of the sea-
man's life, amidst their boundless fields
of ice, strongly attracted the young sea-
man's imagination. One night, during
the mid-watch, he dropped from the
ship's side, and followed a huge bear
for a great distance on the ice; his mus-
ket missed fire, but he was attacking ship would be lost if she kept her hold,
him with the butt-end, when Captain and deeming his own case desperate, he
Ludlow, seeing his danger, fired a gun seized the speaking-trumpet, and with
from the ship, which frightened the passionate threats ordered Ball to let
beast, and probably saved Nelson's life. him loose. But Ball took his own trum-
Being severely reprimanded on his re-pet, and in a solemn voice replied, “I
37. Gifted by nature with undaunted
courage, indomitable resolution, and un-
decaying energy, Nelson was also pos-
sessed of the eagle glance, the quick
determination, and coolness in danger,
which constitute the rarest qualities
of a consummate commander. Gener-
ous, open-hearted, and enthusiastic, the
whole energies of his soul were concen-
trated in the love of his country; he
loved danger itself, not the rewards of
courage; he was incessantly consumed
by that passion for great achievements,
that sacred fire, which is the invariable
characteristic of heroic minds. His soul
was constantly striving after historic ex-
ploits; generosity and magnanimity in
danger were so natural to him, that
they arose unbidden on every occasion
calculated to call them forth. On one
occasion, during a violent storm off Min-
orca, Nelson's ship was disabled, and
Captain Ball took his vessel in tow.
Nelson thought, however, that Ball's
1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
19
feel confident I can bring you in safe:
I therefore must not, and, by the help
of Almighty God, I will not leave you.
What he promised he performed, and
on arriving in harbour, Nelson embraced
him as his deliverer, and commenced a
friendship which continued for life.
|
38. His whole life was spent in the
service of his country; his prejudices,
and he had many, were all owing to the
excess of patriotic feeling. He annihi-
lated the French navy, by fearlessly fol-
lowing up the new system of tactics,
plunging headlong into the enemy's
fleet, and doubling upon a part of their
line-the same system which Napoleon
practised in battles on land. The his-
tory of the world has seldom characters
so illustrious to exhibit, and few achieve-
ments so momentous to commemorate.
But it is to his public conduct, and
genius afloat, only, that this transcend-
ent praise is due; in private life he ap-
pears in a less favourable light. Vain,
undiscerning, impetuous, he was often
regardless of his domestic duties; an
ardent lover, he was a faithless and in-
different husband. Possessed of no
knowledge of mankind in civil life, he
was little qualified to resist the impulse
of his vehement temperament amidst
its seductions. There he was frequently
subject to the delusion of art, and some-
times seduced by the passions of wicked-living, quitted his mess, lived on the
ness. Yet there was something elevated ship's allowance, washed and mended
even in his failings, they were owing his own clothes, made three pair of
to the energetic temperament of his trousers out of the ticking of his bed,
mind; they arose from passions nearly and thus saved money enough to take
allied to virtue, and to which heroic up his bill. So early does decision of
characters in all ages have, in a peculiar character and integrity of principle in
manner, been subject. His patriotic the really great display itself in life.
spirit mastered the indignation which
he frequently felt at his exploits not
being rewarded in a more worthy spirit
by his country: a forgetfulness for
which no excuse can be found in our
rulers, but which is too often the case
when greatness is placed under the com-
mand of talent inferior to itself. In
one unhappy instance, however, he was
betrayed into more serious delinquen-nary displays of valour and skill even
cies. If a veil could be drawn over the in that war, so fertile in great exploits.
transactions at Naples, history would The mutiny which broke out with such
dwell upon him in his public character violence in the Channel fleet and at the
as a spotless hero; but justice requires Nore in 1797, had also its ramifications
that cruelty should never be palliated, ❘ in the fleet under his command, off the
39. Sir John Jarvis, afterwards creat-
ed EARL ST VINCENT, one of the great-
est and most renowned admirals that
ever appeared in the British navy, pos-
sessed qualities which, if not so brilliant
as those of his illustrious rival, were
not less calculated for great and glori-
ous achievements. He was born at
Meaford, in Staffordshire, on the 21st
January 1734. His father, who was
Counsel and Solicitor to the Admiralty,
was desirous to train him up to his own
profession, to which young Jarvis was
by no means disinclined; but he was
dissuaded from it, by being told by his
father's coachman, as he sat beside him
on the box, that all lawyers were rogues.
Having afterwards heard from a com-
panion some stories of the adventures
of a sailor's life, he resolved to go to
sea; ran away from school, and con-
cealed himself on board a ship at Wool-
wich for that purpose. His father was
by no means affluent, and gave him £20
when he heard where he was, which was
all the patrimony he ever received. The
young sailor afterwards drew a bill for
another £20, which came back unpaid;
he immediately changed his mode of
40. He first entered the service on
board the Prince; in the year 1759 he
was lieutenant of the Namur, and was
with that vessel at the siege and cap-
ture of Quebec in that year, in which
service he greatly distinguished himself.
An action which he soon after fought
with the Foudroyant of eighty-four
guns, was one of the most extraordi-
and the rival of Napoleon must be
shielded from none of the obloquy con-
sequent on the fascination of female
wickedness.
17
20
[CHAP. XXII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE
4
Spanish coast; and by the mingled firm- | recounting the deeds of human base-
ness and clemency of his conduct, he suc- ness, and mortified with contemplating
ceeded in reducing the most disorderly the frailty of illustrious men, gathers a
vessels to obedience, with a singularly soothing refreshment from such scenes
small effusion of human blood. He was as these; where kindred genius, excit-
resolution itself. Danger never deterred, ing only mutual admiration and honest
difficulty never embarrassed him, where rivalry, gives birth to no feeling of jeal-
duty was to be performed. What he ousy or envy, and the character which
did himself, he enforced without scruple stamps real greatness is found in the
from others. A severe disciplinarian, genuine value of the mass, as well as
strict in his own duties, rigorous in the in the outward splendour of the die;
exaction of them from others, he yet the highest talents sustained by the
secured the affections both of his offi- purest virtue; the capacity of the states-
cers and men by the impartiality of his man, and the valour of the hero, out-
decisions, the energy of his conduct, shone by the magnanimous heart which
and the perfect nautical skill which he beats only to the measures of gener-
was known to possess. It is doubtful osity and justice.
if even Nelson would have been equal
to the extraordinary exertion of vigour
and capacity with which, in a period of
time so short as to be deemed impos-
sible by all but himself, he succeeded
in fitting out his squadron from the
Tagus in February 1797, in sufficient
time to intercept and defeat the Span-
ish fleet. In the high official duties as
First Lord of the Admiralty, with which
he was intrusted in 1802, he exhibited
a most praiseworthy zeal and anxiety
for the detection of abuses, and he suc-
ceeded in rooting out many lucrative
corruptions which had fastened them-
selves upon that important branch of
the public service; although he perhaps
yielded with too much facility to that
unhappy mania for reducing our estab-
lishments, which invariably seizes the
English on the return of peace, and has
so often exposed to the utmost danger
the naval supremacy of Great Britain.
41. But in nothing, perhaps, was his
energy and disinterested character more
clearly evinced than in his conduct in
1798, when he despatched Nelson to
the Mediterranean at the head of the
best ships in his own fleet, and fur-
nished him with the means of striking
a blow destined to eclipse even his own
well-earned fame. But these two great
men had no jealousy of each other;
their whole emulation consisted in mu-
tual efforts to serve their country, and
they were ever willing to concede the
highest mead of praise to each other.
The mind of the historian, as it has
been eloquently observed, “weary with
·
42. Differing in many essential par-
ticulars from both of these illustrious
men, EARL HOWE was one of the most
distinguished characters which the Eng-
lish navy ever produced. He was born
in 1725, the second son of Emanuel
Howe, member of parliament for Not-
tingham, the eldest son of an old and
distinguished family. Young Howe en-
tered the navy at fourteen on board the
Severn, which rounded Cape Horn with
Commodore Anson, and shared in the
distresses and sufferings of that mem-
orable expedition. His character early
displayed itself. Of him, perhaps, more
truly than of any other of England's
illustrious chiefs, may it be said, as of
the Chevalier Bayard, that he was with-
out fear and without reproach. He had
the enterprise and gallant bearing so
general in all officers in the naval ser-
vice of Great Britain; but these quali-
ties in him were combined with cool-
ness, firmness, and systematic arrange-
ment, with a habitual self-control and
humanity to others, almost unrivalled
in those intrusted with supreme com-
mand. In early life he contracted an
intimate friendship with General Wolfe,
and was employed with him in the ex-
pedition against the Isle d'Aix in Basque
Roads in 1757. "Their friendship,"
says Walpole, "was like the union of
cannon and gunpowder. Howe, strong
in mind, solid in judgment, firm of
purpose; Wolfe, quick in conception,
prompt in execution, impetuous in ac-
tion." His coolness in danger may be
judged of from one anecdote. When
초
​1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
21
r
44. CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD, after-
wards Lord Collingwood, one of the
brightest ornaments of the British navy,
was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on 26th
September 1748. His father, though
possessed only of a moderate fortune,
was of an ancient and respectable fa-
mily, which had suffered for its fidelity
to the house of Stuart. In early youth
he attended a school in Newcastle kept
by the Reverend Hugh Moises, where,
among his playfellows, were two boys
of the name of Scott, one of whom af-
terwards became the greatest lawyer of
England, Lord Chancellor Eldon, the
43. In person he was tall and well other, Lord Stowell, the judge in Eu-
proportioned, his countenance of a se- rope most deeply learned in general
rious cast, and dark, but relaxing at jurisprudence. From his earliest years
times into a sweet smile, which be- young Collingwood was remarkable for
spoke the mildness and humanity of his the sweetness and gentleness of his dis-
disposition. No one ever conducted position, a peculiarity which never af-
the stern duties of war with more con- terwards forsook him; and when first
sideration for the sufferings both of his sent to sea, on board the Shannon, at
own men and his adversaries, or mingled the age of eleven, his heart was so melt-
its heroic courage with a larger share of ed by the separation from his family,
benevolent feeling. Disinterested in the that he sat crying in a corner of the
extreme, his private charities were un-vessel till a good-natured officer took
bounded; and in 1798, when govern- him by the hand, and spoke kindly to
ment received voluntary gifts for the him, to whom, with infantine simplicity,
expenses of the war, he sent his whole he offered a piece of cake his mother
annual income, amounting to eighteen had given him. In 1774, he was en-
hundred pounds, to the bank, as his gaged with a party of seamen in the bat-
contribution. Such was his humanity tle of Bunkershill, and in 1776 he was
and consideration for the seamen under sent to the West Indies, where Nelson
his command, that it was more by the was at the same time, and there com-
attachment which they bore to him, menced the friendship between these
than by any exertion of authority, that great men, which only terminated with
he succeeded in suppressing, without the death of the latter.
effusion of blood, the formidable mu-
tiny in the Channel fleet. He was the
founder of the great school of English
admirals, and, by his profound nautical
skill and long attention to the subject,
first succeeded in reducing to practice
that admirable system of tactics to
which the unexampled triumphs of the
war were afterwards owing. A disin-
terested lover of his country, entirely
exempt from ambition of every kind,
he received the rewards with which his
sovereign loaded him with gratitude,
but without desire; the only complaints
he ever made of government were
for the neglect of the inferior naval
officers who had served in his naval
exploits.
45. In 1780 he was appointed to the
command of the Pelican frigate, and in
1783 to the Sampson of 64 guns; and
from that time till his death in 1810,
he was almost continually at sea, and
actively engaged in the service of his
country. He bore a distinguished part
in the glorious victory of the 1st June,
when he commanded the Barfleur. Per-
haps no officer ever went through so
long and uninterrupted a course of
public duty; for, of fifty years that he
was in the navy, forty-four were spent
in active service abroad; and from 1793
to his death in 1810, he was only one
year ashore. This incessant toil, and
the difficult and responsible diplomatic
duties with which it was connected in
in command of the Channel fleet, after
a dark and boisterous night, when the
ships were in considerable danger of
running foul, Lord Gardiner, then third
in command, a most intrepid officer,
next day went on board the Queen
Charlotte, and inquired of Howe how
he had slept, for that he himself had
not been able to get any rest from anx-
iety of mind. Lord Howe replied that
he had slept perfectly well; for as he had
taken every possible precaution before
it was dark, for the safety of the ship
and crew, this consciousness set his
mind perfectly at ease.
1

22
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIL
h
1
his later years, when in command of the
Mediterranean fleet, at length broke
down a constitution naturally strong,
and wore out a spirit blessed with un-
usual serenity, so that he died in 1810,
on shipboard, at the age of sixty-one,
literally a martyr in the service of his
country. On one occasion he was two-
and-twenty months at sea without ever
once entering a port or dropping an
anchor. This lengthened and harassing
service constituted a peculiar hardship
as regards Collingwood; for never was
a man more warmly attached to his
family, or who sighed more ardently,
amidst all his glory, for the blessed re-
ward of domestic love. But not a mur-
mur ever escaped him at this length-
ened and painful separation; and when
once made aware that his country re-
quired, and could not dispense with his
services, he prepared to waste away and
expire on shipboard, with the same
alacrity as he would have met death
amidst the thunders of Trafalgar.*
46. Collingwood was the most spot-ever the blow fell: lion-hearted and
lese hero of that age of glory. He had undaunted, none led the way on such
not the passion for fame which con- a service with more heroic resolution.
sumed Nelson, nor the ardent genius Side by side with Nelson, he threw
which gave his arm the force of the himself into the cluster of first-rate
thunderbolt. His turn of mind was men-of-war, which at St Vincent were
different; it was of a milder and holier wearing round to support the cut-off
character; it was more akin to the part of their line; alone he plunged into
spirit of Heaven. A sense of duty, a the centre of the combined fleet at Tra-
devoted patriotism, a forgetfulness of falgar, and all but made the Spanish ad-
self, directed all his actions. Naturally miral in his huge three-decker strike
mild and benevolent, he seldom ordered before another British ship had come
I
a corporal punishment without shed-up to his assistance. Nor were his
abilities in civil administration inferior
to his capacity in war. At once a cau-
tious and skilful diplomatist, he con-
ducted the complicated affairs of Great
Britain in the Mediterranean for the
few years preceding his death, and
when in command of the fleet on that
* "I have laboured past my strength: I
have told Lord Mulgrave so, that I may come
and enjoy the comforts of my own blessed
family again, and get out of the bustle of the
world, and of affairs which are too weighty
for me. God bless you! how rejoiced will
my poor heart be when I see you all again!"
-Lord Collingwood to Lady Collingwood, Aug.
13, 1808-Memoirs, ii. 236.
he frequently drafted the most ungov-
ernable spirits into the Excellent.
"Send them to Collingwood," he used
to say, "and he will bring them to
order." On one occasion a seaman was
sent from the Romulus, who had point-
ed one of the forecastle guns, shotted
to the muzzle, at the quarter-deck, and
swore he would fire it, if the officers
did not promise that he should receive
no punishment. Collingwood, on his
arrival, called him up before the ship's
company, and said, "I know your cha-
racter well: behave properly, and all
shall be forgotten. But beware; if
you attempt to excite insubordination
in my ship, I will instantly put you up
in a barrel and throw you into the sea.
Under the treatment he received in the
Excellent, the man soon became a good
and obedient sailor.
""
47. No man more thoroughly under-
stood the great art of tactics-that of
precipitating himself at once into the
enemy's line, and striking home wher-
ding tears-never without enduring in-
tense suffering; nevertheless, no officer
in the fleet maintained stricter disci-
pline, or had his crew in more thorough
subjection. So well was this under-
stood in the navy, that when Lord St
Vincent was engaged with so much
vigour in repressing the spirit of insub-station, with such ability, that nearly
ordination in the Mediterranean fleet, its whole management came at length
at the time of the mutiny at the Nore, to be intrusted to him, and the inces-
sant toil thence arising at length brought
him to an untimely grave. Exemplary
in all the duties of domestic life, a firm
friend, a kind and faithful husband,
an affectionate parent, he found time,
when in command of the fleet off Tou-
lon, and charged with all the diplo-
macy of the Mediterranean, to devote
7
དཡཏྟཱ། ཡ

1797.]
23
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
circle, the education of his daughters,
even the relief of the poor in his neigh-
bourhood. A sense of duty, a forgetful-
ness of self, a deep feeling of religious
obligation, were the springs of all his
actions. If required to specify the
hero whose life most completely em-
bodied the great principles for which
England contended in the war, and the
maintenance of which at length brought
her victorious out of its dangers, the
historian would without hesitation fix
on Collingwood.*
much of his thoughts to his domestic | in the course of which the British cop-
per-bottomed vessels rapidly gained on
the enemy The Monarch had not that
advantage, but, by Duncan's admirable
management, he was one of the first in
the fleet to get into action. He steered
direct into the middle of the three
sternmost of the enemy's vessels, and,
when warned of the danger of doing
so before the other British ships could
get up to his support, he calmly re-
plied, "I wish to be among them," and
held straight on. He was soon among
the Spanish fleet, and engaged the St
Augustin on one side, yard-arm to
yard-arm, and two other vessels, one of
which bore eighty guns, on the other,
and succeeded in compelling the former
to strike, and forcing the two latter to
sheer off. Subsequently he bore a dis-
tinguished part in the brilliant series of
manoeuvres by which Lord Howe, in
1782, revictualled Gibraltar, at the head
of thirty-four ships of the line, in the
face of the combined fleet of forty-six.
On the 1st February 1793 he was made
vice-admiral; but his merits were so
little regarded by the Admiralty, sel-
dom prone to bring forward persons
who have not the advantage of aristo-
cratic birth, that for long he could not
obtain employment, and he even had
serious thoughts of quitting the service
altogether. At length, in April 1795,
in consequence of a connection by mar-
riage with Mr Dundas, afterwards Lord
Melville, he received the chief command
in the North Seas, and with it the op-
portunity, in its most critical period,
of proving the saviour of his country.
48. ADAM DUNCAN, afterwards Vis-
count Duncan of Camperdown, was
born at Dundee on the 1st July 1731,
of which town his father was after-
wards Provost. He received the rudi-
ments of his education in that town,
and was already remarked in his early
youth for the suavity of manner and
evenness of temper, which he continued
to display through the whole of life.
He entered the navy in 1740, on board
of the Shoreham frigate, and was pre-
sent at the taking of the Havannah by
Commodore Keppel in 1761, when he
commanded the Valiant, 74, on board
of which the Commodore had hoisted
his broad pendant. On that occasion
Duncan commanded the boats of the
squadron, and distinguished himself
particularly by the ability with which
they were conducted. When the Ameri-
can war broke out, he was appointed
to the command of the Monarch, 74,
and evinced great skill in contending
with the superior fleets of France and
Spain, when they cleared the Channel
in 1779.
49. An opportunity, however, soon
occurred of combating the enemy on
terms of equality, and again asserting
the superiority of the British flag. In
1780 he was sent under Rodney to co-
operate in the revictualling of Gibral-
tar, then blockaded by the French and
Spanish fleets. Off Cape St Vincent
they fell in with the Spanish fleet in a
heavy gale, and immediately gave chase,
* For_ample_authority for these observa-
tions, the reader is referred to the Corre-
spondence of Lord Collingwood, published by
G. L Collingwood, Esq., in two volumes, one
of the most interesting and delightful books
in the English language
50. Duncan's character, both in pro-
fessional daring and domestic sauvity,
closely resembled that of Collingwood.
He had the same rapid eye and intre-
pid decision in action, the same bold-
ness in danger, the same vigour in com-
mand, the same gentleness in disposi-
tion. Tall, majestic in figure, with an
athletic form and noble countenance,
he recalled the image of those heroes in
whom the imagination of the poets has
loved to embody the combination of
vigour and courage with strength and
beauty. The rapidity of his decision,

+ The St Augustin afterwards escaped
during the gale.
24
[CHAP. XXII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
the justice of his glance, was equal to
that of Nelson himself: the breaking
of the Dutch line at Camperdown, and
interposition of the British fleet be-
tween the enemy and their own shore,
was dictated by the same genius which
led Nelson to pierce and assail in rear
the French squadron at Aboukir. But
the most glorious, because the most
unexampled part of his career, was the
manner in which, when deserted by all
his fleet except one ship, he kept his
station off the Helder, during the mu-
tiny at the Nore, and by his personal
influence and courage maintained, at
that terrible crisis, his own crew in
subjection, and with them the appear-
ance of a blockade, with two ships of
the line, against fifteen. It is not going
too far to say, that on his single con-
duct, on that occasion, the salvation
of England depended; for, if the Texel
fleet had put to sea, and joined the
Brest squadron during the mutiny at
the Nore, where might now have been
the British empire?
ship's company with emotion, said,
"Let those who will stand by me and
my officers go to the starboard side of
the ship, that we may see who are our
friends and who are our enemies."
Overcome by the grandeur of his con-
duct, with one accord the whole crew
ran over, except the six mutineers, who
were left alone. They were immediate-
ly secured, and put in irons; and with
this crew, recently so rebellious, did the
this noble admiral proceed, accompa-
nied only by one ship of the line, the
Adamant, to renew his station off the
Texel. The mutineers soon evinced
real repentance, and were let out by
Duncan one by one; and never did a
ship's company behave more nobly
than the whole crew of the Venerable
did, both in the blockade and at the
battle of Camperdown. Such was Dun-
can's firmness; by such men it was, at
this vital crisis, that the British empire
was saved. Never, in modern times,
was more courage combined with more
gentleness; greater vigour with greater
wisdom; purer patriotism with loftier
religion; stronger professional genius
with more elevated and devoted prin-
ciple. If Great Britain, in her pacific and
warlike administration, could reckon
on a succession of such men as Colling-
wood and Duncan, she would indeed
be immortal, for she would deserve im-
mortality.
51. It was not without a violent
struggle, and no small exertion, both of
moral and physical courage, that the
mutiny was suppressed, even in Dun-
can's own ship. Symptoms of insub-
ordination had broken out on board
her in Yarmouth roads, when the other
ships were dropping off to the Nore;
and at length the crew mounted the
rigging, and gave three cheers, the well-
known sign of mutiny. Duncan im-
mediately ordered up the marines, who
were perfectly steady, seized six of the
mutineers, and called the whole ship's
company on deck. "My lads," said he,
"I am not apprehensive of any violence
you may exercise towards myself; I
would far rather rule you by love than
by fear; but I will, with my own hands,
put to death the first person who shall
venture to dispute my authority. Do
you, sir," turning to one of the mutin-
eers, want to take the management of
the ship out of my hands?" "Yes,
sir,” replied the fellow. Duncan upon
this, who had his sword drawn, raised
it to plunge it in his breast; but the
chaplain and secretary held his arm.
The admiral upon this did not attempt
to use the weapon, but, addressing the
"
52. Less remarkable in general his-
tory than the illustrious heroes of whom
a sketch has now been given, Sir JAMES
DE SAUMAREZ was scarcely inferior to
any of them in naval skill, amiable cha-
racter, and heroic intrepidity. He was
born in St Peter-Port, in Guernsey, on
the 11th March 1757, so that he was
already in middle life when the revolu-
tionary war commenced. His father,
who was a respectable physician, was
descended of an ancient and eminent
family, which had contributed more
than one gallant ornament to the Brit-
ish navy. Young de Saumarez received
the rudiments of his education at Eliza-
beth College, in Guernsey, where he
early earned such a taste for poetry as
showed he was qualified to have shone
in the literary world, if his inclinations
had led him in that direction. But
1797.]
25
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
from a very early period his predilec- | out the loss of a man, while the French
tion for the navy was decided: the fame had 120 killed and wounded. His nau-
of his gallant uncles, one of whom had tical skill and coolness were soon after
taken a French 64 with a British frig. not less signally evinced by the manner
ate, and both circumnavigated the globe in which, in company with two other
with Anson, had strongly impressed his small frigates, he eluded the pursuit,
imagination; and accordingly, though between Guernsey and the French coast,
his elder brother was already in the of an enemy's squadron, consisting of
navy, his wishes were complied with, two line-of-battle ships and two frigates.
and, on the 20th September 1767, he Appointed afterwards to the Orion, 74,
entered on board the Soleby, Captain he took part, with his accustomed skill
O'Bryen. His father on parting put a and gallantry, in the action between
purse, containing fifteen guineas, into Lord Bridport's fleet and the Brest
his hand, observing, that as he had a squadron, off L'Orient on 23d June
large family, he hoped he would use it 1795; and with such unwearied vigil-
with economy; but that, when he want-ance did he conduct the blockade of
ed more, he might draw on his banker. | Brest, that during the whole time he
So conscientious, however, was Sau- was in command of the inshore squadron,
marez, in attending to the recommen- which lasted several years, not a single
dation, that his father said, the sight square-rigged French vessel of any de-
of his drafts never after gave anything scription got in or out of that harbour.
but pleasure.
He was fortunate enough to join Ad-
miral Jarvis (Lord St Vincent) in the
Orion, 74, a few days before the glori-
ous battle of St Vincent; we have seen
that the gigantic Santissima Trinidada
struck to his ship, bearing little more
than half its number of guns, and that
to his skill and daring the triumph of
that day is in a considerable degree to
be ascribed; and he will again appear
with equal lustre amidst the thunder
of Aboukir, and in the terrors of Alge-
siraz Bay.
54. He was one of the officers pecu-
liar to that age, and in a great measure
to the British nation, whose character
embodied, like that of Collingwood and
Duncan, the true spirit of the anti-re-
volutionary war. An exalted piety,
an elevated patriotism, were the main-
springs of his life, and both appeared
with the most signal lustre in its most
trying emergencies. None of the cap-
tains at the Nile led their ship with
more intrepidity to the hottest of the
fire, and none did so under a more de-
vout sense of the great cause of religion
and virtue for which they were con-
tending, or of the supreme superintend
ence of human affairs. He was the first
after the battle was over to hoist, in
conformity with Nelson's recommenda-
tion, the pendant at the mizen-peak,
the well-known signal for the ship's
0
53. Saumarez was engaged, on board
the Bristol, in several actions in the
American war, particularly in the un-
successful attack on Sullivan's Island,
in which his coolness and intrepidity
were so conspicuous that he was made
a lieutenant; and having afterwards ob-
tained the command of the Tisiphone
fireship, he distinguished himself under
Kempenfeldt in an attack on the French
squadron, conveying the West India
fleet, on which occasion he captured,
with his fireship, a frigate of 36 guns.
This brilliant action procured for him
the command of the Russel, 74-an
extraordinary instance of rapid promo-
tion for a young man who was not yet
twenty-five years of age. In command
of that ship, he fought under Rodney
in the glorious battle of the 12th April
engaged for some time the huge
Ville de Paris, and was only prevented,
by a signal from the admiral to heave-
to, from capturing, at the close of the
day, a disabled French 74, of which he
was in chase. On the breaking out of
the revolutionary war he was appointed
to the command of the Crescent, of 42
guns and 257 men, and soon made
prize of La Reunion, of 36, and 320
men—a success the more remarkable,
that it was one of the first naval tri-
umphs of the war, and was gained with
VOL. IV.

26.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP, XXII.
•
company to assemble at prayers; and,
however much disposed to ridicule such
observances in their own country, or
under other circumstances, the French
prisoners were impressed with a pass-
ing feeling, at least, of respect and ad-
miration, when they beheld a whole
ship's company, so recently after such
a conflict, when the decks were still en-
cumbered with dead, and stained with
blood, prostrate on their knees, to re-
turn thanks, with fervent devotion, to
the Supreme Disposer of events, for the
greatest naval victory recorded in his-
tory. So just and humane had been
his management of his ship's company,
although the most exact discipline was
observed, that alone almost of all the
vessels in the fleet, no symptoms of in-
subordination appeared among them
during the trying season which pre-
ceded and followed the mutiny at the
Nore. Enthusiastic in his profession,
zealous to the last degree in the public
service, he never spared his own exer-
tions, and often passed sleepless nights
from watching and anxiety; but all his
officers and men had their wonted pe-
riods of repose, which the admiral de-
nied to himself alone. Yet even then,
when his countenance bore the deep
lines of anxiety, it was observed that
all traces of care disappeared when let
ters arrived from his family, the scene
of his fixed attachment and ceaseless
interest. Exemplary in all the duties
of domestic life, a firm friend, a gener-
ous master, devoted to his wife and
children, the secret spring of all his ac-
tions was a deep and manly feeling of
piety, which pervaded all his actions,
and appeared with peculiar grace and
fitness amidst the duties and dangers
of a naval life.
28th, and an attempt was immediately
made to land a body of seamen and
marines from the frigates, to take pos-
session of the heights which commanded
the fort of Vera Cruz, the principal de-
fence of the island. The boats, how-
ever, could not land from the violence
of the surf on the shore, till daylight,
and then the heights were found to be
so strongly occupied by the enemy that
it was hopeless to attempt to carry them
with the men from the frigates only.
All hopes of a surprise were now at an
end, and the Spaniards in the island
were making the most vigorous prepar-
ations for resistance; but Nelson was
not the man to abandon an enterprise
with which he was intrusted as long as
a hope of success remained, and it was
therefore resolved to attempt to carry
the island by main force.
56. At eleven at night on the 24th,
the boats of the fleet, containing about
a thousand men, proceeded in six divi-
sions towards the mole. The service
was well understood to be a desperate
one; and though Nelson's orders were
precise, not to land himself unless his
presence was absolutely necessary, yet
his ardent spirit could not keep aloof
when danger was to be encountered,
and he led the attack in person. The
sailors pulled so silently that they were
not discovered till half-past one in the
morning, when just half a gun-shot
from the mole-head, where they were
to land. A loud cheer was then given,
and the boats rowed as hard as they
could towards the shore. But the Span-
iards were well prepared. The alarm-
bell answered the cheer, and forty pieces
of cannon, and a tremendous fire of
musketry immediately opened, from
the concentric batteries, on the flotilla.
The bright light suddenly illuminating
55. One combined naval and military
operation of the same year requires a the gloom, showed the position of every
special notice, not so much from its in-boat, and enabled the enemy to direct
trinsic importance, as from the celebrity the next discharges with unerring pre-
of the hero by whom it was conducted. cision. Nevertheless Nelson and Free-
On the 15th July a squadron, consist- mantle, with five boats, reached the
ing of three seventy-fours, the Leander mole, landed instantly, stormed it,
of 50 guns, two frigates, and a brig, was though defended by four hundred men,
placed by Earl St Vincent under the and spiked all the guns on the batteries.
orders of Admiral (now Sir Horatio) But this work had no protection from
Nelson, to attack Teneriffe. They ar- the citadel in rear, and the fire from it
rived off the island on the night of the was so heavy that nearly all the gallant
1797.]
27
HISTORY OF EUROPE:
assailants were struck down. Nelson | not to attack any other of the Canary
himself, when in the act of stepping Islands. To these terms the Spanish
ashore, received a musket-shot through governor acceded, and he had even the
the right elbow and fell; but as he fell generosity to present all the British
he caught his sword, which he had just with a ration of biscuit and wine before
drawn, in his left hand, and held it they embarked, and intimated that all
firmly as he lay in the bottom of the their wounded should be received into
boat almost fainting from loss of blood. the town hospital. The British lost
At this instant the Fox cutter received two hundred and fifty men killed and
a six-and-thirty pounder between wind wounded in this disastrous affair-a
and water, and went down with ninety-loss nearly as great as they sustained
seven men on board. Eighty-three in the victory of St Vincent.
others were saved, mainly by the heroic
efforts of Nelson himself, who, disabled
as he was, exerted himself amidst the
frightful scene to save the sufferers.
He could not, however, from loss of
blood, remain longer in action, and was
taken back to his own vessel, where his
arm was amputated.*
57. Meanwhile Troubridge and Wal-
ler, with their division of the boats,
had been more fortunate. Having missed
the mole during the darkness of a tem-active measures three of the ringleaders
pestuous night, they yet reached the were secured, and ordered to be exe-
shore, and landed under a battery near cuted on board the St George, where
the citadel. The tremendous surf, how- the mutiny had first shown itself. On
ever, filled all the boats before landing, their arrival, a plan was formed by the
and soaked the whole powder, so that crew for seizing the vessel, deposing the
the muskets would not go off. Never- officers, and liberating the criminals.
theless this little band, only three hun- Captain Peard of the St George, having
dred and forty, pushed on with their received intelligence of this design, ap-
cutlasses, and reached the great square proached the mutineers, who were al-
of the town, the appointed rendezvous ready assembled in the waist of the
for all the storming parties. There, ship, and said, "I know your designs,
however, they waited in vain for the and shall oppose them at the risk of
co-operating columns from the side of my life. You have determined to op-
the mole, and, after remaining two pose the authority of your officers; I
hours in suspense, tried to storm the am resolved to do my duty: I know
citadel without ladders; but the in- most of you are deluded; but I know
creasing numbers of the enemy, who your ringleaders, and will bring them
had now collected from all quarters, to justice. I command you to disperse.'
three thousand strong, precluded the The whole crew stood firm. Upon this
possibility of even reaching its walls, Peard, followed by his first lieutenant,
still less of storming them, without John Hatley, rushed amidst the crowd,
powder to fire their muskets. Free- seized two of the leaders, dragged them
"
mantle, therefore, was under the neces-out by main force, and put them in
sity of proposing a capitulation, in vir- irons. Next morning the three original
tue of which the British were to be at mutineers were hanged from the yard-
liberty to re-embark with their arms arm of the St George, and two days
and boats, if saved, and became bound
܀܃
lu
58. The glorious victory of St Vincent,
in which they had borne so memorable
a part, and the mingled firmness and
judgment of Lord St Vincent, already
noticed, in combating it, were far from
extinguishing the seeds of mutiny which
at this period were so widely spread
through the British navy. At length,
when three of the ships' companies, on
their voyage from Spithead to Cadiz,
had become extremely turbulent, by
Nelson merrily climbed up the ship's
side, holding by his left arm, and said, "I
know I must lose my arm, and the sooner it
is off the better. Let me alone; I need no
assistance; I have my legs yet."-SOUTHEY's
Nelson, i. 193.
+ A Spanish youth, named Don Bernardo
Collagon, stript himself of his shirt to make
bandages for one of the British, against whom,
not an hour before, he had been engaged in
battle. There are the elements of a truly
noble character in the Spaniards.-SOUTHEY'S
Life of Nelson, i. 197.
I

.*

¡
!
28
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
[CHAP. XXII.
ܕܠܦܬܚܝܚ
1
after the two others thus seized. It
was by such intrepidity that this ter-
rible crisis in the fortunes of Britain
was surmounted.
and three frigates. Duncan's first care
was to attain such a position as should
prevent the enemy from returning to
the Texel; and having done this, he
bore down upon his opponents, and
hove in sight of them, on the following
morning, drawn up in order of battle
at the distance of nine miles from the
coast between CAMPERDOWN and Eg-
mont. With the same instinctive genius
which afterwards inspired Nelson with
a similar resolution at Aboukir, he gave
the signal to break the line, and get
between the enemy and the shore-a
movement which was immediately and
skilfully executed in two lines of attack,
and proved the principal cause of the
glorious success which followed, by
preventing their withdrawing into the
shallows, out of the reach of the British
59. The great victory of St Vincent
entirely disconcerted the well-conceived
designs of Truguet for the naval cam-
paign; but, later in the season, another
effort, with an inferior fleet, but more
experienced seamen, was made by the
Dutch republic. For a very long pe-
riod the naval preparations in Holland
had been most extraordinary, and far
surpassed anything attempted by the
United Provinces for above a century
past. The stoppage of the commerce
of the republic had enabled the govern-
ment, as it afterwards did that of the
United States in America, to man their
vessels with a choice selection both of
officers and men; and, from the well-vessels, which, for the most part, drew
known courage of the sailors, it was an- more water than their antagonists. Ad-
ticipated that the contest with the Brit- miral Onslow first broke the line, and
ish fleet would be more obstinate and commenced a close combat. As he ap-
bloody than any which had yet occur-proached the Dutch line, his captain
red from the commencement of the war. observed, the enemy were lying so close
De Winter, who commanded the arma- that they could not penetrate.
"The
ment, was a stanch republican, and a Monarch will make a passage," replied
man of tried courage and experience. Onslow, and held on undaunted. The
Nevertheless, being encumbered with Dutch ship opposite gave way to let him
land forces destined for the invasion of pass, and he entered the close-set line.
Ireland, he did not attempt to leave In passing through, he poured one
the Texel till the beginning of October, broadside with tremendous effect into
when, the British fleet having been the bows of the Haerlem, and the other
driven to Yarmouth roads by stress of with not less into the stern of the Ju-
weather, the Dutch government gave piter, bearing the Dutch více-admiral,
orders for the troops to be disembarked, whom he immediately lay alongside,
and the fleet to set sail, and make the and engaged at three yards' distance.
best of its way to the harbour of Brest. He was soon followed by Duncan him-
Their object was to co-operate in the self, at the head of the second line, who
long-projected expedition against Ire- pierced the centre, and laid himself be-
land, now fermenting with discontent, side de Winter's flag-ship. Shortly the
and containing at least two hundred action became general, each British ship
thousand men, organised, and ready for engaging its adversary, but still between
immediate rebellion.
them and the lee-shore.
60. Admiral Duncan was no sooner
apprised, by the signals of his cruisers,
that the Dutch fleet was at sea, than
he weighed anchor with all imaginable
haste, and stretched across the German
Ocean with so much expedition, that
he got near the hostile squadron before
it was out of sight of the shore of Hol-
land. The Dutch fleet consisted of six-skill and discipline soon appeared in
teen ships of the line and eleven frigates, the engagement, yard-arm to yard-arm,
the British of sixteen ships of the line which followed. For three hours Ad-
61. De Winter, perceiving the design
of the enemy, gave the signal for his
fleet to unite in close order; but, from
the thickness of the smoke, his order
was not generally perceived, and but
partially obeyed. Notwithstanding the
utmost efforts of valour on the part of
the Dutch, the superiority of British
I
1797.]
29
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
within pistol-shot; but by degrees the
Dutchman's fire slackened; his masts
fell one by one overboard amidst the
loud cheers of the British sailors; and
at length he struck his flag, after half
his crew were killed or wounded, and
his ship was incapable of making any
further resistance. De Winter was the
only man on his quarter-deck who was
not either killed or wounded; he la-
mented that, in the midst of the carnage
which literally flooded the deck of his
noble ship, he alone should have been
spared.* Duncan's ship, however, was
very seriously injured in this desperate
conflict, and de Winter did not strike
till, besides the Venerable, he was as-
sailed by the Ardent and Bedford.
Meanwhile Onslow, in the Monarch,
leaving the Haerlem, Dutch 74, to the
Powerful, continued close alongside the
Jupiter; a vehement engagement, yard-
arm to yard-arm, between these two
equal antagonists, took place; and every
ship in the British fleet was engaged in a
furious combat with an antagonist in
the enemy's line, but all between them
and the Dutch shore. At this time the
Hercules, Dutch 74, caught fire, and
drifted close past the Venerable, Dun-
can's ship; and though the Dutch crew,
in a surprisingly quick manner, extin-
guished the flames, yet as they had
thrown their powder overboard to avoid
explosion, they had no further means
of resistance, and were obliged to strike
their colours to the Triumph.
miral Duncan and de Winter fought | both fleets had drifted before a tem-
pestuous wind to within five miles of
the shore, and were now lying in nine
fathoms water. It was owing to this
circumstance alone that any of the
Dutch squadron escaped; but when
the British withdrew into deeper water,
Admiral Story collected the scattered
remains of the fleet, and sought refuge
in the Texel, while Duncan returned
with his prizes to Yarmouth Roads.
The battle was seen distinctly from the
shore, where a vast multitude was as-
sembled, who beheld in silent despair
the ruin of the armament on which
the national hopes had so long been
rested. During the two days of tem-
pestuous weather which ensued, one of
the frigates was wrecked, the crew, how-
ever, being saved: another, driven on
the Dutch coast, was recaptured; and
the Delft, a fifty-six, went down, astern
of the ship which had her in tow. But
seven line-of-battle ships, and one of
fifty-six guns, were brought into Yar-
mouth Roads, amidst the cheers of in-
numerable spectators, and the trans-
ports of a whole nation. It was only
as trophies, however, that their appear-
ance was gratifying; such was their
shattered condition, that they were not
the slightest acquisition to the British
navy. The interest of the spectacle
was much enhanced by the recollection
that the men who had achieved this
glorious triumph were the same who
had so recently hoisted the red flag of
mutiny, and by their humble demean-
our, when surrounded by a nation's
gratitude. When the Speaker of the
House of Commons visited the wound-
ed in their hammocks, they only said,
|
62. The Dutch vice-admiral in the
Jupiter soon after struck to Admiral
Onslow; and by four o'clock, seven
ships of the line, two of fifty-six guns,
and two frigates, were in the hands of
the victors. No less skilful than brave,
Admiral Duncan now gave the signal
for the combat to cease, and the prizes
to be secured, which was done with no
little difficulty, as, during the battle,
* De Winter and Admiral Duncan dined
together in the latter's ship on the day of the
battle, in the most friendly manner. In the
evening, they played a rubber at whist, and
de Winter was the loser; upon which he
good-humouredly observed, it was rather
hard to be beaten twice in one day by the
same opponent-BRENTON ut supra, and per-
sonal knowledge.
thus:
+ The relative force of the two fleets stood
British.
Dutch.
16
16
517
7,157
20,937
Ships,
575
Broadside guns,
Crews,
8,221
Tons of ships,
23,601
Thus, the superiority upon the whole was
considerably in favour of the British, but not
so much so as would at first sight appear, as
three Dutch frigates, not named in the above
list, took an active part in the fight, raking
some of the British line-of-battle ships, to
which the British had no similar force to op-
pose. Nevertheless, the Dutch fought most
nobly; and it was the best fight that occurred
during the war.-JAMES, ii. 73, 74.
•
1
A
A
20
[CHAP. XXII.
HISTORY OF EUROPË.
1
1
1
"We hope, sir, we have now made | subscription was immediately entered
atonement for our late offence."
into for the widows and orphans of those
who had fallen in this battle, and it
soon amounted to £52,000. The north-
ern courts, whose conduct had been du-
en-bious previous to this great event, were
struck with terror; and all thoughts of
reviving the principles of the Armed
Neutrality were laid aside. But, great
as were the external results, it was in
its internal effects that the vast impor-
tance of this victory was chiefly made
manifest. Despondency was no longer
felt; the threatened invasion of Ireland
was laid aside; Britain was secure.
Britain now learned to regard without
dismay the victories of the French at
land, and, secure in her sea-girt isle, to
trust in those defenders-
63. This action was one of the most im-
portant fought at sea during the revo-
lutionary war, not only from the valour
displayed on both sides during the
gagement, but the important conse-
quences with which it was attended.
The Dutch fought with a courage wor-
thy of the descendants of van Tromp
and de Ruyter, as was evinced by the
loss on either part, which in the British
was one thousand and forty men, and
in the Batavian, eleven hundred and
sixty, besides the crews of the prizes,
who amounted to above six thousand.
The appearance of the British ships, at
the close of the action, was very dif-
ferent from what it usually is after na-
val engagements. No masts were down,
little damage was done to the sails or
rigging; like their worthy adversaries,
the Dutch had fired at the hulls of their
enemies, which accounts for the great
loss in killed and wounded in this well-
fought engagement. All the British
ships had numerous holes in their hulls,
and not a few balls sticking in them;
but the rigging of many, of which the
Monarch was one, was untouched. The
Dutch were all either dismasted, or so
riddled with shot as to be altogether
unserviceable. On either side marks
of a desperate conflict were visible.
But the contest was no longer equal;
Britain had quadrupled her strength
since the days of Charles II., while the
United Provinces had declined both in
vigour and resources. Britain was now
as equal to a contest with the united
navies of Europe, as she was then to a
war with the fleets of an inconsiderable
republic.
64. But the effects of this victory,
both upon the security and the public
spirit of Britain, were in the highest de-
gree important. Achieved as it had
been by the fleet which had recently
struck such terror into every class by
the mutiny at the Nore, and coming
so soon after that formidable event, it
both elevated the national spirit by the
demonstration it afforded how true the
patriotism of the seamen still was, and
by the deliverance from the immediate
peril of invasion which it effected. A
K
"Whose march is o'er the mountain-wave,
Whose home is on the deep.'
The joy, accordingly, upon the intel-
ligence of this victory, was heartfelt
and unexampled, from the sovereign on
the throne to the beggar in the hovel.
Bonfires and illuminations were uni-
versal; the enthusiasm spread to every
breast; the fire gained every heart;
and amidst the roar of artillery, and
the festive light of cities, faction dis-
appeared, and discontent sank into ne-
glect. Numbers date from the rejoic-
ings consequent on this achievement
their first acquaintance with the events
of life, among whom may be reckoned
the author, then residing under his pa-
ternal roof, in a remote parsonage of
Shropshire, whose earliest recollection
is of the sheep-roasting and rural festiv-
ities which took place on the joyful in-
telligence being received in that seclud-
ed district.
""
65. The national gratitude was libe-
rally bestowed on the leaders in these
glorious achievements. Sir John Jarvis
received the title of Earl St Vincent;
Admiral Duncan, that of Viscount Dun-
can of Camperdown, and Commodore
Nelson, that of Sir Horatio Nelson.
From these victories may be dated the
commencement of that concord among
all classes, and that resolute British
spirit, which never afterwards deserted
this country. Her subsequent strug-.
gles were for conquest, these were for
existence. From the deepest dejec-.
1797.]
31
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
I
tion, and an unexampled accumulation | British politics, during his last eventful
of disasters, she arose at once into se- moments, were of the same direct, lofty,
curity and renown; the democratic and uncompromising spirit which had
spirit gradually subsided, from the ex- made his voice sound as the note of a
citation of new passions, and the force trumpet to the heart of England. His
of more ennobling recollections; and last work, the "Letters on a Regicide
the rising generation, who began to Peace," published a few months before
mingle in public affairs, now sensibly his death, is distinguished by the same
influenced national thought, by the dis- fervent eloquence, profound wisdom,
play of the patriotic spirit which had and far-seeing sagacity, which charac-
been nursed amidst the dangers and terised his earlier productions on the
the glories of their younger years.
French Revolution. As his end ap-
66. The remaining maritime opera-proached, the vigour of his spirit, if
tions of this year are hardly deserving possible, increased; and his prophetic
of notice. A descent of fourteen hun-eye anticipated, from the bed of death,
dred men, chiefly composed of desert- those glorious triumphs which were
destined to immortalise the close of the
conflict. "Never," exclaimed he, in
his last hours, "never succumb. It is
a struggle for your existence as a na-
tion. If you must die, die with the
sword in your hand. But I have no
fears whatever for the result. There
is a salient living principle of energy
in the public mind of England, which
only requires proper direction to enable
her to withstand this or any other fe-
rocious foe. Persevere, therefore, till
this tyranny be overpast."
ers and banditti, in the bay of Pem-
broke, in February-intended to dis-
tract the attention of the British gov-
ernment from Ireland, the real point
of attack-met with the result which
might have been anticipated, by all the
party being taken prisoners. Early in
spring, an expedition, under General
Abercromby, captured the island of
Trinidad, with a garrison of seventeen
hundred men, and a ship of the line in
the harbour, three other line-of-battle
ships being burned by the Spanish ad-
miral, to prevent their falling into the
enemy's hands. Two months after, the
same force failed in an attack on Porto
Rico; notwithstanding which, however,
the superiority of the British over the
navy of their combined enemies was
eminently conspicuous during the whole
year, both in the Atlantic and Indian
oceans; and, in particular, an expedition
from the French part of St Domingo
against the forts of Trois and St Marks,
which had been wrested from them in
that island, was defeated after an ob-
stinate struggle, with great loss.
68. Thus departed this life, if not in
the maturity of years, at least in the
fulness of glory, Edmund Burke. The
history of England, prodigal as it is of
great men, has no such philosophic
statesman to boast; the annals of Ire-
land, graced though they be with splen-
did characters, have no such shining
name to exhibit. His was not the mere
force of intellect, the ardour of imagi-
nation, the richness of genius; it was
a combination of the three, unrivalled,
perhaps, in any other age or country.
Endowed by nature with a powerful uu-
derstanding, an inventive fancy, a burn-
ing eloquence, he exhibited the rare
combination of these great qualities
with deep thought, patient investiga-
tion, boundless research. His speeches
in parliament were not so impressive
as those of Mirabeau in the National
Assembly, only because they were more
profound; he did not address himself
with equal felicity to the prevailing
feeling of the majority. He was ever
in advance of the times, and left to pos-
terity the difficult task of reaching,
""}
67. It was just permitted to the il-
lustrious statesman, to whose genius
and foresight the development of the
dauntless spirit which led to these glo-
rious consequences is mainly, under
Providence, to be ascribed, to witness
its results. Mr Burke, whose health
had been irretrievably broken by the
death of his son, and who had long la-
boured under severe and increasing
weakness, at length breathed his last
at his country-seat of Beaconsfield, on
the 9th July 1797. His counsels on
P
*1.
AK K
****
A
}
32
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXII.
through pain and suffering, the eleva- | much superior to Johnson's, as John-
tion to which he had been at once son's sayings are to Burke's. The habit
borne on the wings of prophetic genius. and necessity of public speaking had
Great, accordingly, and deserved, as was made the parliamentary orator burst
his reputation in the age in which he through the trammels of an artificial
lived, it was not so great as it has since style, which, in writing, coerced the re-
become; and, strongly as subsequent cluse author of the Rambler. Johnson's
times have felt the truth of his prin- solitary independence and asperity of
ciples, they are destined to rise into character enabled him to give a point to
still more general celebrity with the his sayings, which the practical states-
experience of suffering from their aban-man naturally shunned, or perhaps did
donment, in the future ages of mankind. not possess. No collection of Burke's
His eloquence in parliament, though sayings could have equalled what are
often in the highest degree brilliant, and to be met with in Boswell's Johnson;
always founded on profound thought, but Johnson could never have written
was seldom effective. It was a com- the "Reflections on the French Revo-
mon observation at the time, that his lution," or the "Letters on a Regicide
rising acted like the dinner-bell in thin- Peace."
ning the house. In this there is nothing
surprising; he was too far before his
age. Eloquence, to be popular, must
be in advance of the age, and but a little
in advance.
:
70. Like most men of a sound intel-
lect, an ardent disposition, and an in-
dependent character, Mr Burke was
strongly attached to the principles of
freedom; and, during the American
War, when those principles appeared to
be endangered by the conduct of the
British government, he stood forth as
an uncompromising leader of the Op-
position in parliament. He was from
the outset, however, the friend of free-
dom only in conjunction with its indis-
pensable allies, order and property; and
the severing of the United States from
the British empire, and the establish-
ment of a pure republic beyond the At-
lantic, appears to have given the first
rude shock to his visions of the eleva-
tion and improvement of the species,
and suggested the painful doubt, whe-
ther the cause of liberty might not, in
the end, be more endangered by the
extravagance of its supporters than by
the efforts of its enemies. These doubts
were confirmed by the first aspect of
the French Revolution; and while many
of the greatest men of his age were daz-
zled by the brightness of its morning
light, he at once discerned, amidst the
deceitful blaze, the small black cloud
which was to cover the world with dark-
ness. With the characteristic ardour
of his disposition, which often led him
into vehemence and invective, he in-
stantly espoused the opposite side; and,
in so doing, he severed, without hesi-
tation, the connections and friendships
of his whole life. He experienced the
son;
69. Burke, throughout life, was on
terms of intimate friendship with John-
and no one more strongly felt the
vast extent of his genius. His cele-
brated saying, "Sir, you cannot stand
for five minutes under a shed with Mr
Burke, during a shower of rain, with-
out hearing something worth recollect-
ing," shows in what estimation he was
held by the great philosopher of the
eighteenth century. Their minds were,
in many respects, similar; in others, so
different as to have scarcely any affinity
to each other. Both had a deep sense
of religion, a profound feeling of duty,
high principles of honour, an ardent
patriotism, extensive erudition. Both
had vast stores of acquired learning,
which restrained, without oppressing, in
each the fire of an ardent and poetical
imagination. Both knew mankind well
in all ranks, had seen life in all its bear-
ings, had great powers of conversation,
and had observed and meditated much
on human affairs. But in other respects,
their characters were essentially differ-
ent. Their opposite habits in life had
not merely given them different turns
of thought, but led them to exult in
different modes of showing their powers.
Composition was the great channel of
Burke's greatness, as conversation was
of Johnson's. Burke's writings are as

1797.]
33
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
the struggle lasted; but when it was
over, he at once recovered-as great
minds always do-his mental serenity,
which he expressed by the fine quota-
tion :-
most heart-rending anguish as long as | tion which arises from the possession of
power, the prejudices of birth, or the self-
ishness of wealth. On the contrary, he
brought to the consideration ofthe great
questions which then divided society,
prepossessions only on the other side,
a heart long warmed by the feelings of
liberty, a disposition enthusiastic in its
support, a lifetime spent in its service.
He was led to combat the principles of
Jacobinism from an early and clear per-
ception of their consequences; from
foreseeing that they would infallibly,
if successful, destroy the elements of
freedom; and, in the end, leave to so-
ciety, bereft of all its bulwarks, only
an old age of slavery and decline. It
was not as the enemy, but the friend
of liberty, that he was the determined
opponent of the Revolution; and such
will ever be the foundation in charac-
ter on which the most resolute, because
the most enlightened and the least self-
ish, resistance to democratic ascend-
ancy will be founded.
"Eneas celså in puppi, jam certus eundi,
Carpebat somnos.'
71. He had the proud and solitary in-
dependence which so often characterises
real genius. Relying on his own convic-
tions, he was confident against the world
in arms. Nor has this patriotic self-sac-
rifice, this heroic spirit, been without its
reward. Posterity has already done jus-
tice to his principles. He is universally
regarded as the first of modern political
philosophers. In the prosecution of his
efforts in defence of order, he was led
to profounder principles of wisdom, re-
garding human affairs, than any intel-
lect save that of Bacon, had reached,
and which are yet far in advance of the
general understanding of mankind. His
was not the instinctive horror at revolu- |
CHAPTER XXIII.
CAMPAIGN OF 1797-FALL OF VENICE.
1. THE year 1797 was far from real- | Prussia was still neutral; and it was
ising the brilliant prospects which Mr ascertained that a considerable time
Pitt had anticipated for the campaign, must elapse before the veterans of the
and which the recent alliance with the Archduke could be drawn from the
Empress Catherine had rendered so Upper Rhine to defend the Alpine fron-
likely to be fulfilled. The death of that tier of the Hereditary States. Every-
great princess, who alone, with the Brit- thing, therefore, conspired to indicate
ish statesman, appreciated the full ex- that, by an early and vigorous effort,
tent of the danger, and the necessity of a fatal blow might be struck at the
vigorous measures to counteract it, put heart of the Austrian power, before the
an end to all the projected armaments. resources of the monarchy could be col-
The Emperor Paul, who succeeded her, lected to repel it.
countermanded the great levy of a hun-
dred and fifty thousand men which she
had ordered for the French war; and,
so far from evincing any disposition to
mingle in the contentions of Southern
Europe, seemed absorbed only in the
domestic concerns of his vast empire.
2. Aware of the necessity of com-
mencing operations early in spring,
Napoleon had, in the beginning of the
preceding winter, urged the Directory
to send him powerful reinforcements,
and put forth the strength of the Re-
public in a quarter where the barriers
B1
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
•
¿
of the Imperial dominions were already | ing the winter, in taking measures to
in a great measure broken through. A repair the losses of the campaign, and
very little consideration was required make head against the redoubtable ene-
to show that this was the most vulner- my who threatened them on the Carin-
able side on which the enemy could be thian frontiers. The great successes of
assailed; but the jealousy of the Direc- the Archduke in Germany had filled
tory prevented them from placing the them with the strongest hopes that the
greater part of their forces at the dis- talents and influence of that youthful
posal of so ambitious and enterprising general would succeed in stemming the
a general as the Italian conqueror. Ob- torrent of invasion from the Italian
stinately adhering to the plan of Carnot, plains. As their veteran forces in Italy
which all the disasters of the preceding had almost all perished in the disastrous
campaign had not taught them to dis- campaign of 1796, they resolved to
trust, they directed Hoche to send his bring thirty thousand men, under the
forces to the army of the Sambre and Archduke in person, from the Upper
Meuse, of which he received the com- Rhine, to oppose Napoleon, leaving only
mand, while large reinforcements were one corps there under Latour, and an-
also despatched to the army of the other under Werneck on the lower part
Rhine. Their plan was to open the of the river, to make head against the
campaign with two armies of eighty Republican armies. Fresh levies of men
thousand men each in Germany, acting were made in Bohemia, Illyria, and Gal-
independent of each other, and on alicia; the contingents of the Tyrol were
parallel and far distant line of opera- quadrupled; and the Hungarian nobil-
tions. The divisions of Bernadotte and ity, imitating the noble example of their
Delmas, above twenty thousand strong, ancestors in the time of Maria Theresa,
were sent from the Rhine to strengthen voted twenty thousand infantry and
the Army of Italy. These brave men ten thousand cavalry, besides immense
crossed the Alps in the depth of win-stores of provisions and forage, for the
ter. In ascending Mont Cenis, a violent ensuing campaign. These forces, speed-
snow-storm arose, and the guides re-ily raised, were animated by that firm
commended a halt; but the officers or- and persevering spirit which has always
dered the drums to beat and the charge characterised the Austrian nation; the
to sound, and they faced the tempest as enthusiasm of the people, awakened by
they would have rushed upon the enemy. the near approach of danger, rose to
The arrival of these troops raised the the highest pitch; and the recruits,
army immediately under the command hastily moved forward, soon filled the
of Napoleon to sixty-one thousand, inde- shattered battalions on the banks of the
pendent of sixteen thousand who were Tagliamento. But new levies, however
scattered from Ancona to Milan, and brave, do not at once form soldiers; the
employed in overawing the Pope, and young recruits were no match for the
securing the rear and communications veterans of Napoleon; and by an inex-
of the army. Four divisions, destined for plicable tardiness, attended with the
immediate operations, were assembled most disastrous effects, though too com-
in the Trevisane March in the end of mon at that period in the Austrian coun-
February-viz. that of Massena at Bas- cils, the experienced soldiers from the
sano, of Serrurier at Castelbranco, of army of the Rhine were not brought up
Augereau at Treviso, and of Bernadotte till it was too late for them to have any
at Padua. Joubert, with his own divi- influence on the issue of the campaign.
sion, reinforced by those of Delmas and
Baraguay d'Hilliers, was stationed in
the Tyrol, to make head against the
formidable forces which the Imperial-
ists were assembling in that warlike
province.
3. Meanwhile the Austrian govern-
ment had been actively employed, dur-
4. Anxious to strike a decisive blow
before this great reinforcement arrived,
Napoleon commenced operations on the
10th March, when the Archduke had
only assembled thirty thousand men on
the Tagliamento, and when three weeks
must yet elapse before the like number
of veteran troops could even begin to
1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
35
arrive from the Rhine. Nothing de-
monstrates more clearly the vital im-
portance of time in war; to this fatal
delay all the disasters of the campaign
were immediately owing. What could
the Archduke do, with half the forces
opposed to him, in arresting the pro-
gress of the conqueror of Italy? The
summits of the Alps were still glitter-
ing with snow and ice, but this only in
flamed the ambition of the youthful
hero. In commencing operations thus
early, however, the French general in-
curred a fearful risk. The armies of the
Republic on the Rhine were not in a
condition to take the field for a month
afterwards, and Napoleon was about to
precipitate himself into the midst of the
Austrian monarchy without any other
support than what he could derive from
his own forces. He was emboldened
to do so, solely by the inexplicable de-
lay which the Aulic Council had in-
curred in bringing the reinforcements
from Germany up to the menaced point.
Aware of his inability to withstand an
attack in front, in the defiles of Carin-
thia, the Archduke Charles had sug-
gested the plan of taking post on the
flank of the invader in the Tyrol, where
he would soonest be joined by the re-
inforcements from Germany; but this
the Aulic Council, fearful of leaving the
great road to Vienna open, would not
consent to. In this they committed a
capital error. Had the Archduke, as
he earnestly desired, been permitted to
collect his army in the Tyrol, instead
of Carinthia, there summoned to his
standard the enthusiastic peasantry of
that province, and fallen back, in case
of need, on his reinforcements coming
up from the Rhine, he would have
covered Vienna just as effectually as on
the direct road, accelerated by three
weeks the junction with those forces,
and probably totally changed the fate
of the campaign.
5. But it is hard to say whether the
Aulic Council or the Directory did most
to ruin the designs of their victorious
generals for the former obliged the
Archduke to assemble his army on the
Tagliamento, instead of the Adige;
while the latter refused to ratify the
treaty with the King of Sardinia, by
!
which Napoleon had calculated on a
subsidiary force of ten thousand men,
to protect the rear and maintain the
communications of his army. To com-
pensate this loss, he had laboured all
the winter to conclude an alliance with
the Venetian republic; but its haughty
yet timid aristocracy worn out with
the French exactions, not only declined
his overtures, but manifested some
symptoms of alienation from the Re-
publican interest, which obliged the
French general to leave a considerable
force in the neighbourhood of Verona,
to overawe their vacillating councils.
Thus Napoleon was left alone to haz-
ard an irruption into the Austrian
states, and scale the Noric and Julian
Alps with sixty thousand men, leaving
on his left the warlike province of the
Tyrol, by which his communications
with the Adige might be cut off; and
on his right Croatia and the Venetian
states, the first of which was warmly
attached to the house of Austria, while
the last might be expected, on the least
reverse, to join the same standard.
6. Three great roads lead from Ve-
rona across the Alps to Vienna-that
of the Tyrol, that of Carinthia, and that
of Carniola. The first, following the
line of the Adige by Bolzano and Brixen,
crosses the ridge of the Brenner into
the valley of the Inn, from whence it
passes by Salzbourg into that of the
Danube, and descends to Vienna after
passing the Enns. The second traverses
the Vicentine and Trevisane Marches,
crosses the Piave and the Tagliamento,
surmounts the Alps by the Col de Tar-
wis, descends into Carinthia, crosses the
Drave at Villach, and, by Klagenfurth
and the course of the Mour, mounts the
Simmering, from whence it descends
into the plain of Vienna. The third, by
Carniola, passes the Isonzo at Gradisca,
goes through Laibach, crosses the Save
and the Drave, enters Styria, passes
Gratz, the capital of that province, and
joins the immediately preceding road
at Bruck. Five lateral roads lead from
the chaussée of the Tyrol to that of
Carinthia: the first, branching off from
Brixen, joins the other at Villach; the
second, from Salzbourg, leads to Spital;
the third, from Lintz, traverses a lofty
27
- tebal de
ཨ ཏཐཱ , ?
36
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
45
Enns, crosses to Leoben; the fifth, from
St Pölten to Bruck. Three cross-roads
unite the chaussée of Carinthia with
that of Carniola; the first barnches off
from Görizia, and, following the course
of the Isonzo, joins at Tarwis the route
of Carinthia; the second connects Laib-
ach and Klagenfurth; the third, set-
ting out from Marburg, also terminates
at Klagenfurth. The rivers which de-
scend from the chain of mountains into
the Adriatic Sea, did not present any
formidable obstacles. The Piave and
the Tagliamento were hardly defensible;
and although the line of the Isonzo was
far stronger, yet it was susceptible of
being turned by the Col de Tarwis.
ridge to Judenbourg; the fourth, from | have been victorious in fourteen pitch-
ed battles and seventy combats: you
have made 100,000 prisoners, taken 500
pieces of field artillery, 2000 of heavy
calibre, and four sets of pontoons. The
contributions you have levied on the
vanquished countries have clothed, fed,
and paid the army, and you have, be-
sides, sent 30,000,000 francs to the pub-
lic treasury. You have enriched the
Museum of Paris with 300 chefs-d'œuvre
of art, the produce of thirty centuries.
You have conquered the finest coun-
tries in Europe for the Republic; the
Transpadane and Cispadane Republics
owe to you their freedom. The French
colours now fly, for the first time, on
the shores of the Adriatic, in front, and
within twenty-four hours' sail of the
country of Alexander! The Kings of
Sardinia, of Naples, the Pope, the Duke
of Parma, have been detached from the
coalition. You have chased the Eng-
lish from Leghorn, Genoa, Corsica; and
now still higher destinies await you:
you will show yourselves worthy of
them! Of all the enemies who were
leagued against the Republic, the Em-
peror alone maintains the contest; but
he is blindly led by that perfidious ca-
binet, which, a stranger to the evils of
war, smiles at the sufferings of the Con-
tinent. Peace can no longer be found
but in the heart of the Hereditary
States; in seeking it there, you will re-
spect the religion, the manners, the
property of a brave people; you will
bring freedom to the valiant Hungarian
nation."
7. By accumulating the mass of his
forces on his own left, and penetrating
through the higher ridges, Napoleon
perceived that he would overcome all
the obstacles which nature had opposed
to his advance, and turn all the Aus-
trian positions by the Alps which com-
manded them. He directed Massena,
accordingly, to turn the right flank of
the enemy with his powerful division,
while the three others attacked them in
front at the same time. Joubert, with
seventeen thousand men, received or-
ders to force the passes of the Italian
Tyrol, and drive the enemy over the
Brenner; and Victor, who was still on
the Apennines, was destined to move
forward with his division, which suc-
cessive additions would raise to twenty
thousand men, to the Adige, to keep
in check the Venetian levies, and se-
cure the communications of the army.
Thirty-five thousand of the Austrian
forces, under the Archduke in person,
were assembled on the Tagliamento;
the remainder of his army, fifteen thou-
sand strong, was in the Tyrol at Bol-
zano, while thirty thousand of the best
troops he could ultimately rely on, were
only beginning their march from the
Upper Rhine.
8. Napoleon moved his headquarters
to Bassano on the 9th March, and ad-
dressed the following order of the day
to his army: "Soldiers! The fall of
Mantua has terminated the war in Italy,
which has given you eternal titles to
the gratitude of your country. You
9. The approaching contest between
the Archduke Charles and Napoleon
excited the utmost interest throughout
Europe, both from the magnitude of
the cause which they respectively bore
upon their swords, and the great deeds
which, on different theatres, they had
severally achieved. The one appeared
resplendent from the conquest of Italy;
the other illustrious from the deliver-
ance of Germany; the age of both was
the same; their courage equal, their re-
spect for each other reciprocal. But
their dispositions were extremely dif-
ferent, and the resources on which they
had to rely in the contest which was
approaching as various as the causes
1797.]
37
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
which they supported. The one was | destined to act under Napoleon in per-
audacious and impetuous; the other son, were drawn up in front of the
calm and judicious: the first was at the Austrian force, on the right bank of
head of troops hitherto unconquered; the Tagliamento. This stream, after
the last, of soldiers dispirited by disas- descending from the mountains, sepa-
ter: the former combated not with rates into several branches, all of which
arms alone, but with the newly-roused are fordable, and covers the ground for
passions; the latter, with the weapons a great extent between them with stones
only of the ancient faith. The Repub- and gravel. The Imperial squadrons,
lican army was the more numerous; numerous and magnificently appointed,
the Imperial, the more fully equipped: were drawn up on the opposite shore,
on the victory of Napoleon depended ready to fall on the French infantry the
the maintenance of the Republican moment that they crossed the stream;
sway in Italy; on the success of the and a vast array of guns already scat-
Archduke the existence of the empire tered their balls among its numerous
of the Cæsars in Germany. On the branches. Napoleon, seeing the enemy
other hand, the people of the provinces, so well prepared, had recourse to a
around and behind the theatre of war, stratagem. He ordered the troops to
were attached to the Austrians, and retire without the reach of the enemy's
hostile to the French; retreat, there- fire, establish a bivouac, and begin to
fore, was the policy of the former, im- cook their victuals. The Archduke,
petuous advance of the latter: victory conceiving all chance of attack over for
by the one was to be won by rapidity the day, withdrew his forces into their
of attack; success could be hoped for camp in the rear. When all was quiet,
by the other only by protracting the the signal was given by the French gen-
contest. Great reinforcements were eral: the soldiers ran to arms, and form-
hastening to the Archduke from the ing with inconceivable rapidity, ad-
Rhine, the Hereditary States, and Hun-vanced quickly in columns by échelon,
gary, while his adversary could expect flanking each other in the finest order,
no assistance in addition to what he at and precipitated themselves into the
first brought into action. Success at river. The precision, the beauty of
first, therefore, seemed within the grasp the movements, resembled the exercise
of Napoleon; but if the contest could of a field-day; never did an army ad-
be protracted, it might be expected to vance upon the enemy in a more ma-
desert the Republican for the Imperial jestic or imposing manner. The troops
banners.
vied with each other in the regularity
and firmness of their advance. "Soldiers
of the Rhine!" exclaimed Bernadotte,
"the Army of Italy is watching your
conduct." The rival divisions reached
the stream at the same time, and fear-
lessly plunging into the water, soon
gained the opposite shore. The Austrian
cavalry, hastening to the spot, charged
the French infantry on the edge of the
water: but it was too late; they were
already established in battle-array on
the left bank. Soon the firing became
general along the whole line; but the
Archduke, seeing the passage achieved,
his flank turned, and being unwilling
to engage in a decisive action before
the arrival of his divisions from the
Rhine, ordered a retreat; and the French
light troops pursued him four miles
from the field of battle. In this action

10. On the 10th March all the col-
umns of the army were in motion,
though the weather was still rigorous,
and snow to the depth of several feet
encumbered the higher passes of the
mountains. Massena's advanced guard
came first into action; he set out from
Bassano, crossed the Piave in the moun-
tains, came up with the division of
Lusignan, which he defeated, with the
loss of five hundred prisoners, among
whom was that general himself. By
pressing forward through the higher
Alps, he compelled the Archduke, to
prevent his right flank being turned,
to fall back from the Piave to the Tag-
liamento, and concentrate his army be-
hind the latter river. On the 16th
March, at nine o'clock in the morning,
the three divisions of the French army,
38
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE
i
the Imperialists lost six pieces of cannon | success had most important conse-
and five hundred men; and, what was quences; the division of Bernadotte
of more importance, the prestige of a marched upon and took possession of
first success.
In truth, the Archduke Laibach, while a thousand horse occu-
neverafterwards regained the confidence pied Trieste, the greatest harbour of
of his soldiers in contending with the the Austrian monarchy; and Serrurier
conqueror of Italy.
ascended the course of the Isonzo, by
Caporetto and the Austrian chiusa,
to regain at Tarwis the route of Carin-
thia.
11. Shortly after, Massena, on the
central road, effected his passage at St
Daniel. Soon after, he made himself
master of Ozoppo, the key of the chaussée
of the Ponteba, which was not occupied
in force, pushed on to the Venetian
chiusa, a narrow gorge, rudely fortified.
which he also carried, and drove the
Austrian division of Ocksay before him
to the ridge of Tarwis. The occupation
of the Ponteba by Massena prevented
the Archduke from continuing his re-
treat by the direct chaussée to Carin-
thia; he resolved, therefore, to regain
it by the cross-road which follows the
blue and glittering waters of the Isonzo,
because the Carinthian road, being the
most direct, was the one which Napo-
leon would probably follow in his ad-
vance upon Vienna. For this purpose
he despatched his parks of artillery, and
the division of Bayalitch, by the Isonzo
towards Tarwis, while the remainder of
his forces retired by the Lower Isonzo.
The day after the battle of the Tag-
liamento, Napoleon occupied Palma
Nuova, where he found immense maga-
zines, and soon after pushed on to Grad-
isca, situated on the Lower Isonzo,
and garrisoned by three thousand men.
Bernadotte's division arrived first before
the place, and instantly plunging into
the torrent, which at that time was
uncommonly low, notwithstanding a
shower of balls from two thousand
Croatians stationed on the opposite
shore, succeeded in forcing the passage,
from whence he rashly advanced to
assault the place. A terrible fire of
grape and musketry, which swept off
five hundred men, speedily repulsed this
attack; but while the Imperialists were
congratulating themselves upon their
success, the division of Serrurier, which
had crossed in another quarter, appeared
on the heights in the rear, upon which
they laid down their arms, to the num-
ber of two thousand, with ten pieces of
artillery, and eight standards. This
12. Meanwhile Massena, pursuing the
broken remains of Ocksay's division,
made himself master of the important
Col de Tarwis, the crest of the Alps,
commanding the valleys descending
both to Carinthia and Dalmatia. The
Archduke immediately foresaw the dan-
ger which the division of Bayalitch
would incur, pressed in rear by the
victorious troops which followed it up
the Isonzo, and blocked up in front by
the division of Massena, at the upper
end of the defile, on the ridge of Tarwis.
He resolved, therefore, at all hazards,
to retake that important station, and
for this purpose hastened in person to
Klagenfurth, on the northern side of
the great chain of the Alps, and put
himself at the head of a division of five
thousand grenadiers, the first of the
promised reinforcement, who had ar-
rived at that place the day before from
the Rhine. With these veteran troops
he advanced to retake the passage. He
was at first successful, and, after a sharp
action, established himself on the sum-
mit with the grenadiers and the division
of Ocksay. But Massena, who was well
aware of the importance of this post,
upon the possession of which the fate
of the Austrian division coming up the
Isonzo and the issue of the campaign
depended, made the most vigorous ef-
forts to regain his ground. The troops
on both sides fought with the utmost
resolution, and both commanders ex-
posed their persons like the meanest of
the soldiers; the cannon thundered
above the clouds; the cavalry charged
on fields of ice; the infantry struggled
through drifts of snow. At length the
obstinate courage of Massena prevailed
over the persevering resolution of his
adversary; and the Archduke, after
having exhausted his last reserves, was
compelled to give way, and yield the
-
1797.]
39
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
F
!
possession of the blood-stained snows of
Tarwis to the Republican soldiers.
the valleys, the never-failing mark of
general security and long-established
13. No sooner had the French gen- wellbeing; the quantity of vegetables,
eral established himself on this import- of horses, and chariots, proved of the
ant station, than he occupied in force utmost service to the army. Klagen-
both the defiles leading to Villach, whi- furth, surrounded by a ruined rampart,
ther the Archduke had retired, and those was slightly defended; the French had
descending to the Austrian chiusa, where no sooner made themselves masters of
Bayalitch's division was expected soon that town, than they restored the forti-
to appear. Meanwhile that general, en-fications, and established magazines of
cumbered with artillery and ammuni- stores and provisions; while the whole
tion waggons, was slowly ascending the British merchandise found in Trieste,
vine-clad course of the Isonzo, and hav- was, according to the usual custom of
ing at length passed the gates of the the Republicans, confiscated for their
Austrian chiusa, he deemed himself use.
secure, under the shelter of that al-
15. While these important operations
most impregnable barrier. But no-
were going forward in Carinthia, Jou-
thing could withstand the attack of the bert had gained decisive successes in
French. The fourth regiment, surnamed the Italian Tyrol. No sooner had the
"the Impetuous," scaled, with infinite battle of the Tagliamento expelled the
difficulty, the rocks which overhung Imperialists from Italy, than that gen-
the left of the position, while a columneral received orders to avail himself of
of infantry assailed it in front; and the his numerical superiority, and drive the
Austrian detachment, finding itself thus Austrians over the Brenner. He com-
turned, laid down its arms. No re- menced the attack, accordingly, on the
source now remained to Bayalitch. Shut 20th March. The Imperialists were in
up in a narrow valley, between impass- two divisions, one under Kerpen, on
able mountains, he was pressed in rear the Lavis, in the valley of the Adige;
by the victorious troops of Serrurier, the other under Laudon, in the moun-
and in front found his advance stopped tains near Neumarkt. The former, en-
by the vanguard of Massena on the camped on the plateau of Cembra, on
slopes of the Tarwis. A number of the river Lavis, was assailed by Jou-
Croatians escaped over the mountains bert with superior forces, and after a
by throwing away their arms; but the short action driven back to Bolzano,
greater part of the division, consisting with the loss of two thousand five hun-
of the general himself, three thousand dred prisoners and seven pieces of can-
five hundred men, twenty-five pieces of non. The French, after this success,
cannon, and four hundred artillery or separated in two divisions: the first,
baggage waggons, fell into the hands of under Baraguay d'Hilliers, pursued the
the Republicans.
broken remains of Kerpen's forces on
the great road to Bolzano; while the
second, composed of the élite of the
troops under Joubert in person, ad-
vanced against Laudon, who had come
up to Neumarkt, in the endeavour to
re-establish his communication with
Kerpen. The Imperialists, attacked by
superior forces, were routed, with the
loss of several pieces of cannon and a
thousand prisoners; while, on the same
day, the other division of the army
entered Bolzano without opposition,
and made itself master of all the maga-
zines it contained.
14. Napoleon had now gained the
crest of the Alps; headquarters were
successively transferred to Caporetto,
Tarwis, Villach, and Klagenfurth: the
army passed the Drave by the bridge
of Villach, which the Imperialists had
not time to burn; and, descending the
course of the streams, found itself in
the valleys which lead to the Danube.
The Alps were passed; the scenery, the
manners, the houses, the cultivation,
all bore the character of Germany. The
soldiers admired the good humour and
honesty of the peasants, the invariable
characteristics of the Gothic race; de- 16. Bolzano is situated at the junc
tached cottages were spread through | tion of the valleys of the Adige and the
3
gn
T
40
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
Eisach. To command both, Joubert | maintain his ground,and driven from the
left Delmas, with five thousand men, castellated heights of Sterzten to take
in that town, and himself advanced in post on the summit of the Brenner, the
person with the remainder of his forces last barrier of Innspruck, still covered
up the narrow and rocky defile which with the snows of winter. The alarm
leads by the banks of the Eisach to spread through the whole of the Tyrol ;
Brixen. Kerpen awaited him in the an attack on its capital was hourly ex-
position of Clausen-a romantic and pected; and it was thought the enemy
seemingly impregnable pass, three miles intended to penetrate across the valley
above Bolzano, where the mountains of the Inn, and join the invading force
approach each other so closely, as to on the Rhine.
leave only the bed of the stream and
the breadth of the road between their
frowning brows. An inaccessible preci-
pice shuts in the pass on the southern
side, while on the northern a succession
of wooded and rocky peaks rise in wild
variety from the raging torrent to the
naked cliffs, three thousand feet above.
Early in the morning, the French pre-
sented themselves at the jaws of this
formidable defile; but the Austrian and
Tyrolese marksmen, perched on the
cliffs and in the woods, kept up so ter-
rible a fire upon the road, that column
after column, which advanced to the
attack, was swept away. For the whole
day the action continued, without the
Republicans gaining any advantage;
but towards evening their active light
infantry succeeded in scaling the rocky
heights on the right of the Imperialists,
and rolled down great blocks of stone,
which rendered the pass no longer
tenable. Joubert, at the same time,
charged rapidly in front, at the head of
two regiments formed in close column;
and the Austrians, unable to withstand
this combined effort, fell back towards
Brixen, which was soon after occupied
by their indefatigable pursuers.
17. The invasion of the Tyrol, so far
from daunting, tended only to animate
the spirit of the peasantry in that war-
like district. Kerpen, as he fell back,
distributed numerous proclamations,
which soon brought crowds of expert
and dauntless marksmen to his stan-
dard; and, reinforced by these, he took
post at Mittenwald, hoping to cover
both the great road over Mount Bren-
ner and the lateral one which ascended
the Pusterthal. But he was attacked
with such vigour by General Belliard,
at the head of the French infantry in
close column, that he was unable to
18. But Joubert, notwithstanding his
successes, was now in a dangerous posi-
tion. The accounts he received from
Bolzano depicted in glowing colours the
progress of the levy en masse; and al-
though he was at the head of twelve
thousand men, it was evidently highly
dangerous either to remain where he
was, in the midst of a warlike province
in a state of insurrection, or advance
unsupported over the higher Alps into
the valley of the Inn. There was no
alternative, therefore, but to retrace his
steps down the Adige, or join Napoleoǹ
by the cross-road from Brixen, through
the Pusterthal, to Klagenfurth. He
preferred the latter; brought up Del-
mas with his division from Bolzano,
and, setting out in the beginning of
April, joined the main army in Carin-
thia with all his forces and five thou-
sand prisoners, leaving Servier to make
head as he best could against the for-
midable force which Laudon was organ-
ising in the valley of the Upper Adige.
Thus, in twenty days after the cam-
paign opened, the army of the Arch-
duke was driven over the Julian Alps;
the French occupied Carniola, Carin-
thia, Trieste, Fiume, and the Italian
Tyrol; and a formidable force of forty-
five thousand men, flushed with victory,
was on the northern declivity of the
Alps, within sixty leagues of Vienna.
On the other hand, the Austrians, dis-
pirited by disaster and weakened by
defeat, had lost a fourth of their num-
ber in the different actions which had
occurred, while the army of the Rhine
was at so great a distance as to be un-
able to take any part in the defence of
the capital.
|
19. But, notwithstanding all this, the
situation of the Republican armies, in
many respects, was highly perilous. An
1797.]
41
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
insurrection was breaking out in the Ve- | diers make war, and desire peace. Has
netian provinces, which it was easy to see not this war already continued six years?
would ultimately involve that power in Have we not slain enough of our fellow-
hostilities with the French government; creatures, and inflicted a sufficiency of
Laudon was advancing by rapid strides woes on suffering humanity? It de-
in the valley of the Adige, with no ade-mands repose on all sides. Europe,
quate force to check his operations; and which took up arms against the French
the armies of the Rhine were so far from Republic, has laid them aside. Your
being in a condition to afford any effec- nation alone remains, and yet blood is
tual assistance, that they had not yet about to flow in as great profusion as
crossed that frontier river. The French ever. This sixth campaign has com-
troops could not descend unsupported menced with sinister omens; but what-
into the valley of the Danube, for they ever may be its issue, we shall kill, on
had not cavalry sufficient to meet the one side and the other, many thousand
numerous and powerful squadrons of men, and, nevertheless, at last come to
the Imperialists; and what were forty- an accommodation, for everything has
five thousand men in the heart of the a termination, even the passions of ha-.
Austrian empire? These considerations, tred. The Directory has already evinced
which had long weighed with Napoleon, to the Imperial government its anxious
became doubly cogent, from a despatch wish to put an end to hostilities; the
received on the 31st March, at Klagen- court of London alone broke off the
furth, which announced that Moreau's negotiation. But you, general-in-chief,
troops could not enter upon the cam- who, by your birth, approach so near
paign for want of boats to cross the the throne, and are above all the little
Rhine, and that the Army of Italy must passions which too often govern minis-
reckon upon no support from the other ters and governments, are you resolved
forces of the Republic. It was evident, to deserve the title of benefactor of hu-
notwithstanding the extreme pecuniary manity, and of the real saviour of Ger-
distress of the government, that there many? Do not imagine, general, from
was something designed in this dilatory this, that I conceive that you are not
conduct, which endangered the bravest in a situation to save it by force of arms;
army and all the conquests of the Re- but even in such an event, Germany
public. The truth was, they had already will not be the less ravaged. As for my-
conceived that jealousy of their victo-self, if the overture which I have the hon-
rious general, which subsequent events our to make shall be the means of saving
so fully justified, and apprehended less a single life, I shall be more proud of the
danger from a retreat before the Im- civic crown, which I shall be conscious
perial forces, than from a junction of of having deserved, than of the melan-
their greatest armies under such an choly glory attending military success.
aspiring leader.
The Archduke returned a polite and
dignified answer, in these terms:
the duty which is assigned to me there
is no power either to scrutinise the
causes, or terminate the duration of the
war; and, as I am not invested with any
powers in that respect, you will easily
conceive that I can enter into no nego-
tiation without express authority from
the Imperial government." It is remark-
able how much more Napoleon, a Re-
publican general, here assumed the lan-
guage and exercised the power of an in-
dependent sovereign, than his illustrious
opponent; a signal proof how early he
contemplated that supreme authority
D
20. Deprived of all prospect of that
co-operation on which he had relied in
crossing the Alps, Napoleon wisely de-
termined to forego all thoughts of dic-
tating peace under the walls of Vienna,
and contented himself with making the
most of his recent successes, by obtain-
ing advantageous terms from the Aus-
trian government. A few hours, accord-
ingly, after receiving the despatch of the
Directory, he addressed to the Archduke
Charles one of those memorable letters,
which, almost as much as his campaigns,
exhibit his profound and impassioned
mind: "General-in-chief,-Brave sol-
VOL. IV.
""
"In
.
•
:
÷
42
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXII.
which his extraordinary abilities so
well qualified him to attain, and which
he so soon after reached. The Arch-
duke was strongly impressed with the
military talents displayed by Napoleon
in this brief but eventful campaign; he
might have said, as did Pompey to Ser-
torius, "I have learned more by de-
feat from you than by victory over
others."*
upon the enemy. The Austrians, after
a short action, fell back in confusion;
and the Archduke took advantage of the
approach of night to retire to Hunds-
markt. In this affair the Imperialists
lost fifteen hundred men, although the
division of Massena was alone seriously
engaged. Napoleon instantly pushed on
to Schufling, a military post of great
importance, as it was situated at the
junction of the cross-road from the Ty-
rol and the great chaussée to Vienna,
which was carried after a rude combat;
and on the following day he despatched
Guieux up the rugged defiles of the
Mour in pursuit of the column of Sporck,
which, after a sharp action with the
French advanced guard, succeeded in
joining the main army of the Imperialists
by the route of Rastadt. Two days after,
Napoleon pushed on to Judenbourg,
where headquarters were established ou
the 6th April, and then halted to col-
lect his scattered forces, while the ad-
vanced guard occupied the village of
Leoben. The Archduke now resolved
to leave the mountains, and concentrate
all his divisions in the neighbourhood
of Vienna, where the whole resources
of the monarchy were to be collected,
and the last battle fought for the inde-
pendence of Germany.
21. To give weight to his negotia-
tions, the French general pressed the
Imperialists with all his might in their
retreat. Early on the 1st April, Mas-
sena came up with the Austrian rear-
guard in advance of Freisach; they were
instantly attacked, routed, and driven
into the town pell-mell with the vic-
tors. Next day Napoleon, continuing
his march, found himself in presence of
the Archduke in person, who had col-
lected the greater part of his army, re-
inforced by four divisions recently ar-
rived from the Rhine, to defend the
gorge of Neumarkt. This terrific defile,
which even a traveller can hardly tra-
verse without a feeling of awe, offered
the strongest position to a retreating
army; and its mouth, with all the vil-
lages in the vicinity, was occupied in
force by the Austrian grenadiers. The
French general collected his forces;
Massena, was directed to assemble all
his divisions on the left of the chaussée;
the division of Guyeux was placed on
the heights on the right, and that of
Serrurier in reserve. At three in the
afternoon the attack commenced at
all points; the soldiers of the Rhine
challenged the veterans of the Italian
army to equal the swiftness of their
advance; and the rival corps, eagerly
watching each other's steps, precipi-
tated themselves with irresistible force
* J'apprends plus contre vous par mes désa-
vantages,
J'aie emportés que les plus beaux succès
qu'ailleurs
Ne m'ont encore appris par mes prospér-
ités.
Je vois ce qu'il faut faire, à voir ce que
faites:
vous
Les siéges, les assauts, les savantes
traites,
Bien camper, bien choisir à chacun son
emploi:
Votre exemple est partout une étude pour
moi.
CORNEILLE, Sertorius, Act iii. scene I. | for the defence of the capital.
22. This rapid advance excited the
utmost consternation at the Austrian
capital. In vain the Aulic Council strove
to stem the torrent; in vain the lower
orders surrounded the public offices,
and demanded with loud cries to be en-
rolled for the defence of the country;
the government yielded to the alarm,
terror in high places paralysed every
heart. The Danube was covered with
boats conveying the archives and most
precious articles beyond the reach of
danger; the young archduke and arch-
duchess were sent to Hungary; and with
them was MARIA LOUISA, then hardly
six
years of age, who afterwards became
Empress of France. The old fortifica--
tions of Vienna, which had withstood
re-fallen into decay, were hastily put into
the arms of the Turks, but had since
repair, and the militia directed to the
the art which might so soon be required
intrenched camp of Marienhalf, to learn

1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
I
23. The Emperor, although endowed not be better represented than in the
with more than ordinary firmness of words of Napoleon in his despatch to
mind, at length yielded to the torrent. the Directory, enclosing the prelimin-
On the 7th April, the Archduke's chief aries of Leoben. "The court had eva-
of the staff, Bellegarde, along with Gen- cuated Vienna; the Archduke and his
eral Meerfeld, presented himself at the army were falling back on that of the
outposts, and at LEOBEN a suspension Rhine; the people of Hungary, and of
of arms was agreed on for five days. all the Hereditary States, were rising
All the mountainous region, as far as in mass, and at this moment the heads
the Simmering, was to be occupied by of their columns are on our flanks.
the French troops, as well as Gratz, the The Rhine is not yet passed by our
capital of Styria. On the 9th, the ad- soldiers; the moment it is, the Em-
vanced posts established themselves on peror will put himself at the head of
that ridge, the last of the Alps, before his armies, and although, if they stood
they sink into the Austrian plain, from their ground, I would, without doubt,
whence, in a clear day, the steeples of have beaten them, yet they could still
the capital can be discerned; and on the have fallen back on the armies of the
same day headquarters were established Rhine and overwhelmed me. In such
at Leoben in order to conduct the nego- a case retreat would have been difficult,
tiation. At the same time General Jou- and the loss of the Army of Italy would
bert arrived in the valley of the Drave, have drawn after it that of the Republic.
and Kerpen, by a circuitous route, joined Impressed with these ideas, I had re-
the Archduke. The French army, which solved to levy a contribution in the sub-
lately extended over the whole Alps,from urbs of Vienna, and attempt nothing
Brixen to Trieste, was concentrated in more. I have not four thousand cav-
cantonments in a small space, ready to alry, and, instead of the forty thousand
debouch, in case of need, into the plain infantry I was to have received, I have
of Vienna,
never got twenty. Had I insisted, in
24. While these decisive events were the commencement of the campaign,
occurring in the Alps of Carinthia, the upon entering Turin, I would never
prospects of the French in the Tyrol, have crossed the Po; had I agreed to
Croatia, and Friuli, were rapidly chang- the project of going to Rome, I would
ing for the worse. An insurrection have lost the Milanese; had I persisted
had taken place among the Croatians. in advancing to Vienna, I would pro-
Fiume was wrested from the Republi-bably have ruined the Republic.'
cans, and nothing but the suspension 25. When such were the views of the
of arms prevented Trieste from falling victorious and the dangers of the van-
into the hands of the insurgents. Such quished party, the negotiation could
was the panic they occasioned, that not be long in coming to a conclusion.
detached parties of the French fled as Napoleon, though not furnished with
far as Görizia, on the Isonzo. Mean- any powers to that effect from the
while Laudon, whose division was raised Directory, took upon himself to act in
to twelve thousand by the insurrection the conferences like an independent
in the Tyrol, descended the Adige, driv- sovereign. The Austrians attached
ing the inconsiderable division of Ser- great importance to the etiquette of
vier before him, who was soon com- proceedings, and offered to recognise
pelled to take refuge within the walls the French Republic if they were allow-
of Verona. Thus, at the moment that ed the precedence; but Napoleon or-
the French centre, far advanced in the dered that article to be withdrawn.
mountains, was about to be exposed to "Efface that," said he; "the Republic
the whole weight of the Austrian mo- is like the sun, which shines with its
narchy, its two wings were exposed, own light; so much the worse for the
and an insurrection in progress which blind, who cannot see it or profit by
threatened to cut off the remaining it." "In truth," he adds, "such a con-
communications in its rear. The peril-dition was worse than useless; because,
ous situation of the French army can- if one day the French people should
"
:
"
44
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
wish to create a monarchy, the Em- | years, because it was not wound up
peror might object that he had recog- with the interest of the democratic
nised a Republic." A striking proof party, ever foremost in giving celebrity
how early the thoughts of the young to any transaction, and was attended
general had been fixed upon the throne. with no heroism or dignity in the van-
26. As the French plenipotentiaries | quished. It reveals the melancholy
had not arrived, Napoleon, of his own truth, that small states have never so
authority, signed the treaty. Its prin- much reason to tremble for their inde-
cipal articles were-1. The cession of pendence, as when large ones in their
Flanders to the Republic, and the ex- neighbourhood are arranging the terms
tension of its frontier to the Rhine, on of peace; nor is it easy to say whether
condition of a suitable indemnity being the injustice of the proceeding is most
provided to the Emperor in some other apparent on the first statement of the
quarter. 2. The cession of Savoy to spoliation, or on a review of the pre-
the same power, and the extension of vious transactions which are referred
its territory to the summit of the Pied- to in its defence.
montese Alps. 3. The establishment
of the Cisalpine Republic, including
Lombardy, with the states of Modena,
Cremona, and the Bergamasque. 4. The
Oglio was fixed on as the boundary of the
Austrian possessions in Italy. 5. The
Emperor was to receive, in return for
so many sacrifices, the whole continental
states of Venice, including Illyria, Istria,
Friuli, and Upper Italy, as far as the
Oglio. 6. Venice was to obtain, in
return for the loss of its continental
possessions, Romagna, Ferrara, and
Bologna, which the French had wrested
from the Pope. 7. The important for-
tresses of Mantua, Peschiera, Porto-
Legnago, and Palma-Nuova, were to
be restored to the Emperor, on the
conclusion of a general peace, with the
city and castles of Verona.
27. With truth does Napoleon con-
fess, that these arrangements were made
"in hatred of Venice."* Thus did that
daring leader, and the Austrian govern-
ment, take upon themselves, without
any declaration of war, or any actual
hostilities with the Venetian govern-
ment, to partition out the territories of
that neutral republic, for no other rea-
son than because they lay conveniently
for one of the contracting powers, and
afforded a plausible pretext for an enor-
mous acquisition of territory by the
other. The page of history, stained as
it is with acts of oppression and vio-
lence, has nothing more iniquitous to
present. It is darker in atrocity than
the partition of Poland, and has only
excited less indignation in subsequent
* Napoleon, iv. 197.
28. VENICE, the Queen of the Adri-
atic, seated on her throne of waters,
had long sought to veil the weakened
strength and diminished courage of
age under a cautious and reserved neu-
trality. The oldest state in existence,
having survived for nearly fourteen
centuries, she had felt the weakness
and timidity of declining years, before
any serious reverse had been sustained
in her fortunes, and was incapable of
resisting the slightest attack, while as
yet her external aspect exhibited no
symptoms of decay. The traveller, as
he sailed amid the palaces, which still
rose in undecaying beauty from the
waters of the Adriatic, no longer won-
dered at the astonishment with which
the stern Crusaders of the north gazed
at her marble piles, and felt a rapture
like that of the Roman Emperor, when
he approached where "Venice sat in
state, throned on her hundred isles;"
but in the weak and pusillanimous crowd
which he beheld on all sides, he looked
in vain for the descendants of those brave
men who leaped from their galleys on
the towers of Constantinople, and stood
forth as the bulwark of Christendom
against the Ottoman power; and still
less, amidst the misery and dejection
with which he was surrounded, could
he go back in imagination to those days
of liberty and valour-

"when Venice once was dear,
The pleasant place of all Festivity;
The Revel of the Earth, the Mask of Italy."
29. In truth, Venice exhibits one of
the most curious and instructive in-
stances which is to be found in modern
1797.]
45
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
history, of the decline of a state with- | are guarded by strong fortresses, which
out any rude external shock, from the could only be reduced by a power hav-
On the
mere force of internal corruption, and ing the command of the sea.
the long-continued direction of the pas- land side, Venice is unassailable, unless
sions to selfish objects. The league of by a power which, by long-continued
Cambray, indeed, had shaken its power; efforts, has succeeded in raising up a
the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope body of boatmen capable of contending
had dried up part of its resources, and with the celebrated gondoliers of the
the augmentation of the strength of the Adriatic Queen for the mastery of the
Transalpine monarchies had diminished green waves of the Lagunæ. But this
its relative importance. Yet were its is a very difficult matter, for long prac-
wealth and population such as to entitle tice has given these boatmen extraor-
it to a respectable rank among the Eu- dinary skill in the management of their
ropean states; and, if directed by energy narrow vessels; and the intricacies of
and courage, they might have given it the navigation by which the capital is to
a preponderating weight on the issue of be reached from the mainland, abound-
this campaign. But centuries of peace ing with shoals and sand-banks, which
had dissolved the courage of the higher can be avoided only by devious and cir-
orders; ages of corruption had extin- cuitous channels, render the approach
guished the patriotism of the people; almost impossible to all but those inti-
and the continued pursuit of selfish mately acquainted with the navigation.
gratification had rendered all classes The distance of the capital from the
incapable of the sacrifices which exer- nearest point of the shore being above
tion for their country required. The five miles, renders any attempt at bom-
arsenals were empty; the fortifications bardment utterly hopeless.
decayed; the fleet, which once ruled the
Adriatic, was rotting in the Laguna;
and the army, which formerly faced the
banded strength of Europe in the league
of Cambray, was drawn entirely from
the semi-barbarous provinces on the
Turkish frontier. With such a, popu-
lation, nothing grand or generous could
be attempted; but it was hardly to be
expected that the country of Dandolo
and Carmagnola should have yielded
without a struggle, and the eldest born
of the European commonwealths have
sunk unpitied into the grave of nations.
30. Notwithstanding these disadvan-
tages, however, the very peculiar situa-
tion of Venice gave it extraordinary
facilities for maintaining a defence, and,
in fact, rendered it, with the maritime
aid of England, altogether impregnable.
It is situated upon a cluster of islands,
surrounded by the Laguna, a series of
shallow salt-water lakes, in general not
more than three or four feet deep, and
separated from the Adriatic by a great
sand-bank called the Lido, all the en-
trances to which were strongly fortified.
The most considerable of these, Mal-
mocco and Chiusa, the scene of such
desperate contests between the Genoese
and Venetians in the sixteenth century,
31. When the impatient traveller
emerges from the green mounds of the
fortifications of Mestri or Fusina, the
nearest harbours of the Continent, on
which he embarks for the Venetian ca-
pital, and first finds himself on the broad
wave of the Lagunæ, he perceives its
domes and steeples rising, like specks
above the water, at the extremity of
the horizon, from the bosom of the
waves. As he approaches nearer, wind-
ing through the channels of the Lagunæ
clogged with green sea-weed, the lower
buildings of the capital gradually be-
come visible; islands stretching out
on either side, surmounted by domes,
churches, and lofty buildings, give va-
riety to the uniform surface of the water,
and numerous pleasure-boats, seen in
all directions, indicate the approach to
the metropolis. The canals by which
the city is at first entered, are bordered
by mean brick edifices, which but ill
correspond with its imposing aspect
when seen from a distance. But this un-
favourable impression is soon removed
when the traveller reaches the Great
Canal, which winds in a serpentine form
through the heart of the city, lined on
either side by stately palaces of marble,
adorned with the richest façades, in the
46
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
Palladian style. Independent of the
historical associations with which it is
connected, Venice is, from the peculi-
arity of its situation, and the exquisite
beauty of its architectural decorations,
the most interesting city in Europe.
The Place of St Mark, adorned by the
genius of Palladio and San-Suvino, with
its eastern end filled by the barbaric
magnificence of the Church of St Mark,
presents the most beautiful square that
is anywhere to be met with; while the
adjoining harbour, the broad expanse
of which is reached through the pillared
avenue of the Piazetta, exhibits a scene
probably unique in the world. The
singular assemblage of ships and gal-
leys, often of the most grotesque con-
struction, from every part of the Mediter-
ranean; the concourse of Turks, Greeks,
and Asiatics on the quay; the glittering
aspect of the barques and gondolas
which in every direction traverse the
harbour, mark the approach to the
Eastern world; but the noble domes of
St Georgio Maggiore, the Reddentore,
and the Madonna della Salute, bespeak
the taste of Italy, and the predominance
of the Christian faith. Altogether,
Venice produces an impression never
to be effaced from the mind of the tra-
veller, the recollection of which recurs
to the latest period of life with its bright
skies, glassy waves, and glowing sun-
sets, like the visions of bliss seen in
earlier and enthusiastic days.
32. The proximity of the Venetian
continental provinces to those which
had recently been revolutionised by the
Republican arms, and the sojourning
of the French armies among the ardent
youth of its principal cities, naturally
and inevitably led to the rapid propa-
gation of democratic principles among
their inhabitants. This took place more
particularly after the victories of Rivoli
and the fall of Mantua had dispelled all
dread of the return of the Austrian
forces. Everywhere revolutionary clubs
and committees were formed in the
towns, who corresponded with the Re-
publican authorities at Milan, and openly
expressed a wish to throw off the yoke
of the Venetian oligarchy. During the
whole winter of 1796, the democratic
party, in all the continental states of
Venice, was in a state of unceasing agi-
tation; and although Napoleon was far
from desirous of involving his rear in
hostilities, when actively engaged in
the defiles of the Noric Alps, yet he
felt anxious to establish a party able to
counteract the efforts of the Venetian
government, which already began to
take umbrage at the menacing language
and avowed sedition of their disaffected
subjects. For this purpose, he secretly
enjoined Captain Landrieux, chief of
the staff to the cavalry, to correspond
with the malcontents, and give unity
and effect to their operations; while, to
preserve the appearance of neutrality,
he gave orders to General Kilmaine to
direct all the officers and soldiers under
his command to give neither counsel
nor assistance to the disaffected.
33. Landrieux undertook a double
part: while, on the one hand, in obe-
dience to Napoleon's commands, and in
conjunction with the ardent democrats
of the Italian towns, he excited the
people to revolt, and organised the
means of their resistance; on the other,
he entered into a secret correspondence
with the Venetian government, and des-
patched his agent, Stephani, to Otto-
lini, the chief magistrate of Bergamo,
to detail the nature and extent of the
conspiracy which was on foot, and in-
form him that it aimed to separate en-
tirely its continental possessions from
the Venetian republic. By this double
perfidy did this hypocritical chief of
the staff render inevitable a rupture be-
tween France and Venice;* for while,
on the one hand, he excited the demo-
cratic party against the government, on
the other, he gave the government too
good reasons to adopt measures of coer-
cion against the democratic party and
their French allies. The revolt came
on, however, sooner than was either in-
tended or desirable. It is an easy mat-
ter to excite the passions of democracy:
but it is rarely that the leaders who fan
the flame can allay it at the point which
•
cret despatch to the Directory, "instigated
* "Landrieux," said Napoleon, in his se-
the revolt in Bergamo and Brescia, and was
paid for it; at the same time he revealed the
paid for that also by them."Corresp. Confid.
to the Venetian government, and was
iv. 287.
1
1797.]
47
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
¿
they desire. The vehement language | selves supported by the Republican
and enthusiastic conduct of the French commanders, wrote to the Directory,
soldiers, joined to the secret machina- and despatched Pesaro to the headquar-
tions of their chief, brought on an ex- ters of Napoleon, to complain of the
plosion in the Venetian territories sooner countenance given by his troops to the
than was expedient for the interests revolt of their subjects. The Venetian
either of the general or of the army. deputies came up with the French gen-
eral at Görizia; he feigned surprise at
the intelligence, but endeavoured to
take advantage of the terror of the re-
public to induce them to submit to in-
creased exactions. They represented
that the French armies had occupied
the principal fortresses and castles of
the republic, and that, having thus ob-
tained the vantage-ground, they were
bound either to take some steps to show
that they disapproved of the revolt,
which was organised in their name, or
to cede these places to the republic,
and permit them to exert their own
34. Napoleon's constant object was,
by the terror of an insurrection in their
continental possessions, to induce the
government to unite cordially in a league
with France, and make the desired con-
cessions to the popular party; but hav-
ing failed in his endeavours, he marched
for the Tagliamento, leaving insurrec-
tion ready to break out in all the pro-
vinces in his rear. On the morning of
the 12th March, the revolt began at
Bergamo, in consequence of the arrest
of the leaders of the insurrection; the
insurgents declared openly that they
were supported by the French, despatch-strength in restoring order in their do-
ed couriers to Milan and the principal minions. Napoleon positively declined
towns of Lombardy to obtain succour, to do either of these things, but con-
and besought' the Republican com- stantly urged the deputies to throw
mander of the castle to support them themselves into the arms of France.
with his forces. But he declined to in- "That I should arm against our friends,
terfere ostensibly in their behalf, though against those who have received us
he countenanced their projected union kindly, and wish to defend us, in favour
with the Cisalpine Republic. A provi- of our enemies, of those who hate and
sional government was soon established, seek to ruin us, is impossible. Never
which instantly announced to the newly- will I turn my arms against the prin-
born Cispadane Republic that Bergamo ciples of the Revolution; to them I owe
had recovered its liberty, and their de- in part all my success.
But I offer you,
sire to be united with that state; and in perfect sincerity, my friendship and
concluded with these words: "Let us my counsels; unite yourselves cordially
live, let us fight, and, if necessary, die to France; make the requisite changes
together; thus should all free people do in your constitution; and, without em-
let us then for ever remain united; you, ploying force with the Italian people, I
the French, and ourselves." The ex- will induce them to yield to order and
ample speedily spread to other towns. peace." They passed from that to the
Brescia, under the instigation of Land- contributions for the use of the army.
rieux, openly threw off its allegiance, Hitherto Venice had furnished supplies
and disarmed the Venetian troops in to the French army, as she had previ-
presence of the French soldiers, who ously done to the Imperial. The Ve-
neither checked nor supported the in-netian deputies insisted that Napoleon,
surrection. At Crema, the insurgents having now entered the Hereditary
were introduced into the gates by a States, should cease to be any longer
body of French cavalry, and, having a burden on their resources. This was
speedily overturned the Venetian autho- far from being the French general's in-
rities, proclaimed their union with the tention; for he was desirous of levying
Cispadane Republic.
no requisitions on the Austrian terri-
:
35. These alarming revolts excited | tories, for fear of rousing a national war
the utmost consternation at Venice; among the inhabitants. The commis-
and the Senate, not daring to act openlysaries, whom the Venetian government
against insurgents who declared them- had secretly commissioned to furnish
I
48
XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. ¿
1.
!
?
supplies to the French army, had ceased
their contributions, and they had in
consequence commenced requisitions in
the Venetian territories. "That is a
bad mode of proceeding," said Napo-
leon; “it vexes the inhabitants, and
opens the door to innumerable abuses.
Give me a million a-month as long as
the campaign lasts; the Republic will
account to you for it, and you will re-
ceive more than a million's worth in the
cessation of pillage. You have nourish-
ed my enemies, you must do the same
to me." The envoys answered that
their treasury was exhausted. "If you
have no money," said he, "take it from
the Duke of Modena, or levy it on the
property of the Russians, Austrians, and
English, which is lying in your depôts.
But beware of proceeding to hostilities.
If, while I am engaged in a distant cam-
paign, you light the flames of war in my
rear, you have sealed your own ruin.
That which might have been overlooked
when I was in Italy becomes an unpar-
donable offence when I am in Germany."
Such was the violence with which this
haughty conqueror treated a nation
which was not only neutral, but had for
nine months furnished gratuitously all
the supplies for his army; and such the
degradation which this ancient republic
had prepared for itself, by the timid
policy which hoped to avert danger by
declining to face it.
36. The Venetian government at
length saw that they could no longer
delay taking a decided part. A formid-
able insurrection, organised in the name
and under the sanction of the Republi-
can authorities, was rapidly spreading
in their continental possessions, great
part of which had already joined the
Cisalpine Republic; and the general-in-
chief, instead of taking any steps to
quench the flame, had only demanded
fresh contributions from a state already
exhausted by his exactions. They re-
solved, therefore, by a large majority,
to act vigorously against the insurgents,
but without venturing to engage in hos-
tilities with the French forces-an ill-
judged step, the result of timidity and
irresolution, which exposed them to all
the perils of war without any of its
favourable chances; which irritated
without endangering the enemy, and
allowed the French general to select his
own time for wreaking upon the state,
alone and unbefriended, the whole
weight of Republican vengeance.
37. The retreat of the French from
the valley of the Adige, and the irrup-
tion of the Croatians into Friuli, encour-
aged the Venetian government to com-
mence hostilities against their refractory
subjects. But before that took place,
tumults and bloodshed had arisen spon-
taneously, and about the same time, in
many different parts of the territory,
in consequence of the furious passions
which were roused by the collision be-
tween the aristocracy on the one hand,
and the populace on the other. Matters
were also precipitated by an unworthy
fraud, perpetrated by the Republican
agents at Milan. This was the prepar-
ation and publishing of an address,
purporting to be from Battaglia, gover-
nor of Verona, calling upon the citizens
faithful to Venice to rise in arms, to
murder the insurgents, and chase the
French soldiers from the Venetian ter-
ritory. This fabrication, which was
written at Milan by a person in the
French interest, of the name of Salva-
dor, was extensively diffused by Lan-
drieux, the secret agent of the French
general; and though it bore such ab-
surdity on its face as might have detected
the forgery, yet, in the agitated state
of the country, a spark was sufficient
to fire the train; and hostilities, from
the excited condition of men's minds,
would, in all probability, have been com-
menced, even without this unworthy
device. The mountaineers and the in-
habitants of the Alpine valleys flew to
arms; large bodies of the peasantry
collected together; and everything was
prepared for the irruption of a consider-
able force into the plains of Brescia.
A
38. The democrats in Brescia, insti-
gated by French agents, resolved in-
stantly to commence hostilities.
body of twelve hundred men issued
from their gates, accompanied by four
pieces of cannon, served by French
gunners, to attack Salo, a fortified town,
occupied by Venetians, on the western
bank of the lake of Garda. The expe-
dition reached the town, and was about
1797.]
49
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
to take possession of it, when they were pected of seditious practices. Mean-
suddenly attacked and routed by a body while Napoleon, having received intel-
of mountaineers, who made prisoners ligence of the steps which the Venetian
two hundred Poles of the legion of Dom- government had adopted to crush the
browski, and so completely surprised insurrection in their dominions, and the
the French that they narrowly escaped check which the Republican troops, in
the same fate. This success contributed aiding them, had received at Salo, affect-
immensely to excite the movements; ed the most violent indignation. Having
large bodies of peasants issued from the already concluded the armistice at Leo-
valleys, and speedily ten thousand arm-ben, and agreed to abandon the whole
ed men appeared before the gates of continental possessions of Venice to Aus-
Brescia. The inhabitants, however, tria, he foresaw in these events the means
prepared for their defence, and soon a of satisfying the avidity of the Imperial-
severe cannonade commenced on both ists, and procuring advantageous terms
sides. General Kilmaine, upon this, for the Republic, at the expense of the
collected a body of fifteen hundred men, helpless state of Venice. He therefore
chiefly Poles, under General Lahoz, sent his aide-de-camp, Junot, with a
attacked and defeated the mountaineers, menacing letter to the Senate, in which
and drove them back to their moun- he threatened them with the whole
tains; they were soon after followed weight of the Republican vengeance,
by the French flotilla and land forces, if they did not instantly liberate the
and Salo was taken and sacked.
Polish and French prisoners, surrender
to him the authors of the hostilities,
and disband all their armaments. Junot
was received by the Senate, to whom
he read the imperious letter of Napo-
leon; but they prevailed on him to
suspend his threats, and despatched
two senators to the Republican head-
quarters, to endeavour to bring mat-
ters to an accommodation.
40. But the very day after the depu-
ties set out from Venice for Leoben, an
explosion took place on the Adige,
which gave the French general too fair
a pretext to break off the negotiation.
The levy en masse of the peasants, to
the number of twenty thousand, had
assembled in the neighbourhood of Ve-
rona; three thousand Venetian troops
had been sent into that town by the
Senate, and the near approach of the
Austrians from the Tyrol promised
effectual support. The tocsin sounded;
the people flew to arms, and put to death
in cold blood four hundred wounded
French in the hospitals. Indignant at
these atrocious cruelties, General Bal-
land, who commanded the French gar-
rison in the forts, fired on the city with
red-hot balls. Conflagrations soon broke
out in several quarters, and although
various attempts at accommodation were
made, they were all rendered abortive
by the furious passions of the multitude.
The cannonade continued on both sides,
39. The intelligence of these events
excited the utmost indignation at Ve-
nice. The part taken by the French
troops in supporting the revolt could no
longer be concealed; and the advance
of Laudon, at the same time, in the
Tyrol, produced such apparently well-
founded hopes of the approaching over-
throw of the Republicans, that nothing
but the vicinity of Victor's corps pre-
vented the Senate from openly declar-
ing against the French. The Austrian
general spread, in the vicinity of Verona,
the most extravagant reports, that he
was advancing at the head of sixty
thousand men, that Napoleon had been
defeated in the Noric Alps, and that
the junctions of the corps in his rear
would speedily compel him to surren-
der. These statements excited the
most vehement agitation at Verona,
where the patrician party, from their
proximity to the revolutionary cities,
were in imminent danger, and a popular
insurrection might be hourly expected.
The government, however, deeming it
too hazardous to come to an open rup-
ture with the French, continued their
temporising policy; they even agreed
to give the million a month which the
Republican general demanded, and con-
tented themselves with redoubling the
vigilance of the police, and arresting
such of their own subjects as were sus-
50
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
į
..
•
!.
¦
#
་
1.
the forts were closely invested, the city | necessary act. These sanguinary pro-
in many parts was in flames, the French ceedings sufficiently verify the old ob-
already began to feel the pressure of servation, that pusillanimity and cruelty
hunger, and the garrison of Fort Chiusa, are allied to each other; and that none
which capitulated from want of provi- are so truly humane as the brave and
sions, was inhumanly put to death, to re- the free. They do not in the slightest
venge the ravages of the bombardment. degree palliate the treachery of the
41. But the hour of retribution was French, or the rapacity of the Imperi-
at hand; and a terrible reverse awaited alists, the former of whom had insti-
the sanguinary excesses of the Venetian gated the revolt of the Venetian demo-
insurrection. The day after hostilities crats, and signed the partition of Ve-
commenced, the intelligence of the ar- nice before either of these events took
mistice was received, and the Austrian place; * but they go far to diminish the
troops retired into the Tyrol; two days regret which otherwise would be felt at
after, the columus of General Chabran the success of unprincipled ambition,
appeared round the town, and invested and the fall of the oldest republic of
its walls; while, to complete their mis- the Christian world.
fortunes, on the 23d the accounts of the
signature of the preliminaries of Leoben
arrived. The multitude immediately
passed from the highest exultation to
the deepest dejection; and they now
sought only to deprecate the wrath of
the conqueror, to whom they had given
so much cause of hostility. Submission
was immediately made; the authors of
the cruelties were shot; a general dis-
arming was effected among the peasant-
ry; and a contribution of 1,100,000
francs (£44,000) levied on the city.
The plains were speedily covered with
French troops; the united divisions of
Victor and Kilmaine occupied succes-
sively Vicenza and Padua, and soon the
French standards were discovered from
the steeples of Venice on the shores
of the Laguna. These excesses were
the work of popular passion, equally
sanguinary and inconstant, when not
rightly directed, in all ages and coun-
tries; but an event of the same kind
stained the last days of the Venetian
government itself. A French vessel of
four guns approached the entrance of
the harbour of Lido, in opposition to a
rule of the Venetian Senate, to which
all nations, not excepting the English
themselves, were accustomed to yield
obedience. A cannonade ensued be-
tween the batteries on shore and the
vessel, and the French ship having been
captured by the galleys on the station,
the captain and four of the crew were
massacred, and eleven wounded. Im-
mediately after, a decree of the Senate
publicly applauded this cruel and un-
:
·
•
}
42. The Venetian senate, thunder-
struck by the intelligence they had re-
ceived, did their utmost to appease the
wrath of the victors. Their situation
had become to the last degree perilous,
for they were precipitated into hostili-
ties with the victorious Republic, at the
very time when Austria, discomfited,
was retiring from the strife, and when
their own dominions had become a prey
* The massacre at Verona took place on the
17th April, that at Lido on the 23d, while the
whole of the continental Venetian territories
preliminaries of Leoben, which assigned the
to Austria, were agreed to on the 9th, at Ju-
denbourg, and the formal treaty was drawn
first of these events had occurred, and signed
up on the 16th, in Carinthia, before even the
on the 18th. Napoleon has given the clearest
proof of his sense of the unjustifiable nature
of this aggression, by having, in his memoirs
dates, and made it appear as if his menacing
on this subject, entirely kept out of view the
letter by Junot to the Senate was the conse-
quence of the massacre of April 17, at Ver-
ona, when in fact it was dated the 9th April,
at Judenbourg, at a time wheu, so far from
the Venetian government having given any
cause of complaint to the French, they had
only suffered aggressions at their hands, in
rebels, and the attack by the Republican
the assistance openly leut to the democratic
forces on Salo. Conflicts, indeed, had taken
place between the Venetian insurgents, stim-
adherents; but the government had com-
ulated by the French, and the aristocratic
mitted no act of hostility, the monthly sup-
plies were in course of regular payment, and
the French ambassador was still at Venice.
-Napoleon, iv. 142. By not attending mi-
nutely to this matter, Sir W. Scott has totally
misrepresented the transactions which led to
the fall of Venice, and drawn them in far too
favourable colours for the hero whose life he
so ably delineated.-SCOTT's Napoleon, iii.
315, 316.
1
1797.]
51
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
to the most farious discord. The de-ing of patriotism in the middle, the
mocratic party, following the French enjoyments of luxury, every desire for
standards, had revolted at Vicenza, independence among the senatorial
Treviso, Padua, and all the continental classes; ages of prosperity had corrupt-
cities, while a vehement faction in the ed the sources of virtue, and the insane
capital itself was threatening to over- passion for equality vainly rose like a
throw the constitution of the state. A passing meteor to illuminate the ruins
deputation was sent to Gratz to endea of a falling state.
vour to pacify the conqueror, and an-
other to Paris, with ample funds at the
command of both, to corrupt the sources
of influence at these places. They suc-
ceeded, by the distribution of a very
large sum, in gaining over the Direc-
tory; but all their efforts with Napo-
leon were fruitless. His was not only
a character totally inaccessible to that
species of corruption, but he was too
deeply implicated in the partition of
the Venetian territories, which he had
just signed, to forego so fortunate a
pretext for vindicating it as these ex-
cesses had afforded.
44. On the 3d May, Napoleon pub-
lished from Palma Nuova his declara-
tion of war against Venice. He there
complained that the Senate had taken
advantage of the holy week to organise
a furious war against France; that vast
bodies of peasantry were armed and
disciplined by troops sent out of the
capital; that a crusade against the
French was preached in all the churches;
their detached bodies murdered, and
the sick in the hospitals massacred; the
crew of a French galley slain under the
eyes of the Senate, and the authors of
the tragedy publicly rewarded for the
atrocious act. To this manifesto the
Venetians replied, that the massacres
complained of were not the work of
government, but of individuals whom
they could not control; that the popu-
lar passions had been excited by the
ungovernable insolence of the Republi-
can soldiery, and of the democratic
party whom they had roused to open
rebellion; that the first acts of aggres-
sion were committed by the French
commanders, by publicly assisting the
rebels in various encounters with the
Venetian forces, long before the mas-
sacres complained of were committed;
and that the only fault of which they
were really guilty, consisted in their
not having earlier divined the ambi-
tious designs of the French general,
and joined all their forces to the Aus-
trian armies, when combating for a
cause which must sooner or later be
that of every independent state.
43. Venice had still at its command
most formidable means of defence, if
the spirit of the inhabitants had been
equal to the emergency. They had
within the city eight thousand seamen
and fourteen thousand regular troops,
thirty-seven galleys and one hundred
and sixty gun-boats, carrying eight
hundred cannon, for the defence of the
Lagunæ; and all the approaches to the
capital were commanded by powerful
batteries. Provisions existed for eight
months, fresh water for two; the near-
est islands were beyond the reach of
cannon-shot from the shore, and, with
the assistance of the fleets of England,
they might have bid defiance to all the
armies of France. The circumstances
of the republic were not nearly so des-
perate asthey had been in former times,
when they extricated themselves with
glory from their difficulties; when the
league of Cambray had wrested from
them all their territorial possessions,
or when the Genoese fleet had seized
the gates of the Laguna and blockaded
their fleet at Malmocco. But the men
were no longer the same. The poison of
democracy had extinguished every feel-
45. The French general was not long
in following up his menaces, and pre-
paring the execution of that unjustifi-
able partition which had been decided
upon between him and the Imperial
cabinet. The Republican troops, in
pursuance of the treaty of Leoben, ra-
pidly evacuated Carinthia, and, return-
*Two hundred thousand crowns, as a pri-
vate bribe, were placed at the disposal of Baring by forced marches on their steps,
ras.—HARDENBERG, v. 19; and Napoleon in
O'MEARA, 271.
soon appeared on the confines of the
C
.
"
52
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIII.
P
bled in mournful silence on the 12th
May, and, after passing under review
the exhausted resources and distracted
state of the republic, voted, amidst the
tears of all friends to their country, by
a majority of five hundred and twelve
to fourteen voices, the abdication of
their authority. Shouts from the giddy
multitude rent the sky; the tree of
liberty was hoisted on the Place of St
Mark; the democrats entered, amidst
bloodshed and plunder, upon the ex-
ercise of their new-born sovereignty;
and the revolutionary party fondly ima-
gined that they were launched upon
a boundless career of glory. But the
real patriots, the men of sense and
firmness, lamented the decision of the
senate, and, retiring in silence to their
homes, exclaimed with tears, "Venice
is no more; St Mark has fallen !”
47. While the revolutionists were thus
bartering their country for the vain
chimera of democratic equality, and
the unworthy descendants of Dandolo
and Morosini were surrendering with-
out a struggle the glories and the inde-
pendence of a thousand years, more
generous sentiments burst forth among
the labouring classes, often the last de-
positaries, in a corrupted age, of public
virtue. No sooner was the mournful
act communicated to the people than
they flocked together from all quarters,
and with loud cries demanded the res-
toration of the standard of St Mark,
and arms to combat for the indepen-
dence of their country. Several bloody
contests ensued between them and the
revolutionary party; but the populace,
however ardent, cannot maintain a con-
test for any length of time when desti-
tute of leaders. The cannon of the re-
publicans dispersed the frantic assem-
blages; and, amidst the shouts of the
insane revolutionists, the French troops
were conducted by Venetian boats to
the Place of St Mark, where a foreign
standard had not been seen for fifteen
hundred years, but where the colours
of independence were never again des-
tined to wave.
Lagunæ, within sight of the tower of
St Mark. As they advanced the re-
public became a prey to the passions,
and torn by the factions, which are the
general forerunners of national ruin.
At the news of the proclamation of war,
all the towns of the continental posses
sions of Venice revolted against the
capital. Every city proclaimed its in-
dependence, and appointed a provisional
government; Bergamo, Brescia, Padua,
Vicenza, Bassano, Udina, constituted so
many separate republics, who organised
themselves after the great French model,
suppressed the convents, and confiscat-
ed their property, abolished all feudal
rights, established national guards, and
hoisted the tricolor flag.
46. Meanwhile Venice, itself a prey
to the most vehement faction, was in
a cruel state of perplexity. The sena-
tors met at the Doge's palace, and en-
deavoured, by untimely concessions, to
satisfy the demands and revive the pa-
triotism of the popular party-a vain
expedient, founded upon utter igno-
rance of democratic ambition, which
concessions dictated by fear can never
satisfy, but which, in such a successful
course, rushes forward, like an indivi-
dual plunged in the career of passion,
upon its own destruction. The patri-
cians found themselves deprived of all
the resources of government; a furious
rabble filled the streets, demanding
with loud cries the abdication of the
senate, the immediate admission of the
French troops, and the establishment
of a government formed on a highly
democratic basis; a revolutionary com-
mittee, formed of the most active of the
middle orders, was in open communi-
cation with the French army, and rose
in audacity with every concession from
the government; the sailors of the fleet
had manifested symptoms of insubor-
dination; and the fidelity of the Sclav-
onians, who constituted the strength
of the garrison, could not, it was ascer-
tained, be relied on. These elements
of anarchy, sufficient to have shaken
the courage of the Roman senate, were
too powerful for the weak and vacil-
lating councils of the Venetian oli-
garchy. Yielding to the tempest which
48. The French troops were not long
of securing to themselves the spoils of
their revolutionary allies. The Golden
they could not withstand, they assem-Book, the record of the senators of Ve-
1797.]
53:
HISTORY OF EUROPE
#
nice, were carried off in triumph by
the conquering Republic.*
49. While these memorable events
were going forward on the southern
side of the Alps, the war languished on
the frontier of the Rhine. Latour com-
manded the Imperial army on the Up-
per Rhine; his troops, after the depar-
ture of the veteran bands under the
Archduke, did not exceed thirty-four
thousand infantry and six thousand
horse; while those under the orders of
Werneck, on the Lower Rhine, were
about thirty thousand, and twenty
thousand were shut up within the for-
tresses on that stream. The French
forces were much more numerous: the
army of the Rhine and Moselle, under
Moreau, being sixty thousand strong;
while that of the Sambre and Meuse,
cantoned between Düsseldorf and Cob-
lentz, amounted to nearly seventy thou-
sand. The latter was under the com-
nice, was burned at the foot of the tree of
liberty; and while the democrats were
exulting over the destruction of this
emblem of their ancient subjection,
their allies were depriving them of all
the means of future independence. The
treasures of the republic were instantly
seized by the French generals; but in-
stead of the vast sums which they ex-
pected, 1,800,000 francs, belonging to
the Duke of Modena, were all that fell
into their hands. All that remained
in the celebrated harbour of St Mark's
was made prize of: but such was its
dilapidated condition that they with
difficulty fitted out two sixty-four gun-
ships, and a few frigates, out of the ar-
senal of the Queen of the Adriatic.
The remainder of the fleet, consisting
of five sail of the line, six frigates, and
eleven galleys, was not in a condition
to keep the sea; and Admiral Bruéys
received orders from the Directory to
set sail to secure the fruit of the repub-mand of Hoche, whose vigour and abili-
lican fraternisation. In the middle of ties gave every promise of success in
July he arrived at Venice, where his the ensuing campaign; while the pos-
fleet was paid, equipped, and fed at the session of the têtes-de-pont at Düsseldorf
expense of the infant republic-a bur- and Neuwied afforded a facility for
den which began to open the eyes of commencing operations, which the army
the revolutionary party, when too late, on the upper branch of the river did
to the consequences of their conduct. not possess since the loss of Kehl and
The bitter fruits of republican alliance the tête-de-pont at Huningen. The ra-
were still more poignantly felt when pidity and energy with which Napoleon
the conditions of the treaty of Milan, commenced operations on the banks of
signed by Napoleon, with the new gov- the Tagliamento before the middle of
ernment of Venice, became known, March, inflamed the rivalry of the gen-
which stipulated the abolition of the erals on the Rhine; while the interests
aristocracy; the formation of a popular of the Republic imperiously required
government; the introduction of a di- that the campaign should simultane-
vision of French troops into the capi- ously be commenced in both quarters,
tal; a contribution of three millions in in order that the army most advanced
money, three millions' worth of naval should not find itself engaged alone with
stores, and the surrender of three ships the strength of the Austrian monarchy.
of the line and two frigates, with many Nevertheless, such was the exhausted
illustrious works of art. Among the rest, state of the treasury, from the total
the famous horses brought in the car of ruin of the paper system, and the dila-
victory from Corinth to Rome, thence pidation of the public revenues during
to Constantinople, and thence to Ve- the convulsions of the Revolution, that
* The seizure of these horses was an act of ordered the French admiral Bruéys, who was
pure robbery. The Venetians, in the secret sent to superintend the spoliation, to carry
articles, agreed to surrender "twenty pic-off the whole stores to Toulon; and the Direc-
tures and five hundred manuscripts," but no tory wrote to Berthier in these terms: “Let
statues. Nevertheless, the French carried off all the artillery, all the magazines of war and
the horses from the Place of St Mark, and of provisions, found at Venice, be transported
put them on the triumphal arch in the Tuile to Corfu, Ancona, and Ferrara, so that you
ries. In like manner, the secret articles may leave Venice without a single piece of can-
only bound the Venetians to furnish three non."-Secret Corresp. of Napoleon, iii. 170, and
|
millions' worth of naval stores; but Napoleon | iv. 427.
-1
...
54
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
the Directory was unable to furnish | having retarded the embarkation of the
Moreau with the equipage necessary advanced guard till six o'clock on the
for crossing the Rhine; and he was following morning, it was evident that
obliged to go in person to Paris, in a surprise was impossible, the Austrians
the beginning of April, and pledge having taken the alarm, and appearing
his private fortune to procure that ne- in considerable force on the opposite
cessary part of his equipments. At shore. The boats, however, pulled gal-
length, the obstacles having been over-lantly across the stream, till they came
come, he returned to the Rhine, and within reach of the grape-shot from the
completed his preparations for crossing enemy's cannon, when the shower of
that river,
balls forced them to take shelter behind
an island, where they landed, and cap-
tured three hundred Croatians, who
composed its garrison. From this they
forded the narrow branch of the Rhine
which separates the island from the
German shore, and made themselves
masters of Diersheim. Towards noon
they were there attacked by the Aus-
trians, who had received a reinforce-
ment of four thousand men from a
neighbouring camp; but the attack
was gallantly repulsed by Desaix and
DAVOUST,* who there gave earnest of
vention on account of the suspicion under
which he laboured of a design to restore the
Bourbons, had quitted his headquarters at
Saint-Amand, and was moving towards the
cantonments of the regiment of Deux-Ponts,
which was entirely at his devotion, when he
met, early in the morning, on the banks of
the Scheldt, the Volunteers of the Yonne,
whom Davoust was leading to Valenciennes
to support the authority of the Convention.
Without a moment's hesitation, Davoust or-
dered the leading company to fire on Du-
mourier, and the group of staff officers by
whom he was surrounded. The men, know-
ing he had been denounced by the Conven-
tion, obeyed. Dumourier's horse was shot
under him, two of his attendants were killed,
and the general himself only escaped by
mounting on the horse of a trooper who had
fallen, and flying with the utmost haste across
the frontier. This decided act at once drove
Dumourier into exile and made Davoust's for-
tune. Arrested in the first instance, for such an
act of insubordination as firing on his general,
he was within twenty-four hours liberated by
order of the all-powerful Convention, and im-
mediately received rapid promotion. In July
1793, he was promoted to the rank of general
of brigade, and was on the eve of being made
general of division when the decree, 29th Au-
gust of that year, which deprived all persons
of noble birth in the army of their commands,
reduced him to a private station. After the
9th Thermidor, however, in July 1794, he was
restored to his rank as general of brigade,
and took an active part in the campaigns of
1794 and 1795, on the Rhine, in the course
of which he was made prisoner by the Aus-
trians, but soon after exchanged. Early in
1797 he distinguished himself by his coolness
and decision in the passage of the Rhine,
50. The point selected for this im-
portant enterprise was Diersheim; the
preparations of the enemy in the neigh-
bourhood of Strassburg rendering haz-
ardous any attempt to cross near that
town. Seventy barks were collected in
the Ill, a small stream which falls into
the Rhine, and directed to Diersheim
on the night of the 19th April, while
two false attacks above and below that
place were prepared, to distract the
attention of the enemy. Delays un-
avoidable in the collection of the flotilla
* Louis Nicolas Davoust, afterwards Prince
of Echmühl, and Marshal of France, one of
the most distinguished generals of the Revo-
lution, was born at Annoux in Burgundy, on
the 10th May 1770, of a respectable and noble
family. Destined early for the profession of
arms, he was sent to the Military School of
Brienne, as a gentleman cadet, in September
1780, when Napoleon was there. In 1788 he
entered the army as a sub-lieutenaut in the
regiment of Royal-Champagne, in which he
served till autumu 1791, when he was dis-
missed the service, in consequence of having
taken part with the private soldiers in a mu-
tiny against their officers during the political
disturbances of the preceding year. Ardent,
impetuous, impatient of control, his fretful
humour chafed against the restraint of mili-
tary subordination, and found a freer and
more suitable vent in the tumult and energy
of the revolutionary corps. Restored by his
dismissal from the army to the class of citi-
zens, he was, from his acquaintance with
his profession, and ardent republican ideas,
named lieutenant-colonel of the 3d battalion
of the Volunteers of the Yonne, at the age of
twenty-two. To an officer of the army, the
embracing the new opinions was in those
days a certain passport to popular election
and rapid promotion. In that capacity he
took part in the campaign of 1792, in Cham-
pagne; and, determined in his adhesion to
the cause of the Revolution through all its
excesses, he presented himself at the bar of
the Assembly to testify his own adherence,
and that of his corps, to the overthrow of the
throne.
He was soon called to evince, in a decisive
crisis, his attachment to the principles of the
Revolution. In April 1793, Dumourier, hav-
ing been summoned to the bar of the Con-
1797.]
55
HISTORY OF EUROPE
4
sight by which his future career was
eminently distinguished. During the
whole day, the Imperialists renewed
their attacks with great intrepidity, and
in the end with twelve thousand men;
but they were constantly repulsed by
the obstinate valour of the Republican
infantry. On the following day, the
attack was renewed with increased
forces, but no better success; and the
bridge having, in the mean time, been
established, Moreau began to debouch
in great strength; upon which the Aus-
trians commenced their retreat, during
which they sustained considerable loss
from the Republican cavalry.
that cool intrepidity and sagacious fore- | the disasters of the preceding campaign,
Moreau resolved to pursue the corps of
Starray with vigour, and prevent that
methodical retreat which had proved
so beneficial to the Imperialists in the
previous year. For this purpose he
pushed his advanced guard on to Ren-
chen the very day after the passage was
completed; and was in the high-road
to further successes, when he was inter-
rupted by the intelligence of the armis-
tice of Leoben, which terminated the
campaign in that quarter.
52. The campaign was in like manner
cut short in the midst of opening suc-
cesses on the Lower Rhine. The army
put there at the disposal of Hoche was
51. Thus, by a bold and able exer- one of the most numerous and well ap-
tion, was the passage of the Rhine se- pointed which the Republic sent into the
cured, and all the fruits of the bloody field, and particularly remarkable for
sieges of Kehl and Huningen lost to the numbers and fiue condition of the
the Imperialists. In these actions the cavalry and artillery. Hoche resolved
loss of the Austrians was three thousand to effect the passage with the bulk of
prisoners and twenty pieces of cannon, his forces from Neuwied, and to facili-
besides two thousand killed and wound- tate that purpose by a simultaneous
ed. When it is recollected that this movementat Düsseldorf. The Austrians
passage was gained, not by stratagem, were so far deceived by these move-
but by main force, in presence of a ments, that they advanced with the
considerable part of the Austrian army, greater part of their forces to Alten-
and that it undid at once all the advan-kirchen, in order to stop the progress
tages gained by them in the preceding of the troops from Düsseldorf, leaving
winter, it must ever be regarded as a only a small body in front of Neuwied.
glorious deed of arms, and one of the No sooner did he perceive that they
most memorable military achievements had fallen into the snare, than Hoche
of the revolutionary war. Taught by debouched rapidly from the tête-de-pont
at that place at the head of thirty-six
under Moreau at Diersheim; and added to
the fame he had already acquired by his in- thousand men. Kray commanded the
trepidity in the combats of Hohenblau, Kin- Imperialists in that quarter; and his
zig, and Hasslach, in the preceding campaign. position, blocking up the roads leading
The peace, or rather the truce, which followed, from the bridge, was strongly fortified,
suspended all military operations in Germany,
and, wearied of inactivity, he followed Napo- and covered by powerful batteries. The
leon into Egypt. Thenceforward he needs no attack of the Republicans was impet-
biography; his name will be found associated uous; but the resistance of the Impe-
with all the greatest deeds of the Emperor rialists, though greatly inferior in num-
from the Pyramids to Waterloo. He was cool
and collected in danger, possessing an admir- ber, was not less vigorous; and no
able coup d'œil on the field, and by his in- advantage was gained by the assailants
defatigable energy and methodical arrange- till the fortified village of Hulsendorf
ments in a campaign, always had his troops
in much better order than any other corps was carried by a concentric attack from
in the army, except the Guards. But he was several of the French masses, after which
inexorable and severe as a general, often cruel the other redoubts, taken in flank, were
and rapacious in military command, coarse successively stormed, and the Austrians
and vulgar in his manners, and so passionate
in his demeanour that an officer who would driven back, with the loss of five thou-
not have hesitated to face a battery of Russian sand men in killed, wounded, and pri-
cannon often trembled when brought into the soners, twenty-seven pieces of cannon,
presence of the Prince of
phie Universelle, Supplément, lxii. 158, 173; and and sixty caissons. At the same time
Dumourier's Memoirs, iv. 173, 175.
the left wing of the army crossed the
}
Fr
56
[CHAP. XXIII.
A
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
d
4
Sieg, advanced to Ukerath and Alten-
kirchen, which were abandoned as soon
as it was known that the bulk of the
enemy's forces was advancing from Neu-
wied, and on the following night they
effected their junction with the victors
on the field of battle.
53. After this disaster, Werneck re-
tired to Neukirchen, and united the
two divisions of his army; but, finding
that he was unable to make head against
the immense forces of his opponent,
which were nearly double his own, he
fell back behind the Lahn. Thither he
was immediately followed by the vic-
torious general; and, the Imperialists
having continued their retreat towards
the Maine, Hoche conceived the design
of cutting them off before they crossed
that river. For this purpose he pushed
forward his right wing, under Lefebvre,
to Frankfort, while the centre and left
continued to press the enemy on the
high-road, by which they continued
their retreat. The advanced guard of
Lefebvre was at the gates of that opu-
lent city, when hostilities were suspend-
ed, by the intelligence of the prelimi-
naries of Leoben, to the infinite morti-
fication of the French general, who saw
himself thus interrupted, by his more
fortunate rival, in a career of success,
from which the most glorious effects
might have been anticipated to the Re-
public.
54. Prussia, during this eventful year,
adhered steadily to the system of armed
neutrality, inclining rather to France,
and supporting the protection of the
associated states within the proscribed
line, which was begun by the treaty of
Bâle in 1795, and consolidated by the
convention of 5th August 1796. The
health of the king had for some time
been visibly declining, and he at length
expired at Berlin, on the 16th Novem-
ber; having, as his last act, bestowed
the decoration of the order of the Black
Eagle on his favourite minister Haug-
witz. Though neither endowed with
shining civil nor remarkable military
talents, few monarchs have conferred
greater benefits on their country than
this sovereign. Among the many and
valuable territorial acquisitions which
he made, is to be reckoned the import-
ant commercial city and fortress of
Dantzig, which commands the naviga-
tion of the Vistula, and holds the keys
of Poland.* The army also, during his
reign, was increased by twenty-five
thousand men ; and, like his great pre-
decessor, he ever considered that arm
as the main foundation of the public
strength. Much of this increase is
doubtless to be ascribed to a fortunate
combination of extraneous things; and
it chiefly arose from the monstrous par-
tition of Poland. Yet something also
must be admitted to have been due to
the wisdom of the cabinet, which skil-
fully turned these circumstances to its
own advantage, and contrived to reap
nothing but profit from a stormy period,
deeply checkered to other states by dis-
aster. But in the close of his reign, the
national jealousy of Austria, and par-
tiality for France, were carried to an
unreasonable length; and in the unwise
desertion of the cause of Europe, by
this important monarchy, is to be found
one of the principal causes of the dis-
asters which subsequently befell itself.
The king was simple and unostentatious
in his habits; addicted to conviviality,
but rather on account of the pleasures
of the table than from any capacity to
appreciate the refinements of conversa-
tion; good-humoured in general, but
subject to occasional and ungovernable
fits of passion. Hardly adequate to the
consideration of important subjects of
policy himself, he at least had the sense
to intrust the administration of public
affairs to able ministers. He was fond
of music, and distinguished by a mark-
ed predilection for architecture, which
caused his reign to be signalised by the
construction of several noble and im-
posing edifices. But his facility and
passions led him into various irregu-
larities in private life; and the court
during his latter years was scandalised
by the great ascendancy obtained by
his profuse and rapacious mistress, the
Countess Lichtenau, who was called to
* During his reign, the territory of the mon-
archy was augmented by 2200 square (Ger-
man) miles, and its population by 2,500,000
souls. He received from his uncle, the Great
of inhabitants; and left to his successor 5800
Frederick, 3600 square miles, and 6,000,000
square miles, and 8,500,000 of inhabitants.
1797.]
57
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
a severe account for her malversations | his resolution to continue those mea-
by his successor.
sures for the security of that part of the
empire which his father had commenced;
and in a holograph letter to the Direc-
tory, his wish to cultivate the good un-
derstanding with the French Republic,
which ultimately led to such disastrous
effects to Prussia and Europe.
55. Very different was the character
of the youthful sovereign who now as-
cended the throne, FREDERICK WILLIAM
III., afterwards called to such import-
ant destinies on the theatre of Europe.
Born on the 3d August 1770, he was
twenty-seven years of age when he suc-
ceeded to the crown; and his character
and habits already presaged the glories
of his reign. Severe and regular in pri-
vate life, he had continued, amidst a
dissolute court, a pattern of every do-
mestic virtue. Married early to a beau-
tiful and high-spirited princess, he bore
to her that faithful attachment which
her captivating qualities were so well
fitted to excite, and which afterwards
attracted the admiration, though they
could not relax the policy or melt the
sternness, of Napoleon, or excite a spark
of chivalry in his cold and intellectual
breast. He entertained asincere, though
undeserved, distrust of his own capacity
in judging of state affairs, which at first
threw him, to an unreasonable degree,
under the government of his ministers,
but was gradually removed during the
difficulties and necessities of the later
periods of his reign. His first acts were
in the highest degree popular. On the
day of his accession, he wrote a circular
to the constituted authorities, inform-
ing them that he was aware of the abuses
which had crept into various branches
of the public service, and was resolved
to rectify them; and at the same time
gave an earnest of his sincerity by abol-
ishing the monopoly of tobacco, which
his father had re-established. The pub-
lic indignation, rather than his own
wishes, rendered the trial of the Coun-
tess Lichtenau unavoidably necessary;
her wealth was known to be enormous,
and many of the crown jewels were
found in her possession. She was ob-
liged to surrender the greater part of
her ill-gotten treasures, and assigned a
pension of 15,000 francs-the remain-
der of her great fortune being settled on
an hospital of Berlin. At the same time
the king, under the directions of Har-
denberg, declared, in a circular addressed
to all the states in the north of Germany,
VOL IY
56. In concluding the survey of these
memorable contests, it is impossible to
refuse to the genius of Napoleon that
tribute which is justly due to it, not
only for the triumphs in Italy, but for
those in Germany. When he began his
immortal campaign in the Maritime
Alps, the Imperialists, greatly superior
to their antagonists, were preparing to
cross the Rhine, and carry the war into
the territory of the Republic. It was
his brilliant victories in Piedmont and
Lombardy which compelled the Aulic
Council to detach Wurmser with thirty
thousand men from the Upper Rhine to
the valley of the Adige; and thus not
only reduced the Austrians to the de-
fensive in Germany, but enabled the
Republicans to carry the war into the
centre of that country. Subsequently,
the desperate conflicts round the walls
of Mantua drew off the whole resources
of the Austrian monarchy into that
quarter, and the French advance into
the Alps of Carinthia compelled the
draft of thirty thousand of the best
troops from Suabia, to defend the He-
reditary States. Thus, with an army
which, though frequently reinforced,
never at one time amounted to sixty
thousand men, he not only vanquished
six successive armies in Italy and the
Julian Alps, but drew upon himself
great part of the weight of the German
war; and, finally, without any other
aid than that derived from the valour
of his own soldiers, carried hostilities
into the Hereditary States, and dictated
a glorious peace within sight of the
steeples of Vienna.
57. Meanwhile Napoleon, sheathing
for a time his victorious sword, estab-
lished himself at the chateau of Monte-
bello, near Milan-a beautiful summer
residence, which overlooked great part
of the plain of Lombardy. Negotiations
for a final peace were there immediately
น
می

58
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIII.
commenced; before the end of May, the | the age. The democratic party, under
the secret influence of the French, had
long been in activity; and it was cal-
culated by the friends of revolution,
that the resistance of the aristocratic
senators could not possibly be prolonged
beyond the end of August.
powers of the plenipotentiaries had been
verified, and the work of treaties was in
progress. There the future Emperor of
the West held his court in more than
regal splendour; the ambassadors of
the Emperor of Germany, of the Pope,
of Genoa, Venice, Naples, Piedmont,
and the Swiss Republic, assembled to
examine the claims of the several states
which were the subject of discussion;
and there weightier matters were to be
determined, and dearer interests were
at stake, than had ever been submitted
to European diplomacy since the iron
crown was placed on the brows of Charle-
magne. Josephine Buonaparte there re-
ceived the homage due to the transcen-
dant glories of her youthful husband;
Pauline displayed those brilliant charms
which afterwards shone with so much
lustre at the court of the Tuileries; and
the ladies of Italy, captivated by the
splendour of the spectacle, hastened to
swell the illustrious train, and vied with
each other for the admiration of those
warriors whose deeds had filled the
world with their renown. Already Na-
poleon acted as a sovereign prince; his
power exceeded that of any living mon-
arch; and he had entered on that daz-
zling existence which afterwards en-
tranced and subdued the world.
59. A treaty had been concluded with
the French Directory, by which Genoa
purchased its neutrality by the pay-
ment of two millions of francs, a loan
to the same amount, and the recall of
the families exiled for their political
opinions. But the vehemence of the
revolutionary club, which met at the
house of an apothecary of the name of
Morandi, soon insisted on far greater
concessions. Secretly stimulated by
Napoleon, and the numerous agents of
the French army,* they openly an-
nounced the assistance and protection
of the Directory, and insisted for the
immediate formation of the constitution
on a new and highly democratic basis;
while the Senate, irresolute and divided,
did not possess either the moral energy
or physical strength to combat the
forces by which they were assailed.
The arrest of two of the popular party,
who had proceeded to acts of sedition,
brought matters to a crisis, and the in-
tervention of the French minister, Fay-
poult, was sought to procure their liber-
58. The establishment of a republication, and prevent the effusion of blood.
on a democratic basis on both sides of Instead of calming, he rather increased
the Po, the fermentation in the Vene- the effervescence; and the consequence
tian states, and the general belief of the was, that on the following day a general
irresistible power of the French armies, insurrection took place. The troops of
soon excited an extraordinary degree the line wavered, the burgher guard
of enthusiasm at Genoa. The govern- could not be trusted, and the senators,
ment there was vested in an aristocracy, reduced to their own resources, were
which, though less jealous and exclu- pursued and massacred, and at length
sive than that at Venice, was far more took refuge with the French minister,
resolute and determined. As in all as the only means of appeasing the tu-
other old popular constitutions, the in- mult. Upon this, some of the patrician
fluence in the state had, in the progress families, finding themselves deserted by
of time, and from the gradual decay of their natural leaders, and seeing the
public spirit, become vested in an in-
considerable number of families; but
the principle of government was by no
means exclusive, and many plebeians
had recently been inscribed in the
Golden Book, who had raised themselves
to a rank worthy of that distinction.
But these gradual changes were far from
being sufficient for the fervent spirit of
* “Genoa,” said Napoleon in his confiden-
tial despatch to the Directory, on the 19th
May 1797, "loudly demands democracy: the
senate has sent deputies to me to sound my
ten days, the aristocracy of Genoa will under-
intentions. It is more than probable that, in
go the fate of that of Venice. There would
then be three democratic republics in the
into one."-Confid. Despatch, 19th May 1797;
north of Italy, which may hereafter be united
Confid. Corresp. iii. 170.
1797.]
59
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
dagger at their throats, put themselves | allies, the senators at length yielded to
at the head of their followers, with loud necessity, and nominated a deputation,
cries demanded arms from the Senate, who were empowered to submit with-
and brought in their faithful followers out reserve to the demands of the con-
from the country to endeavour to stem queror. They signed, on the 6th June,
the torrent. They soon prevailed over a convention at Montebello, which ef-
their revolutionary antagonists. The fected a revolution in the government,
posts, which had been seized in the first and put an end to the constitution of
burst of the tumult, were regained, the | Doria. By this deed, the supreme
club Morandi was dispersed, the Geno- legislative authority was vested in two
ese colours again floated on the city, councils, one of three hundred, the
and the tricolor flag, which the demo- other of one hundred and fifty mem-
crats had assumed, was torn down from bers, chosen by all the citizens; the
the walls. The firmness of the aristo- executive in a senate of twelve, elected
cracy, supported by the courage of the by the councils.
rural population, had prevailed over
the passions of democracy, and the in-
dependence of Genoa, but for foreign
interference, was preserved.
60. But it was no part of the system
of Republican ambition to allow the
revolutionary party to be subdued in
any country which the arms of France
could reach. In the course of these
struggles, some Frenchmen and citi-
zens of the Cisalpine Republic, who had
taken an active part with the popular
side, were wounded and made prisoners;
and Napoleon instantly made this a
pretext for throwing the weight of his
authority into the scale, in favour of the
democrats. The French minister per-
emptorily demanded their instant liber-
ation; and Napoleon sent his aide-de-
camp, Lavalette, to the city to compel
the enlargement of the prisoners, the
disarming of the counter-revolutionists,
and the arrest of all the nobles who had
instigated any resistance to the inno-
vators. To support these demands,
French troops advanced to Tortona,
while Admiral Bruéys, with two sail of
the line and two frigates, appeared in
the bay.
The democratic party, en-
couraged by this powerful protection,
now resumed the ascendancy. In vain
the senate endeavoured, by half mea-
sures, to preserve in part the constitu-
tion of their country; they found that
the revolutionists were insatiable, and
the minister of France demanded his
passports, if the whole demands of the
Republican general and his adherents
in Genoa were not instantly conceded.
Terrified by the menaces of the popu-
lace, and the threats of their formidable
61. This prodigious change immedi-
ately excited the usual passions of de-
mocracy. The people assembled in
menacing crowds, burned the Golden
Book, and destroyed the statue of An-
drea Doria, the restorer of the freedom
of Genoa, and the greatest hero of its
history. This outrage to the memory
of so illustrious a man, while it proved
how ignorant the people were of the
glory of their country, and how unfit
to be intrusted with its government,
greatly displeased Napoleon, who had
already begun to feel that hatred at
democratic principles, by which he was
ever after so remarkably distinguished
Subsequently, the nobles and priests,
finding that they were excluded from
all share in the administration of af-
fairs, according to the mode of election
which was adopted for carrying the con-
stitution into effect, excited a revolt in
the rural districts of the republic. Many
parishes refused to adopt the new con-
stitution; the tocsin was sounded in
the valleys, and ten thousand armed
peasants assaulted and carried the line
of fortified heights which form the
exterior defence of Genoa. General
Duphot, however, who commanded the
newly-organised forces of the infant re-
public, having assembled three thou-
sand regular troops, attacked and de-
feated the insurgents; movable columns
penetrated into and exacted hostages
from the hostile valleys; and the new
constitution was put in force in the
territory of Genoa, which thencefor-
ward lost even the shadow of indepen-
dence and became a mere outwork of
the French Republic.

#
60
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIII.
¿
overcome, and the negotiations might
have terminated in a general pacifica-
tion, had it not been for the revolution
of the 18th Fructidor (4th September
1797), to be immediately noticed, and
the consequent accession of violence
and presumption which it brought to
the French government. Immediately
after that event, the former plenipo-
tentiaries were recalled, and replaced
by Treilhard and Bonnier, two furious
republicans, who, from the very outset,
assumed such a tone that it was evi-
dent any accommodation was out of the
question. Their first step was to de-
mand from Lord Malmesbury produc-
tion of authority from the British gov-
ernment to him to surrender all the
conquests made by Great Britain dur-
ing the war, without any equivalent,
accompanied by an intimation that, if
this was not acceded to within twenty-
four hours, he must leave Lisle. This
insolent demand, which proved that
the new Republican government were
as ignorant of the forms of diplomacy
as of their situation in the war with
England, was received as it deserved:
Lord Malmesbury demanded his pass-
ports, and returned to this island,
"leaving Europe," says the French his-
torian Jomini, "convinced that, on this
occasion at least, the cabinet of St
James's had evinced more moderation
than a Directory whose proceedings were
worthy of the days of Robespierre."
64. Meanwhile the negotiations for
a final treaty at Montebello slowly ad-
vanced towards their accomplishment.
The cabinet of Vienna, aware of the
reaction which was going forward in
France, and which was only prevent-
ed from overturning the Revolutionary
government by the events of the 18th
Fructidor, took advantage of every cir-
cumstance to protract the conferences,
in the hopes of a more moderate party
obtaining the ascendant in that country,
and more reasonable terms of accom-
62. Piedmont, during the course of
this summer, experienced the bitter hu-
miliations consequent upon the forced
alliance in which it was held by the
conqueror of Italy. The Directory,
from ulterior views as to the revolu-
tionising of these dominions, had re-
fused to ratify the treaty of alliance
into which Napoleon had entered with
its sovereign; its fortified places were
either demolished or in the hands of the
French; the feelings of the nobility and
the rural population were outraged by
the increasing vehemence of the popular
party in the towns; and the king, ex-
hausted by humiliation, was already
beginning to look to Sardinia as the
only refuge for the crown, amidst the
troubles by which it was surrounded.
cess.
63. The British government made
another attempt this summer to open
negotiations for peace with the French
Directory. Early in July, Lord Malmes-
bury was sent to Lisle, to renew the
attempts at pacification which had
failed the year before at Paris; and as
the abandonment of the Low Countries
by Austria at Leoben had removed the
principal obstacle to an accommodation,
sanguine hopes were entertained of suc-
The moderation of the demands
made by England on this occasion was
such as to call forth the commenda-
tions even of her adversaries. She pro-
posed to surrender all her conquests,
reserving only Trinidad from the Span-
iards, and the Cape of Good Hope, with
Ceylon and its dependencies, from the
Dutch. Such proposals, coming from
a power which had been uniformly vic-
torious at sea, and had wrested from
its enemies almost all their colonial
possessions, were an unequivocal proof
of moderation, more especially when,
by the separate treaty which Austria
had made for herself, Great Britain
was relieved from the necessity of de-
manding any equivalent in her turn
for her Continental allies. The French
plenipotentiaries insisted that the Re-modation being in consequence obtain-
public should be recognised, and the ed. But when these hopes were anni-
title of King of France renounced by hilated by the result of that disastrous
the English monarch- —a vain formality revolution, the negotiations proceeded
which had been retained since it was with greater rapidity, and the subver-
first assumed by Edward III. These sion of neighbouring states was com-
obstacles would probably have been menced without mercy. The French
·

1797.]
61
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
It
had at first flattered the Venetian com- | I will break in pieces your monarchy
missioners that they should obtain as I now destroy this porcelain ;" and
Ferrara, Romagna, and perhaps Anco- with that he dashed it in pieces on the
na, as a compensation for the territor- ground. Bowing then to the ministers,
ies which were taken from the republic; he retired, mounted his carriage, and
but ultimately they ceded these pro- despatched, on the spot, a courier to the
vinces to the new Cisalpine common- Archduke, to announce that the negoti-
wealth. The republicans of Venice, in ations were broken off, and that he would
despair, endeavoured to effect a junc- commence hostilities in twenty-four
tion with that infant state; but this hours. The Austrian plenipotentiary,
proposal was instantly rejected. thunderstruck, forthwith agreed to the
became evident, in the course of the ultimatum of the Directory, and the
negotiations, that the high contracting treaty of CAMPO FORMIO was signed on
parties had laid aside their mutual ani- the following day at five o'clock.
mosities, and were occupied with no
other object but that of arranging their
differences at the expense of their
neighbours. Exchanges, or rather spo-
liations, of foreign territories, were
proposed without hesitation and accept
ed without compunction: provinces
were offered and demanded, to which
the contracting parties had no right:
the value of cessions was alone con-
sidered, not their legality.
|
65. But though France and Austria
had no sort of difficulty in agreeing
upon the spoliation of their neighbours,
they found it not so easy a matter to
arrange the division of their respective
acquisitions in the plain of Lombardy.
Mantua, justly regarded as the most
important place in Italy, was the great
subject of dispute; the Republicans
contending for it as the frontier of the
Cisalpine Republic, the Imperialists as
the bulwark of their Italian possessions.
To support their respective pretensions,
great preparations were made on both
sides. Thirty regiments, and two hun-
dred pieces of cannon, reached the
Isonzo from Vienna; while the French
added above fifteen thousand men to
their armies in Italy. At length Na-
poleon, irritated by the interminable
aspect of the negotiations, declared,
that if the ultimatum of the Directory
was not signed in twelve hours, he
would denounce the truce. The period
having expired, he took a vase of
porcelain in his hands, which the Aus-
trian ambassador highly valued, as the
gift of the Empress Catherine, and said,
"The die is then cast, the truce is
broken, and war declared: but, mark
my words; before the end of autumn, |
66. But though Napoleon assumed
this arrogant manner to the Austrian
ambassadors, he was very far indeed
from himself feeling any confidence
in the result of hostilities, if actually
resumed; and he had, on the con-
trary, the day before, written to the
Directory, that "the enemy had, on
the frontiers of Carinthia, ninety thou-
sand infantry and ten thousand horse,
besides eighteen thousand Hungarian
volunteers, while he had only forty-
eight thousand infantry and four thou-
sand cavalry, and that, if they resumed
the offensive, everything would be-
come doubtful." "The war," he adds,
"which was national and popular when
the enemy was on our frontiers, is now
foreign to the French people; it has
become a war of governments. In the
end we should necessarily be over-
thrown." In truth, his resolution to
sign the treaty was accelerated from his
having observed, when he looked out
from his windows, on the 13th October,
the summit of the Alps covered with
snow-a symptom which too plainly
told him that the season for active
operations that year was drawing to a
close, and he had no confidence in the
ability of France to resume the contest
in the following spring. He then shut
himself up in his cabinet, and, after re-
viewing his forces, said: "Here are
eighty thousand effective men; but I
shall not have above sixty thousand in
the field. Even if I gain the victory, I
shall have twenty thousand killed and
wounded; and how, with forty thou-
sand, can I withstand the whole forces
of the Austrian monarchy, who will
advance to the relief of Vienna? The
i.



.
62
[CHAP. XXIII,
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
67. But in addition to these state rea-
sons, Napoleon had other secret motives
for agreeing to the spoliation of Venice,
and being desirous of coming to an
accommodation with the Imperialists.
Although Carnot and a majority of the
Directory had at first approved of the
destruction of that republic, and given
it a conditional sanction in the June
preceding; yet, after the revolution of
18th Fructidor, they had come to the
resolution of not acquiescing in that dis-
graceful seizure of an independent state,
and had sent their ultimatum to Napo-
leon, enjoining him not to admit its
surrender to the Emperor; and declar-
ing that, rather than have any share in
such a perfidious act, they would see
their armies driven over the Alps, and
all their Italian conquests wrested from
the Republic. At the same time, they
armies of the Rhine could not arrive to | had declared their intention, in the event
my succour before the middle of Nov- of hostilities being resumed, of sending
ember, and, before that time arrives, commissioners to relieve Napoleon of
the Alps will be impassable from snow. his diplomatic cares, and allow him to
It is all over; I will sign the peace! attend exclusively to his military du-
Venice shall pay the expenses of the war, ties. Napoleon, whose jealousy of the
and the extension of France to the revolutionary government, established
Rhine; let the government and the law- at Paris by the revolution of 18th
yers say what they choose."
Fructidor, had been much increased
by the appointment of Augereau in the
room of Hoche to the command of the
army on the Rhine, was so much dis-
gusted by these restrictions on his au-
thority, that he wrote to Paris on the
25th September, offering to resign the
command.* The Directory, on the 29th
September, returned an answer, posi-
tively forbidding the cession of Venice
to Austria; + upon which, Napoleon,
seeing his authority slipping from his
hands, and a doubtful campaign about
to begin, without hesitation violated his
instructions, and signed the treaty fatal
to Venice on the 18th October. The
whole infamy, therefore, of that proceed-
ing rests on his head; the French Direc-
tory is entirely blameless, except in not
having had the courage to disown the
treaty after his signature was affixed to it.
68. By this treaty the Emperor ceded

possessions, he will secure an entrance into
the whole of Lombardy. We should be treat-
ing as if we had been conquered, independent
of the disgrace of abandoning Venice, which
you describe as worthy of being free. What
would posterity say of us should we surrender
that great city, with its naval arsenals, to the
Emperor? Better a hundred times restore
to him Lombardy than pay such a price for
†The resolution of the Directory, after the it. Let us take the worst view of matters:
18th Fructidor, not to despoil Venice, was let us suppose, what your genius and the
repeatedly and strongly expressed. Barras valour of your army forbid us to fear, that
wrote to Napoleon, on 8th September :- we are conquered and driven out of Italy. In
"Conclude a peace, but let it be an honour- such a case, yielding only to force, our honour
able one; let Mantua fall to the Cisalpine at least will be safe; we shall still have re-
Republic, but Venice must not go to the Em- mained faithful to the interests of France,
peror. That is the wish of the Directory, and not incurred the disgrace of a perfidy
and of all true Republicans, and what the without excuse, as it will induce consequences
glory of the Republic requires." Napoleon more disastrous than the most unfavourable
answered, on the 18th September:-"If your results of war. We feel the force of your ob-
ultimatum is not to cede Venice to the Em-jection, that you may not be able to resist
peror, I much fear peace will be impracti- the forces of the Emperor; but consider that
cable; and yet Venice is the city of Italy most your army would be still less so some months
worthy of freedom; and hostilities will be after the peace, so imprudently and shame-
resumed in the course of October." The Di- fully signed. Then would Austria, placed by
rectory replied:-"The government now is our own hands in the centre of Italy, indeed
desirous of tracing out to you with precision take us at a disadvantage. The whole ques-
its ultimatum. Austria has long desired to tion comes to this: Shall we give up Italy
swallow up Italy, and to acquire maritime to the Austrians? The French government
power. It is the interest of France to prevent neither can nor will do so; it would in pre-
both these designs. It is evident that, if the ference incur all the hazards of war."-Cor-
Emperor acquires Venice, with its territorial resp. Confid. de Napoléon, iv. 233, 235.
* "It is evident," said he in that letter,
"that the government is resolved to act to
me as they did to Pichegru. I beseech you,
citizen, to appoint a successor to me, and
accept my resignation. No power on earth
shall make me continue to serve a govern-
ment which has given me such a scandalous
proof of ingratitude, which I was far indeed
from expecting."
1797.]
63
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
|
to France Flanders and the line of the
Rhine; he agreed to the territory of the
republic being extended to the summit
of the Maritime Alps; he consented to
the establishment of the Cisalpine Re-
public, comprehending Lombardy, the
duchies of Reggio, Modena, Mirandola,
Bologna, Ferrara, Romagna, the Valte-
line, and the Venetian states as far as
the Adige, comprising the territory of
Bergamo, Brescia, Crema, and the Pole-
sine. The Ionian Islands, part of the
Venetian territory, were given up to
France, which acquired besides Mantua,
on the frontiers of the Imperial states
in Italy, and Mayence, the bulwark of
the empire on the Rhine. On the other
hand, the Republic ceded to the Em-
peror, in exchange for the states of
Flanders, Istria, Dalmatia, the Venetian |
isles in the Adriatic, the mouths of the
Cattaro, the city of Venice, and its con-
tinental possessions as far as the eastern
shore of the lake of Garda, the line of
the Adige, and that of the Po. By this
arrangement, Verona, Peschiera, and
Porto-Legnago, fell into the hands of
the Austrians, who lost in Flanders and
Lombardy provinces, rich, indeed, but
distant, inhabited by 3,500,000 souls,
and received in the Venetian states a
territory of equal riches, with a great
seaport, and 3,400,000 souls, lying close
to the Hereditary States, besides an
acquisition of nearly the same amount
which they had made during the war,
on the side of Poland. The advantages
of the treaty, therefore, how great so-
ever to the conquerors, were in some de-
gree also extended to the vanquished.
69. Besides these public, the treaty
contained many secret articles of nearly
equal importance. The most material of
these regarded the cession of Salzburg,
with its romantic territory, to Austria;
the relinquishment of the important
town of Wasserburg on the Inn, by Ba-
varia, to the same power; the free navi-
gation of the Rhine and the Meuse; the
abandonment of the Frickthal by Austria
to Switzerland, and the providing equi-
valents to the princes dispossessed on
the left bank of the Rhine, on the right
of that river. But it was expressly pro-
vided that "no acquisition should be
proposed to the advantage of Prussia."
For the arrangement of these compli-
cated objects, a convention was ap-
pointed to meet at Rastadt to settle the
affairs of the Empire. Finally, it was
agreed, "that if either of the contract-
ing powers should make acquisitions
in Germany, the other should receive
equivalents to the same amount.
70. Thus terminated the Italian cam-
paigns of Napoleon-the most memor-
able of his military career, and which
contributed so powerfully to fix his des-
tinies and immortalise his name. The
sufferings of Italy in these contests were
extreme, and deeply did its people rue
the fatal precipitance with which they
had thrown themselves into the arms
of republican ambition. The enormous
sum of 120,000,000 francs, or nearly
£5,000,000 sterling, was levied on its
territory by the conqueror, in specie,
in little more than twelve months-a
sum equal to £12,000,000 in Great
Britain; and the total amount extracted
from the peninsula, in contributions
and supplies, during the two years the
war lasted, was no less than 400,000,000
francs, or £16,000,000 sterling. This
immense burden fell almost exclusively
on the states to the north of the Tiber,
whose republican ardour had been most
decided. The Italian territory was par-
titioned; its independence ruined; its
galleries pillaged; the trophies of art
had followed the car of Victory; and
the works of immortal genius, which
no wealth could purchase, had been
torn from their native seats, and vio-
lently transplanted to a foreign soil.
71. Napoleon's conduct in thus vio-
lating the instructions of his govern-
ment to effect the spoliation of the Ve-
netian republic, and betray his demo-
cratic allies in that state, would be
wholly inexplicable, if evidence did not
remain in his secret correspondence of
the formation, even at that early period,
of those ulterior views by which his con-
duct through life was mainly regulated.
It is remarkable how strongly the mind
of Napoleon was already set upon two
objects, which formed such memorable
features in his future life-the expedi-
tion to Egypt, and interminable hosti-
lity to Great Britain. "Why," said he,
in his letter to the Directory, of 13th
64
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
>
September 1797, "do we not lay hold
of Malta? Admiral Bruéys could easily
make himself master of it; four hun-
dred knights, and, at the utmost, five
hundred men, compose the whole gar-
rison of La Valette. The inhabitants,
who amount to one hundred thousand,
are already well disposed towards us,
for I have confiscated all the possessions
of the Order in Italy, and they are dying
of famine. With Malta and Corfu, we
should soon be masters of the Mediter-
ranean. Should we, on making peace
with England, be compelled to give up
the Cape of Good Hope, it will be ab-
solutely necessary to take possession of
Egypt. That country never belonged
to any European power; even the Ve-
netians had there only a precarious au-
thority. We might embark from hence
with twenty-five thousand men, escorted
by eight or ten ships of the line, or frig-
ates, and take possession of it. Egypt
does not belong to the Grand Seignior."
His inveterate hostility to England was
equally early and strongly expressed. In
enumerating the reasons which induced
him to sign the treaty of Campo Formio,
he concludes," Finally, we are still at
war with England; that enemy is great
enough, without adding another. The
Austrians are heavy and avaricious; no
people on earth are less active or dan-
gerous as regards our military affairs,
than they are; the English, on the con-
trary, are generous, intriguing, enter-
prising. It is indispensable for our gov-independence. Yet even in this catas-
ernment to destroy the English monarchy, trophe the fury of party appeared mani-
or it will infallibly be overturned by the fest, and a large portion of the people
intrigues and the corruption of these celebrated with transports of joy the
active islanders. The present moment victory over the democratic faction,
offers to our hands a noble enterprise. though it was obtained at the expense
Let us concentrate all our activity on of the existence of their country.
the marine, and destroy England; that
done, Europe is at our feet." In reality,
it was his desire to acquire the harbouring
and naval resources of Venice, for his
projected expedition against Egypt and
Great Britain, that was one main in-
ducement with Napoleon to treat with
such unexampled severity that unhappy
republic.
who had allied themselves with the
French, compelled the government to
abdicate in order to make way for a re-
publican régime, and received a French
garrison within their walls, broke out in-
to the most vehement invectives against
their former allies, and discovered, with
unavailing anguish, that those who join
a foreigner to effect changes in the
constitution of their country, hardly
ever escape sacrificing its independ-
ence. But, whatever may have been the
unanimity of feeling which this union of
imperial rapacity with republican trea-
chery awakened among the Venetians,
it was too late; with their own hands
they had taken the serpent into their
bosom, and they were doomed to perish
from the effects of their own revolu-
tionary frenzy. With speechless sor-
row they beheld the French, who occu-
pied Venice, lower the standard of St
Mark, demolish the Bucentaur, pillage
the arsenal, remove every vestige of in-
dependence, and take down the splen-
did bronze horses, which for six hun-
dred years had stood over the portico
of the church of St Mark, commemo-
rating the capture of Constantinople
by the Venetian crusaders. When the
last Doge appeared before the Austrian
commissioner to take the oath of ho-
mage to the Emperor, his emotion was
such that he fell insensible on the
ground-honouring thus, by the ex-
tremity of grief, the last act of national
73. The fall of the oldest common-
wealth in Europe excited a general feel-
of commiseration throughout the
civilised world. Many voices were
raised, even in the legislative body of
France, against this flagrant violation
of the law of nations. Independent of
the feelings of jealousy, which were
naturally awakened by the aggrandise-
ment of two belligerent powers at the
expense of a neutral state, it was im-
possible to contemplate without emo-
tion the overthrow of that illustrious
72. No words can paint the horror
and consternation which the promul-
gation of this treaty excited in Venice.
The democratic leaders, in particular,

1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
65
republic, which had contributed in so
powerful a manner to the revival of
civilisation in Europe. No modern
state, from so feeble an origin, had
arisen to such eminence; nor, with
such limited resources, made so glori-
ous a stand against barbaric invasion.
Descended, perhaps alone of all the
European states, in a direct and un-
mixed line from the patricians of ancient
Rome, they had rivalled the firmness
of that memorable people. But for
their fleets and armies, the standards
of Mahomet would have swept over
Europe, and Sultaun Bajazet realised
his threat of stabling his steeds in the
shrine of St Peter's. Their Doges had
conquered Constantinople, and seated
their generals on the throne of the East;
their fleets had wafted the Crusaders to
Palestine, and thus arrested in the Holy
Land the arms of Saladin. Without in-
quiring what right either France or
Austria had to partition the territories
of the commonwealth, men contem-
plated only its long existence, its il-
lustrious deeds, its constancy in mis-
fortune; they beheld its annihilation
with a mingled feeling of terror and
pity; and sympathised with the suf
ferings of a people who, after fourteen
hundred years of independence, were
doomed to pass irrevocably under a
stranger's yoke.
In contemplating this memorable
event, it is difficult to say whether most
indignation is felt at the perfidy of
France, the cupidity of Austria, the
weakness of the Venetian aristocracy,
or the insanity of the Venetian people.
74. For the conduct of Napoleon, no
possible apology can be found.* He

|
he wrote again to Pesaro,-"The French re-
public does not pretend to interfere in the in-
ternal dissensions of Venice; but the safety
of the army requires that I should not over-
look any enterprises hostile to its interests."
* The French entered the Venetian territory
with the declaration-“The French army, to
follow the wreck of the Austrian army, must
pass over the republic of Venice; but it will
never forget that ancient friendship unites the
two republics. Religion, government, cus-
toms, and property will be respected. The
general-in-chief engages the government to
make known these sentiments to the people,
in order that confidence may cement that
friendship which has so long united the two
nations." On the 10th March 1767, after the
democratic revolt had broken out in Brescia,
Napoleon wrote to the Venetian governor of
Verona,-"I am truly grieved at the disturb-
ances which have occurred at Verona, but
trust that, through the wisdom of your mea-
sures, no blood will be shed. The Senate of
Venice need be under no sort of disquietude,
as they must be thoroughly persuaded of the
loyalty and good faith of the French govern-
ment, and the desire which we have to live in
good friendship with your republic." On the
24th March 1797, he wrote to the Directory,
after giving an account of the civil war in the
Venetian states,-"M. Pesaro, chief sage of
the republic of Venice, has just been here, re-
garding the events in Brescia and Bergamo,
the people of which towns have disarmed the Nor did the duplicity of Napoleon end here.
Venetian garrisons, and overturned their On the 16th May, he concluded the treaty
authorities. I had need of all my prudence; with the Venetian republic, already mention-
for it is not when we require the whole assist- ed, the first article of which was-"There
ance of Friuli, and the good-will of the Vene- shall be henceforth peace and good under-
tian government, to supply us with provisions standing between France and the Venetian
in the Alpine defiles, that it is expedient to republic." The object of Napoleon, in sign-
come to a rupture. I told Pesaro that the Di-ing this treaty, is unfolded in his Secret De-
rectory would never forget that the republic of spatch to the Directory three days afterwards,
Venice was the ancient ally of France, and that
our desire was fixed to protect it to the ut-
most of our power. I only besought him to
spare the effusion of blood. We parted the
best of friends. He appeared perfectly satis-
fied with my reception. The great point in all
this affair is to gain time." On the 5th April,
Having thus, to the very last moment, kept
up the pretended system of friendship for Ve-
nice, Napoleon no sooner found himself re-
lieved by the armistice of Leoben, on the 8th
April, from the weight of the Austrian war,
than he threw off the mask. On the day after
the armistice was signed, he issued a procla-
mation to the population of the continental
possessions of Venice, in which he said,—“The
government of Venice offers you no security
either for persons or property; and it has, by
indifference to your fate, provoked the just
indignation of the French government. If
the Venetians rule you by the right of con-
quest, I will freo you; if by usurpation, I will
restore your rights." And having thus roused
the whole population of the cities of Venetian
terra firma to revolt, he next proceeded to
hand over all these towns to Austria, by the
third clause of the preliminaries of Leoben,
which assigned to the Emperor of Austria
"the whole Venetian territory situated between
the Mincio, the Po, and the Austrian States.”
"You will receive," says he, "herewith the
treaty which I have concluded with the re-
public of Venice, in virtue of which General
Baraguay d'Hilliers, with 16,000 men, has
taken possession of the city. I have had se-
veral objects in view in concluding this treaty.
1. To enter into the town without difficulty,

66
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
first excited the revolutionary spirit to | possession of the capital, as that of an
such a degree in all the Italian posses- allied and friendly power, he plundered
sions of the republic, at the very time it of everything valuable it possessed;
that his troops were fed and clothed and then united with Austria in parti-
by the bounty of its government, that tioning the commonwealth, took pos-
disturbances became unavoidable, and session of one half of its territories for
then aided the rebels, and made the France and the Cisalpine Republic;
efforts of the government to crush the and handed over the other half, with
insurrection the pretext for declaring the capital, and its ardent patriots, to
war against the state. He then excited the most aristocratic government in
to the uttermost the democratic spirit Europe.
in the capital, took advantage of it to
paralyse the defences and overturn the
government of the country; established
a new constitution on a highly popular
basis, and signed a treaty on the 16th
May at Milan, by which, on payment of
a heavy ransom, he agreed to maintain
the independence of Venice under its
new and revolutionary government.
Having thus committed all his support-
ers in the state irrevocably in the cause
of democratic independence, and got
and be in a situation to extract from it what
ever we desire, under pretence of executing
the secret articles. 2. To be in a situation, if
the treaty with the Emperor should not fi-
nally be ratified, to apply to our purposes all
the resources of the city. 3. To avoid every
species of odium in violating the prelimina-
ries relative to the Venetian territory, and,
at the same time, to gain pretexts which may
facilitate their execution. 4. To calm all that
may be said in Europe, since it will appear
that our occupation of Venice is but a mo-
mentary operation, solicited by the Veneti-
ans themselves. The Pope is eighty-three,
and alarmingly ill. The moment I heard of
that, I pushed forward all the Poles in the
army to Bologna, from whence I shall ad-
vance them to Ancona." His intentions to-
wards Venice were further summed up in
these words, in his despatch to the Directory
of 25th May,-"Venice must fall to those to
whom we give the Italian continent; but
meanwhile, we will take its vessels, strip its
arsenals, destroy its bank, and keep Corfu
and Ancona.”
Still keeping up the feigned appearance of
protection to Venice, Napoleon wrote to the
municipality of that town, on the 26th May,
"The treaty concluded at Milan may, in
the mean time, be signed by the municipal-
ity, and the secret articles by three members.
In every circumstance, I shall do what lies
in my power to give you proofs of my desire to
consolidate your liberties, and to see unhappy
Italy at length assume the place to which it
is entitled in the theatre of the world-free,
and independent of all strangers. Soon
after he wrote to General Baraguay d'Hil-
liers, 13th June,-" You will, upon the re-
ceipt of this, present yourself to the provi-
sional government of Venice, and represent |
"
75. These transactions throw as im-
portant a light upon the moral as the
intellectual character of Napoleon. To
find a parallel to the dissimulation and
rapacity by which his conduct to Ve-
nice was characterised, we must search
the annals of Italian treachery; the
history of the nations to the north of
the Alps, abounding as it does in deeds
of atrocity, is stained by no similar act
of combined duplicity and violence.
This opens a new and hitherto unob-
to them that, in conformity with the prin-
ciples which now unite the Republic of France
to that of Venice, and the immediate protection
which the Republic of France gives to that of
Venice, it is indispensable that the maritime
forces of the republic be put on a respectable
footing. Under this pretext you will take pos-
session of everything-taking care, at the same
time, to maintain a good understanding with
the Venetians, and to engage in our service
all the sailors of the republic, making use
constantly of the Venetian name. In short,
you must manage so as to transport all the
naval stores and vessels in the harbour of
Venice to Toulon. By a secret article of the
treaty, the Venetians are bound to furnish
to the French Republic three millions' worth
of stores for the marine of Toulon; but my
intention is, to take possession, for the French
Republic, of ALL the Venetian vessels, and all
the naval stores, for the use of Touion.”
These orders were too faithfully executed;
and when every article of naval and military
stores had been swept away from Venice,
Napoleon, without hesitation, assigned away
his revolutionary allied republic, which he
had engaged to defend, to the aristocratic
power of Austria. The history of the world
contains no blacker page of perfidy and dis-
simulation.
It is in vain to allege, that the spoliation of
Venice was occasioned, and justified, by her
attack on the rear of the French army at
Verona. The whole continental possessions
of the republic were assigned to Austria by
Napoleon at Leoben, four days before that
event took place, and when nothing had occurred
in the Venetian states but the contests be-
tween the aristocratic and democratic factions,
which had been stirred up by the secret emis-
saries of Napoleon himself.
1797.]
67
HISTORY OF EUROPE
1
served feature in his character, which | may appear, abundant evidence of it
is in the highest degree important. The will be found in the sequel of this work.
French Republican writere uniformly It was the same with Augustus, whose
represent his Italian campaigns as the early life, disgraced by the proscrip-
most pure and glorious period of histions and horrors of the Triumvirate,
history, and portray his character, at was almost overlooked in the wisdom
first almost perfect, as gradually dete- and beneficence of his imperial rule.
riorated by the ambition and passions Nor is it difficult to perceive in what
consequent on the attainment of su- principle of our nature the foundation
preme power. This was in some re- is laid for so singular an inversion of
spects true; but in others the reverse. the causes which usually debase the
Bad in some particulars as it afterwards human mind. It is the terrible effect
was, his character never again appears of revolution, as Madame de Stael has
so perfidious as during his earlier years: well observed, to obliterate altogether
in fact, it had then attained the ne plus the ideas of right and wrong, and in-
ultra of deceit and dissimulation; and, stead of the eternal distinctions of mo-
contrary to the usual case, it was in a rality and religion, to apply in general
certain degree improved by the posses- estimation no other test to public ac-
sion of supreme power; and to the last tions but success. It was out of this
moment of his life, the Emperor was corrupted atmosphere that the mind of
progressively throwing off many of the Napoleon, like that of Augustus, at first
unworthy qualities by which he was at arose, and it was then tainted by the
first stained. Extraordinary as this revolutionary profligacy of the times;
|
His conduct throughout this transaction
appears to have been governed by one prin-
ciple, and that was, to secure such pretexts
for a rupture with Venice as might afford a
decent ground for making its territories the
sacrifice which would, at any time, bribe
Austria into a peace, and extricate the French
army from any peril into which it might
have fallen. Twice did the glittering prize
answer this purpose: once, when it brought
about the armistice of Leoben, and saved
Napoleon from the ruin which otherwise
might have befallen him; and again at Campo
Formio, by relieving him from a war to which
he himself confesses his forces were unequal.
When M. Villefort, the secretary of the
French legation at Venice, remonstrated with
Napoleon upon the abandonment of that re-
public, he replied, in words containing, it is
to be feared, too faithful a picture of the degra-
dation of modern Italy,-"The French Re-
public is bound by no treaty to sacrifice its
interests and advantages to those of Venice.
Never has France adopted the maxim of
making war for the sake of other nations. I
should like to see the principle of philosophy
or morality which should command us to
sacrifice forty thousand French, contrary
alike to the declared wishes of France and its
obvious interests. I know well, that it costs
nothing to a handful of declaimers, whom I
cannot better characterise than by calling
them madmen, to rave about the establish- |
ment of republics everywhere. I wish these
gentlemen would make a winter campaign. Be-
sides, the Venetian nation no longer exists.
Divided into as many separate interests as it
contains cities, effeminate and corrupted, not
less cowardly than hypocritical, the people of
Italy, but especially the Venetians, are totally
unfit for freedom."
The same idea is expressed in a letter about
the same period to Talleyrand.—“You little
know the people of Italy: they are not worth
the sacrifice of forty thousand Frenchinen.
I see by your letters that you are constantly
labouring under a delusion.
You suppose
that liberty can do great things for a base,
cowardly, and superstitious people. You
wish me to perform miracles; I have not the
art of doing so. Since coming into Italy, I
have derived little if any support from the
love of the Italian people for liberty and
equality. I have not in my army a single
Italian, excepting fifteen hundred rascals,
swept from the streets of its towns, who are
good for nothing but pillage. Everything,
excepting what you must say in proclama-
tions and public speeches, is here mere ro-
mance."-Letter to Talleyrand, Passeriano, 7th
Oct. 1797; Corresp. Confid. iv. 206.
|
It only remains to add to this painful nar-
rative of duplicity, that having no further
occasion for the services of Landrieux, whom
he had employed to stir up the revolt in the
Italian cities, and having discovered evidence
that he had been in correspondence with the
Venetian government, Napoleon himself de-
nounced him to the Directory. Authentic
evidence had been discovered of the double
part which he acted in that disgraceful trans-
action, by the French commissioners who
examined the Venetian archives; and Napo-
leon, in consequence, on the 15th November,
wrote to the Directory-"Landrieux excited
the revolt in Brescia and Bergamo, and was
paid for it; but, at the same time, he privately
informed the Venetian government of what
was going on, and was paid by them too.
Perhaps you will think it right to make an
example of such a rascal; and, at all events,
not to employ him again.”
1
I
I
I,: ཝཾ ཏིསྶ
。
.68
[CHAP. XXIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
but with the possession of supreme fortunate enough to escape destruction
power he was called to nobler employ- at the hands of the French armies,
ments, and often relieved from the ne- they certainly could not hope to avoid
cessity of committing iniquity for the it from their own revolutionary sub-
sake of advancement. He was brought jects. Often, during the course of the
into contact with men professing and struggle, they held the balance of power
acting on more elevated principles; in their hands, and might have inter-
and, in the discharge of such duties, he posed with decisive effect on behalf of
cast off, in some instances at least, the cause which was ultimately to be
many of the stains of his early career. their own. Had they put their armies
This observation is no impeachment of on a war footing, and joined the Aus-
the character of Napoleon; on the con- trians when the scales of war hung even
trary, it is its best vindication. His at Castiglione, Arcola, or Rivoli, they
virtues and talents were his own; his might have rolled back the tide of re-
vices, in part, at least, were the fatal volutionary conquest, and secured to
bequest of the Revolution.
themselves and their country an hon-
oured and independent existence. They
did not do so; they pursued that timid
policy which is ever the most perilous
in presence of danger; they shrunk
from a contest which honour and duty
alike required, and were, in conse-
quence, assailed by the revolutionary
tempest when they had no longer the
power to resist it, and doomed to destruc-
tion, amidst the maledictions of their
countrymen, and the contempt of their
enemies. "Too blind," as has been
finely said, “to avert danger, too cow-
ardly to withstand it, the most ancient
76. The conduct of Austria, if less
perfidious, was not less a violation of
every principle of public right. Venice,
though long wavering and irresolute,
was at length committed in open hos-
tilities with the French Republic. She
had secretly nourished the Imperial as
well as the Republican forces; she had
given no cause of offence to the allied
powers; she had been dragged, late in-
deed and unwillingly, but irrevocably,
into a contest with the Republican
forces; and if she had committed any
fault, it was in favour of the cause in
which Austria was engaged. Genero-government of Europe made not a mo-
sity in such circumstances would have ment's resistance: the peasants of Un-
prompted a noble power to lend the terwalden died upon their mountains,
weight of its influence in favour of its the nobles of Venice clung only to their
unfortunate neighbour: justice forbade lives."
that it should do anything to aggravate
its fate. But to share in its spoliation,
to seize upon its capital, and extinguish
its existence, is an act of rapacity for
which no apology can be offered, and
which must for ever form a foul stain
on the Austrian annals.
77. Nor can the aristocracy of Venice
be absolved from their full share of the
blame consequent on the destruction
of their country. It was clearly pointed
out to them, and they might have
known, that the contest in which Eu-
rope was engaged with France was one
of such a kind as to admit of no neu-
trality or compromise; that those who
were not with the democratic party
were against them; that their exclusive
and ancient aristocracy was, in an es-ed for fourteen hundred years; with
pecial manner, the object of Republi- their own arms they subjugated the
can jealousy; and that, if they were senate of their country, and compelled,
78. Last in the catalogue of political
delinquency, the popular party are an-
swerable for the indulgence of that in-
sane and unpatriotic spirit of faction
which never fails, in the end, to bring
ruin upon those who indulge it. Fol-
lowing the phantom of democratic am-
bition; forgetting all the ties of kindred
and country in the pursuit of popular ex-
altation, they leagued with the stranger
against their native land, and paralysed
the state in the moment of its utmost
peril, by the fatal passions which they
introduced into its bosom. With their
own hands they tore down the vener-
able ensign of St Mark; with their own
arms they ferried the invaders across
the Laguna, which no enemy had pass-
1797.]
69
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
in the last extremity, a perilous and tiously abstained from hostilities with
disgraceful submission to the enemy. the revolutionary power; they did no-
They received, in consequence, the na- thing to coerce the spirit of disaffection
tural and appropriate reward of such in their own dominions; they yielded
conduct the contempt of their ene- at length to the demands of the popu-
mies, the hatred of their friends, the lace, and admitted, in the moment
robbery of their trophies, the partition of danger, a sudden and portentous
of their territory, the extinction of change in the internal structure of the
their liberties, and the annihilation of constitution. Had the British govern-
their country.*
ment done the same, they might have
expected similar results to those which
took place in Venice-expected to see
the revolutionary spirit acquire irresist-
ible force, the means of national re-
sistance become prostrated by the di-
visions of those who should wield them,
and the state fall an easy prey to the
ambition of those neighbouring powers
who had fomented its passions to profit
by its weakness. From the glorious
result of the firmness of the one, and
the miserable consequences of the pu-
sillanimity of the other, a memorable
lesson may be learned both by rulers
and nations. Thence they may see
that courage in danger is often the most
prudent as well as the most honourable
course; that periods of foreign peril
are never those in which considerable
changes in internal institutions can
with safety be adopted; and that,
whatever may be the defects of govern-
ment, those are the worst enemies of
their country who league with foreign
nations for their redress.
K
79. What a contrast to this timid and
vacillating conduct in the rulers, and
these flagitious passions in the people
of Venice, does the firmness of the
British government, and the spirit of the
British people afford at this juncture!
They, too, were counselled to tempor-
ise in danger, and yield to the tempter;
they, too, were shaken in credit and
paralysed by revolt; they, too, were
assailed by democratic ambition, and
urged to conciliate and yield as the only
means of salvation. The Venetian
aristocracy did what the British aris-
tocracy were urged to do. They cau-
* The last occasion on which the Place of
St Mark had seen the Transalpine soldiers,
was when the French crusaders knelt to the
Venetian people to implore succour from that
opulent republic, in the last crusade against
the infidels in the Holy Land. The unani-
mous shout of approbation in the assembled
multitude-"It is the will of God! It is the
will of God!" led to that cordial union of these
two powers which overturned the throne of
Constantinople." Maximus," says Bacon,
"innovator tempus."-GIBBON, chap. Ix.
CHAPTER XXIV.
INTERNAL GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE, FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
DIRECTORY TO THE REVOLUTION OF 18TH FRUCTIDOR.
1. THE different eras of the Re- sion, civil warfare, and military despot-
volution, which have hitherto been ism. It remains to examine its pro-
traced, show the progress of the prin- gress during the receding tide to trace
ciples of democracy through their natu- the declining and enfeebled efforts of
ral stages of public transport, monied Republican fervour during the years
insecurity, financial embarrassment, ar- when its desolating effects had become
bitrary confiscation, general distress, ple- generally known, and the publicstrength
beian insurrection, sanguinary oppres- refused to lend its aid to the ambition
..
I
70
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIV.
At mocratic ambition, if it obtains unre-
sisted sway, invariably terminates, be
fore the expiry of a few years, in uni-
versal suffering.
and the delusion of individuals.
this period it is evident that the chief
desire of the human mind is for re-
pose. The contentions, the miseries of
former years, rise up in fearful remem-
brance to all classes of citizens. The
chimera of equality can no longer se-
duce-the illusion of power no longer
mislead; and men, bitterly suffering
under the consequences of former error,
eagerly range themselves under any
government which promises to save
them from "the worst of tyrannies, the
tyranny of a multitude of tyrants."
2. To effect the maximum of free-
dom with the minimum of democratic
ascendancy, is the great problem of
civil government, as the chief object of
war is to attain the greatest possible
national security at the smallest expen-
diture of human life. Republican pas-
sion is frequently necessary to sustain
the conflicts of freedom, in the same
manner as the military spirit is often
indispensable to purchase national in-
dependence, and always essential to its
security. But it is not a less evil in
itself, if not kept under due restraint,
than the savage passion for the destruc-
tion of the species. When too vehe-
mently excited, it generally becomes
an evil incomparably more serious than
the political grievances which awaken-
ed its fury. Great national objects
sometimes cannot be achieved without
the excitation of this passion, because
it is desire, and not reason, which ever
governs the masses of mankind; but
when it becomes the ruling power, the
last extremities of suffering are at hand.
Like all other passions, however, whe-
ther in the individual or society, it can-
not be indulged to excess, without induc-
ing evils which speedily terminate its as-
cendancy, and punish the delinquencies
to which it has given rise. The demo-
cratic passion is to nations what the
desire of licentious freedom is to the
individual: it bears the same relation
to the principle of genuine liberty, that
the chastened attachment of marriage,
which "peoples heaven," does to the
wild excesses of lust, which find in-
mates for hell. The fleeting enjoy-
ments of guilt are speedily lost in its
lasting pains; the extravagance of de-
3. Nature never intended that the
great body of mankind should be im-
mediately concerned in government, be-
cause their intellects and information
are unequal to, and their situation in-
consistent with, the task. Useful and
necessary as a check upon the govern-
ment of others, they bring about the
greatest calamities when they become
the governors themselves: respectable,
virtuous, and salutary when employed
in their proper sphere, they become
dangerous, impassioned, and irrational,
when called to the exercise of duties
which do not belong to them. The
restraint of holding property, and con-
stantly suffering themselves from any
shocks it may receive, is the only secu-
rity against the undue abuse of power.
As the great body of the people cannot
possess this advantage, and consequently
political power cannot be exercised by
them without injury, first to others,
and at last to themselves, nature has
wisely provided for the speedy and ef-
fectual extinction of the passion for it,
in the necessary consequence of the ef-
fects which it produces. The insecurity,
privations, and suffering which follow
in its train, unavoidably lead, before
the lapse of a very long period, to mili-
tary despotism. Some democratic states,
as Milan, Florence, and Sienna, to ter-
minate their dissensions, have volun-
tarily submitted to the yoke of a mili-
tary leader; others have fallen under
his dominion at the close of a sanguin-
ary period of domestic strife. All have,
in one way or other, expelled the deadly
venom from the system, and, to escape
the horrors of anarchy, have shielded
themselves under the lasting govern-
ment of the sword.

4. The illusions of republicanism were
now dispelled in France. Men had
passed through so many vicissitudes,
and lived so long in a few years, that
all their pristine ideas were overturned.
The rule of the middle class, and of the
multitude, had successively passed like
a rapid and bloody phantasmagoria.
The age was far removed from that of

1795.]
71
HISTORY OF EUROPE
France of the 14th July 1789, with its | indulged without control. Manners
enthusiastic feelings, its high resolves, were never more corrupted than under
its ardent aspirations, its popular ma- the rule of the Directory-luxury never
gistrates, and its buoyant population. more prodigal-passion never more un-
It was still further removed from that restrained. Society resumed its wonted
of France of the 10th August, when a order, not by repentance for crime, but
single class, and that the most licen- by a change of its direction. This is
tious, had usurped the whole authority the natural termination of popular ef-
of the state, and borne to the seat of fervescence. The transition is easy from
government its vulgar manners and the extravagance of democracy to the
sanguinary ideas-its distrust of all corruptions of sensuality, from the fana-
above, and its severity to all beneath ticism of the Puritans to the gallantries
itself. Society emerged, weakened and of Charles II., because these opposite
disjointed, from the chaos of revolution; extremes alike proceed from the indul-
and, in despair of effecting any real gence of individual passion. Such tran-
amelioration in the social system, all sition is extremely difficult from either
classes rushed with unbounded vehe- to the love of genuine freedom, because
mence into the enjoyments of private that implies a sacrifice of both to pa-
life. The elegances of opulence, long triotic feeling. The age of Nero soon
suspended, were resumed with unpre- succeeded the strife of Gracchus ; but
cedented alacrity; balls, festivities, and ages revolved, and a different race of
theatres, were frequented with more mankind was established, before that
avidity than in the most corrupted era of Fabricius was restored.
of the monarchy; it seemed as if the
nation, long famished, was quenching
its thirst in the enjoyments of existence.
Compassion for suffering was generally
felt: those who had recently escaped
death themselves had their hearts open
to the woes of humanity. Experience
now proved the truth of the poet's la-
mentation, that the most secure founda
tion for pity of the sufferings of others
is the experience of suffering ourselves.*
Public affairs wore an air of tranquillity
which singularly contrasted with the
disasters of former years: the emigrants
returned in crowds, with a confidence
which afterwards proved fatal to them.
All women were in transports at the
auspicious change. Horror at the Ja-
cobins restored the sway of the rich;
the recollection of the clubs secured the
influence of the saloons; female charms
resumed their ascendancy with the re-
turn of pacific ideas; and the passion
for enjoyment, freed from the dread of
death and the restraints o£religion, was
5. The deputies were regarded with
the utmost solicitude by all parties upon
the completion of the elections. The
third part, who had been recently chosen,
according to the provision of the con-
stitution, represented with tolerable
fidelity the opinions and wishes of the
party which had now become influential
in France. They consisted not of those
extraordinary and intrepid men who
shine in the outset of the revolutionary
tempest, but of those more moderate
characters who, in politics equally as
the fine arts, succeed to the vehemence
of early passion; who take warning by
past error, and are disposed only to
turn the existing state of things to the
best account for their individual advan-
tage. But their influence was incon-
siderable, compared with that of the
two-thirds who remained from the old
Assembly, and who, both from their
habits of business and acquired cele-
brity, retained the principal direction
of public affairs. The whole deputies
having assembled, according to the
directions of the constitution, chose by
ballot two hundred and fifty of their
number, all above forty, and married,
to form the Council of the Ancients.
They afterwards proceeded to the im-
portant task of appointing the Direc
METASTASIO, Guiseppe, parte 1. tors; and, after some hesitation, the
* "E legge di natura,
Che a compatir ci mova
Chi prova una sventura,
Che noi provammo ancor:
O sia che amore in noi,
La somiglianza accenda;
O sia che più s'intenda
Nel suo l'altrui dolor."
ex
ནཱ
!

+
3.
}
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
72
choice fell on Barras, Rewbell, La
Révellière-Lépaux, Letourneur, and
Sièyes. Upon the last declining the
proffered honour, Carnot was chosen
in his stead. These five individuals
immediately proceeded to the exercise
of their new sovereignty.
{CHAP. XXIV.
city with which he represented the feel-
ings of the multitude, often in the close
of revolutionary convulsions envious
of distinguished ability. La Révellière-
Lépaux, a sincere republican, who had
joined the Girondists on the day of
their fall, and preserved, under the pro-
scription of the Jacobins, the same prin-
ciples which he had embraced during
their ascendancy, was blessed by nature
with a mild and gentle disposition,
which fitted him to be the ornament
of private society. But he was weak
and irresolute in public conduct, totally
destitute of the qualities requisite in a
statesman, strongly tinged with the
irreligious fanaticism of the age, and
perpetually dreaming of establishing
the authority of natural religion on the
ruins of the Christian faith. Letour-
neur, an old officer of artillery, had
latterly supplied the place of Carnot in
the Committee of Public Salvation, but
without possessing his abilities; and
when Carnot came in the room of
Sièyes, he received the department of
the marine and the colonies.
6. Though placed at the head of so
great a state, the Directors were at first
surrounded with difficulties. When they
took possession of their apartments in
the Luxembourg, they found scarcely
any furniture in the rooms; a single
table, an inkstand and paper, and four
straw chairs, constituted the whole
establishment of those who were about
to enter on the management of the
greatest Republic in existence. The in-
credible embarrassment of the finances,
the critical state of the armies, the
increasing discontents of the people,
did not deter them from undertaking
the discharge of their perilous duties.
They resolved unanimously that they
would make head against all the diffi-
culties in which the state was involved,
or perish in the attempt.
7. Barras was the one of the Direc-
tory who was most qualified by his
character and previous services to take
the lead in the government. Naturally
indolent, haughty, and voluptuous;
accessible to corruption, profligate, and
extravagant; ill qualified for the fa-
tigues and the exertion of ordinary
business, he was yet possessed of the
firmness, decision, and audacity which
fitted him to be a leader of importance
in perilous emergencies. His lofty sta-
ture, commanding air, and insinuating
manners, were calculated to impose
upon the vulgar, often ready to be
governed in civil dissensions as much
by personal qualities as by mental su-
periority; while the eminent services
which he had rendered to the Thermi-ceived
dorian party on the fall of Robespierre,
and his distinguished conduct and de-
cisive success on the revolt of the Sec-
tions, gave him considerable influence
with more rational politicians. Rew-
8. The first object of the Directory
was to calm the passions, the fury of
which had so long desolated France.
This, however, was no easy task-the
more especially as, with the exception
of Carnot and Barras, there was not one
of them either a man of genius or of
any considerable reputation. Such was
the cruel effect of a revolution which
in a few years had cut off whole gen-
erations of ability, and swept away all,
save in the military career, that could
either command respect or insure suc-
cess. Their principles were republican,
and they had all voted for the death of
the King in the Convention, and con-
sequently their elevation gave great joy
to the democratic party, who had con-
considerable disquietude from
the recent formidable insurrection and
the still menacing language of the Royal-
ists. The leaders of that party, de-
feated, but not humbled, had great in-
fluence in the metropolis; and their
yer by profession, was destitute of either
firmness or eloquence; but he owed his
elevation to his habits of business, his
knowledge of forms, and the pertina
bell, an Alsacian by birth, and a law-followers seemed rather proud of the
perils they had incurred, than sub-
dued by the defeat they had sustained.
Within and without, the Directors were
surrounded by difficulties. The Revo-
1795.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
73
}
daughter of Louis XVI. from the mel-
ancholy prison where she had been con-
fined since her parents' death. This il-
lustrious princess, interesting alike for
her unparalleled misfortunes, and the
resignation with which she had borne
them, after having discharged, as long
as the barbarity of her persecutors
would permit, every filial and sisterly
duty-after having seen her father,
her mother, her aunt, and her brother,
successively torn from her arms, to be
consigned to destruction-had been de-
tained in solitary confinement since the
fall of Robespierre, and was still igno-
lution had left everything in the most |
miserable situation: the treasury was
empty; the people were starving; the
armies destitute; the generals dis-
couraged. The progress of the public
disorders had induced that extreme
abuse in the multiplication of paper
money, which seems the engine em-
ployed by nature, in revolutionary dis-
orders, to bring salutary suffering home
to every individual, even of the hum-
blest rank in society, as the opposite
set of evils, arising from the undue
contraction of the currency, produces
that destruction alike of industry and
realised wealth which warns man-rant of the fate of those she had so
kind of the dangers of the rule of a tenderly loved. The Directory, yield-
monied oligarchy. The revenue had ing at length to the feelings of human-
almost ceased to be collected, and the ity, and a sense of the difficulty which
public necessities were provided for would be experienced in assigning a
merely by a daily issue of paper, which suitable station in a republic to a prin-
every morning was sent forth from the cess of such exalted birth, agreed to
public treasury still damp from the exchange her for the deputies who had
manufactory of the preceding night. been delivered up by Dumourier to the
Its value was fixed by law, but it would Imperialists. Accordingly, on the 19th
not pass for a hundredth, sometimes a December 1795, this last of the royal
thousandth part of that amount. The captives left the prison where she had
sales of all kinds of commodities had been detained since the 10th August
ceased, from the effect of the law of the 1793, and proceeded by rapid journeys
maximum and forced contributions; to Bâle, where she was exchanged for
and the subsistence of Paris and the the Republican commissioners, and re-
other great towns was secured merely ceived by the Austrians with the hon-
by compulsory requisitions, for which our due to her rank. Her subsequent
the unfortunate peasants received only restoration, and second banishment, will
assignats, worth not a hundredth part form an interesting episode in the con-
of the value at which they were com- cluding part of this work.+
pelled to accept them. Finally, the
armies, destitute of everything, and un-rectory for the relief of the finances,
fortunate at the close of the campaign, was to obtain a decree authorising the
were discontented and dejected. The cessation of the distribution of rations
brilliant successes by which Napoleon to the people, which were thencefor-
restored the military affairs of the re- ward to be continued only to the most
public, had not yet shed their lustre necessitous classes. This great mea-
over the affairs of the new government.* sure, the first symptom of emancipa-
Amidst these difficulties, they were suc- tion from the tyranny of the mob of
cessively assailed by the different fac- the metropolis, was boldly adopted;
tions whose strife had brought the and though the discontents to which it
country to this miserable condition; gave rise appeared in the conspiracy of
and they owed their victory over both, Baboeuf, which shortly after broke forth,
only to the public torpor which recent it was successfully carried into effect.
experience of the sufferings all had en- All, except those who lived on the pub-
dured had produced.
lic bounty, felt that the system could
no longer be maintained, and concur-
red in supporting its abolition. The
† Infra, Chap. xcii.
10. The earliest measure of the Di-
9. One of their first acts was a deed
of humanity—the liberation of the
* Chaps. xx. and xxm.
VOL. IV.

F
74
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
2.
state of monetary affairs next occupied | dates (£100,000,000) were issued, se-
their anxious attention. After various cured over an extent of land supposed
ineffectual attempts to return to a me- to be of the same value; but before
tallic circulation, the government found many months had elapsed, they began
itself obliged to continue the issue of to decline, and were soon nearly at as
assignats. The quantity in circulation great a discount, in proportion to their
at length rose, in January 1796, to forty-value, as the old assignats. By no pos-
five milliards, or £1,800,000,000 ster-sible measure of finance could paper-
ling, and the depreciation became so money, worth nothing in foreign states
excessive, that a milliard, or a thou- from a distrust of its security, and re-
sand millions of francs, produced only a dundant at home from its excessive
million in metallic currency: in other issue, be maintained at anything like
words, the paper money had fallen to an equality with gold and silver. The
a thousandth part of its nominal value. mandates were, in truth, a reduction of
To stop this enormous evil, the govern- assignats to a thirtieth part of their
ment adopted the plan of issuing a new value; but to be on a par with the pre-
kind of paper money, to be called ter- cious metals, they should have been is-
ritorial mandates, which were intend- sued at one thousandth part, being the
ed to retire the assignats at the rate of rate of discount to which the original
thirty for one. This was in truth creat- paper had now fallen.
ing a new kind of assignats, with an in-
ferior denomination, and was meant
to conceal from the public the enor-
mous depreciation which the first had
undergone. It was immediately acted
upon; mandates were declared the cur-
rency of the Republic, and became by
law a legal tender; the national do-
mains were forthwith exposed to sale,
and assigned over to the holder of a
mandate without any other formality
than a simple procès verbal. At the same
time the most violent measures were
adopted to give this new paper a forced
circulation. All payments by and to
the government were ordered to be
made in it alone; severe penalties were
enacted against selling the mandate
for less than its nominal value in gold
or silver, and, to prevent all specula-
tions on their value, the public ex-
change was closed.
12. Government, therefore, and all the
persons who received payment from it,
including the public creditors, the army,
and the civil servants, were still suffer-
ing the most severe privation; but the
crisis had passed with the great bulk of
individuals in the state. Most of the
unhappy original holders had become
bankrupt, had been guillotined, or were
in exile. Their distresses, how great
soever, had passed away, like those of
a deceased generation. The fall in the
value of the assignats had been so ex-
cessive, that no one would take either
them or their successors in exchange.
Barter, and the actual interchange of
one commodity for another, had come
to supply the place of sale; and all
those possessed of any fortune, realised
it in the form of the luxuries of life,
which were likely to procure a ready
sale in the market. The most opulent
houses were converted into vast maga-
zines for the storing of silks, velvets,
and luxuries of every description, which
were retailed sometimes at a profit, and
sometimes at a loss, and by which the
higher classes were enabled to maintain
their families. From the general pre-
valence of this rude interchange, inter-
nal trade and manufactures regained,
to a certain degree, their former activ-
ity; and though the former opulent
quarters were deserted, the Boulevards
and Chaussée d'Antin began to exhibit
that splendour for which they after-
11. The only advantage possessed by
the mandates over the old assignats
was, that they entitled the holder to a
more summary and effectual process for
getting his paper exchanged for land.
As soon as this became generally under-
stood, it procured for them an ephem-
eral degree of public favour; a mandate
for 100 francs rose, soon after it was
issued, from fifteen to eighty francs,
and their success procured for govern-
ment a momentary resource. But this
relief was of short duration. Two mil-
liards four hundred millions of man-
f
1795.]
75
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
wards became so celebrated under the
Empire. As the victories of the Re-
public increased, and gold and silver
were obtained from the conquest of
Flanders, Italy, and the German states,
the government paper entirely ceased
to be a medium of exchange; transfers
of every description were effected by
barter or sales for the precious metals,
and the territorial mandates were no-
where to be seen but in the hands of
speculators, who bought them for a
twentieth part of their nominal value,
and sold them at a small advance to the
purchasers of the national domains.
1
were to be seen crowding round the
doors of the opera and other places of
public amusement, of which they had
formerly been the principal supporters,
and in a disguised voice, or with an
averted head, imploring charity from
crowds, among whom they were fearful
of discovering a former acquaintance or
dependant.
14. The situation of the armies in the
interior was not less deplorable. Offi-
cers and soldiers, alike unable to pro-
cure anything for their pay, were main-
tained only by the forced requisitions
which, under the pressure of necessity,
were still continued in the departments.
The detachments dispersed, and desert-
ed on the road; even the hospitals were
shut up, and the unhappy soldiers who
filled them turned adrift upon the world,
from utter inability to procure for them
either medicines or provisions. The
gendarmerie, or mounted police, dis-
banded; the soldiers who composed
that force, unable to maintain their
horses, sold them, and left the service;
and the high-roads, infested by nume-
gru and Napoleon, who received their
allowances in the coin they extracted
from the conquered states, were living
in luxurious affluence, those on the soil
of the Republic, and paid in its depre-
ciated paper, were starving. But most
of all, the public creditors, the rentiers,
were overwhelmed by unprecedented
distress. The opulent capitalists who
had fanned the first triumphs of the
Revolution, the annuitants who had
swelled the multitude of its votaries,
were now crushed under its wheels.
Then was seen the unutterable bitter-
ness of private distress, which inevit-
ably follows such a convulsion. The
prospect of famine produced many more
suicides among that unhappy class,
than all the horrors of the Reign of
Terror. Poverty to those unused to
it has more terrors than death itself.
Many, driven to extremities, had re-
course, late in life, to daily labour for
their subsistence; others, unable to en-
dure its fatigues, subsisted upon the
charity which they obtained from the
more fortunate survivors of the Revolu-
tion. Under the shadow of night they |
13. But while all classes were thus
emerging from this terrible financial
crisis, the servants of government, and
the public creditors, still paid in man-
dates at par, were literally dying of
famine. Employment from govern-
ment, instead of being solicited, was
universally shunned; persons in every
kind of service sent in their resigna-
tions; and the soldiers deserted from
the armies in as great crowds as they
had flocked to them during the Reign
of Terror. While the armies of Piche-rous brigands, the natural result of
the disorganisation of society, became
the theatre of unheard-of atrocities.
Strangers profited by the general dis-
tress of France to carry on commerce
with its suffering inhabitants, which
contributed in a considerable degree to
restore the precious metals to circula-
tion. The Germans, the Swiss, the
Russians, and the English, seized the
moment when the assignats were low-
est, to fall with all the power of metal-
lic riches upon the scattered but splen-
did movables of France. Wines of the
most costly description were bought up
by speculators, and sold cheaper at
Hamburg than Paris; diamonds and
precious stones, concealed during the
Reign of Terror, were brought forth
from their places of concealment, and
procured for their ruined possessors a
transitory relief. Pictures, statues, and
furniture of every description, were
eagerly purchased for the Russian and
English palaces, and by their general
dispersion effected a change in the taste
for the fine arts over all Europe. A
band of speculators, called La Bande
Noire, bought up au immense number
J.
11
g
A
་
76
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
were sold for almost nothing, and re-
imbursed themselves by selling a part
of the materials; and numerous fami-
lies, whose estates had escaped confis-
cation, retired to the country, and in-
habited the buildings formerly tenanted
by their servants, where they lived in
seclusion and rustic plenty on the pro-
duce of a portion of their estates.
cf public and private edifices, which |lated by the elusory form in which it
permitted payment to be made. In its
later stages, a debtor with one franc in
specie could force a discharge of a debt
of two hundred, sometimes even of a
thousand; the public creditors, the gov-
ernment servants, in fact all the classes
who formerly were opulent, were re-
duced to the last stage of misery. On
the other hand, the debtors throughout
the whole country found themselves
liberated from their engagements; the
national domains were purchased al-
most for nothing by the holders of gov-
ernment paper; and the land, infinitely
subdivided, required little of the ex-
penditure of capital, and became daily
more productive from the number and
energy of its new cultivators. These
vast alterations in the circulation in-
duced social changes more durable in
their influence, and far more import-
ant in their final results, than all the
political catastrophes of the Revolution;
for they entirely altered, and that too
in a lasting manner, the distribution of
property, and made a permanent altera-
tion in the form of government unavoid-
able from a total change in the class
possessed of substantial power.
15. The excessive fall of the paper
at length made all classes perceive that
it was in vain to pursue the chimera of
upholding its value. On the 16th July
1796, the measure, amounting to the
open confession of a bankruptcy which
had long existed, was adopted. It was
declared that all persons were to be at
liberty to transact business in the money
which they chose; that the mandates
should be taken at their current value,
which should be published every day
at the Treasury; and that the taxes
should be received either in coin or
mandates at that rate, with the excep-
tion of the departments bordering on
the seat of war, in which it should still
be received in kind. The publication
of the fall of the mandates rendered it
indispensable to make some change as
to the purchase of the national domains;
for where the mandate had fallen from
one hundred francs to five francs, it was
impossible that the holder could be al-
lowed to obtain in exchange for it land
worth one hundred francs in 1790, and
still, notwithstanding the fall of its
value, from the insecure tenure of all
possessions, deemed worth thirty-five
francs. It was in consequence deter-
mined, on the 18th July, that the un-
assigned national domains should be
sold for mandates at their current value.
|
17. Deprived of the extraordinary re-
source of issuing paper, the Directory
were compelled to calculate their real re-
venue, and endeavour to accommodate
their expenditure to that standard. They
had estimated the revenue for 1796 at
1,100,000,000 francs, or £44,000,000,
including an arrear of 300,000,000
francs, or £12,000,000 of the forced
loans, which had never yet been recov-
ered. But the event soon showed that
this calculation was fallacious; the re-
venue proved much less, and the ex-
penditure much greater than had been
expected. The land-tax produced only
200 millions, instead of 250; the 200
millions expected from the sale of the
remainder of the national domains was
not half realised, and all the other
sources of revenue failed in similar pro-
portion. Meanwhile, the armies of the
Rhine, of the Sambre and Meuse, and
of the interior, were in the most ex-
treme state of penury, and all the na-
tional establishments on the point of
ruin. In these circumstances, it was no
16. Such was the end of the system
of a paper circulation bearing a forced
value, six years after it had been origi-
nally commenced, and after it had ef-
fected a greater change in the fortunes
of individuals, than had perhaps ever
been accomplished in the same time by
any measure of government. It did
more to overthrow the existing wealth,
to transfer movable fortunes from one
hand to another, than even the confis-
cation of the emigrant and church
estates. All debts were in fact annihi-
1796.]
77
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
longer possible to avoid a bankruptcy. | the desolating effect of their own pas-
The public creditors, as usual in all such sions. Within a few months after the
extremities, were the first to be sacri- establishment of the new government,
ficed. After exhausting every expe- the most frightful evils entailed on
dient of delay and procrastination with France by the revolutionary régime
the rentiers, the Directory at length had been removed or alleviated. The
paid them only a fourth in money, and odious law of the maximum, which com-
three-fourths in bills, dischargeable on pelled the industry of the country to
the national domains, called Bons des pay tribute to the idleness of towns,
Trois Quarts. The annual charge of the was abolished; the commerce of grain
debt was 248 millions of francs, ornearly in the interior was free; the assignats
£10,000,000 sterling; so that, by this were replaced, without any convulsion,
expedient, the burden was in effect re- by a metallic currency; the press had
duced to 62 millions, or £2,500,000. resumed its independence; the elec-
The bills received for the three-fourths tions had taken place without violence;
were from the first at a ruinous dis- the guillotine no longer shed the noblest
count, and soon became altogether un-blood in France; the roads were secure;
saleable; and the disorders and parti- the ancient proprietors lived in peace
ality consequent on this mode of pay- beside the purchasers of the national
ment ere long became so excessive that domains. Whatever faults they may
it could no longer be continued. The have afterwards committed, France owes
income of 1797 was estimated at to the Directory, during the first year,
616,000,000 frs., or nearly £25,000,000, the immense obligation of having be-
but the expenditure could not be re- gun the reconstruction of society out of
duced to this without taking a decisive the fusion it had undergone in the re-
step in regard to the debt. It was there- volutionary crucible.
fore finally resolved to continue a pay-
ment of a third only of the debt in
specie ; and the remaining two-thirds
were to be discharged by the payment
of a capital in bills, secured on the na-
tional domains, at the rate of twenty
years' purchase. These bills, like the
Bons des Trois Quarts, immediately fell
to a sixth of their value, and shortly after
dwindled away to almost nothing, from
the quantity simultaneously thrown into
the market. As the great majority of
the public creditors were in such cir-
cumstances that they could not take
land, this was, to all intents, a national
bankruptcy, which cut off at one blow
two-thirds of their property.
19. In one particular alone the Di-
rectory made no approach towards im-
provement. Religion still remained
prostrated as it had been by the strokes
of the Decemvirs; the churches were
closed; Sunday was abolished: bap-
tism and communion were unknown;
the priests in exile, or in hiding under
the roofs of the faithful remnant of the
Christian flock. The youth of both
sexes were brought up without the
slightest knowledge of the faith of their
fathers; a generation was ushered into
the world, destitute of the first ele-
ments of religious instruction. Subse-
quently, the immense importance of
this deficiency appeared in the clearest
manner; it has left a chasm in the so-
cial institutions of France, which all
the genius of Napoleon, and all the glo-
ries of the Empire, have not been able
to repair; and which, it is to be feared,
is destined to prevent the growth of
anything like rational or steady free-
dom in that distracted country. În vain
La Révellière-Lépaux endeavoured to
establish a system of Theophilanthropy,
and opened temples, published chants,
and promulgated a species of liturgy.
ment which promises to save them from | All these endeavours to supersede the
18. These attempts of the Directory,
though long unsuccessful, to restore
order to the distracted chaos of revolu-
tionary France, were seconded by the
efforts of the great majority of the
people, to whom a termination of poli-
tical contests had become the most im-
perious of necessities. Such, in truth,
is the disposition in human affairs to
right themselves, when the fever of
passion has subsided, that men fall in-
sensibly into order, under any govern-
78
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
I
cr
|
doctrines of revelation speedily failed; | virtues ?"-"What do you mean by
and Deism remained the religion of the that?" replied the First Consul; "all
few of the revolutionary party who be- systems of morality are fine. Apart
stowed any thought on religious con- from certain dogmas, more or less ab-
cerns. The tenets and ideas of this surd, which were necessary to suit the
singular sect were one of the most cu- capacity of the people to whom they
rious results of the Revolution. Their were addressed, what do you see in the
principles were, for the most part, con- Veda, the Koran, the Old Testament, or
tained in the following paragraph Confucius? Everywhere pure moral-
"We believe in the existence of God, ity-that is to say, a system inculcating
and the immortality of the soul. Wor- protection to the weak, respect to the
ship the Deity; cherish your equals; laws, gratitude to God. The Gospel
render yourself useful to your country. alone has exhibited a complete assem-
Everything is good which tends to pre- blage of the principles of morality, di-
serve and bring to perfection the hu- vested of absurdity. That is what is
man race; everything which has an truly admirable, and not a few com-
opposite tendency is the reverse. Chil- monplace sentences put into bad verse.
dren, honour your fathers and mothers; Do you wish to see what is truly su-
obey them with affection, support their blime? Repeat the Lord's prayer. You
declining years. Fathers and mothers, and your friends would willingly be-
instruct your children. Women, be- come martyrs; I shall do them no such
hold in your husbands the heads of honour. No strokes but those of ridi-
your houses; husbands, behold in wo- cule shall fall upon them; and, if I
men the mothers of your children, and know anything of the French, they will
reciprocally study each other's hap- speedily prove effectual !" Napoleon's
The sect
piness." When men flatter themselves views soon proved correct.
that they are laying the foundations lingered on five years; and two of its
of a new religion, they are, in truth, members had even the courage to pub-
only dressing up, in a somewhat varied lish short works in its defence, which
form, the morality of the Gospel.* speedily died a natural death. Their
number gradually declined; and they
were at length so inconsiderable that,
when a decree of government, on the.
4th October 1801, prohibited them from
meeting in the four churches which
they had hitherto occupied as their
temples, they were unable to raise
money enough to hire a room to carry
on their worship. The extinction of
this sect was not owing merely to the
irreligious spirit of the French metro-
polis; it would have undergone the
same fate in any other age or country.
It is not by flowers and verses, decla-
mations on the beauty of spring and
the goodness of the Deity, that a per-
manent impression is to be made on a
being exposed to the temptations, liable
to the misfortunes, and filled with the
desires, incident to the human race.
Those are the allies of religion; but not
religion itself.
|
20. Napoleon viewed these enthusi-
asts, some of whom were still to be found
in Paris when he seized the helm of af-
fairs in 1799, in their true light. "They
are good actors," said he.-"What!"
answered one of the most enthusiastic
of their number, "is it in such terms
that you stigmatise those whose chiefs
are among the most virtuous men in
Paris, and whose tenets inculcate only
'universal benevolence and the moral
*The worship of this sect was very singu-
La Révellière-Lépaux was their high-
priest; they had four temples in Paris, and
on appointed days service was performed. In
the middle of the congregation, an immense
basket, filled with the most beautiful flowers
of the season, was placed as the symbol of
the creation. The high-priest pronounced
a discourse, enforcing the moral virtues,
"in which," says the Duchess of Abrantes,
"there was frequently so much truth and
feeling, that, if the Evangelists had not said
the same thing much better 1800 years be-
fore them, one might have been tempted to
embrace their opinions." This sect, like all
others founded upon mere Deism and the
lar.
21. The shock of parties, however,
had been too violent, the wounds in-
inculcation of the moral virtues, was short-flicted too profound, for society to re-
lived, and never included any considerable
body of the people.
lapse, without further convulsions, into

+
1796.]
79
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
a state of repose. It was from the Ja-
cobins that the first efforts proceeded;
and the principles of their leaders at
this juncture are singularly instructive
as to the extremities to which the
doctrines of democracy are necessarily
pushed, when they take a deep hold of
the body of the people. This terrible
faction had never ceased to mourn in
secret the ninth Thermidor as the com-
mencement of their bondage. They
still hoped to establish absolute equal-
ity, notwithstanding the variety of hu-
man character-universal virtue, de-
spite the general tendency to vice-
and complete democracy, without re-king, to the highest flights of philoso-
gard to the institutions of modern civi-phy, and bore the principal parts in the
lisation. They had been driven from great events of the 31st of May, and
the government by the fall of Robes- the following days, of which the false
pierre, and deprived of all influence in friends of equality at last destroyed the
the metropolis by the defeat and dis- happy effects. The principles of this
arming of the faubourgs. But the ne- party were, that the chief rights of man
cessities of government, on occasion of consist in the preservation of his ex-
the revolt of the sections on the thir- istence and of his liberty, and belong
teenth Vendémiaire, had compelled it equally to all; that property is that
to invoke the aid of their desperate portion of the public good which law
bands to resist the efforts of the Royal-permits him to retain; that sovereignty
ists, and the character of the Directors resides in the people, and all public
inspired them with hopes of regaining functionaries are their servants; that
their influence in the direction of affairs. law is the free and solemn expres-
Flattered by these prospects, the broken sion of the people's will; that resist-
faction reassembled. They instituted ance to oppression is the inevitable re-
a new club, which held its meetings insult of the rights of man; that every
a vast subterranean vault under the institution which is not founded on the
Pantheon. This club, they trusted, principle that the people are good, and the
would rival the far-famed assemblage of magistrate is corruptible, is erroneous;
the Jacobins ; and they there instituted and that kings, aristocrats, and tyrants,
a species of idolatrous worship of Marat whoever they are, are slaves who have
and Robespierre, whom they still up-revolted against the sovereign of the
held as objects of veneration and imi- earth, which is the human race, and
tation to their followers.
against the legislature of the universe,
which is nature.'
*
who, from the very beginning, pro-
nounced themselves boldly in favour
of the real emancipation of the French
people. Marat, Robespierre, and St Just
figured gloriously, with some others, in
the honourable list of the defenders of
equality. Marat and Robespierre boldly
attacked the anti-popular system which
prevailed in the Constituent Assembly;
directed before and after the 10th Au-
gust the proceedings of the patriots,
struggled in the Convention against
the hatred and calumnies of the selfish
party which prevailed there; elevated
themselves, in the condemnation of the
22. The principles of this remarkable
party were in great part those which
Rousseau developed in his Contrat So-
cial, and which were at the bottom
of all the miseries and convulsions of
the French Revolution. They are thus
given in the words of the able historian
of their party, himself deeply implicat-
ed in the conspiracy. "Democracy is
the public system in which equality
and good morals put the people in a
situation to exercise with advantage
legislative power. Among the men who
have appeared with most lustre in the
revolutionary arena, there are some
23. These principles the new conspi-
rators had borrowed from Robespierre
and the extreme popular party since
the beginning of the Revolution. But
they now contended for a new and
more important element, from the want
of which, in their opinion, all the former
effects of the Revolution had failed.
This element was, the equal division of
property. The head of this party was
Baboeuf, surnamed Gracchus, who as-
pired to become chief of the fanatical
band. He published a Journal, entitled
* BUONAROTTI, Consp. de Babœuf, i. 23, 33.
J
*
:
80
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
{
the "Tribune of the People," which ing the laws and institutions of their
advocated the principles of his sect with country; when they secure to them-
much ability, and that earnestness of selves an army, by dividing among the
manner which is so important an ele- people of no property the estates of the
ment in popular eloquence. His lead- ancient and lawful proprietors; when
ing principle was, that the friends of the state recognises those acts; when
freedom had hitherto failed, because it does not make confiscation for crimes,
they had not ventured to make that but crimes for confiscations; when it
use of their power which could alone has its principal strength, and all its
insure its lasting success. "Robes- resources, in such a violation of pro-
pierre fell," said he, "because he did perty; when it stands chiefly upon
not venture to pronounce the word-such violation, massacring, by judg
ments or otherwise, those who make
any struggle for their own legal gov-
ernment, and their old legal posses-
sions-I call this Jacobinism by estab-
lishment." Such were the professed
objects of the Revolutionists; their
real designs have been thus eloquently
characterised by Sir James Mackin-
tosh: "These men, Republicans from
servility, who published the social pa-
negyric on massacre, and who reduced
plunder to a system of ethics, are as
ready to preach slavery as anarchy.
But the more daring ruffians cannot so
easily bow their heads under the yoke.
These fierce spirits have not lost
'Agrarian Law.' He effected the spo-
liation of a few rich, but without bene-
fiting the poor. The Sans-culottes,
guided by too timid leaders, piqued
themselves on their foolish determina-
tion to abstain from enriching them-
selves at others' expense. Real aristo-
cracy consists in the possession of riches,
and it matters not whether they are
in the hands of a Villeroi, a Laborde,
a Danton, a Barras, or a Rewbell. Under
different names, it is ever the same
aristocracy which oppresses the poor,
and keeps them perpetually in the con-
dition of the Spartan helots. The peo-
ple are excluded from the chief share
in the property of France; neverthe-
less, the people, who constitute the
whole strength of the state, should be
alone invested with it, and that too in
equal shares. There is no real equality
without an equality of riches. All the
great of former times should, in their
turn, be reduced to the condition of
helots; without that, the Revolution
is stopped where it should begin. These
are the principles which Lycurgus or
Gracchus would have applied to Revo-
lutionary or Republican France; and,
without their adoption, the benefits of
the Revolution are a mere chimera.'
"}
'The unconquerable will,
The study of revenge, immortal hate.'
They pursue their old end of tyranny
under their old pretext of liberty. The
recollection of their unbounded power
renders every inferior condition irk-
some and vapid; and their former atro-
cities form a sort of moral destiny which
impels them to the commission of new
crimes. They have no place left for
penitence on earth: they labour under
the most awful proscription of opinion
ever pronounced against human beings;
they have cut down every bridge by
which they could retreat into the so-
ciety of men. Tyrannical power is
their only refuge from the just ven-
geance of their fellow-creatures. Mur-
der is their only means of usurping
power. They have no taste, no occu-
pation, no pursuit, but power and mas-
sacre. They have drunk too deep of
human blood ever to relinquish their
cannibal appetite.”
24. These doctrines of Baboeuf, which
were nothing more than the maxims
of the Revolution pushed to their legi-
timate consequences, instead of being
stopped short when they had served
the
purpose of a particular party, show
how correctly Mr Burke had, long be-
fore, characterised the real Jacobin
principles. "Jacobinism," says he, "is
the revolt of the enterprising talents of
a country against its property. When
private men form themselves into as-
25. As the great object of the con-
spirators was a total overthrow of pro-
perty, and a division of it in equal, or
sociations for the purpose of destroy-nearly equal proportions, among the
1796.]
81
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
whole people, it was necessary to pro- | and clothed in their dresses; that the
ceed with extreme caution, both in di- whole effects pledged by the people
vulging their intentions to the public, with the pawnbrokers should instantly
and in preparing the means of enforcing be restored to them; and that the na-
them by an armed force. The nucleus tion should adopt the wives, children,
of the conspiracy was formed in the fathers, mothers, brothers, and sisters
prisons of Paris, particularly those of of those who had been slain in support
Plessis and the Four Nations, during of their cause in the insurrection, and
the period after the fall of Robespierre, maintain them at the public expense.
when a large number of the most ardent In addition to this, it was proposed
democrats were confined together. The that it should be declared by the so-
greater part of these were by degrees vereign people, that all the property
liberated by the government which suc- of France was at their disposal, and
ceeded the ninth Thermidor, and under that the future division of it should
the auspices of Babœuf, Darthé, Buon- be made entirely at their pleasure. Fi-
arotti, and others, a new society, com- nally, in order to strike terror into the
posed of the most extreme Jacobins, tyrants, it was proposed that the Di-
was formed, who met in a great vault rectory and the principal members of
under the Pantheon, where, by the the government should, instead of
light of flambeaus, and seated on the being publicly executed, be crushed
humid ground, they ruminated on the under the ruins of their palaces, the
most likely method of regenerating remains of which were to be left in
France. The machinery which they wild confusion, like a mighty cairn, to
set in motion for this purpose was very mark the spot where tyranny had been
extensive, and soon had its ramifica- finally overthrown in France.
tions in every department of the coun-
try, and in a small part of the army.
A chief revolutionary agent, with seve-
ral subordinate assistants, was estab-
lished in each of the twelve divisions of
Paris, who soon extended their corres-
pondents into most of the departments
of the Republic. A secret directory of
public safety was also established, con-
sisting of d'Antonelle, Babœuf, Bedon,
Buonarotti, Darthé, Filipe, Rexellet,
and Silvain-Maréchal. Being well aware,
however, that, in order to secure the
co-operation of the people, it was neces-
sary to present to them not only the
ultimate prospect of social regeneration,
but some immediate practical benefits
which might incite them to insurrec-
tion, they framed a solemn instrument,
styled an "Insurrectional Act," the
publication of which was to be the sig-
nal of the new revolution. In this
proclamation it was declared that the
whole effects of the emigrants, of the
conspirators against public freedom,
and of the enemies of the people, should
be forthwith divided among the poor
and the defenders of the cause of free-
dom;
that the working-classes should
be immediately lodged in the houses
of the conspirators against freedom,
26. There was a time when plausible
doctrines such as these, so well calcu-
lated to excite the passions of the squalid
multitude in large cities, would in all
probability have produced a great effect
on the Parisian populace. But time
extinguishes passion, and unmasks illu-
sions, to a generation as well as an in-
dividual. The people were no longer
to be deceived by these high-sounding
expressions; they knew, by dear-bought
experience, that the equality of demo-
cracy is only an equality of subjection,
and the equal division of property only
a pretence for enriching the popular
rulers. The lowest of the populace
alone, accordingly, were moved by these
efforts of the Jacobins; the middle
classes, who were likely to suffer by
them, steadily resisted them; and the
Directory finding their government
firmly established in the opinion of the
better classes, closed the Club at the
Pantheon, and seized several numbers
of Babœuf's Journal, containing pas-
sages tending to overthrow the consti-
tution. To avert the further encroach-
ments of the Jacobin party, they en-
deavoured to introduce a restriction
on the liberty of the press; but the
two Councils, after a solemn discus-
82
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
#T.
""
sion, refused to sanction any such pro- | zen of any property to lodge and main-
posal.
tain a man who had joined in the insur-
27. Defeated in this attempt, the de-rection; and the bakers, butchers, and
mocratic chiefs assembled in a place wine-merchants, were to be obliged to
called the Temple of Reason, where they furnish the articles in which they dealt
sang revolutionary songs, deploring the to the citizens, at a low price fixed by
death of Robespierre and the slavery the government. All soldiers who
of the people. They had some com- should join the people were to receive in-
munication with the troops in the camp stantly a large sum in money, and their
at Grenelle, and admitted to their se- discharge; or, if they preferred remain-
cret meetings a captain in that force, ing by their colours, they were to get
named Grizel, whom they considered the houses of the Royalists to pillage.
one of their most important adherents. 28. The principles of this remarkable
Their design was now to establish at sect, however, did not stop short at
once what they called the "Public these steps, immediately calculated to
Good," and for that end to divide pro-awaken the cupidity and win the sup-
perty of every description, and put at port of the working-classes. They went
the head of affairs a government con- a great deal farther, and had matured
sisting of "true, pure, and absolute de- their plans for the ultimate remodel-
mocrats. It was unanimously agreed ling of the whole social institutions of
to murder the Directors, disperse the France, on a footing of the most com-
Councils, and put to death the leading plete republican equality. They con-
members, and erect the sovereignty of templated the erection of a community
the people; but to whom to intrust the similar to that of Lycurgus, but with-
supreme authority of the executive, out its kings, its Ephori, or its helots.
after this was achieved, was a matter They proposed to abolish private pro-
of anxious and difficult deliberation. perty of every description, both landed
At length they selected sixty-eight per- and movable; an entire community of
sons who were esteemed the most de- goods and labour being their grand re-
termined and absolute democrats, in medy for all social evils, which had
whom the powers of the state were to wholly sprung, in their estimation, from
be invested until the complete demo- the concentration of these advantages
cratic regime was established. The in the hands of a few. As a consequence
day for commencing the insurrection of this, labour was to be universal and
was fixed, and all the means of carry- compulsory. Every man was to belong
ing it into effect were arranged. It was to some trade, and bring the produce
to take place on the 21st May. Pla- of his toil to its common fund. Paren-
cards and banners were prepared, bear- tal and domestic education was to be
ing the words, Liberty, Equality, abolished; every child of either sex was
Constitution of 1793, Common Good;" to be considered as belonging to the
and others having the inscription, state, and educated for the public be-
"Those who usurp the sovereignty of hoof at great public seminaries. The
the people should be put to death by young of different sexes were not to meet
freemen." The conspirators were to till married, except at great festivals on
march from different quarters to attack stated occasions, when patriotic hymns
the Directors and the Councils, and were to be sung, and the choice of part-
make themselves masters of the Lux-ners was to be made. Every facility
embourg, the treasury, the telegraph, was proposed for divorce, the indissol-
and the arsenal of artillery at Meudon; ubility of marriage being considered,
a correspondence had been opened with next to private property, the most pro-
the Jacobins in other quarters, that the lific source of evil. The national de-
revolt might break out simultaneously fence was to be intrusted to all the
in all parts of France. To induce the young men indiscriminately, till they
lower classes to take part in the pro- arrived at a certain age, and all of them
ceedings, proclamations were immedi- were to be armed and marched to the
ately to be issued, requiring every citi- camps on the frontiers; the legislative
"C
}
1796.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
83
with me as an independent power? You
see of what a vast party I am the cen-
tre; you see that it nearly balances your
own; you see what immense ramifica-
tions it contains. I am well assured that
the discovery must have made you trem-
ble. It is nothing to have arrested the
chiefs of the conspiracy; it will revive
in other bosoms if theirs are extinct.
Abandon the idea of shedding blood in
vain; you have not hitherto made much
noise about the affair; make no more;
treat with the patriots; they recollect
that you were once sincere Republicans;
they will pardon you, if you concur with
them in measures calculated to effect
the salvation of the Republic." Instead
of acceding to this extravagant proposal,
the Directory published the letter, and
ordered the trial of the conspirators be-
fore the High Court of Vendôme. This
act of vigour contributed more than
anything they had yet done to consoli-
date the authority of government.
29. These extreme measures, the na-
tural result of a long-continued revolu-
tionary strife, are nearly akin to the
dreams of Plato for a perfect republic,
and, amidst all their extravagance, they
savoured of something grand and gen-
erous. The immediate incitements
which the democratic leaders held out,
however-universal plunder and divi-
sion of property-were addressed to the
basest passions, though they indicated
a perfect knowledge of human nature,
and the means by which the masses are
to be most effectually stimulated. They
might, at an earlier period, have roused
the most vehement democratic passions.
But coming, as they did, at a time when
such opinions inspired all men of any
property with horror, they failed in pro-
ducing any considerable effect. The de-
signs of the conspirators were divulged
to government by Grizel; and on the
20th May, the day before the plot was
to have been carried into execution,
Babœuf, and all the leaders of the en-
terprise, were seized, some at their own
houses, others at their place of assembly,
and with them documents which indi-
cated the extent of the conspiracy. Ba-
bœuf, though in captivity, abated no-rectory followed up this success by the
thing of his haughty bearing, and would trial of Babœuf, Amar, Vadier, Darthé,
only condescend to negotiate with the and the other leaders taken on the 20th
government on a footing of perfect May, before the Court of Vendôme.
equality. Do you
consider it beneath Their behaviour on this occasion was
you," said he to the Directory, "to treat that of men who neither feared death
30. The partisans of Babœuf, how-
Some
ever, were not discouraged.
months afterwards, and before the trial
of the chiefs had come on, they marched
in the night, to the number of six or
seven hundred, armed with sabres and
pistols, to the camp at Grenelle. They
were received by a regiment of dra-
goons, which, instead of fraternising
with them as they expected, charged
and dispersed the motley array. Great
numbers were cut down in the fight.
Of the prisoners taken, thirty-one were
condemned and executed by a military
commission, and thirty transported.
This severe blow extinguished for a
long period the hopes of the Jacobin
party, by cutting off all their leaders of
resolution and ability; and though that
party still inspired terror, by the recol-
lection of its former excesses, it ceased
from this time forward to have any real
power to disturb the tranquillity of the
state. Despotism is never so secure as
immediately after the miseries of an-
archy have been experienced. The Di-
66
functions were to be exercised by the
same individuals, in primary assem-
blies, when they returned to their places
of abode after their period of service
was over. The aged, infirm, and or-
phans, were to be gratuitously main-
tained at the public expense. There
was to be no capital or central govern-
ment, no magistrates or teachers, save
those appointed by the people. Disease,
it was said, under such a system, would
be rare, law unknown, theology un-
heard of; luxury, idleness, and oppres-
sion, would disappear; the country
would be covered with a succession of
villages, the land become a continuous
garden; and all the privations conse-
quent on the loss of luxury to a few
would be more than compensated by
the diminution of labour, and increase
of comfort to all.
72
I
1

84
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
"
nor were ashamed of the cause in which | demned to death, and seven others, who
they were to die. At the commence- were sentenced to transportation. The
ment and conclusion of each day's pro- two first, on hearing the sentence, mu-
ceedings, they sang the Marseillaise tually stabbed each other with a pon-
hymn; their wives attended them to the iard; but the wounds did not prove
court, and encouraged them by their fatal, and they were led out next day,
constancy, to suffer bravely in the cause bleeding as they were, to the place of
of freedom.
execution, where they died with the
stoicism of the old Romans.
31. "Examine your own heart," said
Babœuf in addressing the jury; "you
will find the secret voice which tells you
these men aimed only at the happiness
of their fellow-creatures. The Revolu-
tion was to them no matter of personal
interest. Rest assured, citizens, those
are men who regard it as an event in-
teresting to humanity; believe me, it
had become to them a true religion, to
which they were ready to sacrifice their
comfort, their repose, their property,
their life. To strike a friend of liberty
is to lend a helping hand to kings. You
are sitting in judgment on liberty; it
has been fertile in martyrs, and the aven-
gers of their memory. Liberty expires
when the generous passions are extin-
guished; when to the men whom it has
inflamed are presented the bloody heads
of those who have devoted themselves
to its worship. It is in vain to say that,
were our arguments well founded, our
intentions pure, they could be carried
into execution only by overturning the
constitution. If so strange a proposi-
tion is admitted, there is in France
neither an institution of jury nor a
country. It is not on the conspiring
to overturn existing authority, but le-
gitimate authority, that the attention
of the jury is to be fixed; for how can
they find him guilty who, albeit con-
spiring against actual authority, does
so alone in favour of the only real au-
thority, the will of the people? To
what, then, comes the Supreme Law of
the Interest of the People, if the depo-
sitaries of its power are to reckon as
naught the love of country in the hearts
of the accused?" Baboeuf and Darthé,
at the conclusion of this address, turned
towards their wives, and said, "that
they should follow them to Mount Cal-sity of doing something for himself, and
vary, because they had no reason to restored commerce to its pristine form
blush for the cause for which they suf- of barter. The saloons of fashion were
fered." They were all acquitted except converted into magazines ofstuffs, where
Babœuf and Darthé, who were con- ladies of the highest rank engaged dur-
33. The manners of 1795 and 1796
were different from any which had yet
prevailed in France, and exhibited a
singular specimen of the love of order
and the spirit of elegance regaining their
ascendant over a nation which had lost
its nobility, its religion, and its morals.
The total destruction of fortunes of
every description during the Revolu
tion, and the complete ruin of paper-
money, reduced every one to the neces-
32. The terror excited by these re-
peated efforts of the Jacobins was ex-
treme, and totally disproportioned to
the real danger with which they were
attended. It is the remembrance of the
danger which is past, not the prospect
of that which is future, that ever affects
the generality of mankind. This feel-
ing encouraged the Royalists to make
an effort to regain their ascendancy, in
the hope that the troops in the camp
at Grenelle, who had so firmly resisted
the seductions of the democratic, might
be more inclined to aid the exertions
of the monarchical party. Their con-
spiracy, however, destitute of any aid
in the legislative bodies, though numer-
ously supported by the population of
Paris, proved abortive. Its leaders were
Brottier, an old counsellor of the par-
liament, Laville-Heurnois, and Dunan.
They made advances to Malo, the cap-
tain of dragoons, who had resisted the
seductions of the Jacobins; but he was
equally inaccessible to the offers of
the Royalists, and delivered up their
leaders to the Directory. They were
handed over to the civil tribunal, which,
being unwilling to renew the reign of
blood, humanely suffered them to escape
with a short imprisonment.
1796.]
85
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
ing the day in the drudgery of trade, | brilliant talents, and rising glory, ren-
to maintain their families or relations, dered him the idol of women even of
while in the evening the reign of plea- aristocratic habits; while the thought-
sure and amusement was resumed. In ful air, energetic conversation, and eagle
the midst of the wreck of ancient opu- eye of Napoleon, already, to persons of
lence, modern wealth began to display discernment, foretold no ordinary des-
its luxury; the faubourg St Antoine, tinies. The beauty of Madame Tallien
the seat of manufactures, the faubourg was still in its zenith; while the grace
St Germain, the abode of rank, remained of Madame Beauharnais, and the genius
deserted; but in the quarter of the of Madame de Stael, threw a lustre over
Chaussée-d'Antin, and in the Boulevard the reviving society of the capital, which
Italien, the riches of the bankers, and had been unknown since the fall of the
of those who had made fortunes in the monarchy. The illustrious men of the
Revolution, began to shine with unpre- age, for the most part, at this period
cedented lustre. Splendid hotels, sump-selected their partners for life from the
tuously furnished in the Grecian style, brilliant circle by which they were sur-
which had now become the fashion, were rounded; and never did such destinies
embellished by magnificent fêtes, where depend on the decision or caprice of the
all that was left of elegance in France moment. Madame Permon, a lady of
by the Revolution assembled to indulge rank and singular attraction, from Cor-
the newly revived passion for enjoy- sica, in whose family Napoleon had
ment. The dresses of the women were from infancy been intimate, and whose
carried to extravagance in the Grecian daughter afterwards became Duchess of
style; and the excessive nudity which Abrantes, refused, in one morning, the
they exhibited, while it proved fatal to hand of Napoleon for herself, that of
many persons of youth and beauty, his brother Joseph for her daughter,
contributed, by the novel aspect of the and that of his sister Pauline for her
charms which were presented to the son. She little thought that she was
public eye, to increase the general en- declining for herself the throne of
chantment. The assemblies of Barras, Charlemagne; for her daughter that of
in particular, were remarkable for their Charles V.; and for her son the most
magnificence; but, in the general con- beautiful princess in Europe.
fusion of ranks and characters which
they presented, they afforded too clear
an indication of the universal destruc-
tion of the ancient landmarks, in morals
as well as society, which the Revolution
had effected.
|
35. But the passions roused had been
too violent to subside without further
convulsions; and France was again des-
tined to undergo the horrors of Jacobin
rule, before she settled down under the
despotism of the sword. The Directory
was essentially democratic; but the first
elections having taken place during the
excitement produced by the suppres-
sion of the revolt of the sections at
Paris, and two-thirds of the councils
being composed of the members of the
old Convention, the legislature was, in
that respect, in harmony with the exe-
cutive. The elections of the year 1797,
however, when one-third of both were
changed, produced a total alteration
in the balance of parties in the state.
These elections, for the most part, turn-
ed out favourable to the royalist in-
terest-a reaction inevitable immedi-
ately after the miseries of democratic
rule have been experienced. So far did
the members of that party carry hos-
|
34. In these assemblies were to be
seen the elements out of which the Im-
perial court was afterwards formed.
The young officers, who had risen to
eminence in the Republican armies, be-
gan here to break through the rigid
circle of aristocratic etiquette; and the
mixture of characters and ideas which
the Revolution had produced rendered
the style of conversation incomparably
more varied and animating than any-
thing which had been known under the
ancient regime. In a few years the
world had lived through centuries of
knowledge. There was to be seen Hoche,
not yet twenty-seven years of age, who
had recently extinguished the war in
La Vendée, and whose handsome figure,
86
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
tility to the Jacobins, that they ques- | clined to join the royalist party from
his love of freedom, and his rooted
aversion to violent measures. Steadily
pursuing what he conceived to be the
public good, he had, during the crisis
of the Reign of Terror, supported the
dictatorial authority; and now, when
the danger to freedom from foreign
subjugation was over, he strove to re-
store the monarchical party. The op-
per-posite factions soon became so exas-
perated that they mutually aimed at
supplanting each other by means of a
revolution; a neutral party, headed by
Thibaudeau, strove to prevent matters
coming to extremities, but, as usual in
such circumstances, was unsuccessful,
and shared in the ruin of the van-
quished.
37. The chief strength of the royalist
tioned all the candidates in many of
the provinces as to whether they were
holders of the national domains, or had
ever been engaged in the Revolution,
or in any of the public journals, and
instantly rejected all who answered
affirmatively to any of these questions.
The reaction against the Revolution
was soon extremely powerful over the
whole departments. The royalists,
ceiving, from the turn of the elections,
that they would acquire a majority,
soon gained the energy of victory. The
multitude, ever ready to follow the vic-
torious party, ranged themselves on
their side; while a hundred journals
thundered forth their declamations
against the government, without its
venturing to invoke the aid of the san-
guinary law, which affixed the punish-party lay in the club of Clichy, which
ment of death against all offences tend- acquired as preponderating an influence
ing towards a restoration of royalty. at this epoch, as that of the Jacobins
The avowed corruption, profligacy, and had done at an earlier stage of the Re-
unmeasured ambition of Barras and volution. Few among its members
the majority of the Directory, strongly were in direct communication with the
contributed to increase the reaction royalists, but they were all animated
throughout the country. The result with hatred at the Jacobins, and an
of the election was such, that a great anxious desire to prevent their regain-
majority in both councils was in the ing their ascendancy in the government.
royalist or anti-conventional interest; The opposite side assembled at the
and the strength of the republican Club of Salm, where was arrayed the
party lay solely in the Directory and strength of the Republicans, the Direc-
the army.
tory, and the army. The reaction in
favour of royalist principles, at this
juncture, had become so strong that,
out of seventy periodical journals which
appeared at Paris, only three or four
supported the cause of the Revolution.
Lacretelle, the future historian of the
Revolution, the Abbé Morellet, the
author of one of its most interesting
memoirs, Laharpe, the celebrated critic,
Sicard, the unwearied philanthropist,
and all the literary men of the capital,
wrote periodically on the royalist side.
Michaud, destined to illustrate and
beautify the history of the Crusades,
went so far as to publish a direct éloge
on the princes of the exiled family—an
offence which, by the subsisting laws,
was punishable with death. He was
indicted for the offence, but acquitted
by the jury, amidst the general applause
of the people. The majority of the
Councils supported the liberty of the
36. The first act of the new Assem-
bly, or rather of the Assembly with its
new third of members, was to choose
a successor to the director Letourneur,
upon whom the lot had fallen of retir-
ing from the government. The choice
fell on Barthélemy, the minister who
had concluded the peace with Prussia
and Spain - a respectable man, of
royalist principles. Pichegru, who had
been elected deputy of the department
of the Jura, was, amidst loud acclama-
tions, appointed president of the Coun-
cil of Five Hundred: Barbé-Marbois,
also a royalist, president of the Council
of the Ancients. Almost all the min-
istry were changed, and the Directory
was openly divided into two parties
the majority consisting of Rewbell,
Barras, and La Révellière; the minority
of Barthélemy and Carnot. The latter,
though a steady republican, was in-
:
i
1797.]
87
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
press, from which their party was reap-| but which could not be carried into
ing such advantages, and, pursuing a effect from its severity. It passed the
cautious but incessant attack upon gov- Five Hundred, but was thrown out in
ernment, brought them into obloquy the Ancients, amidst transports of joy
by continually exposing the confusion in the Royalist party. Encouraged by
of the finances, which were becoming this success, they attempted to undo
inextricable, and dwelling on the con- the worst parts of the revolutionary
tinuance of the war, which appeared fabric. The punishment of imprison-
interminable.
ment or transportation, to which the
38. At this epoch, by a singular but clergy were liable by the revolutionary
not unusual train of events, the parti- laws, was done away, and a proposal
sans of royalty were the strongest sup- made to permit the open use of the
porters of the liberty of the press, while ancient worship, allow the use of bells
the Jacobin government did everything in the churches, the cross on the graves
in their power to stifle its voice. This of such as chose to place that emblem
is the natural course of things when there, and relieve the priests from the
parties have changed places, and the necessity of taking the republican oaths,
executive authority is in the hands of On this occasion Camille-Jourdan, de-
the popular leaders. Freedom of dis-puty from Lyons, whose religious and
cussion is the obvious resource of li- royalist principles had been strongly
berty, whether menaced by regal, re- confirmed by the atrocities of the Jaco-
publican, or military violence; it is the bins in that unfortunate city, made an
insurrection of thought against physical eloquent and powerful speech, which
force. It may frequently mislead and produced a great sensation. He pleaded
blind the people, and for years perpe- strongly the great cause of religious
tuate the most fatal delusions; but still toleration, and exposed the iniquity of
it is the great assistant of freedom, and those laws which, professing to remove
it alone can restore the light of truth the restriction on subjects of faith, im-
to the generation it has misled. The posed fetters severer than had ever
press is not to be feared in any country been known to Catholic superstition.
where the balance of power is properly The Council, tired of the faded extra-
maintained, and opposing parties divide vagances on the subject of freedom,
the state, because their opposite inter- were entranced for the moment by a
ests and passions call forth contradic- species of eloquence for years unheard
tory statements and arguments, which in the Assembly, and by the revival of
at length extricate truth from their feelings long strangers to their breasts;
collision. The period of danger from and listened to the declamations of the
its abuse commences when it is in great young enthusiast as they would have
part turned to one side, either by des- done to the preaching of Peter the Her-
potic power, democratic violence, or mit. But the attempt was premature;
purely republican institutions. France the principles of infidelity were too
under Napoleon was an example of the deeply seated, to be shaken by transient
first; Great Britain, during the Reform bursts of genius; and the Council ulti-
fever in 1831, of the second; America mately rejected the proposal by such a
is at present of the third. Wherever majority as showed that ages of suffer-
one power in the state is overbearing, ing must yet be endured before that
whether it be that of a sovereign, an fatal poison could be expelled from the
oligarchy, or of the multitude, the press social body.
becomes the instrument of the most
debasing tyranny.
39. To ward off the attacks daily
made upon them, the Directory pro-
posed a law for restricting the liberty
of the press, and substituting graduated
penalties for the odious punishments
which the subsisting law authorised,
40. Encouraged by this state of opin-
ion in the capital, the emigrants and
the banished priests assembled in crowds
from every part of Europe. Fictitious
passports were transmitted from Paris
to Hamburg, and other towns, where
they were eagerly purchased by those
who longed ardently to revisit their
?
2
!
3
88
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIV.
of the Directory, consisting of Barras,
Rewbell, and La Révellière-Lepaux, re-
solved upon decisive measures. They
could reckon with confidence upon the
support of the army, which having been
raised during the revolutionary fervour
of 1793, placed under officers chosen
by the privates in a period of extreme
excitement, and constantly habituated
to the intoxication of republican tri-
umphs, was strongly imbued with de-
how-mocratic principles. This, in the exist-
ing state of affairs, was an assistance of
immense importance. They therefore
drew towards Paris a number of regi-
ments, twelve thousand strong, from
the army of the Sambre and Meuse,
which were known to be most republi-
can in their feelings; and these troops
were brought within the circle of twelve
leagues round the legislative body,
which the constitution forbade the
armed force to cross. Barras wrote to
Hoche, who was in Holland superin-
tending the preparations for the inva-
sion of Ireland, informing him of the
dangers of the government; and he
readily undertook to support them with
all his authority. The ministers were
changed: Bénézech, minister of the in-
terior; Cochon, minister of police; Pe-
tiet, minister of war; Lacroix, minister
of foreign affairs; and Truguet, of ma-
rine—who were all suspected of inclin-
ing to the party of the Councils, were
suddenly dismissed. In their place
were substituted, François de Neufchâ-
teau in the ministry of the interior;
Hoche in that of war; Lenoir-Laroche
in that of the police; and Talleyrand
in that of foreign affairs. The clear
sagacity of this last politician led him
to incline, in all the changes of the Re-
re-volution, to what was about to prove
the victorious side; and his accepting
office under the Directory at this crisis,
was strongly symptomatic of the chances
which were accumulating in their fa-
vour. Carnot, from this moment, be-
came convinced that his ruin had been
determined on by his colleagues. Bar-
ras and La Révellière had long borne
him a secret grudge, which sprang from
his having signed the warrant, during the
Reign of Terror, for the arrest of Dan-
|
41. In effect, the rapid march of the
Councils, and the declamations of the
royalists, both in the tribune, in the
club of Clichy, and in the public jour-
nals, awakened an extreme alarm among
that numerous body of men, who, from
having been implicated in the crimes of
the Revolution, or gainers from its ex-
cesses, had the strongest interest in
preventing its principles from receding.
The Directory became alarmed for their
own existence, by reason of the decided
majority of their antagonists in both
Councils, and the certainty that the
approaching election of a third would
almost totally ruin the republican party.
It had already been ascertained that a
hundred and ninety of the deputies
were engaged to restore the exiled fa-
mily, while the Directory could only
reckon upon the support of a hundred
and thirty; and the Ancients had
solved, by a large majority, to transfer
the seat of the legislature to Rouen, on
account of its proximity to the western
provinces, whose royalist principles had
always been so decided. The next elec-
tion, it was expected, would nearly ex-
tinguish the revolutionary party; and
the Directory were aware that the
transition was easy for regicides, as the
greater part of them were, from the
Luxembourg to the scaffold.
|
42. In this extremity, the majority | ton, who was the leader of their party.
native land. The clergy returned in
still greater numbers, and were received
with transports of joy by their faithful
flocks, especially in the western depart-
ments, who for four years had been
deprived of all the ordinances and con-
solations of religion. Again the infants
were baptised; the sick visited; the
nuptial benediction pronounced by con-
secrated lips; and the last rites per-
formed over the remains of the faithful.
On this, as on other occasions,
ever, the energy of the royalists con-
sisted rather in words than in actions.
They avowed too openly the extent of
their hopes not to awaken the vigilance
of the revolutionary party; and spoke
themselves into the belief that their
strength was irresistible, without tak-
ing any steps to render it so, and when
their adversaries were silently prepar-
ing the means of overturning it.
1797.]
89
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
43. Barras and Hoche kept up an
active correspondence with Napoleon,
whose co-operation was of so much im-
portance to secure the success of their
enterprise. He was strongly urged by
the Directory to come to Paris and
support the government; while, on the
other hand, his intimate friends advised
him to proceed there, and proclaiming order of the day to his troops :-"Sol-
himself dictator, as he afterwards did diers! This is the anniversary of the
on his return from Egypt. That he 14th July. You see before you the
hesitated whether he should not, even names of your companions in arms,
at that period, follow the footsteps of who have died on the field of battle for
Cæsar, is avowed by himself; but he the liberty of their country: they have
judged, probably wisely, that the period given you an example; you owe your-
had not arrived for putting such a de-selves to your country; you are devoted
sign in execution, and that the miseries to the prosperity of thirty millions of
of a republic had not yet been suffi- Frenchmen, to the glory of that name
ciently experienced to insure the suc- which has received such additional lus-
cess of an enterprise destined for its tre from your victories. I know that
overthrow. He was resolved, however, you are profoundly affected at the mis-
to support the Directory, both because fortunes which threaten your country;
he was aware that the opposite party but it is not in any real danger. The
had determined upon his dismissal, same men who have caused it to triumph
from an apprehension of the dangers over Europe in arms, are ready. Moun-
which he might occasion to public free- tains separate us from France. You
dom, and because their principles, being will cross them with the rapidity of the
those of moderation and peace, were eagle, if it be necessary, to maintain the
little likely to favour his ambitious pro- constitution, to defend liberty, to pro-
jects. Early, therefore, in spring 1797, tect the government of the republicans.
he sent his aide-de-camp, Lavalette, Soldiers! the government watches over
who afterwards acquired a painful cele- the sacred deposit of the laws which it
brity in the history of the Restoration, has received. From the instant that
to Paris, to observe the motions of the the royalists show themselves, they have
parties, and communicate to him the ceased to exist. Have no fears of the
earliest intelligence; and afterwards result-and swear by the manes of the
despatched Augereau, a general of de- heroes who have died amongst us in
cided character, and of known revo- defence of freedom, swear on our stan-
lutionary principles, to that city to dards, eternal war to the enemies of
support the government. He declined the Republic and of the constitution.”
coming to the capital himself, being 45. This proclamation proved extreme-
unwilling to sully his hands, and risk ly serviceable to the Directory. The
his reputation, by a second victory over flame spread from rank to rank through
its inhabitants. But he had made his the whole army; addresses, breathing
arrangements so that, in the event of the most vehement republican spirit,
the Directory being defeated, he should, were voted by all the regiments and
five days after receiving intelligence of squadrons of the army, and transmitted
the disaster, make his entry into Lyons to the government and the Councils,
at the head of twenty thousand men, with the signatures attached to them.
and, rallying the republicans every- Many of these productions breathed
where to his standard, advance to Paris the extreme rancour of the Jacobin
-passing thus, like another Cæsar, the spirit. That of the 29th demi-brigade
Rubicon at the head of the popular commenced with these words :-"Of
party.
all the animals produced by the caprice
of nature, the vilest is a king, the most
44. But though Napoleon kept aloof
VOL. IV.
G
himself, he was not the less determined
to support the Directory and republican
government. To awaken the republican
ardour of the soldiers, and strike terror
into the royalists in the capital, he cele-
brated the anniversary of the taking of
the Bastile on 14th July, by a fête, on
which occasion he addressed the follow-
T

·
90
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE:
י'
ble, royalists!" said they; "from the
Adige to the Seine is but a step-trem-
ble! Your iniquities are numbered,
and their reward is at the point of our
bayonets." "It is with indignation,"
said the staff of the Italian army, "that
we have seen the intrigues of royalty
menace the fabric of liberty. We have
sworn, by the names of the heroes who
died for their country, implacable war
against royalty and royalists. These
are our sentiments; these are yours;
these are those of the country. Let
the royalists show themselves; they
have ceased to live." Other addresses,
in a similar strain, flowed in from the
armies of the Rhine and the Moselle;
it was soon evident that the people had
chosen for themselves their masters,
and that, under the name of freedom,
a military despotism was about to be
established. The Directory encouraged
and published all the addresses, which
produced a powerful impression on the
public mind. The Councils loudly ex-
claimed against these menacing declar-
ations by armed men; but government,
as their only reply, drew still nearer to
Paris the twelve thousand men who had
been brought from Hoche's army, and
placed them at Versailles, Meudon, and
Vincennes.
cowardly is a courtier, the worst is a rectory themselves, their friends, and
priest. If the scoundrels who disturb the people of France, from this blind
France are not crushed by the forces stifling of the public voice by the threats
you possess, call to your aid the 29th of the armies. In prophetic strains he
demi-brigade; it will soon discomfit all announced the commencement of a
your enemies; Chouans, English, all reign of blood, which would be closed
will take to flight. We will pursue our by the despotism of the sword. This
unworthy citizens even into the cham- discourse, pronounced in an intrepid
bers of their worthy patron George accent, recalled to mind those periods
III., and the club of Clichy will undergo of feudal tyranny, when the victims of
the fate of that of Rency." Augereau oppression appealed from the kings or
brought with him the addresses of the pontiffs, who were about to stifle their
soldiers of the Italian army. "Trem-voice, to the justice of God, and sum-
moned their accusers to answer at His
dread tribunal for their earthly in-
justice. At the club of Clichy, Jour-
dan, Vaublanc, and Willot, strongly
urged the necessity of adopting deci-
sive measures.
"that sive measures. They proposed to de-
cree the arrest of Barras, Rewbell, and
La Révellière; to summon Carnot and
Barthélemy to the legislative body;
and if they refused to obey, to sound
the tocsin, march at the head of the
old sectionaries against the Directory,
and appoint Pichegru the commander
of the "legal insurrection." That great
general supported this energetic course
by his weight and authority; but the
majority, overborne, as the friends of
order and freedom often are in revolu-
tionary convulsions, by their scruples of
conscience, or their inherent timidity,
decided against taking the lead in acts
of violence, and resolved only to decree
the immediate organisation of the na-
tional guard under the command of
Pichegru. "Let us leave to the Di-
rectory," said they, "all the odium of
beginning violence." Sage advice, if
they had been combating an enemy,
or lived in an age, capable of being
swayed by considerations of justice;
but fatal in the presence of enterprising
ambition, supported by the weight of
military power.
47. The actual force at the command
of the Councils was extremely small.
Their body-guard consisted only of fif-
teen hundred grenadiers, who could
not be relied on, as the event soon
proved, in a contest with their brethren
in arms; the national guard was dis-
banded, and without a rallying point;
the royalists were scattered, and des-
titute of organisation. They had placed
46. The party against whom these
formidable preparations were directed,
was strong in numbers and powerful
in eloquence, but totally destitute of
that reckless hardihood and fearless
vigour which, in civil convulsions, is
usually found to command success.
Tronçon-Ducoudray, in the Council of
the Ancients, drew, in strong and som-
bre colours, a picture of the conse-
quences which would ensue to the Di-
1797.]
91
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
|
their little guard under the orders of | garden of the Tuileries, surrounded the
their own officers; and on the 17th hall of the Councils, arrested Pichegru,
Fructidor, when both Councils had de- Willot, and twelve other leaders of the
creed the organisation of the national Assemblies, and conducted them to the
guard under Pichegru, this was to have Temple. The members of the Coun-
been followed, on the next day, by a cils, who hurried in confusion to the
decree, directing the removal of the spot, were seized and imprisoned by
troops from the neighbourhood of Paris. the soldiers. Those who were previ-
But a sense of their weakness in such ously aware of the plot, met by ap-
a strife filled every breast with gloomy pointment in the Odéon and the School
presentiments. Pichegru alone retained of Medicine, near the Luxembourg,
his wonted firmness and serenity of where they gave themselves out, though
mind. The Directory, on the other a small minority, for the Legislative
hand, had recourse to immediate vio- Assemblies of France. Barthélemy was
lence. They appointed Augereau, no- at the same time arrested by a body of
torious for his democratic principles, troops despatched by Augereau, and
decision of character, and rudeness of Carnot only avoided the same fate by
manners, to the command of the 17th making his escape, almost without cloth-
military division, comprehending the ing, by a back door. By six o'clock in
environs of Paris, and that city. In the morning all was concluded. Sev-
the night of the 17th Fructidor (Sep-eral hundred of the most powerful of
tember 3) they moved all the troops in the party of the Councils were in pri-
the neighbourhood into the capital, son; and the people, wakening from
and the inhabitants at midnight be- their sleep, found the streets filled with
held, with breathless anxiety, twelve troops, the walls covered with procla-
thousand armed men defile in silence mations, and military despotism es-
over the bridges, with forty pieces of tablished.
cannon, and occupy all the avenues to
the Tuileries. Not a sound was to be
heard but the marching of the men,
and the rolling of the artillery, till the
Tuileries were surrounded, when a
signal gun was discharged, which made
every heart that heard it throb with
agitation.
48. Instantly the troops approached
the gates, and commanded them to be
thrown open.
Murmurs arose among
the guard of the Councils; "We are
not Swiss,” exclaimed some. "We were
wounded by the Royalists on the 13th
Vendémiaire," rejoined others. Ramel,
their faithful commander, who had
ceived intelligence of the coup d'état
which was approaching, had eight hun-
dred men stationed at the entrances of
the palace, and the remainder drawn
up in order of battle in the court; the
railings were closed, and every prepara-
tion was made for resistance. But no
sooner did the staff of Augereau appear
49. The first object of the Directory
was, to produce an impression on the
public mind unfavourable to the major-
ity of the Councils whom they had over-
turned. For this purpose, they covered
the streets of Paris early in the morn-
ing with proclamations, in which they
announced the discovery and defeat of
a Royalist plot, the treason of Pichegru,
and many members of the Councils, and
that the Luxembourg had been attacked
by them during the night. At the same
time, they published a letter of General
Moreau, in which the correspondence of
Pichegru with the emigrant princes was
re-proclaimed, and a letter from the Prince
of Condé to Imbert, one of the Ancients.
The streets were filled with crowds, who
read in silence the placards. Mere spec-
tators of a strife in which they had taken
no part, they testified neither joy nor
sorrow at the event. A few detached
groups, issuing from the faubourgs, tra-
versed the streets, exclaiming, "Vive
|
at the gates, than the soldiers of Ramella République! Abas les aristocrates!"
exclaimed, “Vive Augereau! Vive le But the people in general were as pas-
Directoire !" and, seizing their com- sive as in a despotic state. The minor-
mander, delivered him over to the as-ity of the Councils, who were in the in-
sailants. Augereau now traversed the terest of the Directory, continued their
KATE
!
92
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
*
ཀ
F
1
rising the continuance of the troops in
Paris.
meetings in the Odéon and the School
of Medicine; but their inconsiderable
numbers demonstrated so clearly the
violence done to the constitution, that
they did not venture on any resolution
at their first sitting, except one autho-ed, and you may at once proclaim to
the friends of their country that the
hour of royalty has struck. But if, as
50. On the following day the Direc- they believe, you recoil with horror
tory sent them a message in these terms: from that idea, seize the passing mo-
"The 18th Fructidor should have ment, become the liberators of your
saved the Republic and its real repre- country, and secure for ever its prosper-
sentatives. Have you not observed yes-ity and glory." This pressing message
terday the tranquillity of the people, and sufficiently demonstrates the need which
their joy? This is the 19th, and the the Directory felt of some legislative
people ask, Where is the Republic; and authority to sanction their dictatorial
what have the legislative body done to proceedings. The remnant of the Coun-
consolidate it? The eyes of the coun- cils yielded to necessity; a council of
try are fixed upon you; the decisive five was appointed, with instructions to
moment has come. If you hesitate in prepare a law of public safety; and that
the measures you are to adopt, if you proved a decree of ostracism, which con-
delay a minute in declaring yourselves, demned to transportation many of the
it is all over both with yourselves and noblest citizens of France.
the Republic. The conspirators have
watched while you were slumbering;
your silence restored their audacity;
they misled public opinion by infamous
libels, while the journalists of the Bour-
bons and London never ceased to dis-
tribute their poisons. The conspira-portation to Guiana, Carnot, Barthé-
tors already speak of punishing the Re- lemy, Pichegru, Camille-Jourdan, Tron-
publicans for the triumph which they çon-Ducoudray, Henry Larivière, Im-
have commenced; and can you hesitate bert, Boissy d'Anglas, Willot, Cochon,
to purge the soil of France of that small Ramel, Murinais, and fifty other mem-
body of Royalists, who are only waiting bers of the legislative body. Merlin
for the moment to tear in pieces the and François de Neufchateau were
Republic, and to devour yourselves? named Directors, in lieu of those who
You are on the edge of a volcano; it is were exiled. The Directory carried on
about to swallow you up; you have it the government thereafter by the mere
in your power to close it, and yet you force of military power, without even
deliberate! To-morrow it will be too the shadow of legal authority; the places
late; the slightest indecision would now of the expelled deputies were not filled
ruin the Republic. You will be told of up, but the assemblies left in their mu-
principles, of delays, of the pity due to tilated state, without either considera-
individuals; but how false would be the tion or independence. Three men, with-
principles, how ruinous the delays, how out the aid of historical recollections,
misplaced the pity, which should mis- without the lustre of victory, took upon
lead the legislative body from its duty themselves to govern France on their
to the Republic! The Directory have own account, without either the sup-
devoted themselves to put in your hands port of the law or the co-operation of
the means of saving France; but it was legal assemblies. Their public acts soon
entitled to expect that you would not became as violent as the origin of their
hesitate to seize them. They believed power had been illegal. The revolu-
that you were sincerely attached to free- tionary laws against the priests and the
dom and the Republic, and that you emigrants were revived; and ere long
would not be afraid of the consequences the whole of those persons who had
51. Following the recommendation
of that committee, the Councils, by a
stretch of arbitrary power, annulled the
elections of forty-eight departments,
which formed a majority of the legis-
lative bodies, and condemned to trans-
|
of that first step. If the friends of kings
find in you their protectors-if slaves
excite your sympathy-if you delay an
instant-it is all over with the liberty
of France; the constitution is overturn-

1797.]
93
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
learned it from my own experience, that
republicans were so much so as they
proved to me.'
""
52. The next step of the Dictators
was to extinguish the liberty of the
press. For this purpose a second pro-
scription was published, which included
the authors, editors, printers, and con-
tributors to forty-two journals. As
eight or ten persons were included in
the devoted number for each journal,
this act of despotism embraced nearly
four hundred individuals, among whom
was to be found all the literary genius
of France. Laharpe, Fontanes, and
Sicard, though spared by the assassins
of the 2d September, were struck by
this despotic act, as were Michaud and
Lacretelle, the latter of whom composed,
during a captivity of two years, his ad-
mirable history of the religious wars in
France. At the same time the press
was subjected to the censorship of the
police; while the punishment of exiled
priests, found in the territory of France,
was extended to transportation to Gui-
ana-a penalty worse than death itself.
From the multitude of their captives,
the Directory selected fifteen, upon
whom the full rigour of transportation
should be inflicted. These were Barthé-
lemy, Pichegru, Willot, Rovère, Aubry,
Bourdon de l'Oise, Murinais, de la Rue,
Ramel, d'Ossonville, Tronçon-Ducou-
dray, Barbé-Marbois, Lafond-Ladebat,
(though the three last were sincere Re-
publicans), Brottier, and Laville-Heur-ily proved fatal to the greater nuinber
nois. Their number was augmented to of the unhappy exiles. Pichegru sur-
sixteen by the devotion of Letellier, vived the dangers, and was placed in a
servant of Barthélemy, who insisted hut adjoining that of Billaud Varennes
upon following his master. Carnot was and Collot d'Herbois, whom, after the
only saved from the same fate by having fall of Robespierre, he had arrested by
escaped to Geneva. "In the Directory,' orders of the Convention; a singular
says he, "I had contributed to save the instance of the instability of fortune
Republic from many dangers; the pro- amidst revolutionary changes.
scription of the 18th Fructidor was my
reward. Iknew well that republics were
ungrateful; but I did not know, till I
ruled in the departments since the fall |
of Robespierre, were either banished or
dispossessed of their authority. The
Revolution of the 18th Fructidor was 53. The transported victims were con-
not, like the victory of the 13th Vendé-veyed, amidst the execrations of the Ja-
miarie, confined to the capital; it ex- cobin mob, to Rochefort, from whence
tended to the whole departments, re- they were sent to Guiana. Before em-
vived everywhere the Jacobin ascen- barking, they received a touching proof
dancy, and subjected the people over all of sympathy in the gift of 80,000 francs,
France to the rule of the army and the by the widow of an illustrious scientific
revolutionary leaders.
character, who had been one of the ear-
liest victims of the Revolution. On the
road they were lodged in the jails as
common felons. During the voyage
they underwent every species of horror;
cooped up in the hold of a small vessel,
under a tropical sun, they were subject-
ed to all the sufferings of a slave-ship.
No sooner were they landed, than they
were almost all seized with the fevers
of the climate, and owed their lives to
the heroic devotion of the Sisters of
Charity, who, on that pestilential shore,
exercised the never-failing beneficence
of their religion. Murinais, one of the
Council of the Ancients, died, shortly
after arriving at the place of their settle-
ment, at Sinamari. Tronçon-Ducou-
dray pronounced a funeral oration over
his remains, which his fellow-exiles in-
terred with their own hands, from the
words, "By the waters of Babylon we
sat down and wept." Soon after, the
eloquent panegyrist himself expired.
He calmly breathed his last, rejoicing
on that distant shore that he had been
faithful in his duty to the royal family.
"It is nothing new to me," said he, "to
see suffering and learn how it can be
borne. I have seen the Queen at the
Conciergerie." The hardships of the
life to which they were there subjected,
the diseases of that pestilential climate,
and the heats of a tropical sun, speed-
54. Pichegru, Willot, Barthélemy,
Aubry, Ramel, and d'Ossonville, with
the faithful Letellier, their voluntary
"
J.
#
:
94
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
>
penalties if they remained, was adopted
by the Councils. Two hundred thou-
sand persons at once fell under the lash
of these severe enactments; their effect
upon France was to the last degree
"that memor-
disastrous. Then came
able and awful emigration," says Sir
James Mackintosh, "when all the pro-
prietors and magistrates of the greatest
civilised country of Europe were driven
from their homes by the daggers of
assassins; when our shores were covered,
as with the wreck of a great tempest,
with old men, women, and children,
and ministers of religion, who fled be-
fore the ferocity of their countrymen as
before an army of invading barbarians.”*
The miserable emigrants fled a second
time in crowds from the country, of
which they were beginning to taste the
sweets; and society, which was reviv-
ing from the horrors of the Jacobin
sway, was again prostrated under its
fury. They carried with them to fo-
reign lands that strong and inextinguish-
able hatred at republican cruelty which
their own wrongs had excited, and
mingling in society everywhere, both
on the Continent and in the British
Isles, counteracted in the most powerful
manner the enthusiasm in favour of
democratic principles, and contributed
not a little to the formation of that
powerful league which ultimately led
to the overthrow of the Republican
re-power. Finally, the Councils openly
avowed a national bankruptcy; they
cut off for ever, as will soon appear, two-
thirds of the national debt of France,
closing thus a sanguinary revolution by
the extinction of freedom, the banish-
ment of virtue, and the violation of
public faith.
56. The revolution of the 18th Fruc-
had been concerted between Na-
poleon and Barras long before it took
place; the former was the real author.
of this catastrophe, and this is admitted
even by his warmest admirers. Auger-
eau informed him, a month before, that
he had opened to the Directory the de-
signs of the revolutionarty party; that.
he had been named governor of Paris;
and that the dismissal of all the civil
and military authorities was fixed on,
* MACKINTOSH's Works, iii. 243.
companion in exile, contrived, some
months after, to make their escape;
and after undergoing extreme hardships,
and traversing almost impervious for-
ests, succeeded in reaching the beach,
from whence they were conveyed to
Surinam in an open canoe. Aubry and
Letellier perished, but the remainder
reached England in safety. The Abbé
Brottier, Bourdon de l'Oise, and Rovère,
the two latter illustrious from their
services on the 9th Thermidor, sank
under their sufferings at Sinamari. The
wife of Rovère, a young and beautiful
woman, who had signalised herself, like
Madame Tallien, by her generous efforts
at the fall of Robespierre on behalf of
humanity, solicited, and obtained from
the Directory, permission to join her
husband in exile; but before she landed
in that pestilential region, he had breath-
ed his last. Several hundreds of the
clergy, victims of their fidelity to the
faith of their fathers, arrived in these
regions of death; but they almost all
perished within a few months after their
landing, exhibiting the constancy of
martyrs on that distant shore, while the
hyms of the new worship were sung in
France by crowds of abandoned women,
and the satellites of Jacobin ferocity.
The strong minds and robust frames
of Barbé-Marbois, and Lafond-Ladebat,
alone survived the sufferings of two
years; and these, with eight of the tran-
sported priests, were all who were
called to France by the humane inter-
position of Napoleon when he assumed
the reins of power.
55. Meanwhile the Directory pur-
sued with vigour its despotic course in
France. A large proportion of the
judges in the supreme courts were dis-
missed; the institution of juries was
abolished; and a new and more rigor-tidor
ous law provided for the banishment of
the nobles and priests. It was proposed
that those who disobeyed or evaded its
enactment, should become liable to
transportation to Guiana; the wives
and daughters of the nobles who were
married were not exempted from this
enactment, unless they divorced their
husbands, and married citizens of ple-
beian birth. But a more lenient law,
which only subjected them to additional
1797.]
95
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
Lavalette made him acquainted daily | spleen which appeared in the choice of
with the progress of the intrigue in the their victims, would alienate public
capital. The former was sent by him opinion, and run an imminent risk of
to aid in carrying it into execution.* bringing back the odious Jacobin rule.
Napoleon was accordingly transported
with joy when he received intelligence
of the success of the enterprise. But
these feelings were speedily changed
into discontent at the accounts of the
use which the government was making
of its victory. He easily perceived that
the excessive severity which they em-
ployed, and the indulgence of private
57. He has expressed in his Memoirs
the strongest opinion on this subject.
"It might have been right," says he,
"to deprive Carnot, Barthélemy, and
the fifty deputies, of their appointments,
and put them under surveillance in
some cities in the interior; Pichegru,
Willot, Imbert, Cochon, and one or
two others, might justly have expiated
He
* On the 24th June 1797, the majority of Carnot pretended that Napoleon was in too
the Directory wrote to Napoleon, unknown advantageous a situation, when he signed the
to Barthélemy and Carnot:-"We have re- preliminaries, to be obliged to agree to con-
ceived, citizen-general, with extreme satis-ditions by which he could not abide in the
faction, the marked proofs of devotion to the end. Barras defended Buonaparte, and said
cause of freedom which you have recently to Carnot-'You are nothing but a vile mis-
given. You may rely on the most entire re- creant; you have sold the Republic, and you
ciprocity on our parts. We accept with plea- wish to murder those who defend it, infa-
sure the offers you have made to fly to the mous scoundrel!' Carnot answered, with an
support of the Republic." On the 22d July, embarrassed air-'I despise your insinua-
Lavalette wrote to Napoleon:-"This morn- tions; but one day I shall answer them !'"
ing I have seen Barras. He appeared strong- Augereau wrote on the 12th August to Na-
ly excited at what had passed. He made no poleon:-"Things remain much in the same
attempt to conceal the division in the Direc- state; the Clichiens have resumed their va-
tory. 'We shall hold firm,' said he to me; cillating and uncertain policy; they do not
and, if we are denounced by the Councils, count so much as heretofore on Carnot, and
then we shall mount on horseback.'
openly complain of the weakness of Pichegru.
frequently repeated that, in their present The agitation of these gentlemen is extreme;
crisis, money would be of incalculable im- for my part, I observe them, and keep inces-
portance. I made to him your proposition, santly stimulating the Directory, for the de-
which he accepted with transport." Barras, cisive moment has evidently arrived, and they
on his part, on the 23d July, wrote to Napo- see that as well as I do. Nothing is more cer-
leon-"No delay. Consider well, that it is tain than that, if the public mind is not es-
by the aid of money alone that I can accom-sentially changed before the approaching elec-
plish your generous intentions." Lavalette tions, everything is lost, and a civil war re-
wrote on the same day to Napoleon-"Your mains our only resource." On the 31st Au-
proposition has been brought on the tapis gust, Lavalette informed him, "At length
between Barras, Rewbell, and La Révellière. the movement so long expected is about to
All are agreed that without money we cannot take place. To-morrow night the Directory
surmount the crisis. They confidently hope will arrest fifteen or twenty deputies; I pre-
that you will send large sums. On the 28thsume there will be no resistance.
And on
July, Lavalette again wrote to him-"The mi- the 3d September, Augereau wrote to him—
nority of the Directory still cling to hopes of "At last, general, my mission is accomplished!
an accommodation: the majority will perish the promises of the Army of Italy have been
rather than make any further concessions. It kept last night. The Directory was at length
sees clearly the abyss which is opening beneath induced to act with vigour. At midnight I
its feet Such, however, is the fatal destiny put all the troops in motion; before daybreak
of Carnot, or the weakness of his character, all the bridges and principal points in the city
that he has now become one of the pillars of were occupied, the legislature surrounded,
the monarchical party, as he was of the Jaco- and the members, whose names are enclosed,
bins. He wishes to temporise." On the 3d | arrested and sent to the Temple. Carnot has
August-"Everything here remains in the disappeared. Paris regards the crisis only as
same state: great preparations for an attack a fête; the robust patriotic workmen of the
by the Council of Five Hundred; correspond-faubourgs loudly proclaim the salvation of
ing measures of defence by the Directory. the Republic." Finally, on the 23d Septem-
Barras says openly, 'I am only waiting for ber 1797, Napoleon wrote in the following
the decree of accusation to mount on horse- terms to Augereau: "The whole army ap-
back, and speedily their heads will roll in plauds the wisdom and energy which you
the gutter.' On the 16th August, Lavalette have displayed in this crisis, and has rejoiced
wrote to Napoleon these remarkable words sincerely at the success of the patriots. It is
"At last I have torn away the veil this only to be hoped now that moderation and
morning from the Directory. Only attend wisdom will guide your steps; that is the most
to what Barras told me yesterday evening. ardent wish of my heart."-BOURRIENNE, i.
The subject was the negotiations in Italy. 235, 250, 266; HARD. iv. 508, 518.
"
> ""
96
[CHAP. XXIV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
their treason on the scaffold; but to
see men of great talent, such as Portalis,
Tronçon-Ducoudray, Fontanes; tried
patriots, such as Boissy d'Anglas, Dum-
olard, Murinais; supreme magistrates,
such as Carnot and Barthélemy, con-
demned, without either trial or accusa-
tion, to perish in the marshes of Sina-
mari, was frightful. What! to punish
with transportation a number of writers
of pamphlets, who deserved only con-
tempt and a trifling correction, was to
renew the proscriptions of the Roman
triumvirs; it was to act more cruelly
than Fouquier-Tinville, since he at
least put the accused on their trial, and
condemned them only to death. All
the armies, all the people, were for a
republic; state necessity could not be
alleged in favour of so revolting an in-
justice, so flagrant a violation of the
laws and rights of the citizens."
perse them by force. Such a catas-
trophe is, in an especial manner, to be
looked for when a nation is emerging
from revolutionary convulsions; as so
many individuals are there implicated
by their crimes in supporting the revo-
lutionary regime, and a return to moder-
ate or legal measures is so much the more
dreaded, from the retribution which
they may occasion to past delinquents.
59. Though France suffered extreme-
ly from the usurpation which over-
threw its electoral government, and
substituted the empire of force for the
chimeras of democracy, there seems no
reason to believe that a more just or
equitable government could at that
period have been substituted in its
room. The party of the Councils,
though formidable from its union and
its abilities, was composed of such hete-
rogeneous materials, that it could not
by possibility have held together if the
external danger of the Directory had
been removed. Pichegru, Imbert, Brot-
tier, and others, were in constant cor-
respondence with the exiled princes,
and aimed at the restoration of a con-
stitutional throne. Carnot, Rovère,
Bourdon de l'Oise, and the majority
of the Club of Clichy, were sincerely
attached to republican institutions. Dis-
sension was inevitable between parties
of such opposite principles, when they
had once prevailed over their immedi-
ate enemies. The nation was not then
in the state to settle down under a con-
ap-stitutional monarchy; it required to be
drained ofits fiery spirits by bloody wars,
and humbled in its pride by national
disaster, before it could submit even for
a brief period to the coercion of passion,
and follow the regular occupations essen-
tial to the duration of real freedom.
58. Independently of the instability
of any government which succeeds to so
stormy a period as that of the Revolu-
tion, the constitution of France under
the Directory contained an inherent
defect, which must sooner or later have
occasioned its fall. This was ably point-
ed out from its very commencement by
Necker, and arose from the complete
separation of the executive from the
legislative power. In constitutional
monarchies, when a difference of opin-
ion on any vital subject arises between
the executive and the legislature, the
obvious mode of arranging it is by a
dissolution of the latter, and a new
peal to the people; and whichever party
the electors incline to, becomes victo-
rious in the strife. But the French
Councils, being altogether independent
of the Directory, and undergoing a
change every two years of a third of
their members, became shortly at vari-
ance with the executive; and the lat-
ter, being composed of ambitious men,
unwilling to resign the power they
had acquired, had no alternative but
60. The 18th Fructidor is the true
era of the commencement of military
despotism in France, and, as such, it is
singularly instructive as to the natural
tendency and just punishment of revo-
to invoke military violence for its sup-lutionary passions. The subsequent
port. This is a matter of vital import- government of the country was but a
ance, and lying at the very foundation succession of illegal usurpations on the
of a mixed government: unless the exe- part of the depositaries of power, in
cutive possesses the power of dissolving, which the people had no share, and by
by legal means, the legislature, the time which their rights were equally invaded,
must inevitably come when it will dis- until tranquillity was restored by the

1797.]
97
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
vigorous hand of Napoleon. The French
have not the excuse, in the loss even of
the name of freedom to their country,
that they yielded to the ascendancy of
an extraordinary man, and bent beneath
the car which banded Europe was un-pire of the sword.”
able to arrest. They were subjected to 61. A long and terrible retribution
tyranny in its worst and most degrad-awaited the sins of this great and guilty
ing form; they yielded, not to the ge- country. Its own passions were made
nius of Napoleon, but to the brutality the ministers of the justice of Heaven;
of Augereau; they submitted in silence its own desires the means of bringing
to proscriptions as odious and arbitrary upon itself a righteous punishment.
as those of the Roman triumvirate; Contemporaneous with the military
they bowed for years to the despotism despotism established by the victory
of men so ignoble, that history has of Augereau, began the foreign con-
hardly preserved their names. Such is quests of Napoleon. His triumphant
the consequence, and the never-failing car rolled over the world, crushing gen-
consequence, of the undue ascendancy erations beneath its wheels; plough-
of democratic power. The French ing, like the chariot of Juggernaut,
people did not fall under this penalty through human flesh; exhausting, in
from any peculiar fickleness or incon- the pursuit of glory, the energies of
stancy of their own; all other nations republican ambition. France was de-
who have adopted the same principles cimated for its cruelty; the snows of
have suffered the same penalties. They Russia, and the hospitals of Germany,
incurred it in consequence of the gene- became the winding-sheet and the grave
ral law of Providence, that guilty pas- of its blood-stained Revolution. Infi-
sion brings upon itself its own punish- delity may discern in this terrific pro-
ment. They fell under the edge of the gress the march of fatalism and the
sword, from the same cause which sub- inevitable course of human affairs; let
jected Rome to the arms of Cæsar, and us discover in it the government of an
England to those of Cromwell. "Con- overruling Providence, punishing the
stitutional government," says the re- sins of a guilty age, extending to na-
publican historian, "is a chimera, at tions, with severe but merciful hand,
the conclusion of a revolution such as the consequences of their transgression,
that of France. It is not under shelter and preparing, in the chastisement of
of legal authority that parties whose present iniquity, the future repentance
passions have been so violently excited and amelioration of the species.
can arrange themselves and repose; a
more vigorous power is required to re-
strain them, to fuse their still burning
elements, and protect them against fo-
reign violence. That power is the em-

CHAPTER XXV.
FROM THE PEACE OF CAMPO FORMIO TO THE RENEWAL OF THE WAR.
OCTOBER 1797-MARCH 1799.
1. THE two great parties into which | rope against its unruly authority. The
the civilised world had been divided partisans of democracy alleged that the
by the French Revolution, entertained whole misfortunes of Europe, and all
different sentiments in regard to the the crimes of France, had arisen from
necessity of the war which had so long the iniquitous coalition of kings to
been waged by the monarchies of Eu- overturn its infant freedom; that, if
98
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
י
its government had been let alone, it the event, would have leaned to the
would neither have stained its hands one or the other, according as their in-
with innocent blood at home, nor pur-terests or their affections led them to
sued plans of aggrandisement abroad; espouse the conservative or the inno-
and that the Republic, relieved from vating order of things. It is fortunate,
the pressure of external danger, and no therefore, for the cause of historic truth,
longer roused by the call of patriotic and the lessons to be drawn from past
duty, would have quietly turned its calamity in future times, that two years
swords into pruning-hooks, and, re- of Continental peace followed the first
nouncing the allurements of foreign six years of this bloody contest, and
conquest, thought only of promoting that the Republican government, re-
the internal felicity of its citizens. The lieved of all grounds of apprehension
aristocratic party, on the other hand, from foreign powers, and placed with
maintained that democracy is in its uncontrolled authority at the head of
very essence, and from necessity, am- the vast population of France, had so
bitious; that its first effect is to ruin fair an opportunity presented of carry-
private enterprise by the spread of ing into effect its alleged pacific in-
monied insecurity, and thus extend, clinations.
in a frightful degree, the misery of the 3. The coalition was broken down and
people, at the very time that it para- destroyed. Spain had not only given
lyses the resources of government; that up the contest, but had engaged in a
the turbulent activity which it calls disastrous maritime war to support the
forth, the energetic courage which it interests of the revolutionary state;
awakens, the latent talent which it de- Flanders was incorporated with its ter-
velops, can find vent only in the enter-ritory, which had no boundaries but
prise of foreign warfare; that, being the Alps, the Rhine, and the Pyrenees;
founded on popular passion, and sup- Holland was converted into an affiliated
ported by the most vehement and enthu- republic; Piedmont was crushed; Lom-
siastic classes in the state, it is driven bardy revolutionised, and its frontier
into external aggression as the only secured by Mantua and the fortified
means of allaying internal discontent; line of the Adige. The Italian powers
that it advances before a devouring were overawed, and had purchased
flame, which, the instant it stops, peace by the most disgraceful submis-
threatens to consume itself; and that, sions; and the Emperor himself had
in the domestic suffering which it en- retired from the strife, and gained the
genders, and the stoppage of pacific temporary safety of his capital by the
industry which necessarily results from cession of a large portion of his domin-
its convulsions, is to be found both a ions. Great Britain alone, firm and
more cogent inducement to foreign con- unsubdued, continued the war, but
quest, and more formidable means for without either any definite military
carrying it on, than either in the am- object, now that the Continent was
bition of kings or the rivalry of their pacified, or the means of shaking the
ministers.
military supremacy which the arms of
France had there acquired, and rather
from the determination of the Directory
to break off the recent negotiations,
than from any inclination on the part
of the British government to prolong,
at an enormous expense, an apparent-
ly hopeless contest. To complete the
means of restoring a lasting peace which
were at the disposal of the French ca-
binet, the military spirit in France it-
self had signally declined with the vast
consumption of human life in the rural
departments during the war; the armies
2. Had the revolutionary war con-
tinued without interruption from its
commencement in 1792 till its conclu-
sion in 1815, it might have been diffi-
cult to have determined which of these
opinions was the better founded. The
ideas of men would probably have been
divided upon them till the end of time;
and to whichever side the philosophic
observer of human events, who traced
the history of democratic societies in
time past, had inclined, the great body
of mankind, who judged merely from
1798.]
99
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
4. The estimates and preparations of
Great Britain for the year 1798 were
suited to the defensive nature of the
war in which she was now to be en-
gaged, the cessation of all foreign sub-
sidies, and the approach of an apparently
interminable struggle to her own shores.
The regular army was fixed at one hun-
dred and nine thousand men, besides
sixty-three thousand militia-a force
amply sufficient to insure the safety of
her extensive dominions, considering
the great protection she received from
her innumerable fleets which guarded
the seas. One hundred and four ships
of the line, and three hundred frigates
and smaller vessels, were put in com-
mission, manned by one hundred thou-
sand seamen. Supplies to the amount
of £25,500,000 were voted, which, with
a supplementary budget brought for
ward on 25th April 1798, in conse-
quence of the expenses occasioned by
the threatened invasion from France,
amounted to £28,450,000—exclusive,
of course, of the charges of the debt
and sinking fund. But, in providing for
these great expenses, Mr Pitt unfolded
an important change in his financial
policy, and made the first step towards
a system of taxation which, although
more burdensome at the moment, is
incomparably less oppressive in the end
than that on which he had previously
proceeded.
were everywhere weakened by deser-ordinary and forced effort was to be
tion; and the most ambitious general made to bring the war at once to a
of the Republic, with its finest army, conclusion by means of foreign alli-
was engaged in a doubtful contest in ances, was unsuitable to the lengthened
Africa, without any means, to all ap- single-handed contest in which the na-
pearance, of ever returning with his tion was at last, to all appearance, en-
troops to the scene of European ambi-gaged; that the great object now should
tion. Now, therefore, was the time be, to make the sum raised within the
when the alleged pacific tendency of year as nearly as possible equal its
the revolutionary system was to be put expenditure, so as to entail no bur-
to the test, and it was to be demon- den upon posterity. In pursuance of
strated, by actual experiment, whether these principles, he proposed, instead
its existence was consistent with the of making the loan, as in former
independence of the adjoining states. years, £19,000,000, to make it only
£12,000,000, and raise the additional
£7,000,000 by means of trebling the
assessed taxes on house-windows, car-
riages, and horses. By this means an
addition of only £8,000,000 would be
made to the national debt, because
£4,000,000 would be paid off in the
course of the year by the sinking fund;
and, to pay off this £8,000,000, he pro-
posed to keep on the treble assessed
taxes a year longer; so that, at the ex-
piration of that short period, no part
of the debt then contracted would re-
main a burden on the nation-an ad
mirable plan, and a near approach to
the only safe system of finance that
of making the taxes raised within the
year equal its expenditure-but one
which was speedily abandoned amidst
the necessities and improvidence of
succeeding years.
|
6. The same period gave birth to an-
other great change in the military policy
of Great Britain, fraught in its ultimate
results with most important effects,
both upon the turn of the public mind,
and the final issue of the war. This
was the Volunteer System, and the gen-
eral arming of the people. During
the uncertainty which prevailed as to
the destination of the great armaments
preparing both in the harbours of the
Channel and the Mediterranean, the
British government naturally felt the
5. He stated, that the time had now
arrived when the policy hitherto pur-
sued, of providing for all extraordinary
expenses by loan, could not be carried
farther without evident danger to pub-
lic credit; that such a system, however
applicable to a period when an extra-exchequer bills.
* Even in that very year it was, to a cer-
taxes produced only £4,500,000, instead of
tain degree, broken in upon. The assessed
£9,000,000, as was expected; and the expenses
having increased to £3,000,000 beyond the
estimates, the loan was augmented to
land, besides £3,000,000 raised by means of
£15,000,000, exclusive of £2,000,000 for Ire-
#.
E
.
100
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXV.
greatest anxiety as to the means of pro- | hold commissions in the army without
viding for the national defence, with- vacating their seats. I am well aware
out incurring a ruinous expense by the of the danger of intrusting arms to the
I
augmentation of the regular army. The whole people without distinction.
discipline of that force was admirable, am no stranger to the disaffection, al-
and its courage unquestionable; but beit much diminished, which still lin-
its numbers were limited, and it ap- gers amongst us; I know well that,
peared highly desirable to provide some under the mask of pursuing only salu-
subsidiary body which might furnish tary reforms, many are still intent upon
supplies of men to fill the chasms which bringing about a revolution, and for
might be expected to occur in the that purpose are willing to enter into
troops of the line, in the event of a the closest correspondence with the
campaign taking place on the British avowed enemies of their country. But,
shores. For this purpose the militia, serious as is the danger of intrusting
which, in fact, was part of the regular arms to a people embracing a consider-
force, was obviously insufficient. Its able portion of such characters, it is
officers were drawn from a class from nothing to the risk which we should
whom the most effective military ser- run if, when invaded by the enemy, we
vice was not to expected; and, under were unprepared with any adequate
the pressure of the danger which was means of defence. I trust to the good
anticipated, government, with the cor- sense of the great body of the people
dial approbation of the king, ventured to resist the factious designs of such
upon the bold, but, as it turned out, enemies to their country. I trust that
wise and fortunate step, of allowing re- the patriotism by which the immense
giments of volunteers to be raised in majority of them are animated will pre-
every part of the kingdom. On the clude them from ever using their arms
11th April it was determined by the but for worthy purposes: I trust to
cabinet, in consequence chiefly of the the melancholy example which has been
energetic efforts of Mr Dundas, to take afforded in the neighbouring kingdom
this decisive step; and soon after a bill of the consequences of engaging in po-
was brought into parliament by that pular insurrection, for a warning to all
statesman, as secretary at war, to per- Britons who shall take up arms, never
mit the regular militia to volunteer to to use them but in defence of their
go to Ireland, and to provide for the country, or the support of our vener-
raising of volunteer corps in every part able constitution.'
of the kingdom.
7. The speech which he made on this
occasion was worthy of a British minis-
ter. Not attempting to conceal the
danger which menaced the country, he
sought only to rouse the determined
spirit which might resist it. "The
truth," said he, "is undeniable, that
the crisis which is approaching must
determine whether we are any longer
to be ranked as an independent nation.
We must take the steps which are best
calculated to meet it; let us provide
for the safety of the infirm, the aged,
the women, the children, and put arms
into the hands of the people. We must
fortify the menaced points, accumulate
forces round the capital, affix on the
church doors the names of those who
have come forward as volunteers, and
authorise members of parliament to
Maou
""
8. So obvious was the danger to na-
tional independence from the foreign
invasion which was threatened, that
the bill passed the House without op-
position; and in a few weeks a hun-
dred and fifty thousand volunteers were
in arms in Great Britain. Mr Sheri-
dan, as he always did on similar occa-
sions, made a noble speech in support
of government. Another bill, which
at the same time received the sanction
of parliament, authorised the king,
in the event of an invasion, to call out
the levy en masse of the population,
conferred extraordinary powers upon
lords-lieutenant and generals in com-
mand, for the seizure, on such a crisis,
of horses and carriages, and provided
for the indemnification, at the public
expense, of such persons as might suf-
fer in their properties in consequence
i
1798.]
101
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
of these measures. At the same time, | sedition had once been most prevalent,
the newly raised corps formed so many
centres of loyalty, which gradually ex-
pelled the former disaffection from their
neighbourhood; and to nothing more
than this well-timed and judicious step,
was the subsequent unanimity of the
British empire in the prosecution of
the war to be ascribed. Had it been
earlier adopted, it might have shaken
the foundations of society, and engen-
dered all the horrors of civil war; sub-
sequently it would probably have come
too late to develop the military energy
requisite for success in the contest.
Nor were the effects of this great change
confined only to the British Isles; it
extended to foreign nations and dis-
tant times. It gave the first example
of that touching development of patri-
otic ardour which afterwards burned
so strongly in Spain, Austria, Prussia,
and Russia; and in the British volun-
teers of 1798 was found the model of
those dauntless bands by which, fifteen
years afterwards, the resurrection of the
Fatherland was accomplished.
10. While England was thus reaping
the fruits, in the comparatively pros-
perous state of its finances and the
to guard against the insidious system
of French propagandism, the Alien Bill
was re-enacted, and the suspension of
the Habeas Corpus Act continued for
another year.
The volunteer system
met with perfect success in England,
and brought on none of the evils which
had been so sorely felt from the cor-
responding institution of the national
guards in France. The reason is ob-
vious;-the crisis in England at this
period was national, in France in 1789
it was social. It is in general safe to
intrust arms to the people when their
national feelings are roused: it is al-
ways perilous to do so when their social
passions are excited, and they see their
real or supposed enemies in a particu-
lar class in their own country. The
unanimity of Great Britain, during the
latter period of the war with Napoleon,
is an instance of the first: the convul-
sions of France and Germany, after the
dethronement of Louis Philippe in
1848, an example of the second.
9. The adoption of these measures
indicates an important crisis in the
war-that in which popular energy was
first appealed to, in order to combat
the Revolution; and governments rest-united patriotism of its inhabitants, of
ing on the stubborn evidence of facts, the good faith and stability of its gov-
confidently called upon their sub- ernment, the French tasted, in a ruin-
jects to join with them in resisting a ous and disgraceful national bankrupt-
power which threatened to be equally cy, the natural consequences of undue
destructive to the cottage and the democratic influence and revolutionary
throne. It was a step worthy of Eng- convulsion.
When the new govern-
land, the first-born of modern freedom, ment, established by the revolution of
to put arms into the hands of her peo- the 18th Fructidor, began to attend to
ple, to take the lead in the great con- the administration of the finances,*they
test of general liberty against demo-
cratic tyranny; and the event proved
that the confidence of government had
not been misplaced. In no instance
did the volunteer corps deviate from
their duty; in none did they swerve
from the principles of patriotism and
loyalty which first brought them round
the standard of their country. With
the uniform which they put on, they
cast off all the vacillating or ambiguous
feelings of former years: with the arms
which they received, they imbibed the
firm resolution to defend the cause of
England. Even in the great manufac-
turing towns, and the quarters where
* The most favourable view of the public
revenue, which in the end proved to be
greatly overcharged, only exhibited an in-
come of—
But the expenses of the war were
estimated at
Other services,
Interest of debt,
·
•
Annual deficit,
•
•
283,000,000
247,000,000
258,000,000
Francs.
616,000,000
788,000,000
172,000,000
£7,000,000
Or,
Being just about the same deficit which, in
Revolution.-BUCHEZ and ROUX, Hist. Parl
1789, was made the pretext to justify the
de France, xxxvii. 431, 432.
1
JI
1
L
:
ú
:
102
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.

H
11. The external policy of the Direc-
tory soon evinced that passion for fo-
reign conquest which is the unhappy
characteristic of democratic states, es-
pecially in periods of unusual fervour,
and forms the true vindication of the
obstinate war which was maintained
against France by the European mon-
archs. "The coalition," they contend-
speedily found that, withoutsome great | cible rampart between them and na-
change, and the sacrifice of a large class tional bankruptcy,
of existing interests, it was impossible
to carry on the affairs of the state.
The resources of assignats and man-
dates were exhausted, and nothing re-
mained but to reduce still further the
most helpless class, the public credi-
tors, and by their ruin extricate the
government from its embarrassments.
As the income was calculated at the
very highest possible rate, and the ex-ed, "was less formed against France
than against the principles of the Revo-
lution. Peace, it is true, is signed; but
the hatred which the sovereigns have
vowed against it is not, on that account,
the less active; and the chicanery which
the Emperor and England oppose in
the way of a general pacification, by
showing that they are only waiting an
opportunity for a rupture, demonstrates
the necessity of establishing a just equi-
librium between the monarchical and
the democratic states. Switzerland, that
ancient asylum of liberty, now trampled
under foot by an insolent aristocracy,
cannot long maintain its present govern-
ment without depriving France of a part
of its resources, and of the support which
it would have a right to expect in the
event of the contest being renewed."
Thus the French nation, having thrown
down the gauntlet to all Europe, felt,
in the extremities to which they had
already proceeded,. a motive for still.
further aggressions, and more insatiable-
conquests; obeying thus the moral law
of nature, which, in nations as well as
individuals, renders their career of guilt.
the certain instrument of its own pun-
penditure obviously within its proba-
ble amount, it was evident that some
decisive measure was necessary to make
the one square with the other. For
this purpose, they at once struck off
two-thirds of the debt, and thereby re-
duced its annual charge from 258 millions
to 86. To cover, indeed, the gross injus-
tice of this proceeding, the public cre-
ditors received a paper, secured over
the national domains, to the extent of
the remaining two-thirds, calculated at
twenty years' purchase: but it was at
the time foreseen, what immediately
happened, that, from the total impos-
sibility of these miserable fundholders
turning to any account the national
domains which were thus tendered in
payment of their claims, the paper fell
to a tenth part of the value at which
it was forced on their acceptance, and
soon became altogether unsaleable: so
that the measure was, to all intents
and purposes, a public bankruptcy.
Notwithstanding the enfeebled state of
the legislature by the mutilations which
followed the 18th Fructidor, this mea-
sure excited warm opposition; but at
length the revolutionary party prevail-ishment, by the subsequent and intol-
ed, and it passed both Councils by a erant excesses into which it precipitates
large majority. Yet such had been the its votaries.
abject destitution of the fundholders
for many years, in consequence of the
unparalleled depreciation of the paper
circulation in which they were paid,
that this destruction of two-thirds of
their capital, when accompanied by the
payment of the interest of the remain-
der in specie, was felt rather as a relief
than a misfortune. Such were the
consequences, to the monied interest,
of the Revolution which they had so
strongly supported,, and which they
fondly imagined was to raise an invin-
12. Holland was the first victim of
the Republican ambition. Not content
with having revolutionised that ancient
commonwealth, expelled the Stadthold-
er, and compelled its rulers to enter into
a costly and ruinous war to support the
interests of France, in which they had
performed their engagements with ex-
emplary fidelity, they resolved to sub-
ject its inhabitants to a convulsion of
the same kind as that which had been
terminated in the great parent Repub-
lic by the 18th Fructidor. Since their
+
T
!
1798.]
103
HISTORY OF EUROPE:
conquest by Pichegru, the Dutch had
had ample opportunity to contrast the
ancient and temperate government of
the house of Orange, under which they
had risen to an unexampled height of
prosperity and glory, with the demo-
cratic rule which had been substituted
in its stead. Their trade was ruined,
their navy defeated, their flag swept
from the ocean, and their numerous
merchant vessels lay rotting in their
harbours. A reaction, in consequence,
had become very general in favour of
former institutions; and so strong and
fervent was this feeling that the Na-
tional Assembly, which had met on the
first triumph of the Republicans, had
never ventured to interfere with the se-
parate rights and privileges of the pro-
vinces, as settled by prescription and
the old constitution. The French Di-
rectory beheld with secret disquietude
this leaning to the ancient order of
things, and could not endure that the
old patrician families should, by their
influence in the provincial diets, temper
in any degree the vigour of their cen-
tral democratic government. To arrest
this tendency, they recalled their min-
ister from the Hague, supplied his place
by Delacroix, a man of noted democra-
tic principles, and gave Joubert the
command of the armed force. Their
instructions were to accomplish the
overthrow of the ancient federal consti-
tution, overturn the aristocracy, and
vest the government in a Directory of
democratic principles entirely devoted
to the interests of France.
the Assembly had passed some decrees,
which the democratic party strenuously
resisted, and forty-three of its members,
all of the most violent character, had
protested against their adoption. It
was to this minority that the French
minister addressed himself to procure
the overthrow of the constitution.
14. At a public dinner, Delacroix,
after a number of popular toasts, ex-
claimed, with a glass in his hand, "Is
there no Batavian who will plunge a
poniard into the constitution, on the
altar of his country?" Amidst the
fumes of wine, and the riot of intoxi-
cation, the plan for its overthrow was
soon adopted; and its execution was
fixed for the 22d January. On that
night, the forty-three deputies who had
signed the protest assembled at the
Hotel of Haarlem, and ordered the ar-
rest of twenty-two of the leading depu-
ties of the Orange party, and the six
commissioners of foreign relations. At
the same time the barriers were closed;
the national guard called forth; and
the French troops, headed by Joubert
and. Daendels, intrusted with the exe-
cution of the order. Resistance was
fruitless; before daybreak those arrested
were all in prison; and the remainder
of the Assembly, early in the morning,
met in the hall of their deliberations,
where, surrounded by troops, and under
the dictation of the bayonet, they passed
decrees sanctioning all that had been
done in the night, and introducing a
new form of government on the model
of that already established in France.
By this constitution the privileges of
the provinces were entirely abolished;
the ancient federal union was super-
seded by a Republic, one and indivis-
ible; the provincial authorities were
changed into functionaries wholly de-
pendent on the central government; a
Council of Ancients and a Chamber of
Deputies established, in imitation of
those at Paris; and the executive au-
thority confided to a Directory of five
members, all completely in the interest
of France. The sitting was terminated
by an oath of hatred to the Stadtholder,
the federal system, and the aristocracy;
and ten deputies who refused to take
it, were deprived of their seats on the
|
13. The Dutch Assembly was occu-
pied at this juncture with the forma-
tion of a constitution, all previous at
tempts of that description having proved
miserable failures. The adherents of
the old institutions, who still formed a
majority of the inhabitants, and em:
braced all the wealth and almost all the
respectability of the United Provinces,
had hitherto contrived to baffle the de-
signs of the vehement and indefatigable
minority, who, as in all similar contests,
represented themselves as the only real
representatives of the people, and stig-
matised their opponents as a mere fac:
tion, obstinately opposed to every spe-
cies of improvement. A majority of
S
LAS
104
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
j
-
spot. So completely was the whole
done under the terror of the army, that
some months afterwards, when the
means of intimidation were removed, a
number of deputies who had joined in
these acts of usurpation gave in their
resignation, and protested against the
part they had been compelled to take
in the transaction.
all entirely in the interest of France,
without the slightest regard to the wishes
of, or any pretence even of authority
from, the people. Thus was military
despotism the result of revolutionary
changes in Holland, as it had been in
France, within a few years after they
had been first commenced amidst the
general transports of the lower orders.
15. The inhabitants of Holland soon
discovered that, in the pursuit of demo-
cratic power, they had lost all their an-
cient liberties. The first step of the
new Directory was to issue a proclama-
tion, strictly forbidding, under severe
penalties, all petitions from corporate
bodies or assemblages of men, and de-
claring that none would be received but
from insulated individuals; thereby ex-
tinguishing the national voice in the
only quarter where it could make itself
heard in a serious manner. All the
public functionaries were changed, and
their situations filled by persons of the
Jacobin party; numbers were banished
or proscribed; and, under the pretext
of securing the public tranquillity, do-
miciliary visits and arrests were multi-
plied in the most arbitrary manner.
The individuals suspected of a leaning
to the adverse party were everywhere
deprived of their right of voting in the
primary assemblies; and, finally, to
complete the destruction of all the pri-
vileges of the people, the sitting As-
sembly passed a decree, declaring itself
the legislative body, thereby depriving
the inhabitants of the election of their
representatives. This flagrant usurpa-
tion excited the most violent discon-
tents in the whole country, and the Di-
rectors soon became as obnoxious as
they had formerly been agreeable to the
populace. Alarmed at this state of
matters, and apprehensive lest it should
undermine their influence in Holland,
the French Directory enjoined General
Daendels to take military possession of
the government. He accordingly put
himself at the head of two companies of
grenadiers, and proceeded to the palace
of the Directory, where one member
was seized, while two resigned, and the
other two escaped. A provisional gov-
ernment was immediately formed, con-
sisting of Daendels and two associates,
16. SWITZERLAND was the next object
of the ambition of the Directory. The
seclusion of that beautiful country, its
retirement from all political contests for
above two centuries, the perfect neu-
trality which it had maintained between
all the contending powers since the
commencement of the Revolution, the
indifference which it had evinced to the
massacre of its citizens on the 10th
August, could not save its secluded val-
leys from the devouring ambition of the
Parisian enthusiasts. As little, it must
be owned with regret, could the wisdom
and stability of its institutions, the per-
fect protection which they afforded to
persons and property, the simple char-
acter of its inhabitants, or the steady
prosperity which they had enjoyed for
above five centuries under the influence
of the existing order of things, save
a large proportion of them from the
pernicious contagion of French demo-
cracy.
17. Switzerland, as all the world
knows, comprises the undulating level
surface between the Alps and the Jura,
watered by the lakes of Geneva and
Neufchâtel, and stretching from the
Rhone to the Rhine, as also the great
central mass of mountains which sepa-
rates it from the plain of Lombardy,
and is bounded on the east by the Alps
of the Tyrol, on the west by the Jura.
The great stony girdle of the globe runs
through its whole territory from east
to west, and branches out beyond it to
the Pyrenean range on the one side,
and the Tyrol and Styrian Alps, the
Carpathian Mountains, the ranges of
Epirus and Macedonia, the Caucasus
and Taurus, on the other. The aver-
age height of this mountain range, where
it passes through the Swiss territory,
is ten or eleven thousand feet; but in
some places it rises to an elevation much
1798.]
::
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
105
more considerable, and on the snowy | is allied to moral influences, it springs
summits of Mont Blanc, Mont Rosa, from political blessings. It recalls the
and the Ortler Spitz, reaches above fif- home of infancy, the paradise of youth,
teen thousand feet.
the scene of domestic love, the hearth
of filial affection, the first opening of
life, when its sunshine was still un-
clouded. It bespeaks a country in
which these blessings, the choicest gifts
of Heaven, have been for many ages se-
curely enjoyed by the people; in which
the vices and ambitions of cities have
not yet corrupted those little nurseries
of virtuous feeling; and in which all
the changes of time have not been able
to affect those fountains of happiness
and patriotism which spring at once from
the influences of nature.
20. The most ardent imagination,
fraught with the richest stores of po-
etical imagery, can conceive nothing
approaching to the beauty of the moun-
tain scenery of Switzerland. Presenting
often in a single landscape every gra-
dation of vegetation, from the saxifrages
and mosses which nestle in crevices of
rocks on the verge of perpetual snow,
to the olive, the vine, sometimes even
the orange-tree and citron, which flour-
ish amidst the balmy breezes of the
Mediterranean sea, it exhibits the varied
features which characterise similar lofty
ranges in other parts of the world; but
to them it has added a charm which is
peculiarly its own. This is found in
the number, the industry, and the gen-
eral wellbeing of the peasantry. Much
as this interesting addition to natural
beauty appears in Alpine regions in
many parts of the world, it is nowhere
exhibited in such perfection as among
the mountains of Switzerland. The
universal possession of landed property
by the cultivators has diffused the ef-
forts of industry, and the charm of cul-
tivated scenery, into the wildest recesses
of savage nature. The smiling cottage,
the shaven green, the flowering orchard,
are to be seen on the verge of perpetual
desolation; the glacier bounds the corn-
field; the meadow is carved out of the
rocks—and, by a peculiarity which be-
longs only to Helvetia, the extremes of
sterility and riches, of amenity and
grandeur, of beauty and sublimity, are
brought into close proximity with each
H
18. The level part of Switzerland,
which lies between the Alps and the
Jura, more closely, perhaps, than any
other part of Europe, resembles the
English plains. There are the same
rich and thickly-peopled fields; the
same smooth ever-verdant meadows;
the same prevalence of orchards, gar-
dens, and fruit-trees; the same beau-
tiful hedgerow timber; the same spread
of the cottages of the poor in fearless
security at a distance from the villages.
In Spain, Portugal, the greater part of
France and Germany, and even in the
fertile plains of Lombardy and Belgium,
the peasantry all live in the villages.
The intermediate country, though par-
celled into many different estates or
farms, presents only an unvarying cul-
tivated surface; and the wearied swains
are to be seen in the evening returning
seated on their horses, often four or five
miles from the scene of their daily toil.
Experienced insecurity, arising from
the desolation of foreign wars, or the
weight of internal oppression, has in-
troduced this custom, and compelled
the cultivators, as the only mode of
safety, to take refuge in walled villages
and the shelter of mutual protection.
But in Switzerland, equally with Eng-
land, the long-established blessings of
freedom and universal security of pro-
perty have relaxed this inconvenient
system, which at once adds so much to
the labour of the husbandman and takes
away so much from the beauty of his
fields.
19. This security has diffused the cot-
tages of the agriculturists over the whole
country, in the centre of their little farms
or estates. The wants of their families in
these separate dwellings, or the markets
in the neighbouring towns, have led to
the multiplication of cattle, the forma-
tion of orchards, the tending of gardens,
the enclosing of fields, and the planting
of hedgerow timber. The charm which
an Englishman feels in the contempla-
tion of such scenery is not derived
merely from its inherent amenity; it
VOL. IV.
"
.
106
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXV.
:
sought inspiration amidst the savage
grandeur of its rocks and cataracts; no
Helvetian Claude has dipped his pencil
in the hues of heaven, in portraying its
sunsets. What is still more remarkable,
these enchanting features have never
21. That the inhabitants of Switzer-
land feel, in its full force, the un-inspired the soul of poetry, or attracted
equalled charms of the country of their its powers to their description. Scot-
birth, need be told to none who have land can boast a Scott who has immor-
witnessed the tears which in distant talised its mountains; Ireland, a Moore,
lands any of their beautiful Ranz-des- who has breathed the lyric spirit over
vaches bring into the eyes of the Swiss; its glens; England, a Thomson‡ and
or who know of the maladie du pays, a Cowper, who have portrayed with fer-
which so often in mature life compels vent animation its unobtrusive charms.
those who have strayed from them, in But though the Swiss soil has not been
quest of fortune or subsistence, to re- deficient in the poetic spirit, as the
turn to their native valleys. Yet it is genius of Gessner and Zimmerman can
remarkable, that these exquisite fea- testify, no great works of imagination
tures have never inspired the soul either have been dedicated to the beauty of
of a poet or a painter. No artist has the Alps. Coleridge's noble Ode to
ever transferred to canvass the sun set- Mont Blanc contains more true poetry
ting on the Jungfrauhorn, as seen from on the subject, than the whole German
Interlachen; or the glow of evening on and French literature can boast. Per-
Mont Blanc, as it is daily presented to haps their unequalled grandeur has
the inhabitants of Geneva; or the awful overwhelmed the mind even of the most
sublimity of the Lake of Uri, so well fervent worshippers of wild sublimity;
known to all who have visited the Fo- perhaps the peculiar charms of their
rest Cantons. No Swiss Salvator has scenery, in which, as in all the works
of nature, the most exquisite finishing
in detail is combined with the most
perfect generality of effect, has deterred
others from a difficulty, to be conquered
only by the greatest genius, guiding the
most resolute perseverance, and appar-
ently altogether beyond the reach of the
wealth-seeking spirit of modern art.
other.* "Nooks and dells, beautiful as
fairyland, are embosomed in its most
rugged and gigantic elevations. The
roses and myrtles bloom unchilled on
the verge of the avalanche."+
* Rousseau has described this striking pe-
culiarity of Swiss scenery with the colours of
poetry:-"Tantôt d'immenses roches pen-
daient en ruines au-dessus de ma tête; tantôt
de hautes et bruyantes cascades m'inondaient
de leur épais brouillard; tantôt un torrent
éternel ouvrait, à mes côtés, un abîme dont
les yeux n'osaient sonder la profondeur.
Quelquefois je me perdais dans l'obscurité
d'un bois touffu; quelquefois, en sortant d'un
gouffre, une agréable prairie réjouissait tout-
a-coup mes regards. Un mélange étonnant
de la nature sauvage et de la nature cultivée
montrait partout la main des hommes, où
l'on eût cru qu'ils n'avaient jamais penétré;
à côté d'une caverne on trouvait des maisons;
on voyait des pampres secs où l'on n'eût cher-
ché que des ronces, des vignes dans des terres
éboulées, d'excellents fruits sur des rochers,
et des champs dans des précipices."-Nouvelle
Heloise, Letter xxiii. vol. i. p. 113.
+ "They saw how from the crags and clifts
below
His proud and stately pleasant top grew
out,
And how his sides were clad with frost and
snow;
The height was green with herbs and
flow'rets stout,
Like hairy locks the trees about him grow,
The rocks of ice keep watch and ward
about
The tender roses and the lilies new."
Tasso, Jerusalem Delivered, xv. 46.
22. One great beauty of Switzerland,
as of all countries containing ranges of
mountains of a similar elevation, is to
be found in the different gradations of
vegetable life which are to be met with
from their base to their summit; ex-
hibiting thus, in the distance often of
a few miles, an epitome of all the varie-
ties of scenery, from the borders of the
torrid to those of the frozen zone.
(C
Nature," says Rousseau, "seems there
to take a pleasure in appearing in op-
position to herself, so different are her
features in the same places under dif-
ferent aspects. In the east the flowers
of spring, in the south the fruits of
autumn, to the north the ices of winter.
‡ Thomson was a Scotchman by birth, but
the scenes he describes are chiefly English in
their character.
1798.]
107
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
all climates in one spot. Every kind of
earth is there blended together; and
they form a compound, unknown else-
where, of the productions of the plain
with those of the Alps."* On the south-
ern side of the Alps, on the enchanting
banks of the Italian lakes, nature ap-
pears in her loveliest aspect; the harsher
features of the rocky hills are covered
with an ever-verdant foliage; the vine
and the olive flourish on their smiling
shores; numerous white villages, with
elegant spires, attest both the number
and wellbeing of the inhabitants; and
the unruffled waters reflect at once the
peopled cliffs and unclouded heaven.
Higher up the woody region begins;
huge sweet-chestnuts interlace their
boughs, amidst detached masses of rock;
closely shaven meadows indicate the
commencement of the pastoral zone,
but rich orchards flourish in sheltered
spots, and noble woods of beech, oak,
and birch, still clothe the mountain
sides. The magnificence and variety of
the objects in these elevated regions
dispose the mind to contemplation, and
renew, even in advanced years, the elas-
ticity and buoyancy of youth.
She unites all seasons in one instant, | in the loftier parts frequent streaks of
white indicate, even in the heats of the
dog-days, the approach to the region of
perpetual snow. Highest of all, a silver
mantle of snow is spread over gigantic
piles of bare rock, and sharp pinnacles
of dazzling brightness shoot up into
the deep blue vault of heaven. It never
rains in these lofty regions; the frequent
clouds descend only in snowy showers,
which unceasingly add to the everlast-
ing shroud of the mountain; and when
the mists roll away, and the atmosphere
becomes serene, a fresh covering of vir-
gin purity ever reflects back the bright
but powerless rays of the sun.
23. Above this succeeds the region of
the fir and the larch; the lofty cliffs are
fringed to their summit with pines, the
sombre hue of which contrasts with
their lighter tints; wildness and gran-
deur form the general character of na-
ture; but numerous spires are to be
seen amidst the recesses of the forest,
and wherever a level spot is to be found,
the green meadow and wood-built
tage bespeak the residence of industri-
ous and happy man. Higher still the
woody region disappears; a few stunted
pines alone cast their roots in a sterile
soil; the rocks are interspersed with
cold and desolate pastures, where, dur-at its upper extremity, in the cradle of
ing a few months of summer only, the Swiss independence, is to be seen, in
herds, driven up from the valleys be- the Lake of Uri, the sublimest speci-
neath, find a scanty subsistence; while men of European scenery.
24. Another of the chief natural ·
beauties of Switzerland consists in the
number, variety, and historical recol-
lections of its lakes. First in interest,
though not in romantic beauty, is the
Leman Lake, in whose glassy bosom
the peaks of Mont Blanc and the rocks
of Meillerie are perpetually reflected,
but which derives a yet higher interest.
from the associations with which it is
connected; for there Cæsar began his
great career, and Rousseau dreamt of
ideal innocence, and Voltaire combated
in the cause of humanity,‡ and Gibbon
concluded his immortal work. The
lakes of Neufchâtel and Bienne-of
Thun and Brienz-of Zurich and Zug
-of Constance and of Wallenstätter,
exhibit scenes of varied yet surpassing
loveliness, sometimes spreading amidst
wide and smiling expanses of woods,
villages, and corn-fields, at others con-
tracting into narrow, shut-in scenes, or
cot-overhung by lofty pine-clad cliffs. But
all must yield in varied beauty, savage
grandeur, and historic interest, to the
Lake of Luzern; for on its banks are to.
be found the field of Rütli—the chapel
of Tell-the Plain of Morgarten; and
* Nouvelle Heloise, Letter xxiii.
† Qui non Palazzi, non teatro o loggia
Ma 'n lor vece un abete, un faggio, un
pino
Tral 'erba verde e'l bel monte vicino
Levau di terra al ciel nostro intellette.”
PETRARCH.
25. Although Mount St Gothard is
far from being the highest mountain in
Switzerland, yet it is the central point
of its vast chains, and several of the
greatest rivers of Europe take their rise
Would that he had never combated in
any less worthy cause!
*
1
#
(
t
:
108
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXV.
from its sides.* To the east, the Rhine | in reality this immense mass of moun-
descends down the cold pastoral valley tains, little less, in the Swiss territories
below Disentis, and winds its way alone, than a hundred and fifty miles
through the solitudes of the Grisons to long by eighty to a hundred broad, is
the German plains: on the west, the penetrated over its whole breadth by
Rhone leaps at once a mighty spring three great valleys, running from east
from the huge and glittering glacier to west, athwart the range as it were,
"which bears its name: on the north, and which, if the attention is fixed on
the Reuss descends in a headlong im- them, render its geography a matter
petuous torrent through the valley of of very easy apprehension.
Schollenen to the Lake of Uri, and finds
its way at last, mingled with the Rhine,
to the German Ocean; while to the
south, the Tessino, issuing from the
snowy summit of the pass by which
the traveller crosses into Italy, is ra-
pidly swelled by the torrents from the
adjoining glaciers, forces its way in a
raging torrent through the rocks of
Faido, and is already a noble stream
when it swells into the lovely expanse
of the Lago Maggiore, ere it rolls its
tributary waters to the Po. Thus, in
every contest for the possession of
Switzerland, the principal efforts of the
contending parties have always been
directed to get possession of the St
Gothard; not only from its containing
an important pass over the Alps into
Italy, but from its forming the great
central mountain mass from which the
chief rivers of the country take their
rise, and by the possession of which
their upper valleys may be turned.
26. To those who, for the first time,
come in sight of the Alps, either from
the lofty ridge of the Jura,t the level
expanse of Lombardy, or the swelling
hills of Suabia, they present the appear-
ance of a crowd of rugged and inacces-
sible peaks, tossed together in such wild
confusion, and so closely jammed toge-
ther, as to render it to appearance equal-
ly impossible to attempt to classify, or
to find a passage through them. But
27. The first of these valleys is that
of the Rhone, which, commencing with
the snowy summit of the Furca, the
western front of the St Gothard, runs
nearly due west between lofty ranges
of mountains for seventy miles, in a
valley seldom more than two miles
broad, and then, meeting at Martigny
the eastern ridge of Mont Blanc, turns
sharp to the north, and flows down to
the lake of Geneva. The second is that
of the Rhine, which, descending from
its double source in the glacier of the
Hinter Rhin and the eastern slope of
the St Gothard at Disentis, unites both
streams at Reichenau in the Grisons,
and flows through a broader valley,
sometimes six or seven miles broad,
between the Alps of Glarus and those
of the Grisons, until, after a mountain
course of seventy miles, it spreads out
into the broad expanse of the Lake of
Constance, beyond the utmost verge of
the hills. Thus, these two great val-
leys, uniting in the lofty plateau of the
St Gothard as their common centre,
traverse the whole extent of the Swiss
territory from east to west. The third
great valley of the Alps is that of the
Inn, which, taking its rise in the lofty
and desolate mountains of the Upper
Engadine, in the Grisons, a little to the
south-east of the source of the Hinter
Rhin, runs in a north-eastern direction,
in a valley varying from one to six
miles in breadth, for a distance of nearly
two hundred miles through the moun-
tains, till, after washing the ramparts
of Innspruck, it issues into the Bava-
rian plains under the towers of Kuff-
stein.
|
* Its highest summits are only 11,250 feet
high, whereas Mont Blanc is 15,780 feet,
Mont Rosa 15,585, and the Ortler Spitz, in-
the Grisons, 15,430. The summit of the Pass
of the St Gothard is 6380 feet.-EBEL, Manuel
de Voyages en Suisse, i. 319, and ii. 211, 503.
An inch, it is to be observed, is to be added
to French feet in turning them into English.
+ The view of Mont Blanc and the Alps of
Savoy from the Jura, where the road from
Dole to Geneva traverses its summit, is by
far the finest distant view of the Alps, and, if
seen in a clear day, presents the most superb
panoramic scene in Europe.
28. Generally speaking, the range of
Alps which separates the valleys of the
Rhone from the Italian plains, is higher
than that which intervenes between
them and the level country in the north
1798.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
109
of Switzerland; and, accordingly, all
the passes by which the Alps are crossed
-the St Bernard, the Simplon, the St
Gothard, the Splugen, the Bernhardin,
the Albula, the Monte Selvio, and the
Brenner-lie to the south of these val-
leys. This prodigious snowy range,
comprising Mont Blanc, the Great St
Bernard, Monte Rosa, the St Gothard,
the Ortler Spitz, and the Alps of the
Grisons, is pierced on either side of its
crest by a series of lateral valleys, the
waters of which, to the north, descend
through pine-clad ravines till they are
intercepted by the course of the Rhine
and the Rhone, into which they fall at
right angles; while those to the south,
after traversing narrow vales, oversha-
dowed by rich walnuts and umbrageous
chestnuts, all swell the waters of the
Po. But although this is the great
geographical division of the country,
yet, to the north of the Rhine and
Rhone, some of the most stupendous
and interesting of the Alps, embracing
the Jungfrauhorn, Wetterhorn, Eiger,
and Titlis, are situated; and it is among
their recesses that the cradles of Swiss
independence, and the most interesting
specimens of Swiss civilisation, are to
be found.
29. The noble chaussées, first project-
ed and executed by Napoleon, and since
imitated with such success by the Swiss
and Austrian governments, which now
traverse the Alps by seven different
passes, all easy for carriages,* were at
the period of the French invasion un-
known. One road alone, from Germany
into Italy, viz., that by the Brenner,
the height of which was 4300 feet, was
practicable at all seasons of the year
for artillery carriages; the whole roads
from France into Italy crossed the Alps
by mere mountain-paths, altogether
impracticable for artillery, and in great
part sufficiently difficult for horsemen
or foot-soldiers. Carriages were taken
down before commencing the ascent of
Mont Cenis on the French side, and put
together again at Susa on the Italian;
the passages of the Great and Little St
Bernards were the same rude bridle-
* Viz., the Mont Cenis, the Simplon, the St
Gothard, the Splugen, Bernhardin, the Bren-
ner, and the Monte Selvio.
roads which they had been since the
days of Hannibal; the Simplon could
be passed only by a break-neck path,
ascending the ravine on the northern
side, barely accessible even to active
travellers; the St Gothard was crossed
by a rude mountain-road, impracticable
for artillery; the roads over the Bern-
hardin, the Splugen, the Albula, the
Monte Selvio, were only difficult paths
which horsemen could scarcely sur-
mount, and carriages never thought of
attempting. Thus, although the level
part of Switzerland, lying between the
Jura and the Alps, was wholly defence-
less, and it had no fortresses worthy of
the name to arrest the invader's pro-
gress; yet, when the plain was passed
and the mountains reached, a most
formidable warfare awaited him; for
there were to be found rugged dells,
accessible only by narrow straits im-
practicable for artillery, and a numer-
ous sturdy population of freemen to
defend the homes of simple virtue.
30. In ancient times Helvetia was
inhabited by fierce and savage tribes,
whom all the might of the legions for
long had failed in subduing. Like the
Caucasians or Affghans in modern days,
the inhabitants of the Alps maintained
a rude and savage independence, unmo-
lested in their inaccessible rocks and
thickets, and acknowledging little more
than a nominal subjection to the govern-
ment of the Capitol. In the neighbour-
hood, indeed, of the highways over the
Great St Bernard, Mont Cenis, and the
Brenner, order, as in the vicinity of the
Russian stations on the Caucasus, was
tolerably preserved; but in the remoter
valleys the people were still independ-
ent. It was not till the time of Augus-
tus, that Drusus, by the aid of two
powerful armies, effected the subjuga-
tion of the savage mountaineers of the
Rhætian and Julian Alps, and the son
of the emperor was proud of the trophy
on which the names of four-and-twenty
tribes, subjugated by his arms, were
enumerated. Even under the Emperors
the interior of the mountains was almost
unexplored; the source of the Rhine
was unknown; and in the prevailing
fable that the Rhone took its rise in
the most hidden parts of the earth, be-
1
&
."
动
​7
110
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
.
-;
".
..
tween the pillars of the sun, the modern
traveller recognises with interest refer-
ence to the glittering pile of the glacier
of the Rhone, which, when seen through
the dark pine forests, by which alone it
can be approached from the lower part
of the Valais, might with little effort
of imagination have given rise to that
popular belief.
will doubt it), that wherever you see
a bird-cage in a window, or a flower in
a garden, you are sure the inmates are
wiser and better than their neighbours,
there are few countries in which there
are so many wise and good men as in
Switzerland. In truth, of all the many
charms of that delightful country, there
is none so universal and interesting as
31. It is to the industry and perse- the general wellbeing and comfort of
verance of the Gothic race, who, on the the people. To assert, indeed, that po-
overthrow of the Roman empire, pene-verty is unknown in that land of free-
trated into the Alpine recesses, that dom, is to assert what never has ob-
the first effectual cultivation of the tained, and never will obtain, among
Swiss valleys is to be ascribed. The mankind. Doubtless vice, folly, and
castles of the nobles were generally misfortune produce the same effects
situated at the entrance of the hills, there as elsewhere in the world; and
and they held large portions of the an indigent population, in a territory
level country under their sway; but it so contracted, has in some places arisen
was the indulgent rule and beneficent from the occupation of all the land sus-
activity of the monks and bishops which ceptible of cultivation, and the fluctu-
penetrated the mountain straits, and ations of the manufactures on which a
settled in the narrow glens of Helvetia part of the population has come to de-
a strenuous, peaceable, and industrious pend. But generally speaking, the con-
population. It was Religion which dition of the people is comfortable; in
spread its ægis over these savage wilds, many places, as the Forest Cantons and
and first converted the fierce shepherds the borders of the Lake of Zurich, in
and huntsmen of the Alps into indus- Appenzell and the Pays de Vaud, they
trious and peaceable citizens. At Sion are affluent beyond any other peasantry
and St Maurice in the Valais, St Gall, in Europe. The white-washed cottages,
the Abbey of Einsiedeln, Zurich, Lu- with their green doors and window-
zern, the Abbey of Engelberg, at the shutters, their smiling gardens and
foot of the Titlis, and indeed in every flowering orchards, the well-clad figures
part of the Alps, it was on the ecclesi- of the inhabitants, their frequent herds
astical estates that the first symptoms and flocks, bespeak, in language not to
of agricultural improvement were to be be misunderstood, that general well-
seen, and the first habits of regular in- being which can exist only where land
dustry were acquired. So widely had has been honestly acquired, and vir-
these habits spread, and so considerable tuous habits are generally diffused. So
was the number of strenuous cultiva- dense is the population in some dis-
tors, who had carved out small estates tricts, that in five parishes and two vil-
for themselves out of the forests and lages on the Lake of Zurich there are
rugged slopes of the interior of the only 10,400 acres under cultivation of
mountains, that Switzerland was al- every kind, and 8498 souls-being
ready a country of little proprietors, scarcely an acre and a quarter to each
when the authority of the house of individual. Yet in no part of the world
Austria was thrown off by the efforts is such general comfort conspicuous
of William Tell; and revolution there, among the people-an example, among
as afterwards in America, was deprived the many others which history affords,
of its most dangerous qualities by tak- of the great truth, that it is vice or
ing place among a simple uncorrupted oppression which induces a miserable
people, already for the most part pro- population, and that no danger is to be
prietors of the land which they culti apprehended from the greatest increase
vated.
in the numbers of mankind, if they are
justly governed and influenced by vir
tuous habits.
|
32. If it be true, as has been beauti-
fully said (and few who know mankind
1
1
1798.]
111
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
33. Of all the European governments, | 9600 men. Now, since nine more can-
Switzerland was the one the weight tons have been added by the treaties of
of which was least felt by the people. 1814, the population is 2,188,000, and
Economy, justice, and moderation, were the contingents of armed men amount
the bases of its administration, and the to 33,758 men. Even the largest of
federal union by which the different these numbers must appear Lilliputian
cantons of which it was composed were beside the colossal armies of France
held together, seemed to have no other and Germany, with which they were
object than to secure their common in- environed on all sides; and such as they
dependence. Taxes were almost un- were, they were not regular troops, but
known, property was perfectly secure, militia, which the state was bound only
and the expenses of government were to make forthcoming in the event of
incredibly small. The military strength | a war. A reserve existed, however, of
of the state consisted in the militia of equal strength; and if invaded, Switzer-
the different cantons, which, though land could even at that time bring
formidable, if united and led by chiefs 100,000 militia into the field. The
well skilled in the difficult art of moun- public revenues of the whole confede-
tain warfare, was little qualified to racy now amount only to 14,000,000
maintain a protracted struggle with francs, or £470,000 a-year, and in 1798
the vast forces which the neighbouring the thirteen cantons could not boast of
powers had now brought into the field. more than £260,000. It was neither
The constitutions of the cantons were in its regular army nor its national in-
various. In some, as the Forest Can- come that the strength of the Swiss
tons, they were highly democratic; in Confederacy was to be found, but in
others, as in Berne, essentially aristo- the strength of the country, the courage
cratic: but in all, the great objects of and hardihood of the people, their uni-
government-security to persons and versal acquaintance with the use of
property, freedom in life and religion arms, their unchangeable public spirit,
-were attained, and the aspect of the and the halo of glory which centuries
population exhibited a degree of well- of victory had bequeathed to their
being unparalleled in any other part arms.
of the world. The traveller was never
weary of admiring-on the sunny mar-
gin of the lake of Zurich, on the vine-
clad hills of the Leman sea, in the
smiling fields of Appenzell, in the ro-
mantic valleys of Berne, and the lovely
recesses of Underwalden-the beautiful
cottages, the property of their inhabit-
ants, where industry had accumulated
its fruits, and art often spread its ele-
gancies, and virtue ever diffused its
contentment; and where, amidst the
savage magnificence of nature, a nearer
approach appeared to have been made
to the simplicity of the golden age than
in any other quarter of the civilised
globe.
34. The physical resources of Switzer-
land, at this period, were far from being
considerable. The thirteen cantons
into which the confederacy was then
divided, contained in all but 1,347,000
inhabitants; and the contingents fixed
in 1668, of soldiers to be furnished by
each canton. amounted in all to only
35. For many ages the Swiss infantry
was universally reckoned the first in
Europe. They were, literally speaking,
believed to be invincible. The victories
of Morgarten, Laupen, and Naefels over
the Austrians, and the still more mar-
vellous triumphs of Granson, Morat,
Nancy, and Vercelli, over Charles the
Bold and the chivalry of France, had
rendered it evident that they had dis-
covered the secret of resisting with
success even the most powerful caval-
ry of modern Europe, and that their
serried columns, like the Macedonian
phalanx, were impenetrable even to the
steel-clad gendarmerie of the feudal
barons. The ultimate success of Francis
I. against these terrible bands on the
bloody field of Marignan had scarcely
weakened their reputation; for that
could scarcely be called an overthrow,
in which the victors had been brought
into nearly as great straits as the van-
quished, and which the royal conqueror
himself had called a strife of giants,
|
it
#
112
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
beside which all other battles were | illusions of French democracy, yet the
child's play. Subsequently they had case was different in the towns of the
been less heard of in the fields of Eu- plains, and even in the rural districts,
ropean fame, partly because the Con- where French was the prevailing tongue,
federacy itself preserved a cautious and the ideas which arise in cities had
neutrality, and the exploits of the mer- come to influence a large part of the
cenary bands which they lent out to people. They had been, ever since the
all belligerent states were lost in the commencement of the Revolution, the
crowd of native soldiers among whom incessant object of French propagand-
they served; partly because their loud, ism. Affiliated societies, Jacobin clubs,
and often ill-timed, demands for their corresponding with that of the Jacobins
pay, rendered them an object of dis- at Paris, had been early established in
quietude to those governments of Eu- almost all the principal towns of the
rope, so numerous in the last two cen-level country; and as the spirit of the
people in all those towns was essentially
democratic, they found a ready recep-
tion in those heated enthusiasts.†
turies, whose thirst for conquest was
stronger than their inclination or abil-
ity to remunerate the conquerors. But
still their warlike spirit and prowess
had not declined; they still maintained
the character given of them by the
Roman annalist—"Helvetii, Gallica
gens, olim armis virisque, mox memo-
riâ nominis clara." * When brought
into action, they had always evinced
the steadiness and valour for which
their ancestors had been so famous;
and their recent glorious stand for the
monarchy of Louis in the Place of the
Carrousel, had demonstrated that, in
the noblest of military virtues, fidelity
to their colours in misfortune, they
never had been surpassed by any troops
in ancient or modern times.
36. Such, indeed, were the military
resources of the Swiss, and the magni-
tude of their reputation, that it is more
than doubtful whether, if they had been
united among each other, they could
have been subjugated even by the whole
military power of France, at least with-
out such a serious and protracted con-
test as would infallibly have brought
the standards of Austria to their aid.
But that which the French bayonets
probably could not have effected, French
propagandism had rendered of compa-
ratively easy acquisition. Though the
mountaineers, especially in the eastern
parts of Switzerland, where the German
language is spoken, were almost unani-
mously true to their country, and proof
alike against the seductions and the
"The Helvetii, a Gallic race, formerly
illustrious from their troops and arms, now
from the memory of their exploits."-TACI-
TUS, Hist. i. 67.
5.
37. It was not the mere fumes of de-
mocracy which led the ardent spirits in
the Swiss towns to embrace the cause of
French propagandism. They had in
view a deeper object, and proposed to
themselves political and personal ad-
vantages of no small amount, by ren-
dering French principles triumphant
in their country. A republic, one and
indivisible, on the model of that of
France, was the object for which the
democratic party in both countries in-
cessantly strove; and they had clear
views of personal aggrandisement in
this attempt. The demagogues of
Berne and Geneva at once perceived,
that if this system were established,
and the rights of the separate cantons
extinguished, the rude mountaineers
of the Valais and the Oberland would
be no match for them, and that all
Switzerland would soon fall into the
same subjection to its chief towns,
which France had already done to Paris.
The mountaineers were clear-sighted
enough to see this danger; and for that
reason they steadily resisted French
principles, and resolutely held out for
the old system of separate government
+ The following is the population of the
principal towns in Switzerland :—
Geneva, 26,000 | Soleure,
Berne,
18,000 Neufchâtel,
17,000 Vevay,
Bâle,
Zurich,
Lausanne,
St Gall,
Schaffhausen,
Herisau,
Fribourg,
Lucerne,
11,500 Coire,
10,200 Glarus,
9,000 Tusis,
7,500 Lugano,
7,000 Yverdun,
6,000 Sion,
6,500 Appenzell,
•
•
•
•
•
4,000
5,000
4,500
3,200
4,000
3,000
3,600
2,500
3,000
3,200
1798.]
113
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
in the different cantons, and a federal
union. So firm was their resistance in
many places, that, if the whole rural
population had been equally clear upon
it and united together, it is doubtful
whether the French would ever have
succeeded in subjugating the country.
38. But, unhappily the rural cantons
themselves laboured under a cause of
weakness which paralysed their efforts,
and enabled the French effectually to
insert the point of the wedge even into
many of the most unsophisticated of the
mountain districts. This weakness, the
sad bequest of the thirst for exclusive
power in former times, consisted in the
political subjection of some cantons
and districts to others. The chief de-
fect in the political constitution of the
Helvetic Confederacy was, that, with
the usual jealousy of the possessors of
power, they had refused to admit the
conquered provinces to a participation
of the privileges which they themselves
enjoyed, and thereby sown the seeds
of future dissension and disaffection
between the different parts of their
dominions. In this way, the Pays de
Vaud was politically subject to the can-
ton of Berne, the Italian bailiwicks to
that of Uri, and some towns of Argovia,
and Thurgovia to other cantons; while
the peasants of Zurich, in addition to
the absence of political privileges, were
galled by a monopoly in the sale of
their produce, which was justly com-
plained of as oppressive. Yet the mode-
ration and justice of the government of
the senate of Berne were admitted even
by its bitterest enemies; the economy of
their administration had enabled them,
with extremely light burdens, not only
to meet all the expenses of the state,
but to accumulate a large treasure for
future emergencies; and the practical
blessings of their rule were unequivo-
cally demonstrated by the wellbeing of
the peasantry and the density of the
population-features rarely found in
unison, and which cannot coexist but
under a paternal and beneficent system
of administration.
39. The uniform system of the French
revolutionary government, when they
wish to make themselves masters of
any country, was to excite a part of
the population, by the prospect of the
extension of political power, against
the other; to awaken democratic am-
bition by the offer of fraternal support.
Having thus distracted the state by the
intestine divisions of its parties, they
soon found it an easy matter to triumph
over both. The situation of the Swiss
cantons, some of which held conquered
provinces in subjection, and which va-
ried extremely among each other in
the extent to which the elective fran-
chise was diffused through the people,
offered a favourable prospect of under-
mining the patriotism of the inhabi-
tants, and accomplishing the subjection
of the whole by the adoption of this in-
sidious system. The treasure of Berne,
which really amounted to 20,000,000
francs (£800,000), but of which report
had magnified the amount, offered an
irresistible bait to the cupidity of the
French Directory; and whatever argu-
ments were adduced in favour of re-
specting the neutrality of that asylum
of freedom, they were always met by
the consideration of the immense relief
which those accumulated savings of
three centuries would afford to the
finances of the republic.
40. The first spark of the revolution-
ary flame had been lighted in Switzer-
land in 1791, when many sincere and
enthusiastic men, among whom was
Colonel Laharpe, formerly preceptor to
the Emperor Alexander, contributed
by their publications to the growth of
democratic principles. The patricians
of Berne were the especial object of
their attacks, and numerous had been
the efforts made to induce the inhabi-
tants of its territory to shake off the
aristocratic yoke. But the success of
their endeavours was for many years
prevented by the catastrophe of 10th
August, and the savage ferocity with
which the Swiss guard were treated by
the Parisian populace on that occasion,
for no other crime than unshaken fidel-
ity to their duty and their oaths. Bar-
thélemy was sent to Berne as ambassa-
dor of France in September 1792, to
counteract this tendency; and his ef-
forts and address were not without suc-
cess in allaying the general exaspera-
tion, and reviving those feelings of dis-
:
+
"
÷
E
→
114
content which, in an especial manner,
existed among the inhabitants of the
subject cantons. The government, how-
ever, persisted in a cautious system of
neutrality—the wisest course which
they could possibly have adopted, if
supported by such a force as to cause
it to be respected; but the most unfor-
tunate when accompanied, as it was, by
no military preparations to meet the
coming danger.
41. The Swiss democrats formed a
considerable party, formidable chiefly
from their influence being concentrated
in the great towns, where the powers
of thought were more active, and the
means of communication greater than
in the rural districts. Zurich was the
centre of their intrigues; and it was
the great object of the revolutionists to
counterbalance, by the influence of that
city, the authority of Berne, at the head
of which was Steiger, the chief magis-
trate of the confederacy. Ochs, grand tri-
bune of Bâle, a turbulent and ambitious
demagogue, Pfeffir, son of one of the
chief magistrates of Lucerne, and Col-
onel Weiss at Berne, formed a secret
committee, the object of which was,
by all possible means to bring about
the downfall of the existing constitu-
tion, and the ascendancy of French in-
fluence in the whole confederacy. Their
united efforts occasioned an explosion
at Geneva in 1792, and threatened the
liberties of all Switzerland; but the
firmness of the government of Berne
averted the danger: fourteen thousand
militia speedily approached the me-
naced point; and the troops of the
Convention retired before a nation de-
termined to assert its independence.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXV.
ment, who were desirous not to embroil
the Helvetic Confederacy with their
formidable neighbours, Wickham was
withdrawn. Foiled in this attempt to
involve the Swiss in a conflict, the Di-
rectory next ordered their troops on
the frontier to take possession of that
part of the territory of Bâle which was
subject to the jurisdiction of the can-
tons; but here, too, they were unsuc-
cessful, for the Swiss government con-
fined themselves to simple negotiations
for so glaring a violation of existing
treaties. But Napoleon, by his con-
duct in regard to the Valteline, struck
a chord which soon vibrated with fatal
effect throughout Switzerland, and, by
rousing the spirit of democracy, pre-
pared the subjugation of the country.
43. The country, consisting of five
bailiwicks, and containing one hundred
and sixty thousand souls, extending
from the source of the Adda to its junc-
tion with the lake of Como, had been
conquered by the Grisons from the
dukes of Milan. Francis I. guaranteed
to its inhabitants the enjoyment of
their liberties; and it had been gov-
erned with justice and moderation, by
a council of its own, for three centuries.
Napoleon, however, perceived in the
situation of this sequestered valley the
means of beginning the disruption of
the Helvetic Confederacy. Its prox-
imity to the Milanese territory, where
the revolutionary spirit was then furi-
ously raging, and the common lan-
guage which they spoke, rendered it
probable that its inhabitants would ra-
pidly imbibe the spirit of revolt against
their German superiors; and, in order
to sound their intentions, and foment
the desire of independence, he, early in
the summer of 1797, sent his aide-de-
camp, Leclerc, to their cottages. The
result was, that the inhabitants of the
Valteline openly claimed their inde-
42. The subjugation of Switzerland,
however, continued a favourite object
of French ambition; it had been re-
solved on by the Directory long before
the treaty of Campo Formio. In July
1797, their envoy, Mengaud, was des-pendence, rose in insurrection, hoisted
patched to Berne to insist upon the the tricolor flag, and expelled the Swiss
dismissal of the English resident Wick- authorities. Napoleon, chosen during
ham, and at the same time to set on the plenitude of his power at Monte-
foot intrgues with the democratic party, bello as mediator between the contend-
similar to those which had proved so ing parties, pronounced, on 10th Octo-
successful in effecting the overthrow ber 1797, a decree which, instead of
of the Venetian republic. By the pru- settling the disputed points between
dent resolution of the English govern- them, annexed the whole insurgent ter-
1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
115
:
ritory to the Cisalpine Republic, there-
by bereaving the ancient allies of
France, during a time of profound
peace, of a territory to them of great
value, which they had enjoyed for three
hundred years.
This decree was pro-
fessedly based on the principle of still
more general application, "That no one
people should be subjected to another
people;"* a principle which sounded
somewhat strange in the mouth of
the general of the great and ruling Re-
public.
44. This iniquitous proceeding, which
openly encouraged every subject dis-
trict in the Swiss Confederacy to de-
clare its independence, was not lost
upon the Valais, the Pays-de-Vaud, and
all the other dependencies of the Re-
public. To increase the excitement, a
large body of troops, under General
Menard, was moved forward to the
frontiers of these discontented pro-
vinces; and Napoleon, in his journey
from Milan to Rastadt, took care to
pass through those districts, and stop
in those towns where the democratic
spirit was known to be most violent.
At Lausanne he was surrounded by
the most ardent of the revolutionary
party, and openly proclaimed as the
restorer of their independence. A plan
of operations was soon concerted with
Ochs and Laharpe, the leaders of the
new projects in that country. It was
agreed that a republic, one and indi-
visible, should be erected, as that was
considered more favourable to the in-
terests of France, and the leading de-
mocrats in the towns, than the pre-
sent federal union: that the Directory
should commence by taking possession
* Napoleon at the same time despatched an
agent to negotiate with the republic of the
Valaisfor a communication over the Simplon,
through their territory, with the Cisalpine
Republic. The Swiss government, however,
had influence enough, by means of Barthé-
lemy, who at that period was a member of
the Directory, to obtain a negative on that
attempt. The French general, upon this, had
recourse to the usual engine of revolution;
he stirred up, by his secret emissaries, the
lower Valaisans to revolt against the upper
Valaisans, by whom they were held in sub-
jection; and the inhabitants, assured of his
support, and encouraged by the successful
result of the revolt of the Valteline, declared
their independence.
of Bienne, Erguel, and Munsterthal,
which were dependencies of the bishop-
ric of Bâle : that all the Italian baili-
wicks should be stimulated to follow
the example of the Pays-de-Vaud in
throwing off the yoke of the other can-
tons; that the French Republic should
declare itself the protector of all the
districts and individuals who were dis-
posed to shake off the authority of the
aristocratic cantons, and that Mengaud
should encourage the formation of clubs,
inundate the country with revolution-
ary writings, and promise speedy suc-
cours in men and money. At Berne,
Napoleon asked a question of sinister
import, as to the amount of its treasure;
and though the senator to whom it was
addressed prudently reduced its amount
to 10,000,000 francs, or £400,000, this
was sufficient to induce that ambitious
man, who was intent on procuring funds
for his Eastern expedition, to urge the
Directory to prosecute their invasion of
Switzerland.
45. The first act of open hostility
against the Helvetic league was the
seizure of the country of Erguel by five
battalions, drawn from the army of the
Rhine, on the 15th December. This
event, accompanied as it was by an
alarming fermentation, and soon an
open insurrection in the Pays-de-Vaud,
produced the utmost consternation in
Switzerland; and a diet assembled at
Arau to deliberate concerning the pub-
lic exigencies. This act of hostility
was followed, two days after, by an in-
timation from Mengaud, the French
envoy, "that the members of the gov-
ernments of Berne and Fribourg should
answer personally for the safety of the
habitants of the Pays-de-Vaud as might
persons and property of such of the in-
address themselves to the French Ře-
public to obtain the restitution of their
rights." As the senate of Berne seemed
resolved to defend their country, Men-
gaud, early in January, summoned them
instantly to declare their intentions.
At the same time, General Menard
crossed Savoy with ten thousand men,
from the Army of Italy, and established
his headquarters at Ferney, near Ge-
neva; while Monnier, who commanded
the troops in the Cisalpine Republic,
..
1
!!
7
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
116
[CHAP. XXV.
advanced to the frontiers of the Italian | federacy. In concert, at Paris, with
bailiwicks, to support the expected Laharpe, Ochs, and the other leaders
insurrection on the southern side of of the insurrection, he prepared a gen-
the Alps. These threatening measures eral plan of a revolt against the Swiss
brought matters to a crisis in the Pays-government. So little did the Direc-
de-Vaud; the standard of insurrection tory deem it necessary to conceal either
was openly hoisted, trees of liberty their own or his share in these intrigues,
were planted, the Swiss authorities ex- that they openly avowed it. In a jour-
pelled, and the "Leman Republic" was nal published under their immediate
solemnly recognised by the French Di- superintendence, it was publicly de-
rectory.
clared that, with the assistance of Na-
poleon, they were engaged in a general
plan for the remodelling the Helvetic
constitution; and that they took under
their especial protection the patriots
of the Pays-de-Vaud, and all who were
engaged in the great struggle for equal-
ity of privileges and French fraternisa-
tion throughout the whole of Switzer-
land.*
46. These iniquitous measures against
the Swiss Confederacy were all adopted
by the government, with the concur-
rence and by the advice of Napoleon.
He was the great centre of correspond
ence with the malcontents of Helvetia;
and by his counsel, assistance, and di-
rections, was kept alive that spirit of
disaffection which ultimately proved
fatal to the independence of the con-
47. These violent steps, which threat-
* In the Ami des Lois, a journal entirely establish unity, the only means of rendering
under the direction of Barras, there appeared Switzerland the permanent ally of France.
at this period the following article: "Several I perceive, with the highest satisfaction, that
French travellers have been sent within these you agree with the Swiss patriots on this
few days to Switzerland, with instructions to point. But the result of our conferences and
observe the singular variety in the Helvetic correspondence is, that it is indispensable that
governments, their division into thirteen re- we should have a convention, supported by a
publics, and their distribution into sovereign French corps d'armée in the immediate neigh-
and subject states. The same travellers are bourhood. May I therefore be permitted to
directed to consider the inconveniences likely insinuate to my friends, in guarded phrases,
to arise from the accumulation, so near the that they will be supported? May I assure
French frontiers, of the leaders of so many the patriots of Zurich that the amnesty de-
parties who have been vanquished in the dif- manded will be extended to the inhabitants
ferent crises of the Revolution. They are of Kaiffa; that France will make good its in-
authorised to declare that France is particu- contestible rights to the Val Moutier, the Val
larly the ally of all the conquered or subject d'Erguel, and the town of Bienne; that she
people, and of all who are in a state of oppo- will guarantee the liberties of the Pays-de-
sition to their governments, all of which are Vaud, and that the Italian bailiwicks may
notoriously sold to England. They are di- present petitions, and fraternise with the Cis-
rected, in an especial manner, to observe the alpine republic? Bâle revolutionised might
situation of Geneva, which is eminently re- propose to the Italian bailiwicks, the Pays-
publican, and friendly to France. M. Talley-de-Vaud, and the other subject states, to send
rand is much occupied with the political state deputies to a national convention; if matters
of Switzerland; he has frequent conferences were only brought that length, there can be
with General Buonaparte, Colonel Laharpe, no doubt that the remainder of Switzerland
and the Grand Tribune Ochs. The latter dis- would come into their measures. But it is
tinguished character, who is received at all indispensable that the agents of France should
the public fêtes on the same terms as the publish revolutionary writings, and declare
foreign ambassadors, is occupied, under the everywhere that you take under your especial
auspices of the Directory, and in concert with protection all who labour for the regeneration
the persons whom they have appointed to of their country. This declaration, however,
share their labours, with a general remodel- may be made either publicly or confidential-
ling of the ancient Helvetic constitution. In ly; I shall be happy to prepare a sketch of
a word, a revolutionary explosion is hourly such a confidential letter, if you prefer that
expected on the two extremities of Switzer- method."
land, in the Grisons and the Pays-de-Vaud."
-Ami des Lois, 11th Dec. 1797.

The direction which Napoleon took of these
intrigues is abundantly proved by his Confi-
dential Correspondence. On December 12, 1797,
Ochs addressed the following note to that
general: "The material points to consider
are, whether we are to continue the federal
union which is so agreeable to Austria, or
It would appear that Napoleon had not at
once replied to this letter: for, six days after-
wards, Ochs again wrote to him: "I wrote to
you on the 12th, and begged to know to which
of the alternatives proposed in my letter the
patriots are to look. Meanwhile, they are
preparing, but I am much afraid they will do
more harm than good; they will probably ef-
fect a half revolution only, which will be speed-
1798.]
117
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
ened the whole confederacy with dis-quence of Steiger, that resistance was
the only course which remained, the
senate of Berne ordered the militia,
twenty thousand strong, to be called
out, and sent Colonel Weiss, with a
small force, to take possession of Lau-
sanne. But this officer had not troops
sufficient to accomplish the object;
the insurgents instantly invited Gen-
eral Menard to enter the territory of
the confederacy, and the French bat-
talions quickly poured down from the
Jura. Upon his approach, the revolu-
tion broke out at Lausanne; the Swiss
from Berne were driven out, and Men-
ard, advancing, summoned Weiss in-
stantly and entirely to evacuate the
Pays-de-Vaud. Two soldiers of the
escort of the flag of truce were killed;
and although the senate of Berne of-
fered to deliver up the men who had
committed this aggression, Menard ob-
solution, excited the deepest alarm in
the Swiss Diet, assembled at Arau. This
was increased by a note addressed by
Mengaud, which declared that, if the
Austrians entered the Grisons, the
French would immediately occupy the
canton of Berne. The most violent
debates, meantime, took place in the
senate of that canton, as to the course
which should be adopted. In order to
appease the public discontents, they
passed a decree by which the principal |
towns and districts in the canton were
empowered to elect fifty deputies to sit
in the legislature. This example was
immediately followed by the cantons
of Zurich, Fribourg, Luzern, Soleure,
and Schaffhausen. But this measure
met with the usual fate of all conces-
sions yielded under the influence of
fear, to revolutionary ambition; it dis-
played weakness without evincing firm-stinately insisted upon construing it
and estab-
ness, and encouraged audacity without into a declaration of war,
awakening gratitude.
lished his headquarters at Lausanne.
Meanwhile Ochs and Mengaud, the
swore, when they beheld the Liberator of
Italy, to recover their rights." Brune also
corresponded with Napoleon during the whole
campaign in Switzerland. In one of his let-
ters, on 17th March 1798, he says, "I have
studied your political conduct throughout
your Italian campaign; I follow your labours
to the best of my ability; according to your
advice, I spare no methods of conciliation-
but at the same time am fully prepared to
act with force, and the genius of liberty has
seconded my enterprises. I am, like you,
surrounded by rascals: I am constantly par-
ing their nails, and taking the public treasures
from them.” Lastly, Napoleon no sooner
heard of the invasion of the Pays-de-Vaud,
than he wrote to the Directors of the Cisal-
pine republic in these terms: "The Pays-
de-Vaud and the different cantons of Switz-
erland are animated with the same spirit of
liberty: we know that the Italian bailiwicks
share in the same disposition; but we deem
it indispensable that at this moment they
should declare their sentiments, and mani-
fest a desire to be united to the Cisalpine
republic. We desire in consequence that you
will avail yourselves of all the means in your
power to spread in your neighbourhood the
spirit of liberty; circulate liberal writings;
and excite a movement which may accelerate the
We have
general revolution of Switzerland.
given orders to General Monnier to approach
the frontiers of the Italian bailiwicks with
his troops, to support any movements of the
insurgents; he has received orders to concert
48. Convinced at length by the elo-
ily overturned, and leave matters worse than
betore. On the 2d December, Bacher, the
revolutionary agent for the Grisons, wrote to
Napoleon: "The explosion which we have so
long expected has at length taken place; the
chiefs and members of the Grey league have
been deposed, and placed in confinement at
Coire; the general assembly of the people has
been convoked. Their first act has been to
send a deputation to express to you, citizen-
general, the profound sense which the Con-
gress entertain of your powerful mediation,
and to give you all the information which
you can desire."
On the 21st December,
Ochs wrote to Napoleon: "My letters have
at length informed me, that the French
troops are in possession of the bishopric of
Bâle. I am transported with joy on the occa-
sion; the last hour of the aristocracy appears
to have struck. Listen to what one of your
agents writes to me: 'Have only a little pa-
tience, and full justice will be done; war will
be waged with the oligarchy and the aristo-
cracy; government established in its primi-
tive simplicity, universal equality will pre-
vail, and then France will indeed live on
terms of amity with its Swiss neighbours.'
On the 17th February 1798, the revolutionary
deputies of the Pays-de-Vaud presented the
following address to Napoleon: "The depu-
ties of the Pays-de-Vaud, whom the generous
protection of the Directory has so powerfully
aided, desire to lay their homage at your
feet. They owe it the more, because it was
your passage through their country which
electrified the inhabitants, and was the pre-measures with you for the attainment of an
cursor of the thunderbolt which has over- object equally important to both republics."
whelmed the oligarchy. The Helvetians
The Helvetians-HARD. v. 230.
"1
118
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
•
3
leaders of the democratic party, suo
ceeded in revolutionising all the plain
or northern part of Switzerland, as far
as the foot of the mountains; the ter-
ritories of Zurich, Bâle, and Argovie,
quickly hoisted the tricolor flag, and
convulsions took place in the Lower
Valais, Fribourg, Soleure, and St-Gall.
To such a height of audacity did the
insurgents arrive, that they hoisted
that emblem of revolution at Arau,
without the Diet being able to overawe
them by their presence, or prevent
them by their authority.
49. Driven to desperation by these
insurrections, the senate of Berne tar-
dily, but resolutely, resolved upon re-
sistance. They intimated to the French
government the concessions made to
the popular party; but the Directory
declared that nothing would be deemed
satisfactory unless the whole ancient
constitution was overturned, and a pro-
visional government of five revolution-
ists established in its stead. The se-
nate, finding their ruin resolved on,
issued a proclamation calling on the
shepherds of the Alps to defend their
country; Steiger repaired in person to
the army to put himself under the
orders of d'Erlach, and the most ener-
getic measures to repel the danger were
adopted. A minority, unworthy of the
name of Swiss, abdicated, and agreed to
all the propositions of the French gen-
eral; not intimidated by the terror of
the Republican arms, but deluded by
the contagion of its principles. Desir-
ous still, if possible, to avoid proceed
ing to extremities, the senate addressed
a note to the Directory, in which they
complained of the irruption of the
French into the Pays-de-Vaud, and of-
fered to disband their militia if the
invaders were withdrawn. This drew
forth from the enemy a full statement
of their designs. No longer pretending
to confine themselves to the support of
the districts in a state of revolution, or
the securing for them the privileges of
citizens, they insisted on overturning
the whole constitution of the country,
forming twenty-two cantons instead of
thirteen, and creating a republic, one
andindivisible, with a Directory, formed
in all respects on the model of that of
France. At the same time, Mengaud
published at Arau a declaration, that
"all Swiss who should refuse to obey
the commands, or follow the standards
of the senate of Berne, would be taken
under the immediate protection of the
French Republic."
50. But the Swiss, on their side, were
not idle. The glorious example of
their ancestors was emulated by the
simple inhabitants of the mountain dis-
tricts. The Oberland en masse flew to
arms; the shepherds descended from
the edges of their glaciers; every valley
mustered its little band of men; and
the accumulated streams, uniting like
the torrents of the Alps, formed a body
of nearly twenty thousand combatants.
on the frontiers of Berne. The small
cantons followed the glorious example;
Uri, Unterwalden, Schwytz, and So-
leure, sent forth their contingents with
alacrity; the inmost recesses of the
Alps teemed with warlike activity, and
the peasants joyfully set out from their
cottages, not doubting that the tri-
umphs of Morat, Laupen, and Granson,
were about to be renewed in the holy
war of independence. The women
fanned the generous flame: they not
only encouraged their husbands and
brothers to swell the bands of their
countrymen, but themselves in many
instances joined the ranks, resolved to
share in the perils and glories of the
strife. Almost everywhere the inhabit-
ants of the mountains remained faith-
ful to their country; the citizens of the
towns and plains alone were deluded
by the fanaticism of revolution.
51. General d'Erlach, who command-
ed the Swiss troops, had formed his
army into three divisions, consisting of
about seven thousand men each. The
first, under General Andermatt, occu-
pied the space between Fribourg and
the classic shores of the Lake of Morat;
the second, under Graffenried, was en-
camped between the town of Buren and.
the bridge over the river Thiels; the
third, under Colonel Watteville, was in
communication with the preceding, and.
covered Soleure. Had the Swiss army
instantly attacked, they might possibly
have overwhelmed the two divisions of
the French troops, which were so far
T
1798.J
119
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
separated as to be incapable of support- | Swiss, after a heroic resistance, was cut
ing each other; the multitude of wa- to pieces at the advanced posts; the
verers in Switzerland would probably mountaineers everywhere evinced the
have been decided, by such an event, utmost resolution; but the towns were
to join the armies of their country; far from imitating this gallant example.
and thus the confederacy might have Soleure surrendered at the first sum-
been enabled to maintain its ground mons, and Fribourg, after a show of
till the distant armies of Austria ad- resistance, did the same.
These great
vanced to its relief. But, from a dread successes, gained evidently by concert
of precipitating hostilities while yet with the party who distracted Switzer-
accommodation was practicable, this land, not only gave the invaders a se-
opportunity, notwithstanding the most cure bridge over the Aar, but, by un-
urgent representations of Steiger, was covering the right of the Swiss army,
allowed to escape, and General Brune, compelled the retreat of the whole.
who at this time replaced Menard in This retrograde movement, immediately
the command, instantly concentrated following these treacherous surrenders,
his forces, and sent forward an envoy produced the most fatal effect. The
to Berne to propose terms of accommo- peasants conceived they were betrayed:
dation. By this artifice he both induced some disbanded and retired, boiling
the enemy to relax their efforts, and with rage, to their mountains; others
gained time to complete his own pre- mutinied and murdered their officers;
parations. The senate meanwhile fluc- nothing but the efforts of Steiger and
tuated between the enthusiasm of the d'Erlach brought any part of the troops
peasantry to resist the enemy, and their back to their colours, and then it was dis-
well-founded apprehensions of engaging covered that half their number had dis-
in such a contest. At length Brune, appeared during the confusion. This
having completed his preparations, de- unlooked-for piece of good fortune was
clared that nothing would satisfy the ably taken advantage of by the French
Directory but the immediate disband-general. While the Swiss troops, at
ing of the whole army; upon which the this critical moment, were undergoing
senate at length authorised d'Erlach to so ruinous a diminution, the French
commence hostilities, and notice was were vigorously following up their suc-
sent to the French commander that the cesses. Before daybreak on the 5th, a
armistice would not be renewed.* general attack was commenced on the
Helvetic position.
General Pigeon,
with fifteen thousand men, passed the
Sarine, and by a sudden assault made
himself master of the post of Neueneck,
on the left of the army; but the Swiss,
though only eight thousand strong,
under Graffenried, having returned to
the charge, after a desperate conflict
drove his veteran bands back, with the
loss of eighteen pieces of cannon, and
two thousand men, and amidst loud
shouts regained the position they had
occupied in the morning.
53. But while fortune thus smiled on
the arms of freedom on the left, a fatal
disaster occurred on the right. After
the fall of Soleure, the division of
Schawembourg moved forward on the
road to Berne, and, after an obstinate
struggle, dislodged the Swiss advanced
guard of four thousand men placed in
the village of Frauenbrunnen. After
52. The French general, however, re-
solved to anticipate the enemy. For
this purpose, the troops were moved
before daybreak on the 2d March to
wards Soleure and Fribourg, where
they had many partisans among the
revolutionary classes. A battalion of
* The ultimatum of the French general
was in these terms:-"The government of
Berne is to recall the troops which it has sent
into the other cantons, and disband its mili-
tia. There shall forthwith be established a
provisional government, differing in form and
composition from the one which exists; with-
in a month after the establishment of that
provisional government, the primary assem-
blies shall be convoked; the principle of po-
litical liberty and equality of rights assumed
as the base of the new constitution, and de-
clared the fundamental law of the confeder-
acy; all persons detained for political offences
shall be set at liberty. The senate of Berne
shall instantly resign its authority into the
hands of the provisional government.
HARD. V. 375, 376.
Al
8
-
[CHAP. XXV.
120
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
E
{
this success, he pushed on till his ad-
vance was arrested by the corps com-
manded by d'Erlach in person, seven
thousand strong, posted with its right
resting on a ridge of rocks, and its left
on marshes and woods. Butthe strength
ofthis position, where formerly the Swiss
had triumphed over the Sire of Coucy,
proved inadequate to arrest the immense
force which now assailed it. The great
superiority of the French, who had no
less than sixteen thousand veteran
troops in the field, enabled them to
scale the rocks and turn his right, while
dense battalions, supported by a numer-
ous artillery, pressed upon the centre
and left. After a brave resistance, the
Swiss were forced to retreat; but they
did so in the most leisurely and regular
manner. In the course of it, they made
a heroic stand at Granholz. The extra-
ordinary nature of the war there ap-
peared in the strongest colours. The
mountaineers, though defeated, faced
about with the utmost resolution; old
men, women, children, joined theirranks;
the place of the dead and the wounded
was instantly supplied by crowds of
every age and sex, who rushed forward
with inextinguishable devotion to the
scene of danger. At length the num-
bers and discipline of the French pre-
vailed over the undaunted resolution
of their opponents; the motley crowd
was borne backwards at the point of
the bayonet to the heights in front
of Berne. Here d'Erlach renewed the
combat for the fifth time that day, and
for a while arrested their
progress; but
the cannon and cavalry of the French
having thrown his undisciplined troops
into confusion, they were driven into
the town, and the cannon of the ram-
parts alone prevented the victors from
following in their steps. The city ca-
pitulated the same night, and the troops
dispersed in every direction.*
54. Deplorable excesses followed the
dissolution of the Swiss army. The cry
of treachery, so commonly raised by the
unfortunate, arose in their ranks. The
brave d'Erlach was massacred by his
deluded soldiers at Munzingen, as he
was endeavouring to reach the small
cantons. Steiger, after undergoing in-
credible hardships, escaped by the moun-
tains of Oberland into Bavaria. Num-
bers of the bravest officers fell victims
to the fury of the troops; and the de-
mocratic party, by spreading the belief
that they had been betrayed by their
leaders, occasioned the destruction of
the few men who could have sustained
the sinking fortunes of their country.
The French, immediately after their
entrance into Berne, made themselves
masters of its treasure, the chief incen-
tive to the war. Its exact amount was
never ascertained, but the most mode-
rate estimate made it 20,000,000 francs,
or £800,000 sterling. The arsenal, con-
taining 300 pieces of cannon, and 40,000
muskets, the stores, the archives, all be-
came the prey of the victors. The tree
of liberty was planted, the democratic
constitution promulgated, and a Direc-
tory appointed. Several senators put
themselves to death at beholding the de-
struction of their country; many died
of grief at the sight.†
55. The fall of Berne was soon fol-
lowed by an explosion of the revolu-
tionary volcano over great part of Swit-
zerland. The people of Zurich and Lu-
12,000 men which you have demanded from
the army of the Rhine for this expedition
can insure its success.
can insure its success. The presence of an
armed force is indispensable."-Corresp. Conf.
de Nap. iv. 511, 512; and HARD. v. 355, 356.
* During all these negotiations and com-
bats with the republic of Berne, Brune cor-
responded confidentially with, and took di-
rections from Napoleon. On the 8th February
he wrote from Lausanne to him:-"Berne
has made some flourishes before my arrival,
but since that period it has been chiefly occu-
pied with remodelling its constitution; anti-
cipating thus the stroke which the Directory
had prepared for it. To-morrow I shall ad-like lightning; for Switzerland is a vast bar-
vance to Morat, and from thence make you rack, and I had everything to fear from a
acquainted, my general, with our military war of posts. I avoided it by negotiations,
and political situation." Three days after- which I knew were not sincere on the part
wards he again wrote:-"The letter of citi- of the Bernese, and since that I have followed
zen Mengaud, affixed to the coffee-houses of the plan which I traced out to you. I think
Berne, has awakened the oligarchs; their always that I am still under your command.”
battalions are on foot; nothing less than the Corresp. Conf. iv. 531.
† Brune announced the capture of Berne
to Napoleon in these terms:-"From the
moment that I found myself in a situation
to act, I assembled all my strength to strike
1798.1
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
121
{
zern rose in open insurrection, dispos-
sessed the authorities, and hoisted the
tricolor flag; the Lower Valaisans re-
volted against the Upper, and, by the
aid of the French, made themselves
masters of the castellated cliffs of Sion.
Almost all the level parts of Switzer-
land joined the innovating party. They
were not long in tasting the bitter fruits
of such conduct. Enormous contribu-
tions, pillage of every sort, attended the
steps of the French armies; even the
altar of Notre-Dame des Ermites, in the
abbey of Einsiedeln, the object of pe-
culiar veneration, was despoiled. The
generals received prodigious gifts out of
the plunder;* the troops were clothed
at the expense of their democratic allies;
and the scourge of commissaries, as in
Belgium and Italy, following in the rear
of the armies, exhibited, by the severity
and enormity of their exactions, a pain-
ful contrast to the lenity and indul-
gence of their former government.†
The Swiss revolutionists were horror-
struck at these exactions, and all per-
sons of respectable character, who had
been misled by the frenzy of democracy,
seeing that the independence of Swit-
zerland was destroyed, threw up their
employments in the service of the in-
vaders, and lamented in silence the des-
potic yoke they had brought on their
country.+
56. A new constitution was speedily
framed for the confederacy, formed on
the basis of that established in France
in 1795, which was proclaimed at Arau
on 12th April. The barriers of nature,
the divisions formed by mountains,
lakes, and torrents; the varieties of
* That of General Brune amounted to
800,000 francs, or £32,000 sterling.-LACRE-
TELLE, XIV. 210.
+ The French imposed a tax of 15,000,000
francs, or £600,000, on their democratic "al-
lies" in Berne, Fribourg, Soleure, Luzern,
and Zurich-a sum far greater than ever
had been raised before in those simple coun-
tries in ten years. This was independent of
19,000,000 francs, or £760,000, already paid
by those cantons in bills of exchange and
cash, and of 5,000,000 francs, or £200,000
worth of articles taken from the arsenals.
Such were the first fruits of republican fra-
ternisation.
+ The total plunder exacted from the can-
ton of Berne alone by the French, in 1798,
VOL. IV.
character, occupation, language, and
descent, were disregarded, and the re-
public, one and indivisible, was pro-
claimed. Five directors, entirely in the
interest of France, were appointed, with
the absolute disposal of the executive
and military power of the state; and
by a law, worthy of Tiberius, whoever
spoke even in a disrespectful manner of
the new authorities was punishable with
death. Geneva at the same time fell a
prey to the ambition of the all-engross-
ing Republic. This celebrated city had
long been an object of their desire; and
the divisions by which it was now dis-
tracted afforded a favourable opportu-
nity for accomplishing the object. The
democratic party loudly demanded a
union with that power, and a commis-
sion was appointed by the senate to re-
port upon the subject. Their report,
however, was unfavourable; upon which
General Gerard, who commanded a small
corps in the neighbourhood, took posses-
sion ofthe town and the senate, with the
bayonet at their throats, formally agreed
to a union with the conquering Republic.
57. But while the rich and populous
part of Switzerland was thus falling
a prey to the revolutionary fervour of
the times, a more generous spirit ani-
mated the shepherds of the small can-
tons. The people in the mountain dis-
tricts of Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden,
Glarus, Sargans, Turgovie, and St-Gall,
rejected the new constitution. The in-
habitants of these romantic and seques-
tered regions, communicating little with
the rest of the world, ardently attached
to their liberties, proud of their heroic
struggles in defence of ancient freedom,
amounted to the enormous sum of 42,280,000
francs, or nearly £1,700,000. The particulars
are given by Hardenberg as follows:-
Francs.
7,000,000
3,700,000
4,000,000
Treasure,
Ingots,
Contributions,
Sale of tithes,
Wheat seized,
Wine,
Artillery and stores in arsenal, 7,000,000
2,000,000
17,140,000
1,440,000
Total, 42,280,000
or £1,688,000.—JOMINI, Histoire des Guerres de
la Révolution, x. 336-330; and HARDENBERG,
Mémoires d'un Homme d'Etat, vi. 180, 181.
I
i
122
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
2
-
1
ارد
b
#
罱
​-
and inheriting all the dauntless intre-
pidity of their forefathers, were not to
be seduced by the glittering but de-
ceitful offers which had deluded their
richer and more civilised brethren.
They clearly perceived that, when once
they were merged in the Helvetic Union,
their influence would be destroyed by
the multitude who would share their
privileges; that they themselves, rude
and simple, would soon fall under the
dominion of the cities, with whose
wealth and ambition they were wholly
disqualified to contend; and that, in
the wreck of all their ancient institu-
tions, the independence of their com-
mon country could not long be main-
tained. They saw that the insidious
promises of the French envoys had ter-
minated only in ruinous exactions and
tyrannical rule, and that irreligion, sac-siasm of the moment. "We do not fear,"
rilege, and infidelity, universally marked said the shepherds of Uri, with touch-
the invaders' steps. Every day they had ing simplicity, "the armies of France;
proofs of the repentance, when too late, we are four hundred, and if that is not
of the cantons who had invited the ene- sufficient, four hundred more in our val-
my into their bosom; and multitudes, ley are ready to march to the defence
escaping from the theatre of French ex- of their country." Animated by such
actions, fled into their secluded valleys, feelings, the peasants confidently hoped
stimulating their inhabitants to resist for victory; the spots on which the tri-
ance by the recital of their oppressions, umphs of Naefels, Laupen, and Mor-
and offering to aid them with their arms. garten were to be renewed, were already
Animated by these feelings, the small pointed out with exulting anticipations
cantons unanimously rejected the new of success; and the shepherds of a few
constitution. "We have lived," said cantons, who could not bring ten thou-
they, "for several centuries, under a sand men into the field, fearlessly en-
republic based on liberty and equality; tered the lists with a power beneath
possessing no other goods in the world which the Austrian monarchy had sunk
but our religion and our independence, to the ground.
no other riches but our herds, our first
duty is to defend them."
or riches-the freedom and faith of your
ancestors. A peril far more terrible
than heresy now assails you; impiety it-
self is at your gates; the enemy marches
covered with the spoils of your churches;
you will no longer be the sons of William
Tell if you abandon the faith of your
fathers; you are now called on not only
to combat as heroes, but to die as mar-
tyrs." The women showed the same
ardour as at Berne; numbers joined the
ranks with their husbands; others car-
ried provisions and ammunition for the
combatants; all were engaged in the
holy cause. The tricolor flag became
the object of equal hatred with the
Austrian standard five centuries before;
the tree of liberty recalled the pole of
Gesler; all the recollections of William
Tell mingled with the new-born enthu-
58. The clergy in these valleys had
unbounded influence over their flocks.
They were justly horror-struck at the
total irreligion which was manifested by
the French armies in every part of the
world, and the savage war which they
waged in an especial manner against the
Catholic faith. The priests traversed the
ranks, with the crucifix in their hands,
to exhort the peasants to die as mar-
tyrs, if they could not preserve the in-
dependence and religion of their coun-
try. "It is for you," they exclaimed,
"to be faithful to the cause of God;
you have received from Him gifts a
thousand times more precious than gold
59. Aloys Reding was the soul of the
confederacy. Brave, active, and ener-
getic, he inherited all the ardent spirit,
and devoted enthusiasm, which in its
best days had laid the foundation of
Helveticindependence. Descended from
the ancient founders of the republic,
related to numbers who had perished
on the Place du Carrousel on the 10th
August, an old antagonist of the French
in the Spanish war, he was filled with
the strongest enmity at that grasping
tyranny which, under the name of free-
dom, threatened to extinguish all the
liberties of the civilised world. But he
was not a mere enthusiast in the cause
of freedom; he brought to its support
military talents of a very high order,
1798.]
123
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
and a thorough practical acquaintance | perate struggle, forced the column from
with modern warfare. His military Rapperswyl into the defile of Kusnacht.
knowledge and long experience made 61. After these disasters, the canton
him fully aware of the perilous nature of Zug, which was now overrun by
of the contest in which his countrymen French troops, accepted the new consti-
were engaged, but he flattered himself tution. But Schwytz was still unsub-
that, amidst the precipices and woods dued; its little army of three thousand
of the Alps, a Vendean war might be men resolved to defend their country,
maintained till the German nations were or perish in the attempt. They took
roused to their relief; forgetting that post, under Reding, at MORGARTEN, al-
a few valleys, whose whole population ready immortalised in the wars of Hel-
was not eighty thousand, could hardly vetic independence. At daybreak the
hope for success in a contest in which French appeared, more than double
three millions of Bretons and Vendeans their force, descending the hills to the
had failed.
attack. They instantly advanced to
meet them, and, running across the
plain, encountered their adversaries be-
fore they had come to the bottom of
the slope. The shock was irresistible;
the French were borne backwards to
the summit of the ridge, and after a
furious conflict, which lasted the whole
day, the peasants remained masters of
the contested ground. Fresh reinforce-
ments came up on both sides during
the night, and the struggle was renew-
ed next day with doubtful success. The
coolness and skill of the Swiss marks-
men counterbalanced the immense supe-
riority of force, and the greater expe-
rience and rapidity of movement, on
the part of their adversaries; but, in
spite of all their efforts, they were un-
able to gain a decisive success over the
invaders. The rocks, the woods, the
thickets, were bristling with armed men;
every cottage became a post of defence,
every meadow a scene of carnage, every
stream was dyed with blood. Darkness
put an end to the contest, while the
mountaineers were still unsubdued; but
they received intelligence during the
night which rendered a longer continu-
ance of the struggle hopeless.
60. The peasants were justly appre-
hensive of the war being carried into
their own territories, as the ravages of
the soldiers or the torch of the incen-
diary might destroy in a moment the
work of centuries of labour. Reding,
too, was in hopes that, by assailing the
French troops when dispersed over a
long line, he might gain a decisive suc-
cess in the outset of the campaign; and
accordingly it was determined to make
an immediate attack on Luzern and
Zurich. A body of four thousand men
marched upon the former town, which
surrendered by capitulation; and at it
the Swiss got possession of a few pieces
of cannon, which they made a good use
of in the mountain warfare to which
they were soon reduced. No sooner
had they made themselves masters of
the city, than, like the Vendeans, they
flocked to the churches to return thanks
to Heaven for their success. Meanwhile
two other columns threatened Zurich,
the one from Rapperswyl, the other
from Richtenswyl; but here they found
that the French, now thoroughly alarm-
ed, were advancing in great force; and
that, abandoning all thoughts of offen-
sive warfare, it was necessary to con-
62. The inhabitants of Uri and Un-
centrate all their forces for the defence terwalden had been driven into their
of their own valleys. In effect, Schaw- valleys; a French corps was rapidly
embourg, with one brigade, surprised marching in their rear upon Schwytz,
three thousand peasants at Zug, and where none but women remained to de-
made them all prisoners; while General fend the passes; the auxiliaries of Sar-
Nouvion, after a bloody conflict, won gans and Glarus had submitted to the
the passsge of the Reuss at Mellingen. invaders. Slowly and reluctantly the
He then divided his men into two divi- men of Schwytz were brought to yield
sions, one of which, after an obstinate to inexorable necessity; a resolution
battle,drove the peasants back into Rich- not to submit till two-thirds of the can-
tenswyl; while the other, after a des-ton had fallen was at first carried by
1
;
.
124
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
[CHAP. XXV.
E
*
acclamation; but at length they yielded | savings of unsubdued generations, sent
to the persuasions of an enlightened ec- off, under a powerful guard, to France,
clesiastic and the brave Reding, who re- never to return. In vain the revolu-
presented the hopelessness of any fur- tionary authorities of Switzerland, now
ther contest, and agreed to a convention, alive to the tyranny they had brought
by which they were to accept the con- on their country, protested against the
stitution, and be allowed to enjoy the spoliation, and affixed their seals to the
use of their arms, their religion, and treasures which were to be carried off;
their property, and the French troops they were instantly broken by the
were to be withdrawn from their fron- French commissaries; and a proclama-
tier. The other small cantons soon fol- tion of the Directory informed the in-
lowed their example, and peace was for habitants that they were a conquered
a time restored to that part of Switzer-nation, and must submit to the lot of
land.
the vanquished.*
63. The same checkered fortune at-
tended the arms of the Swiss in the Va-
lais. The brave inhabitants of the
rocky, pine-clad mountains which guard
the sources of the Rhone, descended
from Leuk to Sion, whence they expel-
led the French garrison, and pursued
them as far as St Maurice, near the Lake
of Geneva. Here, however, they were
assailed by a column of the Republi-
cans, on their march to Italy, and driven
back towards the Upper Valais. An
obstinate conflict ensued at the bridge
of La Marge, in front of Sion; twice the
Republicans were repulsed; even the
Cretins, seeming to have recovered their
intellect amidst the animation of the
affray, behaved with devoted courage.
At length, however, the post was forced,
and the town carried by escalade; the
peasants, despairing of success, retired
to their mountains, and the new con-
stitution was proclaimed without op-
position, amidst deserted and smoking
ruins. A temporary breathing-time
from hostilities followed these bloody
defeats; but it was a period of bitter
suffering and humiliation to Switzer-
land. Forty thousand men lived at
free quarters upon the inhabitants; the
requisitions for the pay, clothing, and
equipment of these hard taskmasters
proved a sad contrast to the illusions of
hope which had seduced the patriotism
of its urban population. The rapacity
and exactions of the commissaries, and
inferior authorities, exceeded even the
cruel spoliation of the Directory; and
the warmest supporters of the demo-
cratic party sighed when they beheld
the treasures, the accumulation of ages,
and the warlike stores, the provident
64. All the public property, stores,
and treasures of the cantons were soon
declared prize by the French authori-
ties, the liberty of the press was extin-
guished, a vexatious system of police
introduced, and those magistrates who
showed the slightest regard for the liber-
ties of their country were dismissed
without trial or investigation. The
ardent democrats, who had joined the
French party in the commencement of
the troubles, were now the foremost to
exclaim against their rapacity, and la-
ment their own weakness in having
ever lent an ear to their promises. But
it was all in vain. More subservient
Directors were placed by the French
authorities at the head of affairs, in lieu
of those who had resigned in disgust;
and an alliance offensive and defensive
was concluded at Paris between the two
republics, which bound Switzerland to
furnish a contingent of troops, and to
submit to the formation of two military
roads through the Alps, one to Italy,
and one to Suabia-conditions which,
as Jomini justly observes, were worse
for Switzerland than an annexation to
* The rapacity of the French commissaries,
who followed in the rear of the armies, soon
made the Swiss regret even the spoliations
of Brune and their first conquerors. Lecar-
lier levied 100,000 crowns in Fribourg, and
800,000 francs in Berne; and as the public
treasure was exhausted, the effects of 300 of
the richest families were taken in payment,
and the principal senators sent as prisoners
to the citadel of Besançon till the contribu-
whose exactions were still more intolerable.
tion was paid. He was succeeded by Rapinat,
He levied a fresh contribution of 6,000,000
francs on Berne; on Zurich, Fribourg, and
taken from six abbeys alone. —HARD. vi.
Soleure, of 7,000,000; 750,000 francs were
180, 181.
1798.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
125
:
France, as they imposed upon it all the
burdens and dangers of war, without
either its advantages or its glories.
All
65. The discontents arising from these
circumstances were accumulating on all
sides, when the imposition of an oath
to the new constitution brought matters
to a crisis in the small cantons.
took it with the utmost reluctance; but
the shepherds of Unterwalden unani-
mously declared they would rather per-
ish; and thither the most determined
of the men of Schwytz and Uri flocked,
to sell their lives dearly in defence of
their country. But resistance was hope-
less. Eight thousand French embarked
at Luzern, and landed at Stanz, on the
eastern side; while the like number
crossed the beech-clad ridge of the
Brunig, and descended by the lovely
lakes of Lungern and Sarnen, at the
western extremity of the valley. Op-
pressed by such overwhelming forces,
of horror; but the fires from the burn-
ing villages still threw a lurid light over
the cliffs of the Engelberg; and long
after the rosy tint of evening had ceased
to tinge the glaciers of the Titlis, the
glare of the conflagration illuminated
the summit of the mountain.
66. These tragical events were little
calculated to induce other states to fol-
low the example of the Swiss in calling
in the aid of the French democracy.
The inhabitants of the Grisons, who
had felt the shocks of the revolution-
ary earthquake, took counsel from the
disasters of their brethren in the Fo-
rest Cantons, and invoking the aid of
Austria, guaranteed by ancient treaties,
succeeded in preserving their independ-
ence and ancient institutions. Seven
thousand Imperialists entered Coire in
the middle of October; and spreading
through the valley of the Rhine, already
occupied those posts which were destin-
the peasants no longer hoped for suc-ed to be the scene of such sanguinary
cess; an honourable death was the conflicts in the succeeding campaign.
only object of their wishes. In their The French, on their part, augmented
despair they observed little design, and rather than diminished the force with
preserved hardly any discipline; yet which they occupied Switzerland; and
such is the force of mere native valour, it was already apparent that, in the next
that for several days it enabled three conflict between these gigantic powers,
thousand shepherds to keep at bay the Alps would become the principal
above sixteen thousand of the bravest theatre of their strife.
troops of France. Every hedge, every
thicket, every cottage, was obstinately
contested; the dying crawled into the
hottest of the fire; the women and
children threw themselves upon the
enemy's bayonets; the grey-haired
raised their feeble hands against the in-
vaders; but what could heroism and de-
votion achieve against such desperate
odds? Slowly, but steadily, the French
columns forced their way through the
valley, the flames of the houses, the
massacre of the inhabitants, marking
their steps. The beautiful village of
Stanz, entirely built of wood, was soon
consumed; seventy peasants, with their
curate at their head, perished in the
flames of the church. Two hundred
auxiliaries from Schwytz, arriving too
late to prevent the massacre, rushed in-
to the thickest of the fight; and, after
slaying double their own number of the
enemy, perished to the last man. Night
67. In this unprovoked attack upon
Switzerland, the Directory committed
as great a fault in political wisdom as
in moral duty. The neutrality of that
country was a better defence to France,
on its south-eastern frontier, than either
the Rhine or the iron barrier on its
north-western. The Allies could never
venture to violate the neutrality of the
Helvetic Confederacy, lest they should
throw its warlike population into the
arms of France; no armies were re-
quired for that frontier, and the whole
disposable forces of the state could be
turned to the Rhine and the Maritime
Alps. In offensive operations, the ad-
vantage was equally apparent. The
French, possessing the line of the Rhine,
with its numerous fortifications, had
the best possible base for their opera-
tions in Germany; the fortresses of
Piedmont gave them the same advan-
tage in Italy; while the great mass of
at length drew its veil over these scenes | the Alps, occupied by a neutral power,
126.
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
***.
|
rendered their conquests, pushed for- | on Switzerland. As long as the Re-
ward in either of these directions, se- public was contending with the armies
cure from an attack in flank, and pre- of kings, or resisting the efforts of the
served the invading army from all risk aristocracy, it was alleged that it was
of being cut off from its resources. But only defending its own liberties, and
when the Alps themselves became the that the whole monarchies of Europe
theatre of conflict, these advantages were leagued together for its destruc-
were all lost to the Republic; the bul- tion. But when, in a moment of gen-
wark of the Rhine was liable to be ren-eral peace, its rulers commenced an
dered valueless at any time by a reverse unprovoked attack on the Swiss Con-
in Switzerland, and France exposed to federacy; when the loud declaimers in
an invasion in the only quarter where favour of popular rights forced an
her frontier is totally defenceless; while | obnoxious constitution on the moun-
the fortifications of Mantua and the line taineers of the Alps, and desolated with
of the Adige were of comparatively fire and sword the beautiful recesses of
little importance, when they were liable the democratic cantons; the sympathies
to be turned by any inconsiderable suc- of Europe were awakened in favour of
cess in the Grisons or the Italian baili- a gallant and suffering people, and the
wicks. The Tyrol, besides, with its native atrocity of the invasion called
numerous, warlike, and enthusiastic po- forth the wishes of freedom on the other
pulation, afforded a base for mountain side. The Whig leaders of England,
warfare, and a secure asylum in case of with Mr Fox and Sir James Mackintosh
disaster, which the French could never at their head, who had palliated the
expect to find amidst the foreign lan- atrocities of the Revolution longer than
guage and hostile feelings of German was consistent either with their own
Switzerland; while, by extending the character or their interest as a poli-
line of operations from the Adriatic to tical party, confessed that "the mask
the Channel, the Republic was forced had fallen from the face of revolution-
to defend an extent of frontier, for ary France, if indeed it ever had worn
which even its resources, ample as they it.
"( Where," it was asked over all
were, might be expected to prove in- Europe, "will the Revolution stop?
sufficient.
What country could be imagined less
alluring to their cupidity than that,
where, notwithstanding the industry
of the inhabitants, the churlish soil
will barely yield its children bread?
What government can pretend to favour
in the eyes of the Directory, when it
visits with fire and sword those fields
where the whole inhabitants of a can-
ton assemble under the vault of heaven,
to deliberate, like the Spartans of old,
on their common concerns? What fidel-
ity and proof of confidence does it ex-
pect more complete than that which
leaves a whole frontier without defence,
or rather which has hitherto considered
""
|
68. Nothing ever done by the revo-
lutionary government of France had so
powerful an effect in cooling the ardour
of its partisans in Europe, and opening
the eyes of the intelligent and respect-
able classes in every other country as
to their ultimate designs,* as the attack
* Its effect on the friends of freedom in
England may be judged of from the following
indignant lines by Coleridge, once an ardent
supporter of the Revolution, in his noble Ode
to France, written in 1797 :-
G
"Forgive me, Freedom, oh, forgive those dreams!
I hear thy voice, I hear thy loud lament,
From bleak Helvetia's icy caverns sent-
I hear thy groans upon her blood-stain’d streams!
Heroes, that for your peaceful country perish'd,
And ye that, fleeing, spot your mountain snows
With bleeding wounds, forgive me that I cherished it as better defended by the unalterable
One thought that ever bless'd your cruel foes!
To scatter rage and traitorous guilt,
Where peace her jealous home had built;
A patriot race to disinherit
Of all that made their stormy wilds so dear.
*
*
*
O France! that mockest heaven, adulterous, blind,
And patriot only in pernicious toils,
Are these thy boasts, champion of human kind,
*
*
*
*
To insult the shrine of Liberty with spoils
From freemen torn; to tempt and to betray ? ”
neutrality of its faithful allies, than by
the triple line of fortresses which else-
where guards the entrance to its soil?"+
"The invasion and destruction of Switzer-
land," says Sir James Mackintosh, "is an act
in comparison with which all the deeds of
rapine and blood perpetrated in the world
are innocence itself. It was an unprovoked
aggression against an innocent country,
1797.]
127
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
69. The Ecclesiastical States were | tical States continued without inter-
the next object of attack. It had long
been an avowed object of ambition with
the Republican government to revolu-
tionise Rome, and plant the tricolor flag
in the city of Brutus. The resolution
of Napoleon and the Directory to effect
the overthrow of the Papal government,
was adopted long before the treaty of 70. The situation of the Pope had
Campo Formio. On the 12th Febru- thus become, since the French con-
ary 1797, the Directory wrote to Napo-quests in Italy, in the highest degree
leon,-"The possession of the Tyrol precarious. Cut off, by the Cisalpine
and Trieste, and the conquest of Rome, republic, from any support from Aus-
will be the glorious fruits of the fall of tria; left by the treaty of Campo For-
Mantua." On the 19th May 1797, mio entirely at the mercy of the French
Napoleon wrote to the Directory, Republic; threatened by the heavings
"The Pope is dangerously ill, and is of the democratic spirit within his own
eighty-three years old. The moment dominions, and exposed to all the con-
I received this intelligence, I assembled tagion arising from the complete es-
all my Poles at Bologna, from whence tablishment, and close vicinity, of re-
I shall push them forward to Ancona. publican governments in the north of
What shall I do if the Pope dies?" The Italy, he was almost destitute of the
Directory answered, "The minister of means of resisting so many seen and
foreign affairs will inform General Buo- unseen enemies. The pontifical trea-
naparte, that they trust to his accus-sury was exhausted by the immense
tomed prudence to bring about a de- payments stipulated by the treaty of
mocratic revolution in the Roman Tolentino, and the enormous subse-
states, with as little convulsion as pos- quent contributions levied by the
sible."
The scheme, however, failed French generals; while the activity
at that time, as the Pope recovered. and zeal of the revolutionary clubs in
Meanwhile the pillage of the Ecclesias- all the principal towns of the Ecclesi-
S
mission; and having exhausted the
public treasury, and drained the country
of all its specie, the French agents laid
their rapacious hands upon all the jew-
els and precious stones they could find.
The value of the plunder thus got was
astonishing.*
which had been the sanctuary of peace and ported a mortal war against the Pope, as long
liberty for three centuries; respected as a as the Papal government resisted; 'but now
sacred territory by the fiercest ambition, that it is prostrated at our feet, I am become
raised like its own mountains beyond the exceedingly pacific: I think such a system is
reach of the storms which raged on every both for your interest and for that ofthe Direc-
side; the only government that ever accu- tory." On the 25th May 1797, the same am-
mulated wealth without imposing taxes.bassador wrote to Napoleon :-"I am occu-
An innocent treasure sustained by the tears pied in collecting and transporting from
of the poor, but which attested the virtue of hence to Milan all the diamonds and jewels I
a long series of magistrates, at length caught can collect; I send there also whatever is made
the eye of the spoiler, and became their the subject of dispute in the payments of the
ruin.”—Sir JAMES MACKINTOSH's Works, iii. contributions. You will keep in view that
293.
the people here are exhausted, and that it is
in vain to expect the destitute to pay. I take
advantage of these circumstances to prostrate
at your feet Rome and the Papal govern-
ment." On the 5th August 1797, he again
wrote to Napoleon,- Discontent is at its
height in the Papal States; the government
will fall to pieces of itself, as I have repeat-
edly predicted to you. But it is not at Rome
that the explosion will take place; too many
persons are here dependent upon expen-
diture of the great. The payment of 3,000,000,
stipulated by the treaty of Tolentino, at the
close of so many previous losses, has totally
exhausted this old carcass. We are making it
expire by a slow fire; it will soon crumble to
the dust. The revolutionists, by accelerating
matters, would only hasten a dissolution cer-
CC
the
* "The Pope," said Cacault, the French
ambassador at Rome, to Napoleon, "gives us
full satisfaction in everything regarding any
errors in accounting, weight, &c., that may
occur in the payment of the 30,000,000 francs.
The payments in diamonds amount to 11,271,000
francs (£450,000). He has paid 4,000,000 in
francs, of contributions levied since the treaty
of Tolentino. But it is with the utmost diffi-
culty that these payments are raised; the
country is exhausted; let us not drive it to
bankruptcy. My agent, citizen Haller, wrote
to me the other day, 'Do not forget, citizen
minister, that the immense and unceasing
demands of the army oblige us to play the
corsair a little, and that we must not enter
into discussions, as it would sometimes turn
out that we are in the wrong.' I always sup-tain and inevitable."
}
L
*

-

128
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
astical States, was daily increasing with | revolutionary action, and those numer-
the prospect of success. To enable the ous ardent characters with which the
government to meet the insatiable de- Italian cities abound, flocked there as
mands of the French army, the prin- to a common focus, from whence the
cipal Roman families, like the Pope, next great explosion of democratic fer-
had sold their gold, their silver, their vour was to be expected.* In this ex-
jewels, their horses, their carriages, tremity, Pius VI., who was above eighty
their finest pictures, in a word, all their years of age, and sinking into the
valuable effects; but the exactions of grave, called to his counsels the Aus-
the Republican agents were still un- trian General Provera, already dis-
abated. In despair, they had recourse tinguished in the Italian campaigns;
to the fatal expedient of issuing a paper but Napoleon and the Directory soon
circulation, bearing a forced value; but compelled the humiliated Pontiff to
that, in a country destitute of credit, dismiss that intrepid counsellor.+ As
soon fell to an inconsiderable value, and his recovery then seemed hopeless, the
augmented rather than relieved the instructions of government to their
public distress.
ambassador were to delay the procla-
mation of a republic till his death,
when the vacant chair of St Peter
might be overturned with little diffi-
culty; but such was the activity of the
revolutionary agents, that the train
was ready to take fire before that event
took place, and the ears of the Romans
were assailed by incessant abuse of the
ecclesiastical government, and vehe-
ment declamations in favour of repub-
71. Joseph Buonaparte, brother to
Napoleon, had been appointed ambas-
sador at the court of Rome; but as his
character was deemed too honourable
for political intrigue, Generals Duphot
and Sherlock were sent along with him,
to do that at which it was feared he
might spurn. The former had become
known from his success in effecting the
overthrow of the Genoese aristocracy.
The French embassy, under their di-lican freedom.
rection, soon became the centre of the

72. The resolution to overturn the
* It would appear, however, that the Frenching its feelings of regard for the Papal govern-
ambassador was by no means satisfied with ment, is on the point of restoring Ancona. You
the first efforts of the Roman patriots. "They are ruining all your affairs; the whole re-
have manifested," said Joseph Buonaparte to sponsibility rests on your head. The French
Napoleon, "all the disposition to overturn troops will give you no assistance in quelling
the government, but none of the resolution. the revolts with which you are menaced, if
If they have thought and felt like Brutus, you continue your present course.' Should
and the great men of antiquity, they have the Pope die, you must do your utmost to
spoken like women, and acted like children. | prevent the nomination of a successor, and bring
The government has caused them all to be about a revolution. Depend upon it, the King
arrested."— Letter, Joseph to Napoleon, 10th of Naples will not stir. Should he do so, you
September 1797; Corresp. Confid.
will inform him that the Roman people are
under the protection of the French Republic;
but at the same time you must hold out to
him secretly that the French government is
desirous to renew its negotiations with him. In
a word, you must be as haughty in public as
you are pliant in private;-the object of the
first being to deter him from entering Rome
of the last, to make him believe that it is for
his interest not to do so. Should no revolu-
tionary movement break out at Rome, so that
there is no pretence for preventing the nomi-
nation of a Pope, at least take care that the
Cardinal Albani is not put in nomination.
Declare, that the moment that is done, I will
march upon Rome."
march upon Rome."-Secret Desp., Napoleon to
Joseph Buonaparte, dated Passeriano, 20th Sept.
1797. These instructions, it is to be recollect-
ed, were sent to the French ambassador at
Rome, when France was still and completely
at peace with the Holy See, and when the
latter had honourably discharged the burden-
some conditions of the treaty of Tolentino.
"You must forthwith intimate to the
Court of Rome," said Napoleon to his brother
Joseph, ambassador there, "that if General
Provera is not immediately sent away from
Rome, the Republic will regard it as a decla-
ration of war. I attach the utmost import-
ance to the removal of an Austrian com-
mander from the Roman troops. You will
insist not only that he be deprived of the
command of the Roman troops, but that
within twenty-four hours he depart from
Rome. Assume a high tone; it is only by
evincing the greatest firmness, and making
use of the most energetic expressions, that
you will succeed in overawing the Papal au-
thority. Timid when you show your teeth,
they rapidly become overbearing if you treat
them with any respect. I know the Court of
Rome well. That single step, if properly
taken, will complete its ruin. At the same
time, you will hold out to the Papal secretary
of state, 'that the French Republic, continu- |
1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
129
?
IN
Papal government, like all the other
ambitious projects of the Directory, re-
ceived a very great impulse from the re-
ascendancy of Jacobin influence at Paris,
by the results of the revolution of 18th
Fructidor. One of the first measures of
the new government was to despatch an
order to Joseph Buonaparte at Rome, to
promote, by all the means in his power,
the approaching revolution in the Papal
States; and above all things to take
care that, at the Pope's death, no suc-
cessor should be elected to the chair
of St Peter.* Napoleon's language to
the Roman pontiff became daily more
menacing. Immediately before setting
out for Rastadt, he ordered his brothert
* Talleyrand, on 10th October, wrote to
Joseph Buonaparte at Rome,-"You have
two things, citizen-general, to do: 1. To pre-
vent, by all possible means, the King of
Naples from entering the Papal territory.
2. To increase, rather than restrain, the good
dispositions of those who think that it is
high time the reign of the popes should finish;
in a word, to encourage the aspirations of
the Roman people towards liberty. At all
events, take care that we get hold of An-
cona and a large portion of the coast of Italy."
Eleven La
-the President of the Directory, wrote to Na-
poleon,-"In regard to Rome, the Directory
cordially approve of the instructions you have
given to your brother, to prevent a successor
Joseph to intimate to the Pope that
three thousand additional troops had
been forwarded to Ancona ; that if the
Austrian general Provera was not dis-
missed within twenty-four hours, war
would be declared; that if any of the
revolutionists who had been arrested
were executed, reprisals would forth-
with be exercised on the cardinals;
and that, if the Cisalpine republic was
not recognised, it would be the signal
for immediate hostilities. At the same
time, ten thousand troops of the Cisal-
pine Republic advanced to St Leon, in
the Papal Duchy of Urbino, and made
themselves masters of that fortress;
while at Ancona, which was still gar-
risoned by French troops, notwith-
standing its stipulated restoration by
the treaty of Tolentino to the Holy
See, the democratic party openly pro-
claimed "the Anconite republic." Simi-
lar revolutionary movements took place
at Corneto, Civita Vecchia, Pesaro, and
Sinigaglia; while at Rome itself, Jo-
seph Buonaparte, by compelling the
Papal government to liberate all per-
sons confined for political offences, sud-
denly threw forth upon the capital se-
veral hundreds of the most heated re-
publicans in Italy. After this great
addition to the strength of the revolu-
tionists, measures were no longer kept
with the government. Seditious meet-
ings were constantly held in every part
of the city; immense collections of tri-
color cockades were made to distinguish
the insurgents, and deputations of the
citizens openly waited upon the French
ambassador, to invite him to support
the insurrection, to which he replied
in ambiguous terms-"The fate of na-
tions, as of individuals, being buried in
the womb of futurity, it is not given
to me to penetrate its mysteries.'
being appointed to Pius VI. We must lay hold
of the present favourable circumstances to de-
liver Burope from the pretended Papal supre-
macy. Tuscany will next attract your atten-
tion. You will, therefore, if hostilities are re-
sumed, give the Grand-duke his congé, and
facilitate by every means the establishment of a
free and representative government in Tuscany.
-Corresp. Confid. iv. 244, (October 21, 1797),
↑ "I cannot tell you, citizen-ambassador,
said Napoleon, "what indignation I felt when
I heard that Provera was still in the service
of the Pope. Let him know instantly, that,
though the French Republic is at peace with
the Holy See, it will not for an instant suffer
any officer or agent of the Imperialists to hold
any situation under the Papal government.
You will, therefore, insist on the dismissal of
M. Provera within twenty-four hours, on pain
of instantly demanding your passports. You
will let him know that I have moved three
thousand additional soldiers to Ancona, not
one of whom will recede till Provera is dis-
missed. Let him know further, that if one
of the prisoners for political offences is exe-
cuted, Cardinal Rusca and the other car-
dinals shall answer for it with their heads.
73. In this temper of men's minds, a
spark was sufficient to occasion an ex-
plosion. On the 27th December 1797,
an immense crowd assembled, with se-
ditious cries, and moved to the palace
of the French ambassador, where they
exclaimed, "Vive la République Ro-
Finally, make him aware that, the moment
you quit the Papal territory, Ancona will be maine!" and loudly invoked the aid of
|
incorporated with the Cisalpine Republic. the French to enable them to plant the
You will easily understand that the last
phrase must be spoken, not written."-NAPO- tricolor flag on the Capitol. The in-
LEON to JOSEPH BUONAPARTE, NOV. 14, 1797. | surgents displayed the tricolor cockade,

"
130
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
!
:
•
•
#
¿
:
•
•
BÉNS A
I
and evinced the most menacing dispo- an instant's delay, carried into execu-
tion the orders of the Directory. Six
thousand Poles, who on the wreck of
their country had entered the French
service, were stationed at Rimini to
cover the Cisalpine Republic; a reserve
was established at Tolentino, while the
commander-in-chief, at the head of
eighteen thousand veteran troops, en-
tered Ancona. Having completed the
work of revolution in that turbulent
district, and secured the fortress, he
crossed the Apennines; and advancing
by Foligno and Narni, appeared on the
10th February before the Eternal City.
The Pope, in the utmost consternation,
shut himself up in the Vatican, and
spent night and day at the foot of the
altar in imploring the Divine protec-
tion.*
sition; the danger was extreme; from
similar beginnings the overthrow of the
governments of Venice and Genoa had
rapidly followed. The Papal ministers
sent a regiment of dragoons to prevent
any sortie of the revolutionists from
the palace of the French ambassador;
and they repeatedly warned the insur-
gents, that their orders were to allow
no one to leave its precincts. Duphot,
however, indignant at being restrained
by the pontifical troops, drew his sword,
rushed down the staircase, and put
himself at the head of one hundred
and fifty armed Roman democrats, who
were now contending with the dragoons
in the court-yard of the palace; he
was immediately killed by a discharge
ordered by the sergeant commanding
the patrol of the Papal troops; and the
ambassador himself, who had followed
to appease the tumult, narrowly escaped
the same fate. A violent scuffle en-
sued, several persons were slain and
wounded on both sides; and, after re-
maining several hours in the greatest
alarm, Joseph Buonaparte with his suite
retired to Florence.
74. This catastrophe, however ob-
viously occasioned by the revolutionary
schemes which were in agitation at the
residence of the French ambassador,
having taken place within the precincts
of his palace, was unhappily a violation
of the law of nations, and gave the
Directory too fair a ground to demand
satisfaction. They instantly resolved
to make it the pretext for the imme-
diate occupation of Rome, and over
throw of the Papal government. The
march of troops out of Italy was counter-
manded, and Berthier, the commander-
in-chief, received orders to advance ra-
pidly into the Ecclesiastical States.
Meanwhile, the democratic spirit burst
forth more violently than ever at An-
cona and the neighbouring towns; and
the Papal authority was soon lost in all
the provinces on the eastern slope of
the Apennines. To these accumulated
disasters, the Pontiff could only oppose
the fasts and prayers of an aged con-
clave-weapons of spiritual warfare
little calculated to arrest the conquerors
of Arcola and Lodi. Berthier, without
* The Directory, in their orders to Berthier,
prescribed to him a course as perfidious as
it was hostile. Their words were as follows:
"The intention of the Directory is, that
you march as secretly and rapidly as possible
on Rome with 18,000 men. Celerity is of the
utmost importance: that alone can insure
success. The King of Naples will probably
send an envoy to your headquarters, to whom
you will declare that the French government
if it was generous enough to restrain its in-
is actuated by no ambitious designs; and that,
dignation at Tolentino, when it had much
more serious causes of complaint against the
Holy See, it is still more probable that it
will do the same now. While holding out
these assurances, you will at the same time
advance as rapidly as possible towards Rome:
the great object is to keep your design secret,
till you are so near that city that the King of
Naples cannot prevent it. When within two
days' march of Rome, menace the Pope and
all the members of the government, in order
to terrify them, and make them take to
flight. Arrived in Rome, employ your whole
influence to establish a Roman republic.".
HARD. V. 222.
Berthier, however, was too much a man of
honour to enter cordially into the revolution-
ary projects of the Directory. On 1st Janu-
ary 1798, he wrote to Napoleon:- I always
told you the command in Italy was not
suited to me. I wish to extricate myself from
revolutions. Four years' service in them in
America, ten in France, is enough, general.
I shall ever be ready to combat as a soldier
for my country, but have no desire to be mix-
edup with revolutionary politics." It would
appear that the Roman people generally had
no greater desire than he had to be involved
in a revolution; for, on the morning of his
arrival at that city, he wrote to Napoleon:—
"I have been in Rome since this morning;
but I have found nothing but the utmost con-
sternation among the inhabitants. One soli-

1798.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
131
03
75. Rome, almost defenceless, would
have offered no obstacle to the entrance
of the French troops; but it was part
of the policy of the Directory to make
it appear that their aid was invoked by
the spontaneous will of the inhabitants.
Contenting himself, therefore, with oc-
cupying the castle of St Angelo, from
which the feeble guards of the Pope
were soon expelled, Berthier kept his
troops for five days encamped without
the walls. At length the revolutionists
having completed their preparations, a
noisy crowd assembled in the Campo
Vaccino, the ancient Forum; the old
foundations of the Capitol were made
again to resound with the cries-if
these were not dictated by the spirit
of freedom, and the venerable ensigns,
bearing the S. P. Q. R., after the lapse
of fourteen hundred years, floated in
the winds. The multitude tumultu-erous
ously demanded the overthrow of the
Papal authority; the French troops
were invited to enter; the conquerors
of Italy, with a haughty air, passed the
gates of Aurelian, defiled through the
Piazza del Popolo, gazed on the inde-
structible monuments of Roman gran-yet guided the councils of the faithful;
deur, and, amidst the shouts of the in- multitudes fell on their knees wherever
habitants, the tricolor flag was displayed he passed, and sought that benediction
from the summit of the Capitol. from a captive which they would, per-
haps, have disregarded from a ruling
pontiff.
76. But while part of the Roman
populace, mistaking their recollections
for prophecies, were surrendering them-
selves to a pardonable intoxication upon
the fancied recovery of their liberties,
the agents of the Directory were pre-
paring for them the sad realities of
slavery. The Pope, who had been
guarded by five hundred soldiers ever
since the entry of the Republicans, was
directed to retire into Tuscany; his
Swiss guard relieved by a French one,
and he himself ordered to dispossess
himself of all his temporal authority.
He replied, with the firmness of a mar-
tyr, “I am prepared for every species
of disgrace. As supreme Pontiff, I am
tary patriot has appeared at headquarters; he
offered to put at my disposal two thousand gal-
ley-slaves; you may believe how I received
that proposition. My further presence here
is useless. I beseech you to recall me; it is
the greatest boon you can possibly confer
upon me."-Berthier to Napoleon, 10th Feb.
1798; Corresp. Confid. iv. 510.
resolved to die in the exercise of all
my powers. You may employ force-
you have the power to do so; but know
that though you may be masters of my
body, you are not so of my soul. Free
in the region where it is placed, it fears
neither the events nor the sufferings of
this life. I stand on the threshold of
another world; there I shall be sheltered
alike from the violence and impiety of
this." Force was soon employed to dis-
possess him of his authority; he was
dragged from the altar in his palace,
his repositories were all ransacked and
plundered, the rings even torn from his
fingers, the whole effects in the Vatican
and Quirinal inventoried and seized,
and the aged pontiff conducted, with
only a few domestics, amidst the brutal
jests and sacrilegious songs of the French
dragoons, into Tuscany, where the gen-
hospitality of the Grand-duke
strove to soften the hardships of his
exile. But though a captive in the
hands of his enemies, the venerable old
man still retained the supreme autho-
rity in the church. From his retreat
in the convent of the Chartreuse, he

77. The subsequent treatment of this
venerable man was as disgraceful to
the Republican government as it was
honourable to his piety and constancy
as the head of the church. Fearful
that, from his virtues and sufferings, he
might have too much influence on the
continent of Italy, he was removed by
their orders to Leghorn, in March 1799,
with the design of transferring him to
Cagliari in Sardinia; and the English
cruisers in the Mediterranean redoubled
their vigilance, in the generous hope of
rescuing the father of an opposite church
from the persecution of his enemies.
Apprehensive of losing their prisoner,
the French altered his destination, and
forcing him to traverse, often during
the night, the Apennines and the Alps,
in a rigorous season, he at length reach-
ed Valence, where, after an illness of
ten days, he expired in the eighty-
182
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
second year of his age, and the twenty- | cardinals were burnt, in order to col-
fourth of his pontificate. The cruelty lect from the flames the gold with which
of the Directory increased as he ap- they were adorned. The Vatican was
proached their dominions; all his old stripped to its naked walls; the im-
attendants were compelled to leave him, mortal frescoes of Raphael and Michael
and the Father of the Faithful was al- Angelo, which could not be removed,
lowed to expire, attended only by his alone remained in solitary beauty amidst
confessor. Yet even in this disconsolate the general desolation. A contribution
state, he derived the highest satisfaction of four millions of francs in money,
from the devotion and reverence of two millions in provisions, and three
the people in the provinces of France thousand horses, was imposed on a city
through which he passed. Multitudes already exhausted by the enormons ex-
from Gap, Vizelle, and Grenoble, flocked actions it had previously undergone.
to the road to receive his benediction; Under the directions of the infamous
and he frequently repeated, with tears commissary Haller, the domestic lib-
in his eyes, the words of Scripture: rary, museum, furniture, jewels, and.
Verily, I say unto you, I have not even the private clothes of the Pope,
seen such faith, no, not in Israel." were sold. Nor did the palaces of the
Roman nobility escape devastation.
The noble galleries of the Cardinal
Braschi, and the Cardinal York, the
last relic of the Stuart line, underwent
the same fate. Others, as those of the
Chigi, Borghese, and Doria palaces,
were rescued from destruction only
by enormous ransoms. Everything of
value that the treaty of Tolentino had
left in Rome became the prey of re-
publican cupidity; and the very name
of freedom soon became odious from
the sordid and infamous crimes which
were committed under its shelter.
"(
78. But long before the Pope had
sunk under the persecution of his op-
pressors, Rome had experienced the
bitter fruits of republican fraternisa-
tion. Immediately after the entry of
the French troops, commenced the re-
gular and systematic pillage of the city.
Not only the churches and the con-
vents, but the palaces of the cardinals
and of the nobility, were laid waste.
The agents of the Directory, insatiable
in the pursuit of plunder, and merci-
less in the means of exacting it, ran-
sacked every quarter within its walls,
seized the most valuable works of art,
and stripped the Eternal City of those
treasures which had survived the Gothic
fire and escaped the rapacious hands of
the Spanish soldiers in the reign of
Charles V. The bloodshed was much
less, but the spoil collected incompar-
ably greater, than at the disastrous sack
which followed the storm of the city
and death of the Constable Bourbon.
Almost all the great works of art which
have since that time been collected
throughout Europe, were then scat-
tered abroad. The spoliation exceeded
all that the Goths or Vandals had ef-
fected. Not only the palaces of the
Vatican and the Monte Cavallo, and
the chief nobility of Rome, but those
of Castel Gandolfo, on the margin of
the Alban lake, of Terracina, the Villa
Albani, and others in the environs of
Rome, were plundered of every article
of value which they possessed. The
whole sacerdotal habits of the Pope and
79. Nor was the oppression of the
French confined to the plunder of pa-
laces and churches. Eight cardinals
were arrested and sent to Civita, Cas-
tellana; while enormous contributions
were levied on the Papal territory, and
brought home the bitterness of con-
quest to every poor man's door. At the
same time, the ample territorial posses-
sions of the church and the monasteries
were confiscated, and declared national
property; a measure which, by drying
up at once the whole resources of the
affluent classes, precipitated into the
extreme of misery the numerous poor,
who were maintained by their expen-
diture, or fed by their bounty. All the
respectable citizens and clergy were
in fetters; and a base and despicable
faction alone, among whom, to their
disgrace be it told, were found four-
teen cardinals, followed in the train of
their oppressors; and at a public fes-
tival, returned thanks to God for the
I
1798.]
133
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
miseries they had brought upon their | downwards, was held in the Pantheon,
country.
at which an address was agreed on to
80. To such a height did the dis- General Berthier, in which they de-
orders rise, that they excited the in-clared their detestation of the extor-
dignation of the army itself, albeit little tions which had been practised in Rome,
scrupulous in general about the means protested that they would no longer
by which plunder was acquired. While be the instruments of the ignominious
the agents of the Directory were thus wretches who had made such a use of
enriching themselves and sullying the their valour, and insisted for immediate
name of France by unheard-of spolia- payment of their large arrears. The
tion, the inferior officers and soldiers discontents soon wore so alarming an
were suffering the greatest privations. aspect, that Massena, who had assumed
For several months they had been the command, ordered all the troops,
without pay, their clothes were worn excepting three thousand, to leave the
out, their feet bare, their knapsacks capital. But they refused to obey;
empty. Indignant at the painful con- and another meeting, at which still
trast which their condition offered to more menacing language was used,
that of the civil agents, who were daily having shortly after been held, which
becoming richer from the spoils of the his soldiers refused to disperse, he was
city, and comparing their penury with compelled to abandon the command,
the luxurious condition of the corps and retire to Ancona, leaving the direc-
stationed in the Cisalpine republic, the tion of the army to General d'Alle-
officers and soldiers in and around magne. At the same time the troops
Rome gave vent to open and unmea- in Mantua raised the standard of revolt,
sured terms of vituperation. On the and, resolving to abandon Italy, had
24th February a general meeting of all already fixed all their days' march to
the officers, from the rank of captain Lyons and the banks of the Rhone.*
Rome and the Ecclesiastical States; we swear
that we will no longer be the instruments of
the wretches who have perpetrated them.
We insist that the effects seized from various
individuals, belonging to states with whom
we are still at peace, be restored; and, inde-
pendent of our pay, we persist in demanding
justice upon the official and elevated monsters,
plunged night and day in luxury and debauch-
ery, who have committed the robberies and spoli-
ations in Rome.”—ST CYR, Hist. Mil. 1. 282.
|
* The remonstrance framed by the French
army at this great meeting in the Pantheon
bears:-"The first cause of our discontent is
regret that a horde of robbers, who have in-
sinuated themselves into the confidence of
the nation, should deprive us of our honour.
These men enter the chief houses of Rome,
give themselves out for persons authorised to
receive contributions, carry off all the gold,
jewels, and horses; in a word, every article
of value they can find, without giving any re-
ceipts. This conduct, if it remains unpunish- A singular occurrence took place at the re-
ed, is calculated to bring eternal disgrace on volt in Mantua, highly characteristic of the
the French nation in the eyes of the whole composition of the French army in Italy at
universe. We could furnish a thousand proofs this period. The chief of the twelfth demi-
of these assertions. The second cause is the brigade, when endeavouring, sword in hand,
misery in which both officers and men are in- to defend the standard with which he was in-
volved; destitute of pay for five months; in trusted, killed one of the grenadiers. His
want of everything. The excessive luxury of fellow-soldiers immediately exclaimed, "We
the officers of the staff affords a painful con- will not revenge our comrade; you are only
trast to the naked condition of the general doing your duty." The chief of the fourteenth
body of the army. The third cause of the wishing, for the same reason, to resist the
general discontent is the arrival of General mutineers, they unscrewed their bayonets
Massena. The soldiers have not forgotten the from their guns, to prevent his being injured
extortions and robberies he has committed in the strife which ensued for its seizure.
wherever he has been invested with the com- Not a single officer was insulted or maltreat-
mand. The Venetian territory, and above all ed; the battalions answered by unanimous
Padua, is a district teeming with proofs of his refusals all exhortations to return to their
immorality." In an address to Berthier from | duty, but the sentinels saluted the officers
the officers of the army, the expressions are when they passed, as if in a state of the most
still more strong:-"The soldiers are in the perfect subordination. No acts of pillage fol-
utmost misery for want of pay. Many mil-lowed the raising of the standard of revolt,
lions are in the public chest; three would though the shops where it broke out were all
discharge their arrears. We disavow in the open and unguarded. The soldiers there,
sight of Heaven, in whose temple we are as equally as their brethren at Rome, were loud
sembled, the crimes committed in the city of in their condemnation of the officers and
134
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXV.
#
81. The Roman populace, encouraged
by these dissensions among their op-
pressors, deemed the opportunity fa-
vourable to shake off the yoke, and re-
cover their independence. But they
soon found that it is easier to invite
an enemy within your walls than expel
him when the gates are placed in his
hands. The assemblages in Rome were
soon dispersed with great slaughter
by General d'Allemagne ; and, collect-
ing a few troops, he moved rapidly to
Velletri and Castel Gandolfo, routed
the insurgents who had occupied these
posts, and struck such a terror into
the inhabitants, that they quickly threw
aside their arms, and abandoned all
thoughts of further resistance.
82. Meanwhile the work of revolu-
tion proceeded rapidly in the Roman
states. The whole ancient institutions
were subverted; the executive was
made to consist of five consuls, after
the model of the French Directory;
heavy contributions and forced loans
were exacted from the wealthier classes;
the legislative power was vested in two
chambers, chosen by the lowest ranks,
and the state divided into eight depart-
ments. But, to preserve the entire de-
pendence of this government on the
French Directory, it was specially pro-
vided that an alliance, offensive and
defensive, should immediately be con-
cluded between the French and Roman
republics; that no laws made by the
Roman legislative bodies should either
be promulgated or have force without
the approval of the French general sta-
tioned at Rome; and that he might, of
his own authority, enact such laws as
might appear necessary, or were ordered
by the French Directory. At the same
time edicts were published, prohibiting
the nobles, under severe penalties, from
dismissing any of their domestics, or
discontinuing any of their charitable
donations, on account of the diminished
or ruined state of their fortunes.
civil authorities who had "embezzled all the
funds which should have gone to the pay-
ment of their arrears."
midst of so
much revolutionary profligacy and corrup-
tion, it is pleasing to have to record traits so
honourable to the French
D'HILLIERS' Report, 19th Feb. 1798; Corresp.
Confid. iv. 517, 525.
83. While the Roman states were thus
undergoing fusion in the revolutionary
crucible, the constitution of the Cisal-
pine republic disappeared as rapidly as
it had been formed. Towards the end
of March, a treaty was concluded at
Paris between the French republic and
its infant offspring, by which it was sti-
pulated that the latter should receive
a French garrison of twenty-two thou-
sand infantry, and two thousand five
hundred cavalry, to be paid and clothed
while there by it; and that, in case of
war, they should mutually assist each
other with all their forces. This treaty,
which placed its resources entirely at
the disposal of France, was highly un-
popular in the whole Cisalpine repub-
lic; and it was not without the ut-
most difficulty, and by the aid, both of
threats of arresting a large portion of
their members, and unbounded pro-
mises in case of compliance, that the
councils could be brought to ratify it.
The democratic spirit extended greatly
in the country. Those chosen to the
principal offices of government were all
men of the most violent temperament,
and a conspiracy was generally formed
to emancipate themselves from French
thraldom, and establish, instead of a
Gallic yoke, real freedom. To curb this
dangerous disposition, the Directory
sent Trouvé, à man of a determined
character, to Milan; and his first care
was to suppress, by measures of severity,
the spirit of freedom which threatened
to thwart the ambitious projects of the
French government. With this view
the constitution of the republic was
violently changed by the Transalpine
forces; the number of deputies was re-
duced from 240 to 120, and those only
retained who were known to be devoted
to the French government. After this
violent revolution, Trouvé, who was de-
tested throughout all Lombardy, was
recalled, and Brune and Fouché were
successively sent in his stead; but all
the torrent.
their efforts proved ineffectual to stem
continually increasing, and at length
The discontents went on
recourse was openly had to military
force. On the morning of the 6th De-
cember, the legislative body was sur-
rounded with foreign bayonets; the

1798.]
135
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
senators opposed to the French interest | ing under the withering grasp of the
were expelled; several members of the French republic, the King of Sardinia
Directory were changed, and the gov- was undergoing the last acts of humi-
ernment was prostrated, as in France liation from his merciless allies. The
and Holland, by a military despotism. early peace which this monarch had
The democratic constitution, establish- concluded with their victorious gen-
ed by Napoleon, was immediately an- eral, the fidelity with which he had
nulled, and a new one established under discharged his engagements, the firm
the dictation of the French ambassador, support which the possession of his for-
in the formation of which no attention tresses had given to their arms, were
was paid to the liberties or wishes of unable to save him from spoliation.
the people.
The Directory persisted in believing
that a rickety republic, torn by intes-
tine divisions, would be a more solid
support to their power than a king who
had devoted his last soldier and his last
gun to their service. They soon found
an excuse for subjecting him finally to
their power, and rewarding him for his
faithful adherence to their cause by the
forfeiture of all his continental domin-
ions. After the unworthy descendant
of Emmanuel Victor had opened the
gates of Italy to France by the fatal
cession of the Piedmontese fortresses,†
his life had been a continual scene of
mortification and humiliations. His ter-
ritories were traversed in every direc-
tion by French columns, of whose ap-
proach he received no notification ex-
cepta statement of the supplies required
by them, which he was obliged to fur-
nish gratuitously to theRepublican com-
missaries. He was compelled to banish
all the emigrants from his dominions,
and oppress his subjects by enormous
contributions for the use of his insati-
able allies; while the language of the
revolutionary clubs, openly patronised
by the French ambassador and agents,
daily became more menacing to the regal
government.
86. At length they threw off the mask.
The insurgents of the valleys of the Ta-
naro and the Bormida assembled to the
number of six thousand in the neigh-
84. These violent changes, introduced
by the mere force of military power,
occasioned the utmost discontent in
the Cisalpine republic, and contributed,
more than anything that had yet oc-
curred, to cool the ardour of the Italian
revolutionists. "This, then," it was said,
"is the faith, the fraternity, and the
friendship which you have brought to
us from France! This is the liberty, the
prosperity, which you boast of having
established in Italy! What vast ma-
terials for eloquence do you afford to
those who have never trusted to your
promises! They will say, that you only
promised liberty to the Italians, in order
that you might be the better enabled to
plunder and oppress them; that under
every project of reform were concealed
new and still more grievous chains; that
gold, not freedom, is your idol; that
that fountain of everything noble or
generous is not made for you, nor you
for it; finally, that the liberty of France
consists entirely in words and speeches;
in the howling of a frantic tribune, and
the declamations of impudent sophists.
These changes which, with despotic
power and so much unconcern, you
have effected in the Cisalpine govern-
ments, will assuredly prove the fore-
runner of the fall of your own re-
public.'
**
85. While Lombardy was thus writh-

ears, and with the constitutions given to them
one day, only to be taken away the next, will
finally conceive a well-founded detestation of
the Republic, and prefer their former submis-
sion to a sovereign."-BOTTA, ii. 53.
* Lucien Buonaparte did not hesitate, at
Milan, to give vent to the same sentiments.
"Nothing," said he, "can excuse the bad
faith which has characterised these transac-
tions. The innovations in the Cisalpine re-
public, tending as they do to abridge popular + The magnitude of the obligation thus
freedom by the excessive power they confer conferred by Piedmont on France, was fully
upon the Directory, especially the exclusive admitted by the Directory.
Never," said
right of proposing laws, are worthy of eternal they, on congratulating Charles Emmanuel
condemnation. Nations, disgusted at last on his accession to the throne-"Never will
with the vain and empty name of liberty France forget the obligations which she owes
which France is continually sounding in their | to the Prince of Piedmont."-HARD. vii. 72.
C
136
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
..
..
-
bourhood of Carrosio, supported by two | under Eugene, to advance to its relief,
thousand troops of the Ligurian repub- and terminated in the expulsion of the
lic, who left Genoa at mid-day, with French from Italy, was yielded without,
drums beating and the tricolor flag fly- a struggle to their arms. The surrender
ing. Ginguené, the French ambassador, of this impregnable stronghold put the
endeavoured to persuade the king, in the King of Sardinia entirely at the mercy
usual language of revolutionists, that of the French troops. He was no longer
there was no danger in conceding all the permitted even the semblance of regal
demands of the insurgents, but great in authority. French guards attended him
opposing any resistance to their wishes; on all occasions, and, under the guise
and strongly urged the necessity, as a of respect, kept him a state prisoner in
measure of security, of his placing the his own palace; while the ambassadors
citadel of Turin in the hands of a French of the other powers, deeming Piedmont
garrison; while the Ligurian republic now a French province, wrote to their
resolutely refused any passage for the respective sovereigns, requesting to be
Piedmontese troops through that part recalled from Turin, where the French
of their territories which required to ambassador was now the real monarch.
be passed before the insulated district The Republican generals improved the
of Carrosio could be reached. This was time to reduce the unhappy monarch
soon followed by a menacing proclama- to despair. They loaded all his minis-
tion, in which they declared their reso- ters, civil and military, with accusa-
lution to support the insurgents to the tions, and insisted on their dismissal
utmost of their power; while the French from his court and capital; forced him
ambassador continued to insist for a to abandon all proceedings against the
complete pardon of these rebels, on con- insurgents of every description; new-
dition of their laying down their arms; modelled the government according to
and, above all, for the immediate sur- their republican ideas, and compelled
render of the citadel of Turin. When him to deliver up all the places he had
the troops of Piedmont approached the taken from the Genoese republic.
Ligurian territory to attack the rebels
in Carrosio, the French ambassador for-
bade them to pass the frontier, lest they
should violate the neutrality of the al-
lied republic. Notwithstanding this,
they came up with the united forces of
the insurgents and Genoese, and de-
feated them in two engagements, with
such loss, that it was evident their total
overthrow was at hand.
88. For a few months this shadow of
authority was left to the king; but at
length his complete dethronement was
effected. He was charged with having,
in his secret correspondence with Vi-
enna, allowed a wish to escape him,
that he might soon be delivered from
his imperious allies; and only made his
peace with the Directory by the imme-
diate payment of 8,000,000 francs, or
£320,000. When the Roman republic
was invaded by the Neapolitans, he was
dis-ordered to furnish the stipulated con-
tingent of eight thousand men; and
this was agreed to. The surrender of all
the royal arsenals was next demanded;
and during the discussion of that de-
mand, the French under Joubert treach-
erously commenced hostilities.* No-
87. The Directory now made no show
of preserving moderation. They pre-
tended that a conspiracy had been
covered for renewing the Sicilian Ves-
pers with all the French in Piedmont,
and, as a test of the king not being in-
volved in the design, insisted on the
immediate cession of the citadel of
Turin, Pressed on all sides, threat-
ened with insurrection in his own do-
minions, and menaced with the whole
weight of republican vengeance, the
king at length submitted to their de-
mands; and that admirable fortress,
the masterpiece of Vauban, which had
stood, a century before, the famous
siege which enabled the Austrian forces,
* Recovering, in the last extremity, a por-
tion of the courage which, if earlier exerted,
might have averted their fate, the Pied-
montese cabinet at this crisis prepared a
manifesto, which the Directory instantly and
carefully suppressed. It bore:-"The Pied-
montese government, in the anxious wish of
threatened it, has acceded to all the demands
sparing its subjects the misfortunes which
of the French republic, both in contributions,
1798.]
137
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
varra, Suza, Coni, and Alessandria, were
surprised; a few battalions who at
tempted to resist were driven into Tu-
rin, where the king, having drained the
cup of misery to the dregs, was com-
pelled to resign all his continental do-
minions, which were immediately taken
possession of by the French authorities.
A fugitive from his capital, the ill-fated
monarch left his palace by torch-light
during the night, and owed his safe
retreat to the island of Sardinia to the
generous efforts of Talleyrand, then
ambassador at Turin, who protected
him from the dangers which threatened
his life. A provisional government was
immediately established in Turin, com-
posed of twenty-five of the most violent
of the democratic party; while Grouchy
took possession of the treasury, arsenals,
and fortresses of the kingdom, and pub-
lished a proclamation, denouncing the
pain of death against whoever had a
pound of powder or a gun in his pos-
session, and declaring that any of the
nobles who might engage in an insur-
rection should be arrested, sent to
France, and have half their goods con-
fiscated.
clothing, and supplies for the Army of Italy,
though greatly exceeding the engagements
which it had contracted, and which were so
burdensome as entirely to exhaust the royal
treasury. His majesty has even gone so far
as to agree to place in their hands the citadel
of Turin; and the very day on which it was
demanded, he gave orders for the furnishing
of the contingent stipulated by the treaty.
At the same moment he despatched a mes-
senger to Paris to negotiate concerning other
demands which were inadmissible, in particu-
lar the surrender of all the arsenals. But in the
midst of these measures, the commander of
the French garrison in the citadel of Turin
violently seized possession of the towns of
Novarra, Alessandria, Chivasso, and Suza.
His majesty, profoundly afflicted at these
events, feels it his duty to declare thus pub-
licly, that he has faithfully performed all his
engagements to France, and given no provo-
cation whatever to the disastrous events
which threaten his kingdom." Grouchy, the
French general, forced the king to suppress
this proclamation, threatening to bombard
him in his own palace in case of refusal.
89. While these events were in pro-
gress in the north of Italy, war had
arisen and a kingdom been overthrown
in the south of the peninsula. Naples,
placed on the edge of the revolutionary
volcano since the erection of the States
of the Church into a separate republic,
had viewed with the utmost alarm the
progress of the democratic spirit in its
dominions; and on the occupation of
Rome by the French troops, thirty
thousand men were stationed in the
mountain passes on the frontier, in the
belief that an immediate invasion was
intended. These apprehensions were
not diminished by the appearance of
the expedition to Egypt in the Medi-
terranean, the capture of Malta, and the
vicinity of so large a force to the coasts
of Naples. Rightly judging, from the
fate of the other states in Italy, that
their destruction was unavoidable, either
from internal revolution or external
violence, if measures were not taken to
avert the danger, the Neapolitan cabi-
net augmented their military establish-
ment, and secretly entered into negoti-
ations with Austria,-whose disposition
to put a stop to the further encroach-
this crisis an envoy came to me from the
king; he was a man to be gained, and was
so; other persons were also corrupted: but
the great difficulty was, that these proposi-
tions all emanated from the king, and that
no writing reached me, so that in no event
could I be disavowed. Circumspection was
the more necessary, as war was not yet declared
against the King of Sardinia, and it was ne-
cessary to act so that his resignation might
appear to be voluntary. I confined myself
to threatening the envoy, and sent him out
of the citadel. Meanwhile, my secret agents
were incessantly at work; the envoy return-
ed to me; I announced the arrival of columns
which had not yet come up; and informed
him that the hour of vengeance had arrived;
that Turin was surrounded on all sides, that
escape was impossible, and that unqualified
submission alone remained. The Council of
State had sat all the morning; my hidden
emissaries there had carried their point. The
conditions I exacted were agreed to. I in-
sisted, as an indispensable preliminary, that
all the Piedmontese troops which had been
assembled in Turin for a month past should
be dismissed; in presence of Clausel, the king
signed the order; and after eight hours of
further altercation, the same officer compelled
him to sign the whole articles which I had
required."-HARD. vii. 118, 120. See also The
Resignation, correctly given in HARD. vii. 122,
et seq.
The unworthy intrigues, falsehoods, and
menaces by which the resignation of the
throne was forced upon the king, are thus
detailed by the same general in his secret re-
port to the Directory:-"The moment had
now arrived, when all the springs which 1
had prepared were to be put in motion. At
VOL. IV.
K
183
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
•
ments of France was obvious from her | ing to their usual practice, by requir-
occupation of the Grisons,-for the pur- ing the immediate liberation of all those
pose of concerting measures for their of the democratic party who were con-
common defence. The French ambas- fined for political offences; and though
sador, Garat, a well-known republican, this demand was highly obnoxious to
in vain endeavoured to allay their ap- the court, yet such was the terror in-
prehensions; but, at the same time, spired by the republican arms, that they
smiled at the feeble military force with were obliged to comply. Meanwhile,
which they hoped to arrest the con- intrigues of every kind were set on foot
querors of Arcola and Rivoli.
by their agents in the Neapolitan ter-
90. Considered merely with reference ritories; the insolence of their ambas-
to the number and equipment of its sador knew no bounds; the grossest
forces, the Neapolitan monarchy was libels against the queen and the royal
by no means to be despised, and was family were daily published in the Ro-
capable, apparently, of interfering with man papers, under the direction of the
decisive effect in the approaching strug-French generals; and a general military
gle between France and Austria in the survey was made of the Neapolitan
Italian peninsula. Its infantry consisted frontiers, and transmitted to the Direc-
of thirty thousand regular soldiers and tory at Paris. During these revolu-
fifteen thousand militia; the artillery, tionary measures, however, the French
organised by French officers, was on were daily augmenting their forces at
the best possible footing; and the cav- Rome, and making preparations for of-
alry had given proof of its efficiency in fensive operations; and the cabinet of
the actions on the Po, in the commence- Naples was warned not to put any re-
ment of the campaign of 1796. Forty liance on so distant a power as Austria,
thousand men were ordered to be add- as the republican troops in the Eccle-
ed to the army, to raise it to the war siastical States would be adequate to
establishment, and the militia to be the conquest of Naples before the Im-
quadrupled. But these energetic mea-perial forces could pass the Po. But
sures were never carried into full exe- the court was firm; the military pre-
cution; notwithstanding the imposition parations were continued with unabat-
of heavy taxes, and liberal donations ed vigour, and a treaty, offensive and
from the nobility and clergy, insur- defensive, was concluded with the Em-
mountable difficulties were experienced peror, by which the King of Naples was
in the levying and equipping so large a to be assisted, in the event of an inva-
body of troops; and the effective forces sion, by a powerful army of Austrians.
of the monarchy never exceeded sixty It was no part of the first design of the
thousand men, of which one-third were Neapolitans to commence hostilities,
required to garrison the fortresses on but to wait till the Republicans were
the frontier. These troops, such as fully engaged with the Imperialists on
they were, proved utterly deficient in the Adige, when it was thought their
military spirit; the officers, appointed forces might act with effect in the centre
by court intrigue, had lost all the con- of the peninsula.
fidence of the soldiers; and the disci-
pline, alternately carried on upon the
German and Spanish systems, was in
the most deplorable state. To crown
the whole, the common men, especially
in the infantry, were destitute of cour
age—a singular circumstance in the de-
scendants of the Samnites, but which
has invariably been the disgrace of the
Neapolitan army since the fall of the
Roman empire.
91. The French commenced their re-
volutionary measures in Naples, accord-

92. Matters were in this inflammable
state in the kingdom of Naples, when
intelligence arrived of the glorious vic-
tory of the Nile, and the total destruc-
tion of the French fleet on the shores
of Egypt, which will be recounted in
the succeeding chapter. The effect pro-
duced over all Europe, but especially
in Italy, by this great event, was truly
electrical. It was the greatest defeat
which the French had experienced since
the rise of the Republic; it annihilated
their naval power in the Mediterranean,
1798.]
· 139
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
left Malta to its fate, and, above all, | gance of their former presumption;
seemed to banish Napoleon and his vic- their finances were in a state of inex-
torious troops for ever from the scene tricable confusion; the soldiers, both
of European warfare. The language of at Rome and Mantua, had lately muti-
humiliation and despondency was forth-nied from want of pay; and the forces
with laid aside; loud complaints of the of Austria, supported, as it was fore-
perfidy and extortion of the French seen they would be, by those of Russia,
armies became universal; and the giddy were rapidly increasing both in num-
multitude, who had recently hailed bers and efficiency. In these circum-
their approach with tumultuous shouts stances, it was their obvious policy to
of joy, taught by bitter experience, now temporise, and delay the overthrow of
prepared to salute, with still louder ac- the Neapolitan monarchy till the great
clamations, those who should deliver levies they were making in France were
them from their yoke. The enthusi- ready to take the field, and keep in
asm at Naples was already very great, check the Imperial forces on the Adige
when the arrival of Nelson with his till the work of revolution in the south
victorious fleet at that port raised it to of Italy was completed. Meanwhile,
the highest possible pitch. He was re- the affiliated republics were called on
ceived with more than regal honours; to take their full share of the burdens
the king and the queen went out to consequent upon their alliance with
meet him in the bay; the immense and France. Every man in Switzerland
ardent population of the capital rent capable of bearing arms, from sixteen
the air with their acclamations; and to forty-five years of age, was put in re-
the shores of Posilippo were thronged quisition; the King of Sardinia com-
with crowds anxious to catch a glance pelled to advance 8,000,000 francs; the
of the conqueror of the Nile. The re- Cisalpine republic assessed at a loan of
monstrances of the French ambassador 24,000,000 francs, or £1,000,000 ster-
were unable to restrain the universal ling, and required to put its whole
joy; the presence of the British admiral contingent at the disposal of France;
was deemed a security against every and a fresh contribution of 12,000,000
danger—a signal for the resurrection of francs imposed on the Roman terri-
the world against its oppressors. In tory, besides assignats being issued
vain Ariola, and the more prudent coun- on the security of its ecclesiastical
sellors of the king, represented the ex- estates.
treme peril of attacking, with their
inexperienced forces, the veterans of
France before the Austrians were ready
to support them on the Adige. These
wise remonstrances were disregarded;
and the war party, at the head of which
were the queen and Lady Hamilton, the
wife of the British ambassador, succeed-
ed in securing a decision in favour of
the immediate commencement of hos-
tilities.
94. Previous to the commencement
of hostilities, the Neapolitan govern-
ment had requested the Austrians to
send them some general capable of di-
recting the movements of the large
force which they had in readiness to
take the field. The Aulic Council sent
General Mack, an officer who stood high
at Vienna in the estimation of military
men, but who, though skilled in sketch-
ing out plans of a campaign on paper,
and possessed of considerable talent in
strategetical design, was totally desti-
tute of the penetration and decision re-
quisite for success in the field. Nelson
at once saw through his character.
"Mack," said he, " cannot travel with-
out five carriages. I have formed my
opinion of him; would to God that I
may be mistaken!"—an opinion which,
to the disgrace of Austria, was too fully
verified in the events at Ulm, which
93. Though irritated to the last de-
gree at the determined stand which the
King of Naples had made against their
revolutionary designs, and the open joy
his subjects had testified at their dis-
asters, the French were by no means
desirous at this time to engage in im-
mediate warfare with a new opponent.
The battle of the Nile, and consequent
isolation of their bravest army and best
general, had greatly damped the arro-
+
ī

140
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
▾
}}
have given a mournful notoriety to his | along the shore of the Adriatic, towards
Ancona; two thousand men were di-
rected against Terni and Foligno; the
main body, under Mack in person, con-
sisting of twenty thousand infantry and
four thousand cavalry, was moved for-
ward, through the centre of the penin-
sula, by Valmontone, on Frescati; while
eight thousand infantry and three hun-
dred cavalry advanced by Terracina and
the Pontine marshes on Albano and
Rome, and five thousand men were em-
barked on board some of Lord Nelson's
ships, to be landed at Leghorn, and ef-
fect a diversion in the rear of the ene-
my. The overwhelming force which
was directed against Frescati, and which
threatened to separate the Republicans
stationed there from the remainder of
the army, obliged Championnet to eva-
cuate Rome and concentrate his forces
at Terni; and the King of Naples made
his triumphal entry into the Eternal
City on the 29th. So wretched, how-
ever, was the state of discipline of his
troops, that they soon fell into confu-
sion merely from the fatigues of the
march and the severity of the rains,
and arrived in as great disorder, at the
termination of a few days' advance, as
if they had sustained a disastrous de-
feat. While Mack was reorganising
his shaken battalions at Rome, General
Lemoine succeeded in surrounding and
making prisoners the corps of two thou-
sand men which advanced against Terni;
while Giustini, who commanded another
little column in the centre, was driven
over the mountains to the main body
on the banks of the Tiber.
The corps
which advanced against Ancona, after
some trifling success, was thrown back
about the same time within the Neapo-
litan frontier.
96. Mack began his operations on
the 23d of November; but, instead of 97. These successes, and the accounts
profiting by the dispersion of the French he received of the disordered state of
force, to throw an overwhelming mass the main body of the enemy's forces at
upon their centre, and detach and sur-Rome, encouraged Championnet to keep
round the right wing and troops at his ground on the western slope of the
Rome, which were so far advanced as Apennines. Stationing, therefore, Mac-
almost to invite his seizure, he divided donald, with a large force, at Civita
his forces into five columns to enter Castellana, perhaps the ancient Veii,
the Roman territory by as many dif- a city surrounded by inaccessible pre-
ferent points of attack. A corps of cipices, and impassable ravines, crossed
seven thousand infantry and six hun- only by two lofty bridges, he hastened
dred horse was destined to advance himself to Ancona, to accelerate the
name.
95. For long the Directory persisted
in the belief that the Neapolitans would
never venture to take the field till the
Austrian forces were ready to support
them, which it was known would not
be the case till the following spring.
They had done nothing, accordingly,
towards concentrating their troops; and
when there could no longer be any
doubt that war was about to commence,
their only resource was to send Cham-
pionnet to take the command of the
army in the environs of Rome. He
found them dispersed over a surface
of sixty leagues. Macdonald, with six
thousand, lay at Terracina, and guarded
the narrow defile betwixt its rocks and
the Mediterranean Sea; Casa-Bianca,
with the left wing, five thousand strong,
occupied the reverse of the Apennines
towards Ancona; in the centre, General
Lemoine, with four thousand men, was
stationed at Terni, and watched the
central defiles of the same mountain-
chain; while five thousand were in the
neighbourhood of Rome. Thus twenty
thousand men were stretched across the
peninsula from sea to sea, while double
that number of Neapolitans were con-
centrated in the environs of Capua,
ready to separate and overwhelm them.
This was rendered the more feasible, as
the bulk of the forces of the cabinet of
Naples, advanced in the Abruzzi, had
passed, by a considerable distance, the
Republicans at Rome and Terracina.
Circumstances never occurred more fa-
vourable for a decisive stroke, had the
Neapolitan generals possessed capacity
to undertake, or their soldiers courage
to execute it.
1798.]
141
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
formation of the parks of artillery, and | asters. General Metch, who command-
the organisation of the reserves of the ed his advanced guard, five thousand
army. This distribution of his forces strong, having descended from the
exposed the troops at Civita Castellana mountains and surprised Otricoli on
to the risk of being cut off by an irrup- the road to Terni, was soon assailed
tion, in force, of the enemy upon the there by General Mathieu, and driven
line of their retreat at Terni; but the back to Calvi, where he was thrown
Republicans had not to contend either into such consternation by the arrival
with the genius or the troops of Napo- of Kniazwitz on his flank with fifteen
leon. Mack, persisting in the system hundred men, that he laid down his
of dividing his forces, exposed them to arms, with four thousand men, though
defeat from the veterans of France at both the attacking columns did not ex-
every point of attack, and, in truth, ceed three thousand five hundred. After
their character was such that by no this check, accompanied with such dis-
possible exertions could they be brought graceful conduct on the part of the
to face the enemy. One of his columns, troops, Mack despaired of success, and
commanded by the Chevalier Saxe, des- instantly commenced his retreat to-
tined to turn Civita Castellana on the wards the Neapolitan frontier. The
left, was attacked, at the bridge of King of Naples hastily left Rome in the
Borghetto over the Tiber, by Kniazwitz, night, and fled in the utmost alarm to
at the head of three thousand of the his own capital, while Mack retired with
Polish legion, and totally defeated, all all his forces, abandoning the Ecclesi-
its artillery being taken. The other, astical States to their fate. Championnet
intended to turn it on the right, en- vigorously pursued the retiring col-
countered the advanced guard of Mac- umns; the French troops entered Rome;
donald near Nepi, and was speedily and General Damas, cut off with three
routed, with the loss of two thousand thousand men from the main body,
prisoners, all its baggage, and fifteen and driven northward to Orbitello, con-
guns. In the centre, Marshal Bourcard cluded a convention with Kellermann,
in vain endeavoured to force the bridge by which it was agreed that they should
of Rome, thrown over the chasm on the evacuate the Tuscan States without
southern side of Civita Castellana; and being considered as prisoners of war.
at length Mack, finding both his wings Seventeen days after the opening of the
defeated, withdrew his forces, and be- campaign, the Neapolitan troops were
gan to meditate a new design for dis- expelled at all points from the Ecclesi-
lodging his antagonists from their for- astical territory; Rome was again in
midable position.
the hands of the Republicans; eighteen
thousand veterans had driven before
them forty thousand men, splendidly
dressed and abundantly equipped, but
utterly destitute of the discipline and
courage requisite to obtain success in
war.
98. Instructed by this disaster, both
in regard to the miserable quality of
his own troops and the ruinous selec-
tion he had made of the point of attack,
Mack resolved upon a different disposi-
tion of his forces. Leaving, therefore,
Marshal Bourcard, with four thousand
men, in front of Civita Castellana, he
transported the main body of his army
to the left bank of the Tiber, with the
design of overwhelming Lemoine in the
central and important position of Terni.
This movement, which, if rapidly exe-
cuted with steady troops, might have
been attended with decisive success,
became, from the slowness with which
it was performed, and the wretched
quality of the soldiers to whom it was
intrusted, the source of irreparable dis-
99. Such was the terror inspired by
these disasters, that the court of Naples
did not conceive themselves in safety
even in their own capital. On the 21st
December, the royal family, during the
night, withdrew on board Nelson's fleet,
and embarked for Sicily, taking with
them the most valuable effects in the
palaces at Naples and Caserta, the chief
curiosities in the museum of Portici,
and above a million in specie from the
public treasury. The inhabitants of
the capital were thrown into the utmost
4
i
142
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
Sma
.
consternation when they learned in the tine marshes to Terracina, while Mac-
morning that the royal family and min- donald, with seven thousand foot and
isters had all fled, leaving to them the three hundred horse, pushed forward
burden of maintaining a disastrous and to Ciprano; Lemoine, with four thou
ruinous contest with France. Nothing, sand infantry and two hundred cavalry,
of course, could be expected from the was directed to move upon Sulmona ;
citizens, when the leaders of the state while seven thousand infantry and two
had been the first to show the example hundred horse, under Duhesme, ascend-
of desertion. The revolutionary spirited the course of the Pescara to Popoli,
immediately broke out in the demo- where they were to effect their junction
cratic part of the community; rival with the division of Lemoine. The ob-
authorities were constituted, the dis-ject of these complicated movements
sensions of party paralysed the efforts was to assemble a formidable force in
of the few who were attached to their front of Capua and along the stream of
country, and everything seemed to pro- the Volturnus; but the difficulty of
mise an easy victory to the invaders. uniting the different columns, after a
long march in a mountainous and rug-
ged country, was so great that, had
they been opposed by an enemy of skill
and resolution, they would have expe-
rienced the fate of Wurmser, when he
divided his army in presence of Napo-
leon on the opposite sides of the lake
of Garda.
100. Meanwhile Championnet was
engaged in preparations for the con-
quest of Naples-an object which, con-
sidered in a military point of view,
required little more than vigour and
capacity, but which, politically, could
not fail to be highly injurious to the
interests of France, by the demonstra-
tion it would afford of the insatiable
nature of the spirit of propagandism
by which its government was actuated,
and the dispersion of its military force
over the whole extent of the peninsula
which it would produce. The sagacity
of Napoleon was never more clearly
evinced than in the resistance which he
made to the tempting offers made to
him in his first campaign for the con-
quest of Rome; and the wisdom of his
resolution was soon manifested by the
disastrous effects which followed the
extension of the French forces into the
extremity of Naples, when they had
the whole weight of Austria to expect
on the Adige. Untaught by the ruin-nable thickets to Gaeta, the strongest
ous consequences of an undue dispersion place in the Neapolitan dominions, but
of force by the Austrian commander, which surrendered with its garrison,
Championnet fell into precisely the same three thousand six hundred strong, on
error in the invasion of the Neapolitan the first summons of General Rey, with
dominions. He had at his disposal, an inferior force. The troops in the
after deducting the garrisons of Rome rear, behind the Volturnus, seized with
and Ancona, twenty-one thousand in- an unaccountable panic, at the same
fantry and two thousand cavalry, having time abandoned their position and ar-
received considerable reinforcements tillery, and sought refuge under the
from the north of Italy since the con- cannon of Capua. Thither they were
test commenced. This force he divided pursued in haste by Macdonald's divi-
into five columns: on the extreme sion; but the guns of the ramparts
right, Rey, with two thousand five hun- opened upon his troops so terrible a fire
dred infantry and eight hundred caval- of grape-shot, that they were repulsed
ry, was ordered to advance by the Pon- with great slaughter; and had the Nea-
101. Notwithstanding their perilous
dispersion of force, the invading army
at all points met with surprising suc-
cess. The divisions under Rey and
Macdonald found Mack posted with
twenty-five thousand men in a strong
position behind the Volturnus, stretch-
ing from Castella Mare to Scaffa di Ca-
jazzo, having Capua, with its formidable
ramparts, in the centre, and both its
wings covered by a numerous artillery.
But nothing could induce the Neapo-
litan troops to face the enemy. After
a sharp skirmish, their advanced guard
abandoned the wooded cliffs of Itri,
and fled through their almost impreg-
1798.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
143
::
politan cavalry obeyed Mack's order to
charge at that critical moment, that
division of the French army might have
been totally destroyed.
102. But though the junction of the
divisions of Rey and Macdonald, and
the capture of Gaeta, gave Champion-
net a solid footing on the great road
from Rome to Naples, in front of the
Volturnus, his situation was daily be-
coming more critical. For more than a
week no intelligence had been received
from the other divisions of the army;
the detachments sent out to gain intel-
ligence, found all the mountain-passes
in the interior of the Abruzzi choked
up with snow, and the villages in a
state of insurrection; Itri, Fondi, and
all the posts in the rear of the army,
soon fell into the hands of the peasants,
who evinced a courage which afforded
a striking contrast to the pusillanimity
of the regular forces. The victorious
division was insulated in the midst of
its conquests. At the same time, the
insurrection of the rural districts, in
support of the monarchy, spread with
the utmost rapidity in the whole level
fields of the Terra di Lavoro; a large
assemblage of armed peasants collected
at Sessa, the bridge over the Volturnus
was broken down, and all the insulated
detachments of the army were assailed
with a fury very different from the
languid operations of the regular forces.
Had Mack profited by his advantages,
and made a vigorous attack with his
whole centre upon Macdonald's divi-
sion, there is reason to think that,
notwithstanding the pusillanimity of
his troops, he might have forced them
to a disastrous retreat.
103. But the Austrian general had
now lost all confidence in the forces
under his command; and the vacilla-
tion of the provisional government at
Naples gave him no hopes of receiving
support from the rear in the event of
disaster. An attempt against the moun-
tains of Cajazzo with a few battalions
failed; Damas had not yet arrived
with the troops from Tuscany; of nine
battalions, routed at the passage of the
Volturnus, none but the officers had
entered Naples, the common men hav-
ing all disappeared; and he was aware |
that a powerful party, having ramifica-
tions in his own camp, was disposed to
take advantage of the vicinity of the
French army to overturn the royal au-
thority. Rendered desperate by these
untoward circumstances, he resolved
to make the most of the critical situa-
tion of the invaders, by proposing an
armistice. The situation of Champion-
net had become so hazardous, from the
failure of provisions and the increasing
boldness of the insurgents, that the
proposal was accepted with joy, and
an armistice for two months was agreed
to, on condition that 2,500,000 francs
should be paid in fifteen days, and the
fortresses of Capua, Acerra, and Bene-
vento, delivered up to the French forces.
Thus, by the extraordinary pusillani-
mity of the Italian troops, was the
French general delivered from a situa-
tion all but hopeless, and an army,
which ran the most imminent danger
of passing through the Caudine forks,
enabled to dictate a glorious peace to
its enemies. Shortly after the conclu-
sion of the convention, Mack, disgusted
with the conduct of his soldiers, and
finding that they were rapidly melting
away by desertion, resigned the com-
mand and retired to Naples.
104. NAPLES-a city so celebrated
in poetry and romance, that every one
must have formed some idea of it,
though none can probably equal the
reality-is situated, like Algiers and
Genoa, on a steep declivity, rising in
some places abruptly from the water's
edge. The largest city in Italy, it
contains 364,000 inhabitants, besides
20,000 strangers who are always within
its walls; but, great as this number is,
the impression produced by the con-
course of persons in the streets is still
greater, from the indolent habits of a
large proportion of the lower orders,
and the benignity of the climate, which
enables them to spend the most of their
time in the open air. No city in the
world, except perhaps Rio Janeiro, is
placed on so enchanting a situation.
It stands on the coast of a region so
richly endowed by the gifts of nature,
that in every age it has inspired the
imagination of poetry, and formed the
144
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
fabled Elysium of ancient genius.* | the bold battlements of the Fort St
Built on a succession of hills rising Elmo, which occupies the highest part
from the water's edge, to the height of of the ridge, and surmounts all the
two hundred and fifty feet, in the centre other buildings in the city: the beau-
of a deep bay, fifty miles round, it both tiful terrace of the Chiaja, stretching
commands the most beautiful marine out on the seacoast towards Baix, the
views in the world, and is placed on so abode of wealth and rank, form a suc-
commanding an elevation as to afford cession of objects so lovely, and yet so
every facility for enjoying them. On varied, as altogether to entrance the
the right hand, looking from Naples, spectator. It is more romantic than
are to be seen the hills of Baiæ, the Constantinople, from the superior ele-
abode of Roman opulence; the point vation and more rugged summits of
of Mycenum, the principal station of the mountains which form the back-
their fleet; the wooded slopes sur- ground of the landscape; and more
rounding the Lake of Avernus; the varied and perfect than Genoa, from
bold rocks of Pozzuoli; the lofty peaks the adjoining heights and ranges en-
of Ischia. On the left, Vesuvius rises closing the bay more completely, and
in solitary majesty from amidst the giving it more the character of an in-
plain which its ashes have fertilised, land lake. Whoever has had the good
and the cities which its eruptions have fortune to see this enchanting spectacle,
overthrown. In front, the noble moun- with the glow of sunset gilding the
tains of Sorrento form a romantic waves, and illuminating the palaces,
background to the scene, at the ex- will cease to wonder at the enthusiasm
tremity of which the rocks of Capri, of the Italians, which has given rise to
the retreat of Tiberius, gradually dip the proverb, "Vedi Napoli, e poi
down, till they are lost in the level muori!" Nor are the associations
expanse of the ocean.
of genius wanting to this matchless
scene. In those rocks, on the right, is
to be found the tomb of Virgil; at the
foot of that mountain, on the left,
Pliny perished; on those cliffs, in front,
Salvator studied; on the reverse of
those blue hills Tasso was born.
105. Varied and romantic, however,
as is this background of the scene, it
is not on it that the eye of the traveller
is chiefly riveted. The Bay itself, re-
flecting, as it almost always does, the
unclouded blue of heaven, and traversed
by hundreds of barks and feluccas,
with snowy sails, of the lightest and
most elegant forms, is still more at-
tractive. The aspect of the massy
structures of the capital, which crowd
down to the water's edge; their flat
roofs, which give an Oriental character
to the scene; the huge ramparts of
the Castel del Uovo, resting on rocky
islands at the mouth of the harbour;
*“And grapes, that swell with sweet and
precious wine,
There, without pruning, yields the fertile
106. Indolent, poor, and half savage
in their habits, the lower orders of
Naples, who are called Lazzaroni, form
a peculiar class, unlike those who are
to be met with in any other city.
They are exceedingly numerous, and
embrace not less than sixty thousand
persons capable of bearing arms. Al-
most the whole of this vast population
are in a state of extreme poverty;
they can hardly be said to have a home
in the wretched hired rooms, destitute
of furniture, in which they find shelter
during the night; all day long they
lounge about the quays, the streets,
the harbour, seeking a scanty subsist-
ence as boatmen, porters, common la-
bourers, or beggars; and when none of
these modes of earning a livelihood
occur, they enjoy, what to the Italians
is so dear, the "dolce fare niente."
Hardy, patient, and enduring, they
↑ "See Naples, and then die.”
vine;
The olive fat there ever buds and flow'rs,
The honey drops from hollow oaks distil,
The falling brook her silver streams down
pours,
With gentle murmur from their native hill;
The western blast temp'reth with dews and
show'rs
The sunny rays, lest heat the blossoms kill;
The Fields Elysian (as fond heathens feign)
Were there, where souls of men in bliss re-
main."
TASSO, Jerusalem Delivered, xv. 36.
1798.]
145
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
can, when excited to exertion, endure | after the gates of the city were forced,
alike the extremes of heat and cold; a desperate warfare might be main-
they are equally proof against the tained in the streets, and a murderous
burning sirocco of Africa and the fire of musketry descend from the lofty
frozen winter of Russia. Enjoying a buildings in the interior of the city
delicious climate, they are strangers to upon the bold assailants who should
the vice of intoxication: a glass of iced venture into its narrow and intricate
water is the luxury they most highly enclosures.
prize; reposing in the shade and gazing
on the bay, the pleasure to which they
most willingly revert. Ignorant, and
yet excitable, they are superstitious,
credulous, and guided by their priests;
irritable and revengeful, they have all
the well-known vices of the Italian
character. When properly directed,
however, and roused to worthy pur-
poses, they are capable of great and
strenuous efforts; and exhibited a me-
morable proof of the truth which his-
tory in all ages has demonstrated, that
in an opulent and corrupted society, it
is in the lowest class that patriotic
virtue last lingers.
107. Though not regularly fortified,
Naples is a city which, in the hands of
resolute men, is very susceptible of de-
fence. Being built entirely of stone,
it is in some degree proof against the
terrors of a bombardment; and though
the quarters next the Campagna Felice
would easily fall into the hands of a
numerous and enterprising enemy, yet
their possession would neither insure
that of the remainder of the city, nor
form an acquisition tenable in itself
against an enemy who still held the
upper part of the city, and was resolute
to defend it. The guns from Fort St
Elmo command it in every part; bombs
from that fortress would speedily ren-
der any quarter well-nigh untenable;
its solid ramparts are proof against a
coup-de-main; and regular approaches
would be difficult in a vicinity encum-
bered with lofty stone edifices or com-
posed of arid rock. Above all, the
desperate and reckless character of the
lower classes, as well as their extraor-
dinary enthusiasm, when once strongly
excited, rendered it not unlikely that,
* When Napoleon left Smorgoni on 3d De-
cember 1812, to proceed to Paris after the
passage of the Berezina, he was escorted by
fifty Neapolitan hussars, almost the only
horsemen in the Grand Army equal to that
duty.—CHAMBRAY, Campagne de 1812, iii. 107.
:
108. The intelligence of this armis-
tice excited the utmost indignation
among the populace of that capital,
whose inhabitants, like all others of
Greek descent, were extremely liable
to vivid impressions, and totally desti-
tute of the information requisite to
form a correct judgment on the chance
of success. The discontent was raised
to the highest pitch by the arrival of
the French commissaries appointed to
receive payment of the first instalment
of the contribution stipulated by the
convention. The popular indignation
was now worked up to a perfect fury.
The lazzaroni flew to arms; the regu-
lar troops refused to act against the
insurgents; the cry arose that they had
been betrayed by the viceroy, the gen-
eral, and the army; and the people,
assembling in multitudes, exclaimed,
"Long live our holy faith! Long live
the Neapolitan people!" In the midst
of the general confusion, the viceroy
and the provisional government fled to
Sicily; for three days the city was a
prey to all the horrors of anarchy; and
the tumult was only appeased by the
appointment of Prince Moliterno and
the Duke of Bocca Romana as chiefs of
the insurrection, who engaged to give
it a direction that might save the capi-
tal from the ruin with which it was
threatened.
109. Meanwhile, the French divisions
in the Abruzzi having fortunately ef-
fected their junction with the main
army on the Volturnus, Championnet
advanced in three columns, with all
his forces, towards Naples; while Mack,
whose life was equally threatened by
the furious lazzaroni and his own sol-
diers, sought safety in the French camp.
Championnet had the generosity to
leave him his sword, and treat him with
the hospitality due to his misfortunes:
an admirable piece of courtesy, which
the Directory showed they were in-
4.

יו
:
1
I
?
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
146
[CHAP. XXV.
one of the warmest partisans of Robes-
pierre.
capable of appreciating, by ordering
him to be detained a prisoner of war.
As the French army approached Naples, 110. But the lazzaroni of Naples,
the fury of the parties against each brave and enthusiastic, were not inti-
other increased in violence, and the in- midated by his approach, and, though.
surrection of the lazzaroni assumed a deserted by their king, their govern-
more formidable character. Distrust-ment, their army, and their natural
ing all their leaders of rank and pro- leaders, prepared with undaunted re-
perty, whose weakness had in truth solution to defend their country, Act-
proved that they were unworthy of con- ing with inconceivable energy, they at
fidence, they deposed Prince Moliterno once drew the artillery from the arsenals
and the Duke of Bocca Romana, and to guard the avenues to the city, com-
elected two simple lazzaroni, Paggio menced intrenchments on the heights
and Michel le Fou, to be their leaders. which commanded its different ap-
Almost all the shopkeepers and burgh-proaches, armed the ardent multitude
ers, however, being attached to demo- with whatever weapons chance threw
cratic principles, desired a revolution- in their way, barricaded the principal
ary government; and to these were streets, and stationed guards at all the
now added nearly the whole class of important points in its vast circumfer-
proprietors, who were justly afraid of ence. The few regular troops who had
general pillage, if the unruly defenders, not deserted their colours were formed
to whom their fate was unhappily in- into a reserve, consisting of four bat-
trusted, should prove successful. The talions and a brigade of cannoneers.
quarters of Championnet, in conse- The zeal of the populace was inflamed
quence, were besieged by deputations by means of a nocturnal procession of
from the more opulent citizens, who the head and blood of St Januarius
offered to assist his forces in effecting around the city, and the enthusiastic
the reduction of the capital; but the multitude issued in crowds from the
French general, aware of the danger of gate to face the conquerors of Italy.
engaging a desperate population in the The combat which ensued was one of
streets of a great city, refused to ad- the most extraordinary of the revolu-
vance till Fort St Elmo, which com- tionary war, fruitful as it was in events
mands the town, was put into the hands of unprecedented character. For three
of the partisans of the Republic. This days the battle lasted, between Aversa
assurance having at length been given, and Capua,-on the one side, numbers,
he put all his forces in motion, and ad-resolution, and enthusiasm; on the
vanced in three columns against the other, discipline, skill, and military ex-
city. At the same time he issued a perience. Often the Republican ranks
proclamation to the Neapolitan people, were broken by the impetuous charges
in which he said, "Be not alarmed, of their infuriated opponents; but these
we are not your enemies. The French transient moments of success led to no
punish unjust and haughty kings; but lasting result, from the want of any
they bear no arms against the people. reserve to follow up the advantage,
Those who show themselves friends of and the disorder into which any rapid
the Republic will be secured in their advance threw the tumultuary ranks.
persons and property, and experience Still crowd after crowd succeeded. As
only its protection. Disarm the per- the assailants were swept down by vol-
fidious wretches who excite you to re- leys of grape-shot, new multitudes
sistance. You will change your in- rushed forward. The plain was covered
stitutions for those of a republican with the dead and the dying: and the
form: I am about to establish a pro- Republicans, weary with the work of
visional government." In effect a re- slaughter, slept that night beside their
volutionary committee was immediate- guns, within pistol shot of their indo-
ly organised at the French headquar- mitable opponents. At length, the ar-
ters, having at its head Charles Lau- tillery and skill of the French prevailed;
bert, a furious republican, and formerly the Neapolitans were driven back into
|
!
1799.]
147
HISTORY OF EUROPE:
?
the city, still resolved to defend it to | slaughter, when an accidental circum-
the last extremity.
stance put an end to the strife, and
111. A terrible combat ensued at the gave the French the entire command
gate of Capua. The Swiss battalion, of Naples. Michel le Fou, the lazzar-
which, with two thousand lazzaroni, oni leader, having been made prisoner,
was intrusted with the defence of that was conducted to the headquarters of
important post, long resisted all the ef- the French general, and having been
forts of the Republicans. Two attacks kindly treated, offered to mediate be-
were repulsed with great slaughter, and tween the contending parties. Peace
at length the chief of the staff, Thié- was speedily established. The French
bault, only succeeded in making him-soldiers exclaimed, "Vive St Janvier!"
the Neapolitans, "Vivent les Français!"
A guard of honour was given to St
Januarius; and the populace passing,
with the characteristic levity of their
nation, from one extreme to another,
embraced the French soldiers with
whom they had so recently been en-
gaged in mortal strife.*
112. No sooner was the reduction of
Naples effected, than the lazzaroni were
disarmed, the castles which command
the city garrisoned by French troops,
royalty abolished, and a new democra-
tic state, called the Parthenopeian Re-
public, proclaimed in its stead. In the
outset a provisional government of
twenty-one members was appointed.
Their first measure was to levy upon
the exhausted inhabitants of the capital
a contribution of 12,000,000 of francs,
or £480,000, and
or £480,000, and upon the remainder
of the kingdom one of 15,000,000 francs,
or £600,000-burdens which were felt
as altogether overwhelming in that poor
country, and were rendered doubly
oppressive by the unequal manner in
which they were levied, and the addi-
tional burden of feeding, clothing, lodg-
ing, and paying the invading troops, to
which the inhabitants were at the same
time subjected. Shortly after, there
arrived Faypoult, the commissary of
the Directory, who instantly seques-
trated all the royal property, all the
estates of the monasteries, the whole
banks containing the property of indi-
viduals, the allodial lands, of which the


self master of the entrance by feigning
a retreat, and thus drawing the inex-
perienced troops from their barricades
into the plain, where they were charged
with the bayonet by the French, who
entered the gate pell-mell with the
fugitives. Still, however, they made
good their ground in the streets. The
Republicans found they could expel the
besieged from their fastnesses only by
burning down or blowing up the edi-
fices, and their advance through the
city was rendered almost impracticable
by the mountains of slain which choked
up the causeway. But while this heroic
resistance was going on at the gates, a
body of the citizens, attached to the
French party, made themselves mas-
ters of the fort of St Elmo, and the
Castello del Uovo, and immediately
sending intimation to Championnet, a
body of troops was moved forward, and
these important posts taken possession
of by his soldiers. The lazzaroni shed
tears of despair when they beheld the
tricolor flag waving on the last strong-
holds of their city; but still the re-
sistance continued with unabated re-
solution. Championnet upon this gave
orders for a general attack. Early on
the morning of the 23d, the artillery
from the castle of St Elmo showered
down cannon-shot upon the city, and
dense columns of infantry approached
all the avenues to its principal quarters.
Notwithstanding the utmost resistance,
they made themselves masters of the
fort del Carmine; but Kellermann was
held in check by a chief of the lazzar-
oni, named Paggio, near the Seraglio.
The roofs of the houses were covered
with armed men; showers of balls,
flaming combustibles, and boiling water
fell from the windows; and all the
other columns were repulsed with great | PIONNET.”—HARD. vii. 172, 173.
* The most contumelious proclamatious
against the reigning family immediately cov-
ered the walls of Naples. In one of them it
was said, "Who is the Capet who pretends
to reign over you, in virtue of the investiture
of the Pope? Who is the crowned scoundrel
who dares to govern you? Let him dread the
fate of his relative who crushed by his des-
potism the rising liberty of the Gauls. CHAM-
상하이
​
148
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
1
'
A

king was only administrator, and even | Directory, Great Britain underwent a
the curiosities of Herculaneum and perilous crisis of its fate; and the firm-
Pompeii, though still buried in the ness and intrepidity of British patriot-
bowels of the earth. Championnet, ism was finely contrasted with the
ashamed of this odious proceeding, sus- insanity of Continental democracy, and
pended the decree of the Assembly; the vacillation of Continental resolution.
upon which he was immediately recall- Ireland was the scene of danger; the
ed, indicted for his disobedience, and theatre, in so many periods of English
Macdonald intrusted with the supreme history, of oppressive or unfortunate
command; while a commission of twen- legislation on the side of government,
ty-five members was appointed to draw and of fierce and blindfold passions on
up a constitution for the new republic. the part of the people. In surveying
The constitution which they framed the annals of this unhappy country, it
was, as might have been anticipated, appears impossible at first sight to ex-
fraught with the grossest injustice, and plain the causes of its sufferings by any
totally unsuitable to the circumstances of the known principles of human na-
of the country. Jacobin clubs were ture. Severe and conciliatory policy
established; the right of election was seem to have been equally unavailing
confined to colleges of electors named to heal its wounds. Conquest has failed
by government; the people were de- in producing submission, severity in
prived of the free franchise which they enforcing tranquillity, indulgence in
had inherited from the ancient customs; awakening gratitude. The irritation
a national guard was established, in excited by the original subjugation of
which not three hundred men were the island seems to be unabated after
ever enrolled; and finally, a decree the lapse of five centuries; the indul-
passed, which declared that in every gence with which it has often been
dispute between the barons and indivi- treated has led uniformly only to in-
duals, judgment should, without inves- creased exasperation, and more for-
tigation, be given in favour of the pri- midable insurrections; and the greater
vate citizen! But amidst these frantic part of the suffering which it has so
proceedings, the French generals and long undergone, appears to have arisen
civil authorities did not lose sight of from the measures of severity rendered
their favourite objects, public and pri- necessary by the excitation of popular
vate plunder. The arsenals, palaces, passion consequent on every attempt to
and private houses were pillaged with- return to a more lenient system of gov-
out mercy; all the bronze cannon which ernment.
could be found, were melted down and
sold; and the Neapolitan democrats had
even the mortification of seeing the
beautiful statues of the same metal,
which adorned the streets of their capi-
tal, disposed of to the highest bidder,
to fill the pockets of their republican
allies. The utmost discontent imme-
diately ensued among all classes; the
patriots broke out into vehement excla-
mations against the perfidy and avarice
of their deliverers; and the democratic
government soon became more odious
even to the popular party than the
regal authority by which it had been
preceded.
114. The first British sovereign who
directed his attention to the improve-
ment of Ireland was James I. He
justly boasted that there would be found
the true theatre of his glory, and that
he had done more in a single reign for
the improvement of that important
part of the empire, than all his prede-
cessors, from the days of Henry II.
Instead of increased tranquillity and
augmented gratitude, there broke out,
shortly after, the dreadful rebellion of
1641, which was only extinguished by
Cromwell in oceans of blood. A severe.
and oppressive code was imposed soon
after the Revolution in 1688, and under
it the island remained discontented,
indeed, but comparatively tranquil, for
a hundred years. The more galling
parts of this code were removed by the

113. While Italy, convulsed by de-
mocratic passions, was thus everywhere
falling under the yoke of the French
#
1798.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
149
beneficent policy of George III. From | body of the inhabitants. In the suc-
1780 to 1798 was an uninterrupted cessive insurrections which that country
course of improvement, concession, and has witnessed, since the English stan-
removal of disability, and this indulgent dard first approached its shores, nearly
policy was immediately followed by the all its landed property has been confis-
rebellion of 1798. Ireland has always cated, and lavished either on the Eng-
been treated by England with indul- lish nobility, or companies or indivi-
gence in taxation, with generosity in duals of English extraction. Above
beneficence. She never paid either the eight millions of acres were bestowed
income or assessed taxes, so long felt as away in this manner upon the adven-
oppressive in Great Britain; and the turers and soldiers of fortune who fol-
sums bestowed by the English govern- lowed the standard of Cromwell. It is
ment annually upon Irish charities the great extent of this cruel and un-
have, for the last half century, varied just measure which has been the ori-
from £200,000 to £300,000. The last ginal cause of the disasters of Ireland,
fetters of restriction were struck off by by nourishing profound feelings of ha-
the Catholic Relief Bill in 1829, and tred in the descendants of the dispos-
the exasperation, discontent, and vio- sessed proprietors, and introducing a
lence in Ireland, which immediately body of men into the country, neces-
followed, have been unprecedented in sarily dependent for their existence
the long course of its humiliated exist- upon the exclusion of the heirs of the
ence. All the promises of tranquillity original owners from the inheritance of
so often held forth by its advocates their forefathers.
were falsified, and half a century of
unbroken indulgence was succeeded by
the fierce demand for the repeal of the
Union, and a degree of anarchy, devas-
tation, and bloodshed, unparalleled in
any Christian land.*
115. These effects are so much at
variance with what was predicted and
expected to arise from such conciliatory
measures, that many able observers
have not hesitated to declare them in-
explicable, and to set down Ireland as
an exception to all the ordinary princi-
ples of human nature. A little consi-
deration, however, of the motives which
influence mankind on such occasions,
and the state of society in which they
were called into operation, will be suffi-
cient to demonstrate that this is not
the case, and that the continued tur-
bulence of Ireland is the natural re-
sult of these principles acting in pecu-
liar and almost unprecedented circum-
tances. The first evil which has attach-
ed to Ireland was the original and subse-
quent confiscation of so large a portion
of the landed property, and its acquisi-
tion by persons of a different country,
habits, and religion, from the great
* At this moment (June 1843) tranquillity
is only preserved in Ireland by 26,000 British
soldiers; and the untaxed Irish are assem-
bling in meetings of 150,000 and 200,000 per-
sons, to demand the repeal of the Union.
116. But other countries have been
subjected to landed confiscation as well
as Ireland; nearly all the land of Eng-
land was transferred, first from the
Britons to the Saxons, and thence from
the Saxons to the Normans; the lands
of Gaul were almost entirely, in the
course of five centuries, wrested by the
Franks from the native inhabitants;
and yet upon that foundation have
been reared the glories of English civi-
lisation and the vigour of the French
monarchy. Other causes, therefore,
must be looked for, coexisting with or
succeeding these, which have prevented
the healing powers of nature from clos-
ing there, as elsewhere, that ghastly
wound, and perpetuated to distant
ages the irritation and the animosities
consequent on the first bitterness of
conquest. These causes are to be found
in the unfortunate circumstance, that
Ireland was not the seat, like England
or Gaul, of the permanent residence of
the victorious nation; that absent pro-
prietors, and their necessary attend-
ants, middlemen, arose from the fact
of the kingdom having been subjugated
by a race of conquerors who were not
to make it their resting-place; and that
a different religion was subsequently
embraced by the victors from the faith
of the vanquished, and the bitterness

[
the
}
150
[CHAP. XXV.
like asimilar course pursued to a spoiled
child, have fostered rather than dimin-
ished the public discontent, by giving
the power of complaint without re-
moving its causes, and prolonging the
sense of suffering by perpetuating the
passions from which it has arisen.
of religious animosity superadded to
the causes of discontent arising from
civil distinction. The same progress
was beginning in Scotland after the
country was overrun by Edward I.,
when it was arrested by the vigorous
efforts of her unconquerable people;
five centuries of experienced obligation 118. This explains the otherwise un-
have not yet fully developed the incal- accountable circumstance, that all the
culable consequences of the victory of most violent ebullitions of Irish insur-
Bannockburn, or stamped adequate rection have taken place shortly after
celebrity on the name of Robert Bruce. the greatest boons had been conferred
117. Great as were these causes of upon them by the British legislature,
discontent, and deeply as they had poi- and that the severest oppression of
soned the fountains of national prosper- which they complain is not that of the
ity, they might yet have been obliter- English government, whose conduct to-
ated in process of time, and the victors wards them for the last forty years has
and vanquished settled down, as in been singularly gentle and beneficent,
France and England, into one united but of their own native magistracy,
people, had it not been for another cir- from whose vindictive or reckless pro-
cumstance, to which sufficient attention ceedings their chief miseries are said
has not yet been paid―viz. the inces- to have arisen. A people in such cir-
sant agitation and vehemence of party cumstances are almost as incapable of
strife, arising from the extension, per-bearing the excitements of political
haps unavoidable from the connection change, or the exercise of political
with England, of the forms of a free and power, as the West India Negroes, or
representative government to a people the Bedouins of Arabia. Hence the fa-
who were in a state of civilisation unfit natical temper of the English nation, in
for either. The fervid and passionate the reign of Charles I., speedily gener-
character of the Irish peasantry, which ated the horrors of the Tyrone rebel-
they share more or less with all nations lion; the excitement of French demo-
in an infant state of civilisation, and, cracy, in the close of the eighteenth
still more, of unmixed Celtic descent, century, gave rise to the insurrection
is totally inconsistent with the calm con- of the United Irishmen; and the party
sideration and deliberate judgment re- agitation set on foot to effect Catholic
quisite for the due exercise of political Emancipation, the removal of tithes,
rights. The duties of grand and com- and the repeal of the Union, has pro-
mon jurymen, of electors for represen- duced in our own times a degree of
tatives to parliament, of burghers choos- animosity and discord on its peopled
ing their own magistrates, and of citi- shores,*which bids fair to throw it back
zens uniting in public meetings, cannot
as yet be fitly exercised by a large por-
tion of the Irish people. From the
periodical recurrence of such seasons of
excitation has arisen the perpetuating
of popular passions, and the mainten-
ance of party strife, with the extinction
of which alone can habits of industry or
good order be expected to arise. Con-
tinued despotism might have healed the
wounds of Ireland in a few generations,
by extinguishing the passions of the peo-
ple with the power of indulging them.
But the alternations of severity and in-
dulgence which they have experienced
1
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
* The serious crimes in Ireland during the
last three months of 1829, were—
(The Emancipation Bill passed in March), 300
Do. of 1830,
499
814
Do. of 1881 (Reform Agitation),
Do. of 1832 (Tithe and Repeal Agitation), 1513
The crimes reported in Ireland in the year
1478 robberies; burning houses, 466; attacks
1831 were 16,669, of which 210 were murders;
on houses, 2296; burglaries, 531; robbery of
arms, 678. The crimes reported in England
of England and Wales in 1831, was 13,894,000;
in the same year were 19,647. The population
that of Ireland, 7,784,000. See Parl. Returns,
14th March 1833, 8th May 1833, and Popula
tion Census, 1833. By the Coercion Act the
serious crimes were at once reduced to a
fourth part, or nearly so, of these numbers.
under the popular British government,-HANSARD, Parl. Deb. Feb. 9, 1834.
•
2

1
1798.]
151
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
for half a century in the career of real | organised was one of the most simple,
freedom.
and, at the same time, one of the most
efficacious, that ever was devised. Per-
sons were sworn into an association in
every part of Ireland, called the Society
of United Irishmen, the real objects of
which were kept a profound secret, while
the ostensible ones were those best cal-
culated to allure the populace. No meet-
ing was allowed to consist of more than
twelve members; five of these meetings
were represented by five members in a
committee, vested with the management
of all their affairs. From each of these
committees a deputy attended in a su-
perior body; one or two deputies from
these composed a county committee;
two from every county committee a
provincial one; and these last elected
five persons to superintend the whole
business of the Union.
This provi-
sional government was elected by bal-
lot; and the names of its members were
only communicated to the secretaries
of the provincial committees, who were
officially intrusted with the scrutiny of
the votes. Thus, though their power
was unbounded, their agency was in-
visible, and many hundred thousand
men obeyed the dictates of an unknown
authority. The military authorities
were appointed in the same way. A
committee of twelve chose a sergeant;
ten sergeants chose a captain; ten cap-
tains a colonel. Secret signs were uni-
versal: the hands clasped-with the
answer, the right hand to the left hip.
Liberation from tithes and dues to the
Protestant clergy, and the restoration
of the Roman Catholic faith, formed
the chief boons presented to the lower
classes; and in order to effect these ob-
jects, it was speciously pretended that
a total change of government was ne-
cessary. The real objects of the chiefs
of the insurrection, which they would
have had no difficulty in persuading
the giddy multitude who followed their
steps to adopt, were the overthrow of
the British government, and the for-
mation of a republic allied to France.
Parliamentary reform was the object
ostensibly held out to the country as
being the one most calculated to con-
ceal their ultimate designs, and enlist
the greatest number of the respectable
119. Following out the system which
they uniformly adopted towards the
states which they wished to overthrow,
whether by open hostility or secret
propagandism, the French government
had for years held out hopes to the Irish
malcontents, and by every means in
their power sought to widen the breach,
already unhappily too great, between
the native and the English population.
This was no difficult task. The Irish
were already sufficiently disposed to ally
themselves with any enemy who pro-
mised to liberate them from the odious
yoke of the Saxons; and the dreams of
liberty and equality which the French
spread wherever they went, and which
turned so many of the strongest heads in
Europe, proved altogether intoxicating
to their ardent and enthusiastic minds.
From the beginning of the Revolution,
accordingly, its progress was watched
with intense anxiety in Ireland. All
the horrors of the Reign of Terror failed
in opening the eyes of its inhabitants to
its real tendency; and the greater and
more enterprising part of the Catholic
population, who constituted above three-
fourths of its entire inhabitants, soon
became leagued together for the estab-
lishment of a republic in alliance with
France, the severance of all connection |
with England, the restoration of the
Catholic religion, and the resumption
of the forfeited lands.
120. But although the Catholics in
the end formed the chief supporters of
the Irish insurrection, it was not among
them that it first began. The malady
made its earliest appearance among the
inhabitants of Ulster, the province of
Ireland which contains the largest num-
ber of Protestants—a certain proof that
the disaffection was in the outset poli-
tical, not religious. It soon, however,
assumed the latter character. From
Ulster it spread to Leinster; it after-
wards took possession of Munster, and
ultimately extended itself to Connaught.
The persons enrolled in the secret so-
cieties, which formed the basis of the
conspiracy, were ere long above two
hundred thousand. The system by
which this immense insurrection was
*
152
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
classes on their side. So strongly were | influence Ulster soon righted; and that
men's minds infected with party spirit great and industrious province, in which
at that period, and so completely did it the revolutionists at first boasted there
obliterate the better feelings of our na- were one hundred and fifty thousand
ture, even in the most generous minds, United Irishmen, soon became so loyal
that these intentions were communi- in its dispositions, that, besides pro-
cated to several of the Opposition party viding for its own defence, it could
on both sides of the Channel; and even spare a large force to support the Eng-
Mr Fox, if we may believe the poetic lish force in the adjoining provinces.
biographer of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, Unhappily the same vehement zeal and
was no stranger to the project enter- ardent passions, which have always
tained for the dismemberment and re- characterised the Irish people, signal-
volutionising of the empire.*
ised their efforts. The feuds between
these two great parties soon became
universal; deeds of depredation, rapine,
and murder, filled the land; and it was
sometimes hard to say whether most
acts of violence were perpetrated by the
open enemies of law and order, or its
unruly defenders. But there was this
essential difference between them; the
combination of the Orangemen was de-
fensive, induced by necessity; that of
the Catholics aggressive, stimulated by
ambition. In this hideous domestic dis-
sension, the British troops, under very
different discipline then from that which
they have since attained, took at times
a most discreditable part; and there
remains on record a proclamation to
them from Sir Ralph Abercrombie, the
commander-in-chief in Ireland, charac-
teristic alike of the honourable feelings
of the general-in-chief, and the licen-
tious excesses of some of his unworthy
followers.+
121. To resist this formidable com-
bination, which, though at first political
and revolutionary, soon became enven-
omed by the bitterness of religious dis-
sension, another society, composed of
those attached to the British govern-
ment and the Protestant ascendancy,
was formed, under the name of Orange-
men, who soon rivalled the activity and
energy of the Catholic party. Under its
*"In order to settle," says Moore, "all
the details of their late agreement with
France, and, in fact, to enter into a formal
treaty with the Directory, it was thought of
importance by the United Irishmen to send
some agent whose station and character
should, in the eyes of their new allies, lend
weight to his mission; and to Lord Edward
Fitzgerald the no less delicate than daring
task was assigned. About the latter end of
May he passed a day or two in London on
his way, and dined at a Member of the House
of Lords, as I have been informed by a gentle
man present, where the company consisted
of Mr Fox, Mr Sheridan, and several other
distinguished Whigs-all persons who had
been known to concur warmly in every step of
the popular cause in Ireland, and to whom,
if Lord Edward did not give some intimation
of the object of his present journey, such an
effort of reserve and secresy was, I must say,
very unusual to his character.
It is well known that Mr Fox himself, im
patient at the hopelessness of all his efforts
to rid England, by any ordinary means, of
a despotism which aristocratic alarm had
brought upon her, found himself driven, in
his despair of Reform, so near that edge
where revolution begins, that had there ex-
isted at that time in England anything like
the same prevalent sympathy with the new
doctrines of democracy as responded through-
out Ireland, there is no saying how far short
of the daring aims of Lord Edward even
this great constitutional leader of the Whigs
might, in the warmth of his generous zeal, have
ventured.' It is to be hoped that the bio-
grapher of the great English statesman will
be able to efface the stain thus cast on his
memory by the warmth of combined poetic
and Irish zeal.-MOORE's Fitzgerald, i. 165,
166, 276.
}
122. The leaders of the insurrection,
Lord Edward Fitzgerald, Mr Arthur
O'Connor, and Wolfe Tone, went over
to France in June 1796, where a treaty
was concluded with the French Direc-
tory, by which it was agreed that a
considerable fleet and army should, in
the autumn of that year, be ready for
the invasion of Ireland, to enable it to
throw off the connection with England,
and form a republic in alliance with
France. It has been already mentioned
how these expectations were thwarted,
first by the dispersion of the French

+ That upright officer had long before re-
prehended publicly, and in the severest
terms, the disgraceful irregularities and li-
centiousness of the army in Ireland, which,
he emphatically declared, "must render it
formidable to every one but the enemy.'
Castlereagh Papers, i. 189.
""
1798.]
153
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
fleet in Bantry Bay in December 1796, | contending parties. On the 19th Feb-
and then by the glorious victory of ruary, Lord Moira made an eloquent
Camperdown in 1797. The aid of fifteen speech in favour of conciliation in par-
thousand men was next promised for liament; but the period of accommo-
the spring of 1798, and on its faith the dation was past. On the same day the
rebellion broke out. The vigorous ef- Irish committees came to a formal re-
forts of government at that period, and solution, to pay no attention to any
the patriotic ardour of a large portion offers from either house of parliament,
of the more respectable part of the peo- and to agree to no terms but a total
ple, contributed in no small degree to separation from Great Britain. They
overawe the discontented, and post- were induced to take this decisive step
poned for a considerable period the final by the representations of the French
explosion of the insurrection.
Directory, and the knowledge that an
immense army, above two hundred and
seventy thousand strong, under Gene-
123. Government, meanwhile, were
by no means aware of the magnitude
of the danger which threatened them.ral Buonaparte, was disposed along the
coast of the Channel, within twenty-
four hours' march of their respective
points of embarkation.* Desaix, Bara-
guay d'Hilliers, Kléber, Kellermann,
and various chiefs of inferior note com-
manded under him. Still, though their
designs were discovered, the chiefs of
the conspiracy were unknown; but at
length their names having been re-
vealed by one of their own leaders,
fourteen of the chiefs were arrested at
Dublin. Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who
escaped at that time, was mortally
wounded, some months after, when
defending himself from arrest, after
having rejected, from a generous devo-
tion to his comrades, all the humane
offers made by government to enable
him to retire in safety from the king-
dom. So desperate was his defence,
that he wounded Ryan, the officer who
seized him, with a dagger in fourteen
places, though he bravely kept his hold
till assistance arrived, and he was se-
cured. The places of these leaders
were filled up by subordinate autho-
rities; but their arrest was a fatal blow
to the rebellion, by depriving it of all
the chiefs of character, rank, or ability.
Notwithstanding this untoward event,
the insurrection broke out at once in
many different parts of Ireland in the
end of May. The design was to seize
the castle and artillery, and surprise
They had received only some vague
information of the existence of a sedi-
tious confederacy, when there were
above two hundred thousand men or-
ganised in companies and regiments in
different parts of the kingdom; and
the leaders were appointed by whom
the insurrection was to be carried into
execution in every county of the island.
But the defeat of the Dutch fleet at
Camperdown having left the insurgents
little hope of any powerful succour from
France, they became desperate, and be-
gan to break out during the following
winter into acts of violence in several
parts of the country. From want of
arms and military organisation, how-
ever, they were unable to act in large
bodies, and commencing a Vendean
system of warfare in the southern
counties, soon compelled all the re-
spectable inhabitants to fly to the
towns to avoid massacre and conflagra-
tion. These disorders were repressed
with great severity by the British
troops, and the German auxiliaries in
English pay.
The yeomanry in the
disturbed and threatened districts,
forty thousand strong, turned out with
undaunted courage at the approach of
danger, and many cruelties were per-
petrated under the British colours,
which, though only a retaliation upon
the insurgents of their own excesses,
excited a deep feeling of revenge, and
drove to desperation their furious and
undisciplined multitudes.
124. The beginning of 1798 brought
matters to an extremity between the
VOL IV.
* "Of the army-list troops ordered for the
expedition, 275,000 mounted and dismounted
cavalry, battalion men and infantry, all are
the coast." Secret Paper from France, Feb.
within twenty-four hours' forced march of
1798; Castlereagh Papers, i. 166.
L
+1
1

154
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1:
time the attention of government was
to be distracted by a simultaneous ris-
ing in many different parts of Great
Britain and Ireland.
the camp at Dublin; while at the same | collected above ten thousand men in
the county of Wexford, under the
command of General, afterwards Lord
Lake, commenced a general attack on
the insurgents, who were fifteen thou-
sand strong, in their camp at Vinegar
Hill. The resistance was more obsti-
nate than could have been expected
from their tumultuary masses; but,
after a bloody conflict, discipline and
skill prevailed over untrained valour.
They were broken in several charges
by the English cavalry and dispersed,
leaving all their cannon, thirteen in
number, and their whole ammunition,
in the hands of the victors.
|
125. The attempt upon Dublin was
frustrated by the vigilance of the lord-
lieutenant, who, a few days before it
was to have taken place, had thus ar-
rested the leaders of the conspiracy in
that capital; but in other quarters the
revolt broke out with great violence.
Martial law was immediately proclaim-
ed in the counties which had become
the seat of the insurrection, and under
its authority punishment was inflicted
upon the rebels, with a certainty and
rapidity which had a surprising effect
in restoring the feeling of the existence
of a government, which the long train
of previous disorders and uncertainty
of the verdicts of juries had almost
obliterated. By these means the inci-
pient rebellion was crushed in many
quarters where it threatened to be
most formidable; and it broke out se-
riously only in the counties of Wexford,
Tipperary, and Limerick. There, how-
ever, the struggle, though short, was
very violent and sanguinary. Bodies
of the insurgents were worsted at Rath
farm-house by Lord Roden, and at Tal-
langhill by the royal forces; but their
principal army, fifteen thousand strong,
defeated the English at Enniscorthy,
captured that burgh, and soon after
made themselves masters of the impor-
tant town of Wexford, containing a
considerable train of artillery, and
opening a point of communication
with France. Some alarming defec-
tions from a few regiments, chiefly
filled with Irishmen, took place during
these reverses. Following up their
successes, they advanced against New
Ross, on the confines of Kilkenny, but
there they were defeated with great
loss by the royal troops; and the rebels
revenged themselves for the disaster,
by the massacre, in cold blood, of above
a hundred prisoners taken at Wexford.
At Newtonbarry, after having taken
and retaken the town several times,
they were finally dislodged, with great
loss, by the yeomanry and militia. At
length, the British commanders having
126. This was a mortal stroke to the
rebellion. The insurgents, flying in all
directions, were routed in several small-
er encounters; and in a few weeks the
revolt was so completely got under,
that government were enabled to send
Lord Cornwallis with a general amnesty
for all who submitted before a certain
day, with the exception of a few leaders
who were afterwards brought to justice.
Such was the success of these measures
that, out of sixty thousand men who
were in arms at the commencement of
the insurrection, there remained at the
end of July only a few isolated bands
in the mountains of Wicklow and Wex-
ford. Thus was terminated a rebellion
which, on its first breaking out, at so
critical a time, threatened the dismem-
berment and ruin of the empire. It
was originally a "Jacobin conspiracy
throughout the kingdom, pursuing its
object chiefly with Popish instruments
-the heated bigotry of that sect being
better suited to the purpose of the re-
publican leaders than the cold reason-
ing disaffection of the northern Pres-
byterians." The intentions of the
rebels were sanguinary in the extreme;
every man well affected to the govern-
ment was to have been massacred, as
well as all the officers and Protestants
who were not United Irishmen. When
they were successful, these frightful
intentions were too faithfully carried
into effect. Reprisals of the severest
kind, and by the terrible means of
military punishment, everywhere took
"*
* Lord Castlereagh to Mr Wickham, June
12, 1798, i. 219.
1798.]
155
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
.
place; and without adopting the com-
putation of Lord Edward Fitzgerald's
poetic biographer, who estimates the
loss of lives at 30,000 on the part of
the royalists, and 50,000 on that of the
rebels, it may reasonably be concluded
that not less than thirty thousand per-
sons on the two sides perished in this
melancholy conflict. The claims for
damages, sent in to government after
the rebellion was over, amounted to
£1,023,000, of which £515,000 belonged
to the county of Wexford. The total
loss to property was not less than
£3,000,000 sterling-a dreadful wound
to a country possessing little industry
and less wealth, but teeming with des-
titute inhabitants.* It was fortunate
for Britain during this dangerous crisis,
that the French government made no
adequate attempt to support the insur-
rection; that they had exposed their
fleets, or those of their allies, to defeat
in the previous actions at St Vincent
and Camperdown; and that now, in-
stead of wounding their mortal enemy
in this vulnerable point, they had sent
the flower of their army, their best
general, and most powerful squadron,
upon a distant expedition to the coast
of Africa. Confidently trusting, as every
Briton must do, that the struggle be-
tween France and this country would
have terminated in the overthrow of
the former, even if it had taken place
on our own shores, it is impossible to
deny that the landing of Napoleon with
forty thousand men, in the midst of
the immense and discontented popula-
tion of Ireland, would have led to most
alarming consequences; and possibly
* “Every man that was a Protestant was
called an Orangeman, and every one was to
be killed, from the poorest man in the coun-
try. The women were worse than the men:
they thought it no more sin to kill a Pro-
testant than a dog. Had it not been they
were so soon quashed, they would have
fought with each other for the property of
the Protestants: they were beginning it be-
fore the battle of Vinegar Hill. Ever since
the rebellion, I never heard one of the rebels
express the least sorrow for what was done:
on the contrary, I have heard them say they
were sorry, when they had the power, they
did not kill more, and there were not half
enough killed."-Confession of James Brag-
han, a Roman Catholic rebel, before execu-
tion for murder, 24th August 1799.-Castle
reagh Papers, ii. 422.
the imminent peril to the empire
might earlier have produced that burst
of patriotic feeling, and development of
military prowess, which was afterwards
so conspicuous in the Peninsular war.
127. Awakened when too late to the
importance of the opening which was
thus afforded to their arms, the Direc-
tory made several attempts to rekindle
the expiring flame of the insurrection.
Eleven hundred men, under General
Humbert, setting sail from Rochfort,
landed at Killala, and, with the aid of
Napper Tandy, the Irish revolutionist,
speedily commenced the organisation
of a provisional government, and the
enrolment of revolutionary legions, in
the province of Connaught. A force

+ The landing of the French troops was an-
nounced by two proclamations, one from the
French general, the other from Napper Tandy
to his countrymen. The first bore:-"United
Irish! The soldiers of the great nation have
landed on your shores, amply provided with
arms, artillery, and munitions of all sorts, to
aid you in breaking your fetters and recover-
ing your liberties. Napper Tandy is at their
head; he has sworn to break your fetters, or
perish in the attempt. To arms! freemen,
to arms! the trumpet calls you; do not let
your brethren perish unrevenged; if it is their
destiny to fall, may their blood cement the
glorious fabric of freedom." That from Nap-
per Tandy was still more vehement:
"What
do I hear? The British government talks of
concessions ! will you accept them? Can you
for a moment entertain the thought of enter-
ing into terms with a government which
leaves you at the mercy of the English sol-
diery, which massacres inhumanly your best
citizens-with a ministry which is the pest of
society and the scourge of the human race?
They hold out in one hand the olive branch:
look well to the other, you will see in it the
hidden dagger. No, Irishmen ! you will not
inability to subdue your courage, it seeks only
be the dupe of such base intrigues; feeling its
to seduce you. But you will frustrate all its
efforts. Barbarous crimes have been com-
mitted in your country; your friends have
fallen victims to their devotion to your cause;
their shades surround you; they cry aloud
for vengeance. It is your duty to avenge
their death; it is your duty to strike the as-
sassins of your friends on their bloody thrones.
Irishmen! declare a war of extermination
against your oppressors-the eternal war of
liberty against tyranny.-NAPPer Tandy.”
But the conduct of this leader was far from
keeping pace with these vehement protesta-
tions; for no sooner did he hear of the reverse
sustained by the French corps which had
landed in Killala Bay, than he re-embarked on
board the French brig Anacreon, and got safe
across the Channel.-See both proclamations
in HARD. vi. 223, 225.
1.
156
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXV.
-
!
:
touched, her arms unconquered. The
most terrible war to which an empire
could be exposed, there produced less
anxiety, troubles, and disquietude, than
was experienced by those states which
had been seduced, by the prospect of a
fallacious peace, to come to terms of
accommodation with the French Re-
public. It was with eight hundred
ships of war, a hundred and fifty thou-
sand sailors, three hundred thousand
land troops, and an expenditure of fifty
millions sterling a-year, that she main-
tained the contest. It was by periodi-
cal victories of unprecedented splen-
dour, by drawing closer together the
bonds of her constitution, that she re-
plied to all the efforts of France to dis-
member her dominions. But never did
she run greater danger than this year,
when one expedition, directed against
the East, threatened with destruction
her Indian empire, and another, against
the West, was destined to carry into
Ireland the principles of the French
Revolution, and sever that important
island from the British empire.
"*
of four thousand men, consisting chiefly
of yeomanry and militia, was defeated
by this enterprising commander, with
the loss of seven pieces of cannon, and
six hundred prisoners, a disaster
which demonstrates the danger that
would have been incurred if Napoleon,
with the army of Egypt, had arrived in
his stead. At length the little corps
was surrounded, and compelled to sur-
render, after a gallant resistance, by
Lord Cornwallis. A French force, con-
sisting of the Hoche, of seventy-four
guns, and eight frigates, having on board
three thousand men, eluded the vigil-
ance of the Channel fleet, and arrived
on the coast of Ireland; but they were
there attacked by the squadron under
the command of Sir John Borlase War-
ren, and the whole taken after a short
action, with the exception of two frig-
ates, which regained the ports of the
Republic. On board the Hoche was
seized the celebrated leader Wolfe Tone,
who, after having with great firmness
undergone a trial for high treason, pre-
vented a public execution by a deplor-
able suicide, accompanied with more * It is to be hoped, should a similar unhappy
than ordinary circumstances of horror. contest arise, England will never show less
His death closed the melancholy cata- constancy and vigour than she did in this
struggle with Ireland; and there can be no
logue of executions on account of this doubt that, in such a crisis, immediate re-
unhappy rebellion; and it is but justice course must be had to the severe but effectual
to the British government to add, that restraint of martial law. The consent of all
nations, the experience of all ages, has stamp-
although many grievous acts were per-ed this as the only effectual bridle on the in-
petrated by the troops under their or- sanity of rebellion. Death, in such a crisis,
ders in its suppression, yet the modera- must be frequently and sternly inflicted; it
tion and humanity which they them- is the necessity of having recourse to such ex-
selves displayed towards the vanquished treason the greatest of crimes. But though
were as conspicuous as the vigilance death is a lamentable but unavoidable neces-
and firmness of their administration.
sity, torture is not, and military flogging is a
torture of the most terrible kind. The fre-
quent use of this dreadful instrument of the
Inquisition, to force from the peasants the
discovery of their concealed arms or leaders
during the rebellion, can never be too much
reprobated; and it is to be hoped such a rem-
nant of barbarity will never again disgrace
the British arms. Nothing has contributed
so much to nourish that deadly hatred at the
British rule, which has ever since distinguish-
the peasantry. The constancy with
which these unhappy martyrs of mistaken
patriotism bore their sufferings at the hal-
treme methods of coercion which renders
128. The firmness and success of the
British government, amidst so many
examples of weakness elsewhere, excited
at this juncture the highest admiration
on the Continent. "In the British ca-
"In the British ca-
binet," says Prince Hardenberg, "there
was then to be seen neither irresolution
nor discouragement; no symptoms of
that cruel perplexity which tormented
the continental sovereigns. In vain
were the efforts of the Directory direct-berts, in prison, on the scaffold, was as worthy
of admiration as the insane ambition, which
ed against that point of the globe, which had precipitated them into such calamities,
they assailed with all their weapons, wasoflasting reprobation. Memoir by O'CON-
both military and revolutionary. Eng- NOR and EMMETT, 6th Sept. 1798; Castlereagh
land sustained the shock with daily in- Papers, i. 353-371, which contains an able and
of the objects, grounds of com-
creasing energy. Her dignity was un-plaint, and proceedings of the rebels.
Madd
1798.]
157
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
K
129. The maritime affairs of this | obliged to submit to exactions from one
year were chiefly distinguished by the belligerent party, from inability to pre-
capture of Minorca, which, notwith-vent them, therefore it must submit
standing the great strength of its forti- to the same from the other, though
fications, yielded to a British force un-neither sanctioned, as in the other case,
der the command of General Stewart. by previous usage, nor authorised by
In August, the inhabitants of the little
island of Gozo, a dependency of Malta,
revolted against the French garrison,
made them prisoners to the number of
three hundred, and compelled the Re-
publicans to shut themselves up in the
walls of La Valette, where they were im-
mediately subjected to the most rigor-
ous blockade by the British forces by
land and sea.
treaty.
131. The envoys could not obtain
an audience of the Directory, but they
were permitted to remain in Paris; and
a negotiation was opened with Talley-
rand and his inferior agents, which
soon unfolded the real object which
the French government had in view.
It was intimated to the envoys that
the intention of the Directory, in refus-
130. So unbounded was the arro-ing to receive them in public, and per-
gance, so reckless the policy of the mitting them to remain in a private
French government at this time, that capacity, was to lay the United States
it all but involved them in a war with under a contribution, not only of a
the United States of North America, large sum as a loan to the government,
the country in the world in which the but of another for the private use of
democratic institutions prevail to the the Directors. The sum required for
greatest extent, and where gratitude the first object was £1,000,000, and for
to France was most unbounded for the the last £50,000. This disgraceful pro-
services rendered to them during their posal was repeatedly pressed upon the
contest with Great Britain. The origin envoys, not only by the subaltern agents
of these disputes was a decree of the of Talleyrand, but by that minister
French government in January 1798, himself, who openly avowed that no-
which directed "that all ships having thing could be done at Paris without
for their cargoes, in whole or in part, money, and that there was not an Ame-
any English merchandise, should be rican there who would not confirm him
held lawful prize, whoever was the pro- in this statement. Finding that the
prietor of that merchandise, which Americans resolutely resisted this pro-
should be held contraband from the posal, they were at length informed
single circumstance of its coming from that, if they would only "pay, by way
England, or any of its foreign settle of fees, just as they would to any law-
ments; that the harbours of France yer who should plead their cause, the
should be shut against all vessels which sum required for the private use of the
had so much as touched at an English Directory, they might remain in Paris
harbour, and that neutral sailors found until they had received further orders
on board English vessels should be put from America as to the loan required
to death." This barbarous decree im- for government." These terms were
mediately brought the French into col-
lision with the United States, who at
that period were the great neutral car-
riers of the world. Letters of marque
were issued, and an immense number
of American vessels, having touched at
English harbours, were brought into
the French ports. The American gov-
ernment sent envoys to Paris, in order
to remonstrate against these proceed-
ings. They urged that the decree of
the French proceeded on the oppressive
principle, that because a neutral is
**
* This transaction was so extraordinary,
that it is advisable to lay before the reader
the official report on the subject, presented.
by the American plenipotentiaries to their
government. "On the 18th October, the ple-
nipotentiary Pinckney received a visit from
the secret agent of M. Talleyrand (M. Bella-
rini). He assured us that Citizen Talleyrand
citizens of the United States, and that he was
had the highest esteem for America and the
most anxious for their reconciliation with
France. He added, that, with that view,
some of the most offensive passages in the
and a douceur of £50,000 sterling put at the
speech of President Adams must be expunged,
disposal of M. Talleyrand for the use of the
..
E
VĂN
sough
[
-
•
:
¿
L
!
158
war.
HISTORY OF EUROPE:
[CHAP. XXV.
France began the year 1798 with
three affiliated republics at her side, the
Batavian, the Cisalpine, and the Ligu-
rian. Before its close she had organ-
ised three more, the Helvetic, the Ro-
man, and the Parthenopeian. Pursu-
ing constantly the same system; ad-
dressing herself to the discontented mul-
titude in every state; paralysing the
national strength by a division of its
population, and taking advantage of
that division to overthrow its independ-
ence, she had succeeded in establishing
her dominion over more than one-half
of Europe. From the Texel to the ex-
tremity of Calabria, a compact chain of
republics was formed, which not only
threatened the independence of the
other states of Europe by their military
power, but promised speedily to sub-
vert their whole social institutions by
the incessant propagation of revolution-
principles. Experience had proved
that the freedom which the Jacobin
agents insiduously offered to the de-
luded population of other states, was
neither more nor less than an entire
subjection to the agents of France; and
that, the moment that they endeavour-
ed to obtain in reality that liberty which
they had been promised in name, they
were subjected to the most arbitrary
and despotic oppression.
indignantly rejected; the American en-
voys left Paris; letters of marque were
issued by the American President; all
commercial intercourse with France
was suspended, Washington declared
generalissimo of the forces of the com-
monwealth, the treaties with France
declared at an end, and every prepara-
tion made to sustain the national inde-
pendence.
132. The Hanse Towns were not so
fortunate in escaping from the exac-
tions of the Directory. Their distance
from the scene of contest, their neutral-
ity, so favourable to the commerce of
the Republic, the protection openly
afforded them by the Prussian govern-
ment, could not save them from French
rapacity. Their ships, bearing a neutral
flag, were daily captured by the French
cruisers, and they obtained licenses to
navigate the high seas only by the secret
payment of £150,000 to the Republicanary
rulers.
133. It was impossible, as long as the
slightest hope of maintaining their in-
dependence remained to the European
states, that these incessant and endless
usurpations of the French government
could fail to lead to a renewal of the
73
Directors; and a large loan furnished by Ame-
rica to France. On the 20th, the same sub-
ject was resumed in the apartments of the
plenipotentiary, and on this occasion, besides
the secret agent, an intimate friend of Tal-
leyrand's was present; the expunging of the
passages was again insisted on, and it was
added, that, after that, money was the priu-
cipal object. His words were-'We must
have money, a great deal of money.' On the
21st, at a third conference, the sum was fixed
at 32,000,000 (£1,280,000) as a loan, secured
on the Dutch contributions, and a gratification
of £50,000, in the form of a douceur to the
Directors. At a subsequent meeting on the
27th October, the same secret agent said,
"Gentlemen, you mistake the point: you say
nothing of the money you are to give. You make
no offer of money. On that point you are not
explicit."—"We are explicit enough," replied
the American envoys: "We will not give you
one farthing; and before coming here, we
should have thought such an offer as you now
propose would have been regarded as a mortal
insult."-Report in HARD. vi. 14, 22. When the
American envoys published this statement,
Talleyrand disavowed all the proceedings of
these secret agents; but M. Bellarini publish-
ed a declaration at Hamburg, "that he had nei-
ther said, written, nor done a single thing with
out the orders of Citizen Talleyrand."-Ib. vi. 29.
"
134. In resisting this alarming inva-
sion not merely of the independence of
nations, but of the principles which
hold together the social union, it was
obvious that no time was to be lost;
and that the peril incurred was even
greater in peace than during the utmost
dangers of war. France had made more
rapid strides towards universal domin-
ion, during one year of pacific encroach-
ment, than in six previous years of hos-
tilities. The continuance of amicable
relations was favourable to the secret
propagation of the revolutionary mania,
with all the extravagant hopes and ex-
pectations to which it gave rise; and,
without the shock of war, or an effort
even to maintain the public fortunes,
the independence of nations was silently
melting away before the insidious but
incessant efforts of democratic ambition.
It was but a poor consolation to those
who witnessed this deplorable progress,
1798.]
159
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
gestions were the first to suffer from
their effects, and that they subjected
themselves and their country to a far
worse despotism than that from which
they had hoped to emancipate it. The
evil was done, the national independ-
ence was subverted; revolutionary in-
terests were created, and the principle
of democracy, using the vanquished
states as an advanced post, was daily
proceeding to fresh conquests, and open-
ly aimed at universal dominion. These
considerations, strongly excited by the
subjugation of Switzerland and the
Papal States, led to a feeling, through-
out all the European monarchies, of the
necessity of a general coalition to resistian fortresses as far as the Adige.
the further encroachments of France,
and stop the alarming progress of revo-
lutionary principles. The Emperor of
Russia at length saw the necessity of
joining his great empire to the confe-
deracy; and a Muscovite army, sixty
thousand strong, began its march from
Poland toward the north of Italy, while
another, amounting to nearly forty
thousand, moved toward the south of
Germany.
that they who lent an ear to these sug- | this dereliction of principle on the part
of the Emperor; and, accordingly, it
was agreed that, on the same day on
which that great city was surrendered
to the Imperial troops, Mayence, the
bulwark of the German empire on the
Lower Rhine, should be given up to
the Republicans.* By an additional
article it was provided, that the Aus-
trian troops should, within twenty days
after the ratification of the secret ar-
ticles, evacuate also Ingolstadt, Philipps-
burgh, and all the fortresses as far back
as the frontiers of the Hereditary States;
and that, within the same period, the
French forces should retire from Palma
Nuova, Legnago, Ozoppo, and the Ital-
136. This important military conven-
tion, which totally disabled the empire
from making any effectual resistance to
the French forces, was kept a profound
secret, and only became known to the
German princes when, from its provi-
sions being carried into execution, it
could no longer, in part at least, be con-
cealed. But, in the mean time, it led to
a very great degree of intimacy between
Napoleon and Cobentzell, the Austrian
ambassador at Rastadt, insomuch that
the Emperor, who perceived the extreme
irritation which at that moment the
French general felt against the repub-
lican government at Paris, offered him
a principality in Germany, with 250,000
souls, in order that "he might be for
ever placed beyond the reach of demo-
cratic ingratitude." But the French
general, whose ambition was fixed on
very different objects, declined the offer.
To such a length, however, did the con-
fidence of the two diplomatists proceed,
that Napoleon made Cobentzell ac-
quainted with his secret intention at
some future period of subverting the
Directory. "An army," said he, "is
furnish, in any war which might ensue, and
not even to suffer them to be engaged in
the defence of any fortified place: any viola-
tion of this last article was to be considered
as a sufficient ground for the resumption of
hostilities against Austria. Indemnities were
to be obtained, if possible, for the dispossessed
princes on the left bank of the Rhine; but no
acquisition was to be proposed for the benefit of
Prussia. -See the Secret Articles in Corre-
spondance Confidentielle de Napoléon, vii. 287,
135. The negotiations at Rastadt,
notwithstanding their length and intri-
cacy, had led to no satisfactory result.
The temper in which they were con-
ducted underwent a material change
with the lapse of time. The treaty of
Campo Formio was more than an ordi-
nary accommodation; it was a league
by the great powers, who there termi-
nated their hostilities, for their own
aggrandisement at the expense of their
neighbours; and in its secret arti-
cles were contained stipulations which
amounted to an abandonment of the
Empire, by its head, to the rapacity of
the Republican government. Venice
was the glittering prize which induced
*The Emperor, in the secret articles, agreed
that the frontiers of France should be ad-
vanced to the Rhine, and stipulated that the
Imperial troops should take possession of
Venice on the same day on which the Repub-
licans entered Mayencc. He promised to use
his influence to induce the Germanic states
to agree to that arrangement; but if, not
withstanding his endeavours, they should
refuse to accede to it, he engaged to employ |
no troops, excepting the contingent he was
bound, as a member of the Confederation, to | 292.
}
1
•
+
1
25
"
160
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
fak
|
|
assembled on the coasts of the Channel | carried by assault on the 25th of the
ostensibly for the invasion of England; same month; while the Austrian forces,
but my real object is to march at its instead of offering any resistance, were
head to Paris, and overturn that ridicu- evidently retiring towards the frontiers
lous government of lawyers, which can- of the Hereditary States. A universal
not much longer oppress France. Be- stupor seized on the German people
lieve me, two years will not elapse be- when they beheld themselves thus
fore that preposterous scaffolding of a abandoned by their natural guardians,
republic will fall to the ground. The and the only ones capable of rendering
Directory may maintain its ground dur- them any effectual protection; and
ing peace, but it cannot withstand the their deputies expressed themselves in
shock of war; and therefore it is, that angry terms to the Imperial plenipo-
it is indispensable that we should both tentiaries on the subject. But M. Lehr-
occupy good positions." Cobentzell bach replied, when no longer able to
lost no time in making his cabinet ac- conceal this dismemberment of the Em-
quainted with these extraordinary re- pire,-" All the world is aware of the
velations, which were highly acceptable sacrifices which Austria has made dur-
at Vienna, and furnish the true key to ing the war; and that the misfortunes
the great influence exercised by Napo- which have occurred are nothing more
leon over that government during the than what she has uniformly predicted
remainder of his residence in Europe would occur, if a cordial union of all
prior to the Egytian expedition.
the Germanic states was not effected to
maintain their independence. Singly,
she has made the utmost efforts to
maintain the integrity of the Empire;
she has exhausted all her resources in the
attempt; if she has been unsuccessful,
let those answer for it who contributed
nothing towards the common cause.
This defence was perfectly just; Aus-
tria had performed, and nobly perform-
ed, her part as head of the Empire; its
dismemberment arose from the inaction
of Prussia, which, with an armed force
of above two hundred thousand men,
and a revenue of nearly £6,000,000
sterling, had done nothing whatever
for the cause of Germany. It is not
the cession of the left bank of the Rhine
to France, it is the spoliation of Venice,
which at this period forms an indelible
stain on the Austrian annals.
137. Great was the consternation in
Germany when at length it could no
longer be concealed that the line of the
Rhine had been abandoned to France,
and that all the states on the left bank
of that river were to be sacrificed to the
engrossing Republic. It was the more
difficult for the Austrian plenipotenti-
aries at Rastadt to reconcile the dispos-
sessed proprietors to this catastrophe,
as the Emperor had officially announced
to the Diet, shortly after the conclusion
of the armistice of Leoben, "that an
armistice had been concluded by the
Emperor for the empire, on the base of
the integrity of the Germanic body." Re-
monstrances and petitions in conse-
quence rapidly succeeded each other,
as suspicions of the fate impending over
them got afloat, but without effect; and
soon the decisive evidence of facts con-
vinced the most incredulous, that a por-
tion at least of the Empire had been
abandoned. Intelligence successively
arrived, that Mayence had been sur-
rendered to the Republicans on the 30th
December, in presence of, and without
opposition from, the Austrian forces;
that Venice, stripped of all its riches,
had been abandoned to the Imperial-
ists on the 15th January; and that the
fort on the Rhine, opposite Mannheim,
which refused to surrender to the sum-
mons of the French general, had been
-
>>
138. After the cession of the line of
the Rhine to France was finally divulged,
the attention of the plenipotentiaries
was chiefly directed to the means of
providing indemnities to the dispos-
sessed princes, and the Republican en-
voys had already broached their fa-
vourite project of secularisations ;—in
other words, indemnifying the lay
princes at the expense of the church,
when an event occurred at Vienna
which threatened to produce an imme-
diate explosion between the two gov-
ernments. On occasion of the anniver-
¿
1798.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
161
sary of the general arming of the Vienna | would appease the exasperated ambas-
volunteers on April 13, in the preceding sador, and on the 15th he left Vienna,
year, the youth of that capital expressed under a numerous. escort of cavalry,
a strong desire to give vent to the ardour and took the road for Rastadt.
of their patriotic feeling by a fête in
honour of the glorious stand then made
by their countrymen. It was hazardous
to agree to such a proposal, as the
French ambassador, General Berna-
dotte, had testified his repugnance to
it, and declared his resolution, if it was
persisted in, to give a dinner in honour
of democratic principles at his hotel.
But the Austrian government could not
withstand the wishes of the defenders
of the monarchy: the proposed fête
took place, and the French ambassador,
in consequence, gave a great entertain-
ment to his friends, and hoisted an im-
mense tricolor flag before his gate, with
the words "Liberté, Egalité," inscribed
upon it. The opposing principles being
thus brought into contact with each
other, a collision took place. The peo-
ple of Vienna conceived the conduct of
the French ambassador to be a direct
insult offered to their beloved Emperor,
and flocked in menacing crowds to the
neighbourhood of his hotel. The Aus-
trian authorities, seeing the popular
exasperation hourly increasing, in vain
besought Bernadotte to remove the ob-
noxious standard. He deemed his own
honour and that of the Republic pledged
to its being kept up; and at length the
multitude began to ascend ladders to
break open the windows. A pistol dis-
charged by a servant within, which
wounded one of the assailants, only in-
creased the excitement; the gates and
windows were speedily forced, the apart-
ments pillaged, and the carriages in the
yard broken to pieces. Fifty thousand
persons assembled in the streets, and
the French ambassador, barricaded in
one of the rooms of his hotel, was only
delivered at one o'clock in the morning
by two regiments of cuirassiers, which
the Imperial government sent to his
relief. Justly indignant at this dis-
graceful outrage, Bernadotte transmit-
ted several angry notes to the Austrian
cabinet; and although they published
a proclamation on the following day,
expressing the deepest regret at the
disorders which had occurred, nothing
139. When matters were in this com-
bustible state, a spark only was required
to light the conflagration. Conferences
were opened at Seltz, in Germany, where,
on the one hand, the Directory insisted
on satisfaction for the insult offered to
the ambassador of the Republic; and,
on the other, the Emperor demanded
an explanation of the conduct of France
in subduing, without the shadow of a
pretext, the Helvetic Confederacy, and
extending its dominion through the
whole of Italy. As the Austrians could
obtain no satisfaction on these points,
the Emperor drew more close his bonds
of intimacy with the court of St Peters-
burg; and the march of the Russian
armies through Gallicia and Moravia
was hastened, while the military pre-
parations of the Austrian monarchy
proceeded with redoubled activity.
140. The negotiations at Rastadt for
the settlement of the affairs of the Ger-
manic empire proceeded slowly towards
an adjustment; but their importance
disappeared upon the commencement of
the more weighty discussions involved
in the Seltz conferences. The French
insisted upon a variety of articles utterly
inconsistent with the spirit of the treaty
of Campo Formio or the independence
of Germany. They first demanded all
the islands of the Rhine, which were
of very great importance in a military
point of view; next, that they should
be put in possession of Kehl and its
territory opposite to Strassburg, and
Cassel and its territory opposite to
Mayence; then that a piece of ground,
adequate to the formation of a tête-de-
pont, should be ceded to them at the
German end of the bridge of Huningen;
and, lastly, that the important fortress
of Ehrenbreitstein should be demolish-
ed. The German deputation, on the
other hand, insisted that the principle
of separation should be that of thalweg;
that is to say, of the division of the
valley by the middle of its principal
stream. As a consequence of this prin-
ciple, they refused to cede Kehl, Cassel,
or the tête-de-pont at Huningen, or ta
{
162
[CHAP. XXV.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
demolish the fortifications of Ehren- | exhibited large chasms, which the ex-
breitstein, all of which lay on the Ger-isting state of the law provided no
man bank of the river. Subsequently, means of supplying. The Convention,
the French commissioners admitted the notwithstanding their energy, had made
principle of the thalweg, and consented no permanent provision for recruiting
to the demolition of Cassel and Kehl, the army, but had contented themselves
and the Germans agreed to that of with two levies, one of 300,000 and one
Ehrenbreitstein; but the Republicans of 1,200,000 men, in 1793, which, with
insisted on the cession of the island of the voluntary supplies since furnished
Petersaw, which would have given them by the patriotism or suffering of the
the means of crossing opposite that im- people, had been found adequate to the
portant point. Matters were in this wants of the state. But now that the
unsettled state, when the negotiations revolutionary fervour had subsided, and
were interrupted by the march of the a necessity existed for finding a per-
Russian troops through Moravia. The manent supply of soldiers to meet the
French government upon that issued a wars into which the insatiable ambition
note, in which they declared that they of the government had plunged the
would consider the crossing of the Ger- country, some lasting resource became
man frontier by that army as equivalent indispensable. To meet the difficulty,
to a declaration of war; and as their General Jourdan proposed the law of
advance continued without interrup- the CONSCRIPTION, which became one
tion, the negotiations at Rastadt virtu- of the most important consequences of
ally came to an end.
the Revolution. By this decree, every
Frenchman from twenty to forty-five
years of age was declared amenable to
military service. Those liable to serve
were divided into classes, according to
the years of their birth, and the govern-
ment were authorised to call out the
youngest, second, or third class, accord-
ing to the exigencies of the times. The
conscription was to take place by lot,
in the class from which it was directed
to be taken. This law was immediately
adopted; and the first levy of two hun-
dred thousand men from France was
ordered to be immediately enforced,
while eighteen thousand men were re-
quired from the affiliated republic of
Switzerland, and the like number from
that of Holland.
141. Seeing themselves seriously me-
naced with an armed resistance to their
project for subjugating all the adjoining
states by means of exciting revolutions
in their bosom, the Directory at length
began to adopt measures to make head
against the danger. The finances of
the Republic were in a most alarming
state. Notwithstanding the confisca-
tion of two-thirds of the national debt,
it was discovered that there would
be a deficit of 200,000,000 francs, or
£8,000,000 sterling, in the returns of
the year. New taxes, chiefly on doors
and windows, were imposed, and a de-
cree passed, authorising national do-
mains, to the value of 125,000,000 of
francs, or £5,000,000 sterling, to be
taken from the public creditors, to whom
they had been surrendered in liquida-
tion of their claims, and the property
of the whole Protestant clergy to be
confiscated to the service of the state:
thus putting, to support their revolu-
tionary conquests, the last hand to the
revolutionary confiscations.
142. It remained to adopt some me-
thod for the augmentation of the army,
which had been very much diminished
by sickness and desertion since the
peace of Campo Formio. The skeletons
of the regiments and the non-commis-
sioned officers remained; but the ranks
•
143. Thus the justice of Heaven made
the revolutionary passions of France
the means of working out their own
punishment. The atrocious aggression
on Switzerland, the flames of Unter-
walden, the subjugation of Italy, were
registered in the book of fate, and
brought about a dreadful and lasting
retribution. Not the bayonets of the
Allies, not the defence of their country,
occasioned this lasting scourge; the in-
vasion of other states, the cries of in-
jured innocence, first brought it into
existence. They fixed upon its infatu-
ated people that terrible law, which
1798.]
163
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
soon carried misery into every cottage, its infuriated but not repentant in-
and bathed in tears every mother inhabitants what one of themselves has
France. Wide as had been the spread styled tears of blood. It is thus that
of the national sin, as wide was the Providence vindicates its superintend-
lash of national punishment. By fur-ence of the moral world; that the
nishing an almost inexhaustible supply guilty career of nations, equally as
of military levies, it fanned the spirit that of individuals, brings down upon
of universal conquest, and precipitated itself a righteous punishment; and
its people into the bloody career of that we feel, amidst all the sins of
Napoleon. It produced that terrible rulers, or madness of the people, the
contest which, after exhausting the re- truth of the sublime words of Scrip-
sources, brought about the subjugation ture: "Ephraim is joined to his idols ;
of that great kingdom, and wrung from let him alone."
CHAPTER XXVI.
EXPEDITION TO EGYPT.
(C
1. "By seizing the Isthmus of Darien," | world—though the inundations of the
said Sir Walter Raleigh, you will Nile did not annually cover its fields
wrest the keys of the world from Spain." with riches-it would still be, from its
The observation, worthy of his reach situation, one of the most favoured spots
of thought, is still more applicable to on the earth. The greatest and most du-
the Isthmus of Suez and the country rable monuments of human industry,
of Egypt. It is remarkable that its accordingly, the earliest efforts of civi-
importance has never been duly ap-lisation, the sublimest works of genius,
preciated, except by the greatest con- have been raised in this primeval seat
querors of ancient and modern times, of mankind. The temples of Rome
Alexander the Great and Napoleon have decayed; the arts of Athens have
Buonaparte. The geographical position perished; but the pyramids "still
of this celebrated country has destined stand erect and unshaken above the
it to be the chief emporium of the com- floods of the Nile." When, in the re-
merce of the world. Placed in the volution of ages, civilisation shall have
centre between Europe and Asia, on returned to its ancient cradle-when
the confines of Eastern wealth and the desolation of Mahometan rule shall
Western civilisation; at the extremity have ceased, and the light of religion
of the African continent, and on the have re-illumined the land of its birth
shores of the Mediterranean sea, it is-Egypt will again become one of the
fitted to become the central point of great centres of human industry. The
communication for the varied produc- invention of steam has already restored
tions of these different regions of the the communication with the East to
globe. The waters of the Mediterra- its original channel; and the nation
nean bring to it all the fabrics of Eu- which shall revive the canal of Suez,
rope; the Red Sea wafts to its shores and open a direct communication be-
the riches of India and China; while tween the Mediterranean and the Red
the Nile floats down to its bossom the Sea, will pour into its bosom those
produce of the vast and unknown re- streams of wealth which in every age
gions of Africa. Though it were not have constituted the principal sources
one of the most fertile countries in the of European opulence.
:
164
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
·
:
1
?
?
"
2. The great Leibnitz, in the time | Eastern regions, where alone, in his
of Louis XIV., addressed to the French apprehension, great things could be
monarch a memorial, which is one of achieved; where kingdoms lay open to
the noblest monuments of political fore- private adventure; and fame, rivalling
sight. Sire," said he, "it is not at that of the heroes of antiquity, was to
home that you will succeed in subdu- be obtained. From his earliest years he
ing the Dutch; you will not cross their had been influenced by an ardent de-
dykes, and you will rouse Europe to sire to effect a revolution in the East;
their assistance. It is in Egypt that he was literally haunted by the idea of
the real blow is to be struck. There glory which had been there acquired,
you will find the true commercial route and firmly convinced that the power
to India; you will wrest that lucrative of England could never be effectually
commerce from Holland; you will se- humbled except by a blow at its Indian
cure the eternal dominion of France possessions. "The Persians," said he,
in the Levant; you will fill Christen- "have blocked up the route of Tamer-
dom with joy.'
."* These ideas, however, lane; I will discover another." It was
were beyond the age, and they lay dor- his favourite opinion through life, that
mant till revived by the genius of Na- Egypt was the true line of communi-
poleon. The eagle eye of Alexander cation with India; that it was there
the Great, which fitted him to have that the English power could alone be
been as great a benefactor as he was seriously affected; that its possession
a scourge of the species, early dis- would insure the dominion of the Medi-
cerned the vast capabilities of this terranean, and convert that sea into
country; and to him was owing the a "French lake." From that central
foundation of that city, the rival of point armaments might be detached
Memphis and Thebes, which once boast- down the Red Sea, to attack the British
ed of six hundred thousand inhabit possessions in India; and an entrepot
ants, almost rivalled Rome in the pleni- established, which would soon turn the
tude of its power, and still bears, commerce of the East into the channels
amidst ruins and decay, the name of which nature had formed for its recep-
the conqueror of the East. Napoleon tion--the Mediterranean and the Red
was hardly launched into the career of Sea.
conquest before he also perceived the
importance of this country; and when
still struggling in the plains of Italy
with the armies of Austria, he was
meditating an expedition into those
* "The possession of Egypt," says he, in
the same memorial, "will open a prompt
communication with the richest countries of
the East. It will unite the commerce of the
Indies to that of France, and
pave the
the way
for great captains to march to conquests
worthy of Alexander. If the Portuguese,
whose power is much inferior to that of
France, had been able to obtain possession of
Egypt, the whole of India would have been
long since subjected to them; and yet, not-
withstanding the smallness of their numbers,
they have made themselves formidable to the
people of those countries. Egypt once con-
quered, nothing could be easier than to take
possession of the entire coast of the Red Sea,
and of the innumerable islands which border
it. The interior of Asia, destitute of both
commerce and wealth, would range itself at
once beneath your dominion. The success
of this enterprise would for ever secure the
possession of the Indies, the commerce of
Asia, and the dominion of the world."-Me-
morial, 1672, LEIBNITZ to LOUIS XIV.
A
3. It was at Passeriano, however,
after the campaign was concluded, and
when his energetic mind turned abroad
to seek the theatre of fresh exploits,
that the conception of an expedition
to Egypt first seriously occupied his
thoughts. During his long evening
walks in the magnificent park of his
mansion, he spoke without intermission
of the celebrity of those countries, and
the illustrious empires which have there
disappeared, after overturning each
other, but the memory of which still
lives in the recollections of mankind.
"Europe," said he, "is no field for glo-
rious exploits; no great empires or re-
volutions are to be found but in the
East, where there are six hundred mil-
lions of men." Egypt at once presented
itself to his imagination as the point
where a decisive impression was to
be made; the weak point of the line.
where a breach could be effected, a
permanent lodgment secured, a path
1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
165
::
So
opened to those Eastern regions where | tions which are suddenly transferred
the British power was to be destroyed, from one country to another, perish as
and immortal renown acquired. rapidly as the full-grown tree, which is
completely had this idea taken posses- transplanted from the soil of its birth
sion of his mind, that all of the books to a distant land.
brought from the Ambrosian library to
Paris, after the peace of Campo For-
mio, which related to Egypt, were sub-
mitted to his examination, and many
bore extensive marginal notes in his
own handwriting, indicating the power
ful grasp and indefatigable activity of
his mind. And in his correspondence
with the Directory he had already, more
than once, suggested both the import-
ance of an expedition to the banks of
the Nile, and the amount of force
quisite to insure its success.
5. Napoleon's journey from Italy to
Paris was a continual triumph. The
Italians, whose national spirit had been
in some degree revived by his victories,
beheld with regret the disappearance
of that brilliant apparition. Every-
thing he did and said was calculated
to increase the public enthusiasm. At
Mantua, he combined with a fête in
honour of Virgil a military procession
on the death of General Hoche, who had
re-recently died, after a short illness, in
France; and about the same time formed
4. Before leaving Italy, after the treaty that friendship with Desaix, who had
of Campo Formio, he put the last hand come from the army of the Rhine to
to the affairs of the Cisalpine republic. visit that of Italy, which mutual esteem
Venice was delivered over, amidst the was so well calculated to inspire, but
tears of all its patriotic citizens, to Aus- which was destined to terminate pre-
tria; the French auxiliary force in the maturely on the field of Marengo. The
new republic was fixed at thirty thou- towns of Switzerland received him with
sand men, under the orders of Berthier, transport; triumphal arches and gar-
to be maintained at the expense of the lands of flowers everywhere awaited
allied state; and all the republican or- his approach; he passed the fortresses
ganisation of a directory, legislative as- amidst discharges of cannon; and
semblies, national guards, and troops crowds from the neighbouring coun-
of the line, was put in full activity. tries lined the roads to get a glimpse
"You are the first people in history," of the hero who had filled the world
said he, in his parting address to them, with his renown.* His progress in gen-
"who have become free without fac-eral was rapid; but he dwelt on the
tions, without revolutions, without con- scenes of ancient renown or present in-
vulsions. We have given you freedom; terest. At Berne, he asked an ominous
it is your part to preserve it. You are, question as to the amount of its treasure,
after France, the richest, the most po- which the senator to whom it was ad-
pulous republic in the world. Your dressed had the prudence to state at
position calls you to take a leading part half its real amount. He lingered long
in the politics of Europe. To be wor- in the field of Morat, to examine the
thy of your destiny, make no laws but scene of the terrible defeat of the Bur-
what are wise and moderate; but exe- gundian chivalry by the Swiss pea-
cute them with force and energy." The santry. Passing Bâle, he arrived at
wealth and population of the beautiful Rastadt, where the congress was estab-
provinces which composed this repub- lished; but foreseeing nothing worthy
lic, embracing 3,500,000 souls, the for- of his genius in the minute matters of
tress of Mantua, and the plains of Lom- diplomacy which were there the sub-
bardy, formed indeed the elements of ject of discussion, he proceeded to Paris,
a powerful state; but had Napoleon
looked into the book of history, or con-
sidered the human mind, he would have
perceived that, of all human blessings,
liberty is the one which is of the slowest
growth; that it must be won, and can-
not be conferred; and that the institution.-HARD. v. 308.
|
* His words, though few, were all such as
were calculated to produce revolution. At
Geneva, he boasted that he would democra
tise England in three months; and that there
were, in truth, but two republics in Switzer-
land-Geneva, without laws or government;
Bâle, converted into the workshop of revolu-

166
[CHAP. XXVL
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
*
where the public anxiety for his return | are more sensible of this than the mili-
had arisen to the highest pitch.
tary profession. When, on my re
turn from Italy, I assumed the dress
of the Institute, I knew what I was
doing; I was sure of not being mis-
understood by the lowest drummer of
the army."
6. The successive arrival of Napo-
leon's lieutenants at Paris with the
standards taken from the enemy in his
memorable campaigns, the vast con-
quests he had achieved, the brief but
eloquent language of his proclama-
tions, and the immense benefits which
had accrued to the Republic from his
triumphs, had raised to the very highest
pitch the enthusiasm of the people.
The public anxiety, accordingly, to see
him was indescribable; but he knew
enough of mankind to feel the import-
ance of enhancing the general wish by
avoiding its gratification. He lived in
his own house in the Rue Chantereine,
in the most retired manner, went sel-
dom into public, and surrounded him-
self only by scientific characters, or gen-
erals of cultivated minds. He avoided
military society, seemed devoted to civil
and scientific pursuits, wore the cos-
tume of the Institute, of which he had
recently been elected a member; asso-
ciated constantly with its leading char-
acters, such as Monge, Berthold, La-
place, Lagrange; and admitted to his
intimate society only Berthier, Desaix,
Lefebvre, Caffarelli, Kleber, and a few
of the deputies. On occasion of being
presented to Talleyrand, minister of
foreign affairs, he singled out, amidst
the splendid cortège of public charac-
ters by which he was surrounded, M.
Bougainville, and conversed with him
on the celebrated voyage which he had
performed. Such was the profound na-
ture of his ambition through life, that
on every occasion he looked rather to
the impression his conduct was to pro-
duce on men's minds in future, than
the gratification he was to receive from
their admiration of the past. He li-
terally "deemed nothing done, while
anything remained to do.' Even in
the assumption of the dress, and the
choice of the society of the Institute,
he was guided by motives of ambition,
and a profound knowledge of the hu-
man heart. " Mankind," said he, are
in the end governed always by superi-
"ority of intellectual qualities, and none
>> *
* "Nil actum putans, dum quid superes
* “Nil actum putans, dum quid superes
set agendum."-LUCAN, Pharsalia.
7. Shortly after his arrival he was
received in state by the Directory, in
their now magnificent palace of the
Luxembourg. The public anxiety was
wound up to the highest pitch for this
imposing ceremony, on which occasion
Joubert was to present the standard of
the Army of Italy, inscribed with all
the great actions it had performed; and
the youthful conqueror himself was to
lay at the feet of government the treaty
of Campo Formio. Vast galleries were
prepared for the accommodation of the
public, which were early filled with all
that was distinguished in rank, char-
acter, and beauty in Paris. He made
his entry, accompanied by M. Talley-
rand, who was to present him to the
Directory as the bearer of the treaty.
The aspect of the hero, his thin but
graceful figure, the Roman cast of his
features, and fire of his eye-excited
universal admiration; the court rang
with applause. Talleyrand introduced
him in an eloquent speech, in which,
after extolling his great actions, he con-
cluded,-" For a moment I did feel on
his account that disquietude which, in
an infant republic, arises from every-
thing which seems to destroy the equal-
ity of the citizens. But I was wrong;
individual grandeur, far from being
dangerous to equality, is its highest
triumph; and on this occasion, every
Frenchman must feel himself elevated
by the hero of his country. And when
Ireflect on all that he has done to shroud
from envy that light of glory; on that
ancient love of simplicity which distin-
guishes him in his favourite studies;
on his love for the abstract sciences
on his admiration for that sublime Os-
sian which seems to detach him from
the world; on his well-known contempt
for luxury, for pomp, for all that con-
stitutes the pride of ignoble minds, I
am convinced that, far from dreading
his ambition, we shall one day have
occasion to rouse it anew to allure him
|
1797.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
167
*
(C
[
from the sweets of studious retirement. | appeared at all these; but they were
France will never lose its freedom; but foreign to his disposition, and he retired,
perhaps he will not for ever preserve as soon as politeness would permit, to
his own.
his own house. At that given by M.
Talleyrand, which was distinguished by
the good taste and elegance which pre-
vailed, he was asked by Madame de Stael,
in presence of a numerous circle, who
was, in his opinion, the greatest woman
that ever existed. 'She," he replied,
"who has had the greatest number of
children," an answer very different
from what she anticipated, and singu-
larly characteristic of his opinions on the
proper destiny of the female character.
At the Institute, he was to be seen al-
ways seated between Lagrange and La-
place, apparently wholly occupied with
the abstract sciences. To a deputation
of that learned body he returned an
answer: "I am highly honoured with
the approbation of the distinguished
men who compose the Institute. I
know well that I must long be their
scholar before I become their equal.
The true conquests, the only ones which
do not cause a tear, are those which are
gained over ignorance. The most hon-
ourable, as well as the most useful oc-
cupation of men is, to contribute to the
extension of ideas. The power of the
French Republic should henceforth
consist in this, that not a single new
idea should exist which does not owe
its birth to its exertions." But it was
only for the approbation of these illus-
trious men that he appeared solici-
tous; he was never seen in the streets;
went only to a concealed box in the
opera; and when he assumed the reins
of power after his return from Egypt,
Bologna, Ferrara, Modena, Massa-Carrara,
Romagna, Lombardy, Brescia, Bergamo,
Mantua, Cremona, a part of the Veronese,
Chiavenna, Bormio, and the Valteline; to
the people of Genoa, the Imperial fiefs,
Corcyra, and Ithaca. Sent to Paris the
chefs-d'œuvre of Michael Angelo, Guercino,
Titian, Paul Veronese, Coreggio, Albano, the
Caraccis, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, &c.
Triumphed in 18 pitched battles-Monte-
notte, Milessimo, Mondovi, Lodi, Borghetta,
Lonato, Castiglione, Roveredo, Bassano, St
George's, Fontana Viva, Caldiero, Arcola,
Rivoli, La Favorite, the Tagliamento, Tar-
wis, Neumarkt;" and then followed the
+ It bore these words:-"The Army of
Italy has made 150,000 prisoners; it has
taken 170 standards, 500 pieces of heavy ar-
tillery, 600 field-pieces, 5 pontoon trains, 9
ships of the line, 12 frigates, 12 corvettes, 18
galleys. Armistice with the Kings of Sar-
dinia, Naples, the Dukes of Parma and Mo-
dena, and the Pupe. Preliminaries of Leo-names of 67 combats or lesser engagements.
ben; Convention of Montebello with Genoa. The legions of Cæsar had not, in so short a
Treaty of Tolentino. Treaty of Campo For- time, so splendid a roll of achievements to
mio. It has given freedom to the people of exhibit.
ror.
8. Napoleon replied in these words,
"The French people, to attain their
freedom, had kings to combat; to se-
cure a constitution founded on reason,
they had eighteen hundred years of pre-
judices to overcome. Religion, feud-
ality, despotism, have, in their turns,
governed Europe; but from the peace
now concluded dates the era of repre-
sentative governments. You have suc-
ceeded in organising the great nation,
whose territory is only circumscribed
because nature herself has imposed its
limits. I lay at your feet the treaty of
Campo Formio, ratified by the Empe-
As soon as the happiness of France
is secured by the best organic laws, the
whole of Europe will be free." The
Directory, by the voice of Barras, re-
turned an inflated reply, in which they
invited him to strive for the acquisi-
tion of fresh laurels, and pointed to the
shores of Great Britain as the place
where they were to be gathered. On
this occasion, General Joubert, and the
chief of the staff, Andréossi, bore the
magnificent standard which the Direc-
tory had given to the Army of Italy,
and which contained an enumeration
of triumphs so wonderful that it would
have passed for fabulous in any other
age. It was sufficient to intoxicate all
the youth of France with the passion
for military glory.
9. This fête was followed by others,
given by the legislative body and the
minister of foreign affairs. Napoleon
#
* Napoleon had added these words in this
place," That peace secures the liberty, the
prosperity, and glory, of the Republic;"
but these words were struck out by order of
the Directory-a sufficient proof of their dis-
approval of his conduct in signing it, and one
of the many inducements which led him to
turn his face to the East.-HARD. v. 74.
7.
$

T
1
168
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVI.
his personal appearance was still un-imperishable a lustre over the annals
known to the greater part of the inha of antiquity. While thus sustaining
bitants of Paris.
his reputation, and inscribing his name
10. But Napoleon's was not a dis-on the eternal monuments of Egyptian
position to remain satisfied with past grandeur, he hoped to be still within
glory; the future yet higher achieve-reach of the march of events in Europe,
ments-filled his mind. He knew well and ready to assume that despotic com-
the ephemeral nature of popular ap-mand which, he already foresaw, would
plause, and how necessary mystery or soon be called for by the incapacity of
a succession of great actions is, to pro- the Directory, and the never-ending dis-
long its transports. "They do not tractions of democratic institutions.
long preserve at Paris," said he to his
intimate friends, "the remembrance
of anything. If I remain long unem-
ployed, I am undone. The renown of
one in this great Babylon speedily sup-
plants that of another. If I am seen
three times at the opera, I shall no
longer be an object of curiosity. You
need not talk of the desire of the citi-
zens to get a sight of me: crowds at
least as great would go to see me led
out to the scaffold." He made an ef-
fort to obtain a dispensation with the
law which required the age of forty
for one of the Directory; but, failing
in that attempt, his whole thoughts
and passions centered in the East, the
theatre of his original visions of glory.
"Bourrienne," said he, "I am deter-
mined not to remain in Paris; there
is nothing to be done here. It is im-
possible to fix the attention of the
people. If I remain longer inactive, I
am undone. Everything here passes
away; my glory is already declining;
this little corner of Europe is too small
to supply it. We must go to the East;
all the great men of the world have
there acquired their celebrity. Never-
theless, I am willing to make a tour
to the coasts with yourself, Lannes,
and Solkowsky. Should the expedition
to Britain prove, as I much fear it
will, too hazardous, the Army of Eng-
land will become the army of the East,
and we will go to Egypt." These
words give a just idea of the character
of Napoleon. Glory was his ruling
passion; nothing appeared impossible
where it was to be won. The great
names of Alexander, Cæsar, and Han-
nibal haunted his imagination; passing
over the lapse of two thousand years,
he fixed his rivalry on those classical
heroes, whose exploits have shed so
11. In truth, the Directory, secretly
alarmed at the reputation of the con-
queror of Italy, eagerly sought, under
the splendid colouring of a descent on
England, an opportunity of ridding
themselves of so formidable a rival.
An extraordinary degree of activity
prevailed in all the harbours, not only
of France and Holland, but of Spain
and Italy: the fleets at Cadiz and
Toulon were soon in a condition to
put to sea; that at Brest only awaited,
to all appearance, their arrival, to issue
forth, and form a preponderating force
in the Channel, where the utmost ex-
ertions were making to construct and
equip flat-bottomed boats for the con-
veyance of the land troops. Means
were soon collected in the northern
harbours for the transport of sixty
thousand men. Meanwhile great part of
the armies of the Rhine were brought
down to the maritime districts, and
lined the shores of France and Holland,
from Brest to the Texel; nearly one
hundred and fifty thousand men were
stationed on these coasts, under the
name of the Army of England.* This
immense force might have occasioned
great disquietude to the British govern-
ment, had it been supported by a
powerful navy; but the battles of St
Vincent and Camperdown had relieved
them of all apprehensions of a descent
by these numerous enemies. It does
not appear that the Directory then
entertained any serious thoughts of
carrying the invasion into early exe-
cution: although the troops were en-
camped in the maritime departments,
* It was stated at 275,000 men, all fully
equipped, by the French Directory, in their
communications to the Irish insurgents.
the French ports, February and March 1798;
Secret Information as to hostile Preparations in
Castlereagh Papers, i. 165, 166.
|
1797.]
169
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
no immediate preparation for embarka- | desirous to detach himself from the
tion had been made. However, their government, from his strong and grow-
language breathed nothing but me- ing aversion to the Jacobin party,
naces: Napoleon was appointed com- whom the revolution of the 18th
mander-in-chief of the Army of Eng- Fructidor had placed at the head of
land, and he was despatched on a mis- the Republic. Already he had, on
sion to the coasts to superintend the more than one occasion, openly ex-
completion of the armament.
pressed his dislike at the violent re-
12. "Crown," said Barras, "so il-volutionary course which the Direc-
lustrious a life, by a conquest which tory were pursuing, both at home and
the great nation owes to its outraged abroad; and in private he gave vent,
dignity. Go, and by the punishment in the strongest terms, to his horror
of the cabinet of London, strike terror at that grasping insatiable democratic
into the hearts of all who would mis-spirit, which, through his subsequent
calculate the powers of a free people. life, he set himself so vigorously to
Let the conquerors of the Po, the resist. "What," said he, "would these
Rhine, and the Tiber, march under Jacobins have? France is revolution-
your banners; the ocean will be proud ised, Holland is revolutionised, Italy is
to bear them; it is a slave still indig- revolutionised, Switzerland is revolu-
nant, who blushes for his fetters. He tionised, Europe will soon be revolu-
invokes, in a voice of thunder, the tionised. But this, it seems, will not
wrath of the earth against the oppres- suffice them. I know full well what
sor of the waves. Pompey did not they want: they want the domination
esteem it beneath him to wield the of thirty or forty individuals founded
power of Rome against the pirates: on the massacre of three or four mil-
Go and chain the monster who presses lions; they want the constitution of
on the seas; go and punish in London 1793, but they shall not have it, and
the injured rights of humanity. Hardly death to him who would demand it!
shall the tricolor standard wave on the For my own part I declare, that if I
blood-stained shores of the Thames, had only the option between royalty
ere a unanimous cry will bless your and the system of these gentlemen, I
arrival, and that generous nation, per- would not hesitate one moment to de-
ceiving the dawn of its felicity, will clare for a king."
receive you as liberators, who come
not to combat and enslave, but to put
a period to its calamities." Under
these high-sounding declamations, how-visited, in less than ten days, Boulogne,
ever, all parties concealed very different Calais, Dunkirk, Antwerp, and Flush-
intentions. Immense preparations were ing, exhibiting everywhere his usual
made in Italy and the south of France, sagacity and rapidity of apprehension;
as well as on the shores of the Chan- conversing with, deriving light from
nel; the whole naval resources of the every one possessed of local informa-
Mediterranean were put in requisition, tion, and obtaining in a few weeks
and the élite of the Army of Italy moved what it would have taken others years
to Toulon, Genoa, and Civita Vecchia. to acquire. He sat up till midnight at
The Directory were more desirous to every town, interrogating the sailors,
see Napoleon engulfed in the sands of fishermen, and smugglers to their
Lybia than conquering on the banks objections he listened with patient at-
of the Thames; and he dreamed more tention, to his own difficulties he drew
of the career of Alexander and of Ma- their consideration. During this brief
homet, than of the descent of Cæsar on journey, he acquired an intimate ac-
the shores of Britain.
quaintance with the relative import-
ance of these maritime stations; and
to this period is to be assigned the
origin of those great conceptions con-
14. In the middle of February, Na-
poleon proceeded to the coasts, accom-
panied by Lannes and Bourrienne. He
M
13. Independent of his anxiety to
engage in some enterprise which might
immortalise his name, Napoleon was
VOL. IV.
-
170
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
J
cerning Antwerp, which, under the the blow was to fall, made every ar-
Empire, he carried with so much vigour rangement which prudence could sug-
into execution. At length, having ac-gest to ward off the impending danger.
quired all the information which could They had little apprehension as to the
be obtained, he made up his mind and issue of a contest on the shores of Bri-
returned to Paris. "It is too doubtful tain; but Ireland was the vulnerable
a chance," said he; "I will not risk it; quarter which filled them with disquie-
I will not hazard, on such a throw, tude. The unceasing discontents of
the fate of France." Thenceforward that country had formed a large party,
all his energies were turned towards who were in open and ill-disguised com-
the Egyptian expedition.
munication with the French Directory,
and the narrow escape which it had
made by the dispersion of Hoche's
squadron in Bantry Bay proved that
the utmost vigilance, and a decided
naval superiority, could not always be
relied on to secure its extensive sea-
coast from hostile invasion. In these cir-
cumstances, the principal efforts of the
Admiralty were directed to strengthen
the fleet off Brest and the Spanish coasts,
from whence the menaced invasion
might chiefly be expected to issue;
while, at the same time, a small squad-
ron was detached under Nelson, by
Admiral St Vincent, from his squad-
ron off Cadiz, which now amounted to
eighteen ships of the line, to the Medi-
terranean, which was afterwards raised,
by the junction of eight ships of the
line under Admiral Curtis, to thirteen
line-of-battle ships, and one of fifty guns.
The most active preparations for de-
fence were at the same time made on
the whole coasts; the vigilance of the
cruisers in the Channel was redoubled;
and the spirit of the nation, rising with
the dangers which threatened it, pre-
pared without dismay to meet the con-
queror of Europe on the British shores.
17. While all eyes in Europe, how-
ever, were turned to the Channel, and
the world awaited, in anxious suspense,
the terrible conflict which seemed to be
approaching between the two powers
whose hostility had so long divided
mankind, the tempest had turned away
in another direction. After consider-
Stable difficulty, Napoleon succeeded in
persuading the Directory to undertake
the expedition to Egypt. In vain they
objected that it was to expose forty
thousand of the best troops of the Re-
public to destruction; that the chance
was small of escaping the English squad-
rons; and that Austria would not fail

15. It was not the difficulty of trans-
porting sixty or eighty thousand men
to the shores of Britain which deterred
Napoleon; the impossibility of main-
taining a strict blockade of an exten-
sive line of coast, on a tempestuous
sea, and the chance of getting over
unseen in hazy weather, sufficiently
demonstrated that such an attempt,
however hazardous, was practicable
under favourable circumstances. It
was the obstacles in the way of main-
taining them in the country after they
were landed, and supporting them by
the necessary stores and reinforce-
ments, in presence of a superior naval
force, which was the decisive consider-
ation. Supposing the troops landed,
a battle gained, and London taken, it
was not to be expected that England
would submit; and how to maintain
the conquests made, and penetrate in-
to the interior of the country, without
continual reinforcements, and an un-
interrupted communication with the
Continent, was the insurmountable
difficulty. There appeared no rational
prospect at this period of accumulating
a superior naval power in the Channel,
or effecting an open connection be
tween the invading force and the shores
of France; and this being the case, the
Republican army, however successful
at first, must, to all appearance, have
sunk at last under the continued ef-
forts of a brave, numerous, and united
people. Thence may be seen the im-
portance of the naval battles of
Vincent and Camperdown in the pre-
ceding year; the fate of the world
hung upon their issue.
16. Meanwhile the British govern-
ment, aware of the great preparations
which were going on at once in so many
different quarters, and ignorant where
*
1798.]
171
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
to take advantage of the absence of their | two hundred years, should have been
one motive for the attack on the inde-
pendence of that unoffending republic.
|
best general to regain her lost provinces.
The ardent mind of Napoleon obviated
every objection; and at length the gov- 18. Napoleon has thus stated the ob-
ernment, dazzled by the splendour of jects which he had in view in the Egyp-
the design, and secretly rejoiced at the tian expedition. "1. To establish, on
prospect of ridding themselves of so the banks of the Nile, a French colony,
formidable a rival, even at the hazard which could exist without slaves, and
of losing the noble force put at his dis- supply the place of St Domingo. 2. To
posal, agreed to his scheme, and gave open a vent for our manufactures in
him unlimited powers for carrying it Africa, Arabia, and Syria, and obtain
into execution. Napoleon instantly ap- for our commerce the productions of
plied himself, with extraordinary activ- these countries. 3. To set out from
ity, to forward the expedition. He Egypt, as a vast place d'armes; to push
himself superintended everything; in-forward an army of 60,000 men to the
structions succeeded each other with Indus, rouse the Maurattas to a revolt,
inconceivable rapidity; night and day and excite against the English the po-
he laboured with his secretary, despatch-pulation of these vast countries. Sixty
ing orders in every direction. The Di- thousand men, half Europeans, half na-
rectory collected for the expedition forty tives, transported on 50,000 camels,
thousand of the best troops of the Army and 10,000 horses, carrying with them
of Italy; the fleet of Bruéys, consisting provisions for fifty days, and water for
of thirteen ships of the line and four-six, with 150 pieces of cannon, and
teen frigates, was destined to convey the double ammunition, would arrive in
greater part of the army; while above four months in India. The ocean ceased
3,000,000 of francs of the treasure re- to be an obstacle when vessels were
cently before taken at Berne, were constructed; the desert becomes pass-
granted by the Directory to meet the able the moment you have camels and
expenses of the expedition. It is pain- dromedaries in abundance."
ful to think that this celebrated under-
taking should have been preceded by
so flagrant an act of spuliation; and that
the desire to provide for the charges of
the enterprise out of the savings of the
Swiss Confederacy during more than


* The partisans of Napoleon are indignant
at the imputation of his having recommended
or concurred in the invasion of Switzerland,
in order to procure, in the treasure of Berne,
funds for the equipment of his Egyptian ex-
pedition; but it is certain that, in his jour-
ney through Switzerland, he asked an omin-
ous question as to the amount of that ancient
store; and, in his Secret Correspondence,
there exists decisive evidence that he parti-
cipated in the shameful act of robbery which
soon afterwards followed, and equipped his
fleet out of the funds thus obtained. On the
11th April 1798, he wrote to Lannes:-"I
have received, citizen-general, the letter of
your aide-de-camp. Three millions have
been despatched, by post, on the 7th of this
month, from Berne for Lyons. You will find
hereunto subjoined, the order from the
Treasury to its agent at Lyons to forward it
forthwith to Toulon. You will for this pur-
pose cause it to be embarked on the Rhone;
you will accompany it to Avignon; and from
thence convey it by post to Toulon. Do not
fail to inform me of what different pieces the
three millions consist." On the 17th April |
i
19. From his headquarters at Paris,
Napoleon directed the vast preparations
for this armament, which were going
forward with the utmost activity in all
the ports of Italy and the south of
France. Four stations were assigned
he again writes to Lannes: "From the in-
formation I have received from Berne, the
three millions should arrive, at the very
latest, on the 19th at Lyons. Forward them
instantly on their arrival; do not go to bed
till this is done; get ready in the mean time
the boats for their reception; despatch a
courier to me the instant they are fairly on
board." And on the same day he wrote to
the authorities charged at Toulon with the
preparation of the expedition: "The Treasury
has given orders that three millions should
be forthwith forwarded to Toulon. The sail-
ors of Bruéys' squadron must be paid the
instant the three millions arrive from Berne.'
And, on the 20th April, he wrote to the Com-
missioners of the Treasury at Paris: "You
have only given orders, citizen commissioners,
for the transmission of such part of the three
millions at Lyons, as is in francs and piastres,
to Toulon. It is indispensable, however, that we
have it all; you will be good enough, there-
fore, to send orders to your agent at Lyons
for the transmission of the whole, of whatever
descriptions of coin it is composed."-Corresp.
Confid. de Napoléon, v. 74, 85, 86, 87, 102.
""
'
172
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
+
for the assembly of the convoys and
the embarkation of the troops-Toulon,
Genoa, Ajaccio, and Civita Vecchia; at
the latter harbour, transports were
moored alongside of the massy piers of
Roman architecture to the bronze rings,
still undecayed, which had been fixed
in their blocks by the Emperor Trajan.
A numerous artillery, and three thou-
sand cavalry, were collected at these
different stations, destined to be mount-
ed on the incomparable horses of Egypt.
The most celebrated generals of the
Republic, Desaix and Kleber, as yet
strangers to the fortunes of Napoleon,
as well as those who had so ably se-
conded his efforts in Italy-Lannes,
Murat, Junot, Reynier, Barraguay d'Hil-
liers, Vaubois, Bon, Belliard, and Dom-
martin-were ranged under his com-
mand. Caffarelli commanded the en-
gineers; Berthier, who could hardly
tear himself from the fascinations of
beauty at Paris, the staff; the most il-
lustrious philosophers and artists of the
age, Monge, Berthollet, Fourier, Larrey,
Desgenettes, Geoffroy St Hilaire, and
Denon, attended the expedition. Ge-
nius, in every department, hastened to
range itself under the banners of the
youthful hero.
20. The disturbance at Vienna, on
account of the fête given by Bernadotte,
the ambassador of the Republic at the
Imperial court, which has been already
mentioned, retarded for fifteen days the
departure of the expedition. During
that period, Europe awaited with breath-
less anxiety the course of the storm,
which it was well known was now about
to burst. Bourrienne, on this occasion,
asked Napoleon if he was finally deter-
mined to risk his fate on the expedition
to Egypt.-"Yes," he replied; "I have
tried everything, but they will have no-
thing to do with me. If I stayed here,
it would be necessary to overturn them,
and make myself king; but we must
not think of that as yet; the nobles
would not consent to it. I have sound-
ed, but I find the time for that has not
yet arrived; I must first dazzle these
gentlemen by my exploits." In truth,
he was convinced, at this period, that
he had no chance of escaping destruc-
tion but by persisting in his oriental
expedition. The intelligence of the
tumult at Vienna, and the appearance
of approaching hostilities between Aus-
tria and France, induced Napoleon to
change his plan; and he earnestly re-
presented to the Directory the impolicy
of continuing the Egyptian project at
such a crisis. But the rulers of France
were now thoroughly awakened to the
danger they ran from the ascendancy of
Napoleon, and the only answer they
made to his representation was a posi-
tive order to leave Paris on the 3d May.
This led to a warm altercation between
him and the Directory, in the course of
which he resorted to his former man-
œuvre of tendering his resignation. But
on this occasion it did not succeed.
Presenting him with a pen, Rewbell
said coldly, "You wish to retire from
the service, general? If you do, the
Republic will doubtless lose a brave and
skilful chief; but it has still enough of
sons who will not abandon it." Merlin
upon this interposed, and put an end
to so dangerous an altercation; and
Napoleon, swallowing the affront, pre-
pared to follow out his Egyptian expe-
dition-saying,in private to Bourrienne,
"The pear is not yet ripe; let us de-
part. We shall return when the mo-
ment is arrived."
21. Napoleon, having completed his
preparations, arrived at Toulon on the
9th May 1798, and immediately took the
command of the army. The realisa-
tion of his long-cherished hopes filled
the mind of the young hero with the
most enthusiastic anticipation; like
the fabled hero of Tasso, his mind
burned with the prospect of glories in
Egypt, and on the banks of the Nile.*
Seldom had a more splendid armament
appeared on the ocean. The fleet con-
sisted of 13 ships of the line, two of 64
guns, 14 frigates, 72 brigs and cutters,
* "He rides, revolving in his noble spright
Such haughty thoughts as fill the glorious
mind;
On hard adventures was his whole delight,
And now to wondrous acts his will inclin'd;
Alone against the pagans would he fight,
And kill their kings from Egypt unto Inde;
From Cinthia's hills, and Nilus' unknown
spring,
He would fetch praise, and glorious con-
quest bring."
Tasso, Jerusalem Delivered, v. 52.
1798.]
173
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
and 400 transports. It bore thirty-six | sailed in the first instance towards
Genoa, and thence to Ajaccio and Ci-
vita Castellana, and having effected a
junction with the squadrons in those
harbours, bore away with a fair wind
for Malta. In coasting the shores of
Italy, they descried from on board the
Orient the snowy summits of the Alps
in the extreme distance. Napoleon
gazed with intense feeling at the moun-
tains which had been the witnesses of
his early achievements. "I cannot,"
said he, "behold without emotion the
land of Italy; these mountains com-
mand the plains where I have so often
led the French to victory. Now we
are bound for the East; with them
His conversa-
victory is still secure.'
tion was peculiarly animated during the
whole voyage; every headland, every
promontory, recalled some glorious ex-
ploit of ancient history; and his ima-
gination kindled with fresh fire as the
fleet approached the shores of Asia,
and the scenes of the greatest deeds
which have made illustrious the annals
of mankind.
thousand soldiers of all arms, and above
ten thousand sailors. Before embark-
ing, the general-in-chief, after his usual
custom, addressed the following procla-
mation to his troops :- "Soldiers! You
are one of the wings of the Army of
England; you have made war in moun-
tains, plains, and cities; it remains to
make it on the ocean. The Roman
legions, whom you have often imitated,
but not yet equalled, combated Car-
thage, by turns, on the seas and on the
plains of Zama. Victory never deserted
their standards, because they never
ceased to be brave, patient, and united.
Soldiers! the eyes of Europe are upon
you; you have great destinies to ac-
complish, battles to fight, dangers and
fatigues to overcome; you are about to
do more than you have yet done for
the prosperity of your country, the
happiness of man, and your own glory.
The genius of liberty, which has ren-
dered, from its birth, the Republic the
arbiter of Europe, has now determined
that it should become so of the seas,
and of the most distant nations." In
such magnificent mystery did this great
man envelop his designs, even when
on the eve of their execution. One of
the last acts of Napoleon, before em-
barking, was to issue a humane procla-
mation to the military commissioners
of the 9th division, in which Toulon
was situated, in which he severely cen-
sured the cruel application of one of
the harsh laws of the 19th Fructidor to
old men above seventy years of age,
children in infancy, and women with
child, who had been seized and shot for
violating that tyrannical edict. This
interposition gave universal satisfaction,
and added another laurel of a purer
colour to those which already encircled
the brows of the general.
""
23. On the 16th June, after a pros-
perous voyage, the white cliffs and
superb fortifications of Malta appeared
in dazzling brilliancy above the unruf-
fled sea. The fleet anchored before the
harbour which had so gloriously resist-
ed the whole force of the Turks under
Solyman the Magnificent: its bastions
were stronger, its artillery more numer-
ous, than under the heroic Lavalette;
but the spirit of the Order was gone.
A few hundred chevaliers, lost in effe-
minacy and indolence, intrusted to three
thousand feeble mercenaries and as many
militia the defence of the place; and
its noble works seemed ready to be-
come the prey of any invader who had
inherited the ancient spirit of the de-
fenders of Christendom. Before leaving
France, the capitulation of the place
had been secured by secret intelligence
with the Grand Master and principal
officers,* who had, as the reward of their
22. At length, on the 19th May, the
fleet set sail in the finest weather,
amidst the discharges of cannon and
the acclamations of an immense crowd
of inhabitants. The Orient grounded
at leaving the harbour, by reason of
its enormous bulk: this was taken as
a sinister omen by the sailors, more
alive than any other class of men to
superstitious impressions. The fleet. 268.
* "You are aware that Malta has been sur-
rendered and given up by the French officers,
who, as the price of their good and loyal ser-
vices, have been erazed from the list of emi-
Rastadt, July 26, 1798; Castlereagh Papers,
grants, and pensioned."-Secret Letter from
--
174
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
A
:
•
:
:
treachery, been struck off the list of
French emigrants. Desaix and Sa-
vary landed, and advanced without
opposition to the foot of the ramparts.
Terms of accommodation were speedily
agreed on the town was surrendered
on condition that the Grand Master
should obtain 600,000 francs, a princi-
pality in Germany, or a pension for life
of 300,000 francs; the French cheva-
liers were promised a pension of 700
francs a-year each; and the tricolor flag
speedily waved on the ancient bulwark
of the Christian world.
24. So strongly were the generals
impressed with their good fortune on
this occasion, that, in passing through
the impregnable defences, Caffarelli
said to Napoleon-"It is well, general,
that there was some one within to open
the gates to us: we should have had more
trouble in making our way through, if
the place had been empty." On enter-
ing into the place, the French knew not
how to congratulate themselves on the
address on the one side, and pusillani-
mity on the other, which had obtained
for them, without firing a shot, so im-
mense an acquisition. They were never
weary of examining the boundless for-
tifications, and stupendous monuments
of perseverance, which it contained;
the luxury and magnificence of the
palaces which the Grand Masters had
erected during the many centuries of
their inglorious repose, and the incom-
parable harbour, which allowed the
Orient to touch the quay, and was
capable of containing six hundred sail
of the line. In securing and organising
the new colony, Napoleon displayed his
wonted activity. Its innumerable bat-
teries were speedily armed, and Gene-
ral Vaubois was left at the head of
three thousand men to superintend its
defence. All the Turkish prisoners
found in the galleys were set at liberty,
and scattered through the fleet, in order
to produce a moral influence on the
Mahometan population in the countries
to which their course was bound.
25. The secret of the easy conquest
of this impregnable island by Napoleon,
is to be found in the estrangement of
the chevaliers of other nations from
Baron Homspech, the Grand Master,
whom they disliked on account of his
German descent, and the intrigues long
before carried on among the knights of
French and Italian birth by a secret
agent of Napoleon's. Such was the
division produced by these circum-
stances that the garrison was incapable
of making any resistance; and the lead-
ing knights, themselves chiefs in the con-
spiracy, had so prepared matters, by
disarming batteries, providing neither
stores nor ammunition, and disposing
the troops in disadvantageous situa-
tions, that resistance was from the first
perfectly hopeless. No sooner, how-
ever, were the gates delivered up, than
these unworthy successors of the de-
fenders of Christendom repented of
their weakness. The treasure of St
John, the accumulation of ages, the
silver plate of all the churches, palaces,
and hospitals, were seized on with mer-
ciless avidity; and all the ships of war,
artillery, and arsenals of the Order,
appropriated to the uses of the Repub-
lic.*
26. Having secured this important
conquest, and left a sufficient garrison
to maintain it for the Republic, Napo-
leon set sail for Egypt. The voyage
was uninterrupted by any accident;
and the general, enjoying the beautiful
sky of the Mediterranean, remained
constantly on deck, conversing with
Monge and Berthollet on subjects of
science, the age of the world, the pro-
bable mode of its destruction, the forms
of religion, the decline of the Byzantine
empire. These interesting themes were
often interrupted, however, by the con-
sideration of what would occur if the
fleet were to encounter the squadron
of Nelson. Admiral Bruéys, forcibly
leon had commenced his intrigues with the
* So early as 14th November 1797, Napo-
Knights of Malta. On that day he wrote to
Talleyrand: "You will receive herewith a
copy of the commission I have given to citi-
of Malta. The true object of his mission is
zen Pousseligue, and my letter to the Consul
to put the finishing hand to the projects we
have in view on Malta."-Conf. Desp. NAPO-
January following his agent contrived, by
LEON to TALLEYRAND, 14th Nov. 1797. In the
liberal gifts, promises, and entertainments,
to seduce from their allegiance all that nu-
merous part of the garrison and knights who
were inclined to democratic principles.
HARD. v. 457, 460.
1798.]
175
HISTORY OF EUROPE
}
struck by the crowded state of the ships, | those dreams of ancient grandeur and
and the encumbrance which the soldiers oriental conquest which had long floated
would prove in the event of an action, in the mind of Napoleon. It was soon
and especially to the Orient, which learned that the English fleet had only
had nearly two thousand men on board, left the roads two days before, and had
could not conceal his apprehensions of departed for the coasts of Syria in quest
the result of such an engagement. Na- of the French expedition. The general
poleon, less accustomed to maritime forthwith pressed the landing of the
affairs, contemplated the event with troops: it was begun on the evening
more calmness. The soldiers were con- of their arrival, and continued with the
stantly trained to work the great guns; utmost expedition through the whole
and as there were five hundred on board night; and at one in the morning, as
each ship of the line, he flattered him- the state of the tide permitted the gal
self that in a close action they would ley on which he stood to approach the
succeed by boarding in discomfiting the shore, he immediately disembarked,
and formed three thousand men amidst
the sandhills of the desert. At day-
break, Napoleon advanced at the head
of about five thousand men, being all
that were yet formed, towards Alexan-
dria. The shouts from the ramparts,
and the discharge of some pieces of ar
tillery, left no doubt as to the hostile
intentions of the Mamelukes; an assault
was immediately ordered, and in a short
time the French grenadiers reached the
top of the walls. Kleber was struck
by a ball on the head, and Menou thrown
down from the top of the rampart to
the bottom; but the ardour of the
French soldiers overcame every resist-
ance; and the negligence of the Turks
having left one of the principal gates
open during the assault, the defenders
of the walls were speedily taken in rear
by those who rushed in at that entrance,
and fled in confusion into the interior
of the city. The conquerors were asto-
❘nished to find a large space filled with
ruins between the exterior walls and
the inhabited houses-an ordinary fea-
ture in Asiatic towns, where the tyranny
of the government usually occasions an
incessant diminution of population, and
ramparts, even of recent formation, are
speedily found to be too extensive for
the declining numbers of the people.
The soldiers, who, notwithstanding
their military ardour, did not share the
eastern visions of their chief, were soon
dissatisfied with the poverty and wretch-
enemy.
27. Meanwhile, Nelson's fleet had
arrived on the 20th June before Na-
ples; from thence he hastened to Mes-
sina, where he received intelligence of
the surrender of Malta, and that the
French were steering for Candia. He
instantly directed his course for Alex-
andria, where he arrived on the 29th,
and finding no enemy there, set sail for
the north, imagining that the expedi-
tion was bound for the Dardanelles.
It is a singular circumstance that, on
the night of the 22d June, the French
and English fleets crossed each other's
track, without either party discover-
ing their enemy. During the night,
as the French fleet approached Egypt,
the discharge of cannon was heard on
the right; it was the signal which
Nelson gave to his squadron, which at
this moment was not more than fire
leagues distant, steering northward from
the coast of Egypt, where he had been
vainly seeking the French armament. |
For several hours the two fleets were
within a few leagues of each other.
Had he sailed a little further to the left,
or passed during the day, the two squa-
drons would have met, and an earlier
battle of Aboukir might have changed
the fortunes of the world.
28. At length, on the morning of the
1st July, the shore of Egypt was dis-
covered stretching as far as the eye
could reach from east to west. Low
sandhills, surmounted by a few scatter-edness which they found amongst the
ed palms, presented little of interest to inhabitants; the brilliant anticipations
the ordinary eye; but the minarets of of oriental luxury gave way to the sad
Alexandria, the needle of Cleopatra, realities of a life of privation; and men,
and the pillar of Pompey, reawakened in want of food and lodging, derived
176
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
little satisfaction from what they heard | racts of Sennaar into the lower valley,
of the obelisks of the Ptolemies, or the two hundred leagues long, which forms
sarcophagus of Alexander.
the country of Egypt. Altogether the
course of the Nile, from its source in
the chain of Djebel-el-Kamar, is twenty-
seven hundred miles long. This valley,
though of such immense length, is in
general-until it reaches the Delta or
plain at its mouth, formed by the de-
posits of its floods during a long succes-
sion of ages-only from one to six
leagues in breadth, and bounded on
either side by the rocky mountains of
the deserts. Its habitable and culti-
vated portion is entirely confined to
that part of the surface which is over-
flowed by the inundations of the fertil-
ising stream; as far as the waters rise,
the soil is of extraordinary fertility;
beyond it the glowing desert is alone
to be seen. At the distance of fifty
leagues from the sea, the Nile divides
itself into two branches, which fall into
the Mediterranean, one at Rosetta, the
other at Damietta. The triangle hav-
ing these two branches for its sides,
and the sea for its base, is called the
Delta, and constitutes the richest and
most fertile district of Egypt, being
perfectly level, intersected by canals,
and covered with the most luxuriant
vegetation. The soil of this singular
valley was originally as barren as the
arid ridges which adjoin it; but it has
acquired an extraordinary degree of
richness from the well-known inunda-
tions of the Nile. These floods, arising
from the warmth of spring, followed
by the melting of the snow and heavy
rains of July and August in the moun-
tains of Abyssinia, cause the river to
rise gradually, during a period of nearly
three months. It begins to swell in
the middle of May, and continues to
rise till the end of August, when it at-
tains the height of sixteen or eighteen
feet above its ordinary level. The fer-
tility of the country is just in propor-
tion to the height of the inundation;
hence it is watched with the utmost
anxiety by the inhabitants, and public
rejoicings are ordered when the Nilo-
meter at Cairo indicates a foot or two
greater depth of water than usual.
29. Before advancing into the inte-
rior of the country, Napoleon issued
the following proclamation to his troops:
"Soldiers! You are about to under-
take a conquest fraught with incalcu-
lable effects upon the commerce and
civilisation of the world. You will
inflict upon England the most grievous
stroke she can sustain before receiving
her deathblow. The people with whom
we are about to live are Mahometans.
Their first article of faith is, 'There is
but one God, and Mahomet is his pro-
phet.' Contradict them not. Behave
to them as you have done to the Jews
and the Italians; show the same regard
to the Muftis and Imaums as you did
to the Rabbis and Bishops; manifest
for the ceremonies of the Koran the
same respect as you have shown to
the convents and the synagogues, the
religion of Moses and that of Jesus
Christ. The first town we are about to
enter was built by Alexander; at every
step we shall meet with recollections
worthy to excite the emulation of
Frenchmen." This address contains a
faithful picture of the feeling of the
French army on religious subjects at
this period. They not only considered
the Christian faith as an entire fabrica-
tion, but were for the most part igno-
rant of its very elements. Lavalette
has recorded, that hardly one of them
had ever been in a church; and in
Palestine, they were ignorant even of
the names of the holiest places in sacred
history.
30. Egypt, on which the French army
was now fairly landed, and which be-
came the theatre of such memorable
exploits, is one of the most singular
countries in the world, not only from
its geographical position, but its phy-
sical conformation. It consists entirely
of the valley of the Nile, which, taking
its rise in the mountains of Abyssinia,
after traversing for six hundred leagues
the arid deserts of Africa, and receiv-
ing the tributary waters of the Bahr-el-
Abiad, perhaps the greater stream of
the two, precipitates itself by the cata-
31. It never rains in Egypt. Cen-
turies may elapse without more than a ›
1798.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
177
and the seed, vegetating quickly in that
rich mould, and under a tropical sun,
springs up, and in three months yields
a hundred and sometimes a hundred
and fifty fold. During the whole win-
ter months the soil is covered with
the richest harvests, besprinkled with
flowers, and dotted by innumerable
flocks; but in March the great heats
begin, the earth cracks from excessive
drought, vegetation disappears, and the
country is fast relapsing into the ster-
ility of the desert, when the annual
floods of the Nile again cover it with
their vivifying waters.
32. All the varied productions of the
temperate and the torrid zone flourish
in this favoured region. Besides the or-
dinary grains of Europe, Egypt produces
the finest crops of rice, maize, sugar,
indigo, cotton, and senna.
It has no
"C
shower of drizzling mist moistening the
surface of the soil. It is said that it
has not rained in Egypt for seventeen
hundred years. Hence cultivation can
only be extended beyond the level to
which the water rises by an artificial
system of irrigation; and the efforts
made in this respect by the ancient
inhabitants, constitute, perhaps, the
most wonderful of the many monu-
ments of industry which they have
left to succeeding ages. During the
inundation, the level plain of Egypt is
flooded with water; the villages, de-
tached from each other, communicate
only by boats, and, surmounted by their
palms and sycamores, appear like the
islands on the Laguna of Venice, in
the midst of the watery waste. "The
inundation," says an eloquent observer,
begins in May, attains its full height
in August, and thenceforth diminishes, oil, but the opposite coasts of Greece
until freshly swollen in the following furnish it in abundance; nor coffee, but
year. The stream, economised within | it is supplied in profusion from the ad-
its channel as far as the first cataract, joining mountains of Arabia. Hardly
then spreads abroad its beneficent de-any trees are to be seen over its vast ex-
luge over the vast valley. Then it is tent; a few palms and sycamores, in the
that Egypt presents the most striking villages, alone rise above the luxuriant
of its Protean aspects, becoming an vegetation of the plain. Its horses are
archipelago studded with green islands, celebrated over all the world for their
and bounded only by the chain of the beauty, their spirit, and their incom-
Libyan hills, and the purple range of parable docility; and it possesses the
the Mokattam mountains. Every isle camel, that wonderful animal, which
is crowned with a village, or an antique can support thirst for days together,
temple, and shadowy with palm-trees tread without fatigue the moving sands,
or acacia groves. Every city becomes and traverse like a living ship the ocean
a Venice, and the bazars display their of the desert. Every year, immense
richest and gayest cloths and tapestries caravans arrive at Cairo from Syria and
to the illuminations that are reflected Arabia on the one side, and the interior
from the streaming streets. The earth of Africa on the other. They bring all
is sheltered from the burning sun under that belongs to the regions of the sun
the cool bright veil of waters; the la--gold, ivory, ostrich feathers, gum,
bour of the husbandman is suspended, aromatics of all sorts, coffee, tobacco,
and it is the season of universal festiv- spices, perfumes, with the numerous
ity. Boatmen alone are busy, but it slaves which mark the degradation of
would seem to be pleasant business; the human species in those favoured
for the sound of music is never silent countries. Cairo becomes, at that pe-
beneath those large white sails, that riod, an entrepôt for the finest produc-
now glitter in the moonlight, and now tions of the earth, of those which the
gleam ruddily, reflecting the fragrant genius of the West will never be able
watch-fires on the deck.”* No sooner, to rival, but for which their opulence
however, have the floods retired, than and luxury afford a never-failing de-
the soil, covered to a considerable depth mand. Thus the commerce of Egypt is
by a rich slime, is cultivated and sown; the only one in the globe which never
can decay; but must, under a tolerable
government, continue to flourish, as
* The Crescent and the Cross, by WARBURTON,
vol. i. p. 37, 3S.
178
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
long as the warmth of Asia furnishes | transported into Egypt, to form the
articles which the industry and perse- armed force of that province of the
verance of Europe are desirous of pos- Turkish empire. Bred up in camps,
sessing.
without any knowledge of their coun-
33. In ancient times, Egypt and try or relations, without either a home
Libya, it is well known, were the or kindred, they prided themselves
granary of Rome; and the masters of solely on their horses, their arms, and
the world depended for their subsis- their military prowess. This singular
tence on the floods of the Nile. Even militia was governed by twenty-four
at the time of its conquest by the Ma- Beys, the least considerable of whom
hometans, the former is said to have was followed by five or six hundred
contained twenty millions of souls, in- Mamelukes, whom they maintained
cluding those who dwelt in the adjoin- and equipped. This body of twelve
ing Oases of the desert. This vast thousand horsemen, each of whom was
population is by no means incredible, attended by two helots or servants,
if the prodigious fertility of the soil, constituted the military strength of
wherever water can be conveyed, is the country, and formed the finest
considered; and the extent to which, body of cavalry in the world. "The
under a paternal government, the sys- bits in their horses' mouths are so
tem of artificial irrigation can be car-powerful, that the most fiery steeds
ried. It is to the general decay of all are speedily checked, even at full
the great establishments for the water- career, by an ordinary hand. Their
ing of the country, which the industry stirrups are extremely short, and give
of antiquity had constructed, that we the rider great power both in com-
are to ascribe the present limited ex-manding his horse and striking with
tent of agriculture, and the perpetual his sabre; and the pommel and back
encroachments which the sands of the part of the saddle are so high that the
desert are making on the region of horseman, though wounded, can scarce-
human cultivation. Alexandria, se-ly lose his balance. He can even sleep
lected by the genius of Alexander the without falling, as he would do in an
Great to be the capital of his vast em- arm-chair. The horse is burdened by
pire, is situated at the opening of one no baggage or provisions, all of which
of the old mouths of the Nile, which, are carried by the rider's servants;
however, is now choked with sand, and while the Mameluke himself, covered
only covered with water in extraor- with shawls and turbans, is protected
dinary floods. Its harbour, capable from the strokes of a sabre. They are
of containing all the navies of Europe, all splendidly armed: in their girdle is
is the only safe or accessible port be- always to be seen a pair of pistols and
tween Carthage and the shores of Pales- a poniard; from the saddle is sus-
tine. Vessels drawing twenty-one feet pended another pair of pistols and a
of water can enter without difficulty, hatchet; on one side is a sabre, on the
but those of larger dimensions only other a blunderbuss; and the servant
when lightened of their guns. Rosetta on foot carries a carbine. They seldom
and Damietta admit only barks, the parry with the sword, as their fine
bar at the entrance of their harbours blades would break in the collision,
having only six feet of water.
but avoid the strokes of their adver-
sary by skill in wheeling their horses,
while they trust to his impetus to sever
his head from his body, without either
cut or thrust."
34. At the period of this expedition
to Egypt, the population of the country,
consisting of two millions five hundred
thousand souls, was divided into four
classes; the Mamelukes or Circassians,
the Janizaries, the Arabs, and the
Copts. The Mamelukes, who were the
actual rulers of the country, consisted
of young Circassians, brought in in-
fancy from their native country, and

35. The office of Bey was not heredi-
tary; sometimes it descended to the
son, more generally to the favourite
officer of the deceased commander.
The Beys divided the country among
them in feudal sovereignty; were no-
1798.]
179
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
minally equal, but necessarily subject | retained the roving propensities and
to the ascendant of talent; they ex- barbaric vices of the Bedouin race.
hibited alternately the anarchy of feu- Mounted on camels or horses, driving
dal rule, and the severity of military numerous herds before them, escorting
despotism. The Mamelukes seldom or pillaging the caravans which come
have been perpetuated beyond the to Cairo from Libya and Arabia, they
third or fourth generation on the alternately cultivated their fields on
shores of the Nile; and their numbers the banks of the Nile, or fled from its
were only kept up by annual accessions shores loaded with the spoils of plun-
The indifference or
of active youths from the mountains dered villages.
of Circassia. The force of the Beys laxity of the Turkish rule almost al-
was at one period very considerable; ways suffered their excesses to escape
but it had been seriously weakened with impunity. Industry languished,
by the Russian conquests in Georgia, and population declined in the districts
which cut off one source from which exposed to their ravages; and the
their numbers were recruited; and at plunderers, retreating into the desert,
the time when the French landed in resumed the roving life of their fore-
Egypt, it was not a half of what it fathers, and reappeared on the frontiers
formerly had been a circumstance of civilisation, only, like the moving
which contributed more than any other sands, to devour the traces of human
to the rapid success with which the in- industry. A hundred, or a hundred
vasion of the latter was attended. The and twenty thousand of these maraud-
Turks or Janizaries, forming the second ers wandered through the wilderness
part of the population, were introdu- which bordered on either side the val-
ced on occasion of the conquest of ley of the Nile: they could send into
Egypt by the Sultauns of Constanti- the field twenty thousand men, admir-
nople. They were about two hundred ably mounted, and matchless in the
thousand in number, almost all in- skill with which their horses were
scribed on the books of the Janizaries, managed, but destitute of discipline,
to acquire their privileges; but, as or of the firmness requisite to sustain
usual in the Ottoman empire, with a. the attack of regular forces.
very few of their number in reality
following the standard of the Prophet.
Those actually in arms formed the
guards of the Pasha, who still main-
tained a shadow of authority for the
Sultaun of Constantinople; but the
great majority were engaged in trades
and handicrafts in the towns, and kept
in a state of complete subjection to
the haughty rule of the Mamelukes.
36. The Arabs constituted the great
body of the population—at least two
millions out of the two millions and a
half of which the inhabitants consisted.
Their condition was infinitely various;
some forming a body of nobles, who
were the chief proprietors of the coun-
try; others, the doctors of the law and
the ministers of religion; a third class,
the little proprietors, farmers, and cul-
tivators. The whole instruction of the
country, the maintenance of its schools,
its mosques, its laws, and religion, was
in their hands. A numerous body,
living on the borders of the desert,
M
.
37. The Copts constituted the fourth
class of the people. They are the de-
scendants of the native inhabitants of
the country-of those Egyptians who
so early excelled in the arts of civilisa-
tion, and have left so many monuments
of immortal endurance. Now, insulted
and degraded, on account of the Chris-
tian faith which they still profess, they
were cast down to the lowest stage of
society-their numbers not exceeding
two hundred thousand, and their occu-
pations being of the meanest descrip-
tion. By one of those wonderful revo-
lutions which mark the lapse of ages,
the greater part of the slaves in the
country were to be found among the
descendants of the followers of Sesostris.
Atthe period of the arrival of the French,
two Beys, Ibrahim Bey and Mourad Bey,
divided between them the sovereignty of
Egypt. The first, rich, sagacious, and
powerful, was, by a sort of tacit under-
standing, invested with the civil govern-
ment of the country; the latter, young,
▼
24
2
2
A
i
•
180
active, and enterprising, was at the head
of its military establishments. His ar-
dour, courage, and brilliant qualities,
rendered him the idol of the soldiers,
who advanced confident of victory un-
der his standard.
1
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
38. The policy of Napoleon on invad-
ing a country uniformly was, to raise
the numerous governed against the few
governors, and thus paralyse its means
of resistance by arming one part of the
population against the other. On ap-
proaching Egypt, he at once saw that, by
rousing the Arabs against the domina-
tion of the Beys, not only would the
power of the latter be weakened, but a
numerous and valuable body of auxi-
liaries might be procured for the invad-
ing force.
To accomplish this object,
it was necessary, above all things, to
avoid a religious war, which would in-
fallibly have united all ranks of the
Mussulmans against the invaders, and
to gain the affections of the Arabs by
flattering their leaders, and indulging
their prejudices. For this purpose he
left the administration of justice and
the affairs of religion exclusively in the
hands of the Scheiks, and addressed
himself to the feelings of the multitude
through the medium of their establish-
ed teachers. For the Mahometan re-
ligion and its precepts he professed the
highest veneration; for the restoration
of Arabian independence the most ar-
dent desire; to the Beys alone he swore
eternal and uncompromising hostility.
In this manner he hoped to awaken in
his favour both the national feelings of
the most numerous part of the people,
and the religious enthusiasm which is
ever so powerful in the East; and, in-
verting the passions of the Crusades, to
rouse in behalf of European conquest
the vehemence of Oriental fanaticism.*
|
* "The French army," says Napoleon,
"since the Revolution, had practised no sort
of worship; in Italy, even, the soldiers never
went to church: we took advantage of that
circumstance to present the army to the
Mussulmans as readily disposed to embrace
their faith. I had many discussions with the
Scheiks on this subject: and after many weeks
spent in fruitless discussion, they arrived at
the conclusion that circumcision, and the
prohibition against wine, might be dispensed
with, provided not a tenth, but a fifth of the
income was spent in acts of beneficence." |
į
[CHAP. XXVI.
39. Proceeding on these principles,
Napoleon addressed the following singu-
lar proclamation to the Egyptian peo-
ple:- "People of Egypt! you will be
told by our enemies that I am come to
destroy your religion. Believe them not.
Tell them that I am come to restore your
rights, punish your usurpers, and revive
the true worship of Mahomet, which I
venerate more than the Mamelukes.
Tell them that all men are equal in the
sight of God; that wisdom, talents, and
virtue, alone constitute the difference
between them. And what are the vir-
tues which distinguish the Mamelukes,
that entitle them to appropriate all the
enjoyments of life to themselves? If
Egypt is their farm, let them show the
tenure from God by which they hold
it. No! God is just, and full of pity to
the suffering people. For long a horde
of slaves, bought in the Caucasus and
Georgia, have tyrannised over the finest
part of the world; but God, upon whom
everything depends, has decreed that
this tyranny should terminate. Cadis,
Scheiks, Imaums, tell the people that we
too are true Mussulmans. Are we not the
men who have destroyed the Pope, who
preached eternal war against the Mus-
sulmans? Are we not those who have
crushed the chevaliers of Malta, because
those madmen believed that they should
constantly make war on your faith?
Are we not those who have been in every
age the friends of the Most High, and the
enemies of his enemies? Thrice happy
those who are with us; they shall prosper
in all their undertakings: woe to those
who shall join the Mamelukes to resist
us; they shall perish without mercy!"
40. Napoleon was justly desirous to
advance to Cairo before the inundations
of the Nile rendered military opera-
tions in the level country impossible;
The general-in-chief then traced out the plan
of a mosque, which was to exceed that of
Jemilazar, and declared it was to be a monu-
ment of the conversion of the army. In all
this, however, he sought only to gain time.
Napoleon was, upon this, declared the friend
of the Prophet, and specially placed under
his protection. The report spread generally
that, before the expiry of a year, the soldiers
would wear the turban. This produced the
very best effect; the people ceased to regard
them as idolators.-ÑNap. in MONTHOLON, ii.
211, 212.
1798.]
181
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
↑
ง
but for this purpose it was necessary to | like a fiery furnace; not a breath of air
accelerate his movements, as the season was to be felt, save when a light breeze
of the rise of the waters was fast ap- brought a gust of the hot wind of the
proaching. He made, accordingly, the Moorish desert to their wearied frames.+
requisite arrangements with extraordi- Already the desire for rest had taken
nary celerity; left three thousand men possession of their minds; they had
in garrison at Alexandria under Kle- flattered themselves that they were to
ber, with a distinguished officer of en- find repose and a terrestrial paradise
gineers, to put the works in a posture in Egypt; and when they saw them-
of defence; established the civil gov- selves, instead, surrounded by a path-
ernment in the persons of the Scheiks less desert, parched by thirst, and suf-
and Imaums; gave directions for sound-fering from hunger, their discontent
broke out in loud lamentations. All
the wells on the road were either filled
up or exhausted; hardly a few drops
of muddy and brackish water could be
found to quench their burning thirst.
At Damanhour, a few houses afforded
shelter at night only to the general's
staff; the remainder of the troops bi-
vouacked in squares on the sand, inces-
santly harassed by the clouds of Arabs
who wheeled round their position, and
sometimes approached within fifty yards
of the videttes. After a rest of two
days, the army resumed its march across
the sandy wilderness, still observed in
the distance by the hostile Bedouins;
and soon the suffering from thirst be-
came so excessive, that even the strong-
est heads and firmest resolution gave
way before it. The scene realised all
that the ardent mind of Lucan had
conceived of the sufferings of Pompey's
soldiers, all that the imagination of
Tasso had figured of the burning wil-
derness.+ Lannes and Murat threw
themselves on the sand, and gave way
ing the harbour, with a view to placing
the fleet in safety, if the draught of
water would permit the entry of the
larger vessels; collected a flotilla on
the Nile to accompany the troops, and
assigned to it as a place of rendezvous
Ramanieh, a small town on that river,
situated on the route to Cairo, whither
he proposed to advance across the desert
of Damanhour; while at the same time
he wrote to the French ambassador at
Constantinople to assure the Porte of
his anxious desire to remain at peace
with the Turkish government.* On the
6th July the army set out on their
march, being now reduced, by the gar-
rison of Malta and that recently left in
Alexandria, to thirty thousand men.
At the same time Kleber's division,
under the orders of Dugua, was direct-
ed to move upon Rosetta, to secure that
town, and facilitate the entrance of the
flotilla into the Nile.
41. Desaix was at the head of the
vanguard; his troops began their march
in the evening, and advanced with tol-
erable cheerfulness during the cool of
the night; but when morning dawned,
and they found themselves traversing a
boundless plain of sand, without water or
shade-with a burning sun above their
head, and troops of Arabs flitting across
the horizon, to cut off the weary or strag-
glers-they were filled with the most
gloomy forebodings. The sky glowed
* "The army has arrived; it has disem-
barked at Alexandria, and carried that town;
we are now in full march for Cairo. Use
Use
your utmost efforts to convince the Porte of
our firm resolution to continue to live on the
best terms with his government. An_am-
bassador to Constantinople has just been
named for that purpose, who will arrive
there without delay."-Letter to the Chargé
d'Affaires at Constantinople, 8th July 1798;
Corresp. Secrète, v. 199.
"As from a furnace flew the smoke to skies,
Such smoke as that when damned Sodom
brent;
Within his caves sweet Zephyr silent lies;
Still was the air, the rack nor came nor went,
But o'er the lands with lukewarm breathing
flies
The southern wind, from sunburnt Afric
sent,
Which, thick and warm, his interrupted
blasts
Upon their bosoms, throats, and faces casts.”
Jerusalem Delivered, xiii. 56.
"He that the gliding rivers erst had seen
Adown their verdant channels gently
roll'd,
Or falling streams which to the valleys
green,
Distill'd from tops ofAlpine mountainscold,
Those he desired in vain, new torments
been
Augmented thus with wish of comforts old;
L
I
?
•
1
ស
"
+?
182
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVI.
to every expression of despair.* In the | the ranks were completely broken; men,
horses, and camels, rushed simultane-
ously to the banks, and threw them-
selves into the stream; all heads were
instantly lowered into the water; and
in the transports of delight, the suffer-
ings of the preceding days were speed-
midst of the general depression, a sud-
den gleam of hope illuminated the coun-
tenances of the soldiers; a lake ap-
peared in the arid wilderness, with
villages and palm-trees clearly reflected
in its glassy surface.
Conspicit vicinos sitiens exercitus amnes."+ily forgotten. It was some time, how-
ever, before repeated draughts restored
strength and animation to their wearied
frames. While the troops were thus
assuaging their thirst, an alarm was
given that the Mamelukes were ap-
proaching; the drums beat to arms,
and eight hundred horsemen, clad in
glittering armour, soon appeared in
sight. Finding, however, the leading
division prepared, they passed on and
attacked the division of Desaix, which
was still in march; but the troops ra-
pidly forming in squares, with the ar-
tillery at the angles, dispersed the as-
sailants by a single discharge of grape-
shot. The whole army soon came up,
and the flotilla having appeared in sight
about the same time, the soldiers rested
Instantly the parched troops hastened
towards the enchanting object; but it
receded from their steps: in vain they
pressed on with burning impatience;
it for ever fled from their approach:
and they had at length the mortifica-
tion of discovering that they had been
deceived by the mirage of the desert.
42. The firmness and resolution of
Napoleon, however, triumphed over
every obstacle; the approach to the
Nile was shortly indicated by the in-
creasing bodies of Arabs, with a few
Mamelukes, who watched the columns;
and at length the long-wished-forstream
was seen glittering through the sand-
hills of the desert. At the joyful sight
"Those waters cool he drank in vain conceit,
Which more increased his thirst, increased
his heat.
The sturdy bodies of the warriors strong,
Whom neither marching far, nor tedious
way,
Nor weighty arms which on their shoulders
hong,
Could weary make, nor death itself dismay,
Now weak and feeble, cast their limbsalong,
Unwieldy burthens, on the burned clay;
And in each vein a smould'ring fire there
dwelt,
Which dried their flesh, and solid bones did
melt."
Jerusalem Delivered, xiii. 60, 61.
*The sufferings of the army are thus vividly
depicted in Desaix's despatch to Napoleon:
"If all the army does not pass the desert with
the rapidity of lightning, it will perish. It
does not contain water to quench the thirst
of a thousand men. The greater part of what
it does is contained in cisterns, which, once
emptied, are not replenished by any peren-
nial fountain. The villages are huts, with-
out resources of any kind. For heaven's sake,
do not leave us in this situation; order us
rapidly to advance or retire. I am in de-
spair at being obliged to write to you in the
language of anxiety; when we are out of our
present horrible position, I hope my wonted
firmness will return."-Corresp. Confid. de Na-
poleon, v. 217.
+ "The thirsting army beholds at nand
streams."-LUCAN.
M. Monge, who accompanied the expedi-
tion, published the following account of this
singular illusion:-"When the surface of the
earth has been during the day thoroughly
heated by the rays of the sun, and towards
evening begins to cool, the higher objects of
the landscape seem to rise as out of a general
inundation. The villages appear to rise out
of a vast lake; under each is its image in-
verted, exactly as if it was in the midst of a
glassy sheet of water.
glassy sheet of water. As you approach the
village it recedes from the view; when you
arrive at it, you find it is still in the midst of
burning sand; and the deception begins anew
with some more distant object." The phe-
nomenon admits of an easy explanation on
optical principles.-MIOT, 28, 32.
§ "Eager to drink, down rush the thirsty
crowd,
Hang o'er the banks, and trouble all the
flood.
Some, while too fierce the fatal draughts
they drain,
Forget the gasping lungs that heave in vain;
No breathing airs the choking channels fill,
But every spring of life at once stands still.
Some drink, nor yet the fervent pest as-
suage,
With wonted fires their bloated entrails
rage;
With bursting sides each bulk enormous
heaves,
Which still for drink the insatiate fever
craves.
At length, returning health dispersed the
pain,
And lusty vigour strung the nerves again.”
LUCAN, Pharsalia, book iv. 366.
1798.]
183
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
in plenty for a whole day beside the | by no means decisive, sufficed to fa-
stream. A severe action had taken miliarise the soldiers with the new
place on the Nile, between the French species of enemy they had to encounter,
and Egyptian flotillas; but the Asiatics and to inspire them with a well-founded
were defeated, and the boats arrived at confidence in the efficacy of their disci-
the destined spot at the precise hour pline and tactics to repel the assaults
assigned to them. The landscape now of the Arabian cavalry. The troops
totally changed; luxuriant verdure on continued their march for seven days
the banks of the river succeeded to the longer towards Cairo; their fatigues
arid uniformity of the desert; incom- were extreme; and, as the villages were
parable fertility in the soil promised all deserted, it was with the utmost dif-
abundant supplies to the troops; and ficulty that subsistence could be ob-
the shade of palm-trees and sycamores tained. The Nile, however, supplied
afforded an enjoyment unknown to those them with water, and the sight of the
who have never traversed an eastern Arabs, who constantly prowled round
wilderness.
the horizon, impressed them with the
necessity of keeping their ranks.
44. At length the army arrived with-
in sight of the PYRAMIDS, and the city
of Cairo. All eyes were instantly turn-
ed upon the oldest monuments in the
world, and the sight of those gigantic
structures reanimated the spirit of the
soldiers, who had been bitterly lament-
ing the delights of Italy. Mourad Bey
had there collected all his forces, con-
sisting of eight thousand Mamelukes,
and double that number of Fellahs,
Arabs, and Copts. His camp was
placed in the village of Embabeh, on
the left bank of the Nile, which was
fortified by rude field-works and forty
pieces of cannon; but the artillery was
not mounted on carriages, and conse-
quently could only fire in one direction.
Between the troops and the pyramids
extended a wide sandy plain, on which
were stationed above eight thousand
of the finest horsemen in the world,
with their right resting on the village,
and their left stretching towards the
pyramids. A few thousand Arabs,
assembled to pillage the vanquished,
whoever they should be, filled up the
space to the foot of those gigantic mo-
numents. Napoleon no sooner discover-
ed, by means of his telescopes, that the
cannon in the intrenched camp were
immovable, and could not be turned
from the direction in which they were
placed, than he resolved to move his
army farther to the right, towards the
pyramids, in order to be beyond the
reach, and out of the direction of the
guns. The columns accordingly began
to march; Desaix with his division in
43. After a day's rest, the army pur-
sued its march along the banks of the
Nile, towards Chebreiss. Mourad Bey,
with four thousand Mamelukes and
Fellahs, or foot-soldiers, lay on the road,
his left resting on the village, and his
right supported by a flotilla of gun-
boats on the river. The French flotilla
outstripped the march of the land forces,
and engaged in a furious and doubtful
combat with the enemy before the ar-
rival of the army. Napoleon immedi-
ately formed his army in five divisions,
each composed of squares six deep, with
the artillery at the angles, and the gre-
nadiers in platoons, to support the me-
naced points. The cavalry, who were
only two hundred in number, still at-
tenuated by the fatigues of the voyage,
and wholly unfit to combat the formid-
able cavalry of the East, were placed in
the centre of the square. No sooner
had the troops approached within half
a league of the enemy than the Mame-
lukes advanced, and, charging at full
gallop, assailed their moving squares
with loud cries, and the most determin-
ed intrepidity. The artillery opened
upon them as soon as they approached
within point-blank range, and the rolling
fire of the infantry soon mowed down
those who escaped the grape-shot. Ani-
mated by this success, the French right
wing deployed and attacked the village,
which was speedily carried. The Mame-
lukes retreated in disorder towards Cairo,
with the loss of six hundred men, and
the flotilla at the same time abandoned
the scene of action, and drew off far-
ther up the Nile. This action, though
184
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVL
}
:
:
.
2
'
front, next Reynier, then Dugua, and
lastly Vial* and Bon. The sight of
the pyramids, and the anxious nature
of the moment, inspired the French
general with even more than his usual
ardour; the sun glittered on those im-
mense masses, which seemed to rise in
height with every step the soldiers ad-
vanced, and the army, sharing his en-
thusiasm, gazed, as they marched, on
the everlasting monuments. "Remem-
ber," said he, "that from the summit
of those pyramids forty centuries con-
template your actions."
admirably mounted, and magnificently
dressed, rent the air with their cries.
The glitter of spears and scimitars daz-
zled the sight, while the earth groaned
under the repeated and increasing thun-
der of the horses' feet. The soldiers,
impressed but not panic-struck by the
sight, stood firm, and anxiously waited,
with their pieces ready, the order to fire.
46. Desaix's division being entangled
in a wood of palm-trees, was not com-
pletely formed when the swiftest of the
Mamelukes came upon them; they were
in consequence partially broken, and
45. With his usual sagacity, Napo- thirty or forty of the bravest of the as-
leon had taken extraordinary precau- sailants penetrated into, and died in the
tions to insure success against the for- midst of the square at the feet of the offi-
midable cavalry of the desert. The di- cers. Before, however, the mass arrived,
visions were all drawn up as before, in the movement was completed, and a ra-
hollow square six deep, the artillery at pid fire of musketry and grape drove
the angles, the generals and baggage in them from the front round the sides of
the centre. When they were in march, the column. With dauntless intrepidity
the two sides advanced in column- they pierced through the interval be-
those in front and rear moved forward tween Desaix's and Reynier's divisions,
in their ranks; but the moment they and riding round both squares, strove
were charged, the whole were to halt and to find an entrance; but an incessant
face outwards on every side. When they fire from every front mowed them down
were themselves to charge, the three as fast as they poured in at the opening.
front ranks were to break off and form Furious at the unexpected resistance,
the column of attack, those in rear re- the Mussulman horsemen dashed their
maining behind, still in square, but three horses against the rampart of bayonets,
deep only, to constitute the reserve. Na- and threw their pistols at the heads of
poleon had no fears of the result, if the the grenadiers; while many who had
infantry were steady; his only apprehen- lost their steeds, crept along the ground,
sion was that his soldiers, accustomed and cut at the legs of the front rank
to charge, would yield to their impetu- with their scimitars. In vain thousands
osity too soon, and would not be brought succeeded, and galloped round the flam-
to the immovable firmness which this ing walls of steel; multitudes perished
species of warfare required. Mourad Bey under the rolling fire which, without
no sooner perceived the lateral move-intermission, issued from the ranks, and
ment of the French army, than, with a at length the survivors, in despair, fled
promptitude of decision worthy of a skil- towards the camp from whence they had
ful general, he resolved to attack the issued. Here, however, they were charg-
columns while in the act of completing ed in flank by Napoleon at the head of
it.
Dugua's division, while those of Vial
and Bon, on the extreme left, stormed
the intrenchments. The most horrible
confusion now reigned in the camp; the
horsemen, driven into its enclosure in
disorder, trampled under foot the in-
fantry, who, panic-struck at the rout of
the cavalry, on whom all their hopes
were placed, abandoned their ranks,
and rushed in crowds towards the boats
to escape to the other side of the Nile.
Numbers saved themselves by swim-
An extraordinary movement was
immediately observed in the Mameluke
line, and speedily seven thousand horse-
men detached themselves from the re-
mainder of the army and bore down
upon the French columns. It was a
terrible sight, capable of daunting the
bravest troops, when this immense body
of cavalry approached at full gallop the
squares of infantry. The horsemen,
*Vial commanded Menou's division upon
this occasion.
1798.]
185
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
ming, but a great proportion perished |
in the attempt. The Mamelukes, ren-
dered desperate, seeing no possibility of
escape in that direction, fell upon the
columns who were approaching from the
right, with their wings extended in or-
der of attack; but they, forming square
again with inconceivable rapidity, re-
pulsed them with great slaughter, and
drove them finally off in the direction of
the pyramids. The intrenched camp,
with all its artillery, stores, and baggage,
fell into the hands of the victors. Seve-
ral thousands of the Mamelukes were
drowned or killed; and of the formid-
able array which had appeared in such
splendour in the morning, not more than
two thousand five hundred escaped with
Mourad Bey into Upper Egypt. The
victors hardly lost two hundred men in
the action; and several days were occu-
pied after it was over in stripping the
slain of their magnificent appointments,
or fishing up the rich spoils which en-
cumbered the Nile.
Alexandria had originally pointed. He
visited the principal Scheiks, flattered
them, held out hopes of the speedy re-
establishment of the Arabian power, pro-
mised ample security for their religion
and their customs, and at length com-
pletely won their confidence, by a mix-
ture of skilful management with the
splendid language which was so well
calculated to captivate eastern imagina-
tions. The great object was to obtain
from the Scheiks of the mosque of Je-
milazar, which was held in the highest
estimation, a declaration in favour of
the French; and by adroitly flattering
their ambition, this object was at length
gained.
48. A proclamation was issued by
them, which announced the designs of
Napoleon for gaining the affections of
the Egyptians. "You are not igno-
rant," said the Scheiks, in this curious
proclamation, which evidently bears
the marks of the composition of Napo-
leon, "that the French alone, of all the
European nations, have, in every age,
been the firm friends of Mussulmans
and Mahometism, and the enemies of
idolators and their superstitions. They
are the faithful and zealous allies of our
sovereign the Sultaun, ever ready to
give proofs of their affection, and to
fly to his succour; they love those
whom he loves, and hate those whom
he hates; and that is the cause of their
rupture with the Russians, those irre-
concilable enemies of the worshippers
of the true God, who meditate the cap-
ture of Constantinople, and incessantly
employ alike violence and artifice to
subjugate the faith of Mahomet. But
the attachment of the French to the
Sublime Porte, and the powerful suc-
cours which they are about to bring to
him, will doubtless confound their im-
pious designs. The Russians desire to
get possession of St Sophia, and the
other temples dedicated to the service
of the true God, to convert them into
47. This action decided the fate of
Egypt, by the destruction of force which
it effected, and the dispersion of what
remained which it occasioned. Mourad
Bey retired to Upper Egypt, leaving
Cairo to its fate; while Ibrahim Pasha,
who had been a spectator of the combat
from the opposite side of the river, set
fire to the boats which contained his
riches, and retreated to Salahieh, on the
frontiers of Arabia, and from thence
across the desert into Syria. Two days
after the battle Napoleon entered Cairo,
where his soldiers found all the luxuries
of the East, which for a time compen-
sated to them for their absence from
Europe. The division of Desaix was
destined to pursue Mourad Bey into
Upper Egypt; the other divisions, dis-
persed in the environs of Cairo, or ad-
vanced towards Syria in pursuit of Ibra-
him Pasha, tasted the sweets of repose
after their short but fatiguing campaign.
No sooner was Napoleon established in
Cairo, and his officers employed in ex-churches consecrated to the exercises
ploring the pyramids and city of tombs, of their perverse faith; but, by the
which lay at their feet, than he set him- aid of Heaven, the French will enable
self sedulously to follow up the plan for the Sultaun to conquer their country,
acquiring the dominion over the coun- and exterminate their impious race.
try to which his proclamations from A species of litany was composed by
VOL. IV.
N
:
!
.
•
186
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVI.
i
..
..

or parliament, to make known the
wants of the people; and others, in the
different provinces, to send deputies
to the Central Assembly; and vigor-
ously repulsed the robbers of the
desert, who for centuries had devas-
tated with impunity the frontiers of
the cultivated country. Never had
Egypt experienced the benefits of re-
gular government so completely as
under his administration.
One day,
when Napoleon was surrounded by the
Scheiks, information was received that
some Arabs, of the tribe of Osnadis,
had slain a Fellah, and carried off the
flocks of the village. He instantly or-
dered that an officer of the staff should
take three hundred horsemen, and two
hundred camels, to pursue the robbers
and punish the aggressors. "Was the
Fellah your cousin," said a Scheik,
laughing, "that you are in such a rage
at his death?". "He was more," re-
|
them, in which they celebrated the
overthrow of their Mameluke oppres-
sors by the invincible soldiers of the
West. "The Beys," said they, "placed
their confidence in their cavalry; they
ranged their infantry in order of battle.
But the Favourite of Fortune, at the
head of the brave men of the West,
has destroyed their horses, and con-
founded their hopes. As the vapours
which rise in the morning from the
Nile are dissipated by the rays of the
sun, so has the army of the Mamelukes
been dispersed by the heroes of the
West; for the Great Allah is irritated
against the Mamelukes, and the sol-
diers of Europe are the thunders of his
right hand.” The battle of the Pyra-
mids struck terror far into Asia and
Africa. The caravans which came to
Mecca from the interior of those vast
regions, carried back the most dazzling
accounts of the victories of the invin-
cible legions of Europe; the destruc-plied Napoleon: "he was a man whose
tion of the cavalry which had so long safety Providence had intrusted to my
tyrannised over Egypt, excited the care. "Wonderful!" replied the
strongest sentiments of wonder and Scheik: "You speak like one inspired
admiration; and the orientals, whose by the Almighty."
imaginations were deeply impressed by
the flaming citadels which had dissi-
pated their terrible squadrons, named
Napoleon, Sultaun Kebir, or the Sul-
taun of Fire.
""
50. But while these great designs
occupied the commander-in-chief, an
extraordinary degree of depression pre-
vailed in the army. Egypt had been
represented to the soldiers as the pro-
49. Napoleon, in addition to the ter- mised land. They expected to find a
ror inspired by his military exploits, region flowing with milk and honey,
strove to acquire a lasting hold on the and after a short period of glorious
affections of the people by the justice exile, to return with the riches of the
and impartiality of his civil govern- East to their native country. A short
ment. He made all his troops join experience was sufficient to dissipate
with the multitude in celebrating the all these illusions. They found a land
festival in honour of the inundation of illustrious only by the recollections
the Nile, which that year rose to an with which it was fraught; filled with
extraordinary height; partook with the monuments of ancient splendour,
the Scheiks and Imauris in the cere- but totally destitute of modern com-
monies at the Great Mosque; joined fort; with the pyramids raising their
in the responses in their litanies like everlasting summits to heaven, but ty-
the faithful Mussulmans; and even ranny, poverty, barbarism overspread-
balanced his body and moved his head ing the earth. When the excitements
in imitation of the Mahometan custom. of the campaign were over, and the
Nor was it only by an affected regard troops had leisure to contemplate their
for their religion that he endeavoured situation, a mortal feeling of ennui and
to confirm his civil authority. He disquietude took possession of every
permitted justice to be administered heart. "They thought," says Bour-
by the Scheiks and Imaums, enjoining rienne, "of their country, of their re-
only a scrupulous impartiality in their lations, of their amours-what do I
decisions; established at Cairo a divan | say?—of the opera." The prospect of

1798.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE
187
being banished for ever from Europe,
on that arid shore, excited the most
gloomy presentiments: and at length
the discontent reached such a height
that Napoleon was obliged to threaten
death to any officer, whatever his rank,
who should venture to make known to
him the feelings which every one en-
tertained.
however, of the expedition was gained;
Ibrahim crossed the desert into Syria,
leaving Mourad Bey alone to maintain
the war in Upper Egypt.
52. The success which had attended
Napoleon's intrigues with the Knights
of Malta induced him to extend his
views beyond Egypt, for the dismem-
bering of the Turkish empire. With
this view he secretly despatched his
aide-de-camp Lavalette to Ali Pasha,
the most powerful of the European
vassals of the Porte, to endeavour to
stimulate him to revolt. He bore a
letter from the French general, in
which Napoleon urged him to enter
into immediate concert for measures
calculated to subvert the Ottoman em-
pire.* Lavalette found that Ali Pasha
was with the army on the Danube;
but, nevertheless, he contrived means
to have the letter conveyed to him.
The crafty Greek, however, did not
conceive the power of Napoleon in
Egypt sufficiently confirmed to induce
him to enter into the proposed alliance,
and accordingly this attempt to shake
the throne of the Grand Seignor failed
of effect.
51. It is a singular proof of the as-
cendant which this great man had thus
early acquired over the minds of the
soldiers, that, when they were in this
state of perilous fermentation, he ven-
tured to proceed in person with the
divisions commanded by Dugua and
Reynier to extinguish an insurrection
which Ibrahim had excited in the
eastern part of Egypt, and drive him
across the desert into Syria. The
French overtook the Mamelukes at
Salahieh, on the borders of the desert;
and, as their rearguard was heavily
laden with baggage, the Arabs who ac-
companied the cavalry strongly urged
them to charge the retiring columns,
who were posted near a wood of palm-
trees. The disproportion of force was
excessive, the Mamelukes being nearly
thrice as numerous as the Europeans;
nevertheless Napoleon, confident of
success, ordered the attack. But
though the discipline of the Europeans
prevailed over the desultory valour of
the Mussulmans in a regular engage- |
ment, they had no such advantage in
an affair of outposts; and on this oc-
casion the skill and courage of the
Mamelukes had well-nigh proved fatal
to the best part of the French cavalry.
The charge, though bravely led by
Leclerc and Murat, was as courageously
received, and in the peculiar manner
which in every age has proved so for-
midable to European cavalry. The
Mamelukes, as in the wars of the Cru-
sades, yielded at first, but soon return-
ing, with their wings extended, closed
in on every side round their pursuers.
In the mêlée all the French officers had
to sustain desperate personal encoun-
ters, and were for the most part severe-
ly wounded; nothing but the opportune
arrival of the infantry extricated them
from their perilous situation, and pro-lations with him, and to know if I can rely
bably total destruction. The object, on his co-operation."-LAVALETTE, i. 358.
* "The occasion appearing to me favour-
able, I have hastened to write to you a
friendly letter, and have intrusted one of
my aides-de-camp with its delivery with his
own hands. I have charged him also to make
certain overtures on my part; and, as he does
not understand your language, be so kind as
to make use of a faithful and confidential in-
terpreter for the conversations which he will
have with you. I pray you to give implicit
faith to whatever he may say to you on my
part; and to send him back quickly with an
answer, written in Turkish with your own
valette's instructions from Napoleon were to
hand."-Corresp. Confid. de Nap. v. 249. La-
tell Ali, "that, after having taken possession
of Malta, aud ruling in the Mediterranean
with thirty ships of the line and fifty thou-
sand men, I wish to establish confidential re-
53. While secretly conducting these
intrigues, as well as openly assailing
one of the most valuable provinces of
their empire, both Napoleon and the
Directory left nothing untried to pro-
long the slumber of the Ottoman gov-
ernment, and induce them to believe
that the French had no hostile designs
whatever against them, and that they
were in reality inimical only to the Beys,
f
188
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
the common enemy of both. With this | who seemed to have been the instru-
view, Napoleon wrote to the Grandment of Providence to balance the des-
Vizier a letter full of assurances of the tiny of nations, turn from Asiatic wilds
friendly dispositions both of himself to European revolution the chains of mi-
and his government, and the eternal litary power, and preserve safe, amidst
alliance of the Republic with the Mus- the western waves, the destined ark of
sulmans;* while Talleyrand, who had European freedom. After having sought
been appointed ambassador at Constan- in vain for the French fleet on the coast
tinople, received instructions to exert of Egypt, Nelson returned to Candia,
himself to the very utmost to perpe- and from thence to Syracuse, where he
tuate the same perfidious illusion. Such obtained, with extraordinary rapidity,
was the ability of that able diplomatist, the supplies of which he stood so much
and Ruffin, the envoy at the Turkish in need. The failure of his pursuit
capital, that for long the Divan shut was owing to a singular cause. Nelson
their eyes to the obvious indications had set sail from Sicily on the 21st
which were afforded of the real designs June, and the French fleet on the 18th;
of France. Proportionally great was the nevertheless, so much more rapidly did
general indignation when accounts ar- his fleet move than his antagonist's,
rived of the invasion of Egypt, and it that he passed them on the voyage, and
became evident how completely they arrived at Alexandria on the 28th, two
had been deceived by these perfidious days before the French squadron. He
representations. Preparations for war set sail immediately for Candia, upon
were made with the utmost activity. not finding them there; and thus,
The French chargé-d'affaires, Ruffin, through his activity and zeal, twice
was sent to the Seven Towers; and the missed the fleet of which he was in
indignation of the Divan broke forth in search. But the time was now ap-
one of those eloquent manifestoes, which proaching when his wishes were to be
a sense of perfidious injury seldom fails realised. He departed from Syracuse
to produce among the honest, though for the Morea on the 25th of July, and,
illiterate, rulers of mankind.+
having received intelligence in Greece
that the French fleet had been seen
four weeks before, steering to the south-
east from Candia, he determined to
return to Alexandria. On the 1st
simulation and treachery which they have
everywhere practised, gave to the Turkish
government the strongst assurances of friend-
ship, and sought by every art of dissimulation
to blind it to their real designs, and induce it
to come to a rupture with other and friendly
am-powers; while, on the other, the commanders
and generals of the French troops in Italy,
with the perfidious design of corrupting the
subjects of his highness, have never ceased
to send into Roumelia, the Morea, and the
islands of the Archipelago, emissaries known
for their perfidy and dissimulation, and to
spread everywhere incendiary publications,
tending to excite the inhabitants to revolt.
And now, as if to demonstrate to the world
that France makes no distinction between its
friends and its enemies, it has, in the midst
of a profound peace with Turkey, and while
still professing to the Porte the same senti-
ments of friendship, invaded, without either
provocation, complaint, or declaration of war,
but after the usage of pirates, Egypt, one of
the most valuable provinces of the Ottoman
empire, from which, to this hour, it has re-
ceived only marks of friendship."-See the
Manifesto in HARDENBERG, vi. 483, 493, dated
10th Sept. 1798.
54. But while everything was thus
prospering on land, a desperate reverse
awaited Napoleon at sea, brought about
by the genius of that illustrious man
* Napoleon's letter was in these terms:-
"The French army, which I have the honour
to command, has entered Egypt, to punish
the Beys for the insults they have committed
on the French commerce. Citizen Talleyrand-
Périgord, minister of foreign affairs in France,
has been named, on the part of France,
bassador at Constantinople, and he is fur-
nished with full powers to negotiate and sign
the requisite treaties, to remove any difficul-
ties that may arise from the occupation of
Egypt by the French army, and to consoli-
date the ancient and necessary friendship that
ought to exist between the two powers. But
as he may possibly not yet have arrived at
Constantinople, I lose no time in making
known to your Excellency the resolution of
the French government, not only to remain
on terms of its ancient friendship with the Otto-
man Porte, but to procure for it a barrier of
which it stands so much in need against its
natural enemies, who are at this moment
leaguing together for its destruction."-Desp.
Aug. 22, 1798; Corresp. Confid. de Nap. vi. 3, 4.
+ The manifesto of Turkey, which was a
most able state-paper, bears, "On the one
hand the French ambassadors, resident at
Constantinople, making use of the same dis-
1798.]
189
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
•
yu
August, about ten in the morning, his | if he could not get the ships into the
fleet came in sight of the Pharos; the harbour of Alexandria; but till that
port had been vacant and solitary when event took place, he was in too pre-
they last saw it, now it was crowded carious a situation to deprive himself of
with ships, and they perceived, with the assistance of his fleet; and it was
exultation, that the tricolor flag was then too late to escape the danger, as
flying on the walls. The fleet of Bruéys the English were within sight of the
was seen lying at anchor in the bay of ramparts of Alexandria.
ABOUKIR. The utmost joy animated
the whole sailors on board the fleet at
the sight, and Nelson and his officers
now felt confident of the success which
they had so long hoped for. During
the chase he had repeatedly had his
captains on board his ship, and explain-
ed his plan of attack so completely that
they were as much masters of, and pre-
pared to execute it, as himself. For
many days before, the anxiety of Nel-
son had been such that he neither ate
nor slept. He now ordered dinner to be
prepared, and appeared in the highest
spirits. "Before this time to-morrow,"
said he to his officers, when leaving him
to take the command of their vessels, "I
shall have gained a peerage or West-
minster Abbey."
56. No sooner did Nelson perceive
the situation of the French fleet, than
he resolved to penetrate between them
and the shore, and in that way double
with his whole force on part of that of the
enemy. "Where there is room for the
enemy to swing," said he, "there must
be room for us to anchor.
His plan
was to place his fleet half on the outer,
and half on the inner side of the French
line, and station his ships, as far as
practicable, one on the outer bow, and
another on the outer quarter of each
of the enemy's. Captain Berry, his flag-
captain, when he was made acquainted
with the design, exclaimed with trans-
port, "If we succeed, what will the
world say?"- "There is no 'If' in the
case," replied Nelson; "that we shall
succeed is certain; who may live to tell
the story is a very different question."
The number of ships of the line on the
two sides was equal, * but the French
* The comparative strength of the two fleets
was as follows:-
BRITISH.
55. Admiral Bruéys having been de-
tained, by Napoleon's orders, at the
mouth of the Nile, and being unable to
get into the harbour of Alexandria, had
drawn up his fleet in order of battle, in
a position in the bay of Aboukir so
strong that, in the opinion of his best
officers, the English would never ven-
ture to attack it. The headmost vessel
was close to the shoal on the north-
west, and the rest of the fleet formed a
sort of curve, with its convex side to-
wards the sea, and supported on the
right by the batteries on the fort of
Aboukir. In this way their broadsides
were prepared to pour a concentric fire
from all the ships, should the English
approach with the dreaded intention of
breaking the line. Bruéys had done
his utmost to get his ships into the
harbour of Alexandria; but, finding
that the draught of water was too small | Majestic
for the larger vessels, he wisely deter- Goliath
mined not to adopt a measure which,
by dividing his fleet, would have ex-
posed it to certain destruction. After Leander
Napoleon was fairly established in
Egypt, by the capture of Cairo, he sent
orders to the admiral to go to Corfu,
Minotaur
Alexander
Audacious
Zealous
Swiftsure
Theseus
""
FRENCH.
Ships. Guns. Men.
L'Orient 120 1010
Le Franklin 80 800
Le Tonnant 80 800
Le Guillaume
Tell
Ships. Guns. Men.
Vanguard
74 595
Orion
74 590
74 590
Culloden
Bellerophon 74 590
Defence
74 590
74 640
74 590
74 590
74 590
74 590
74 590
74 591
74 590 La Fortune 18
La Justice 40
50 343 La Diane 40
80
Le Généreux 74
Le Guerrier 74
Le Conquér-
ant
74
Le Spartiate 74
Le Timoléon 74
Le Peuple
Souverain 74
L'Heureux 74
Le Mercure 74
L'Aquilon 74
L'Artémise 36
La Sérieuse 36
L'Hercule,
bomb
800
700
700'
700
700
700
700
700
700
700
300
300
50%
70
400
400
1012 8068
1196 11,230
-Nelson's Despatches, iii. 54; and Victoires et
Conquétes, ix. 86, 87.
::
די
#
ܒ ܚ ܂
L
r
:
21
11
C
'.
-
190
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVI.
!
7
·
$
*'
had a great advantage in the size of
their vessels; their ships carrying 1196
guns, and 11,230 men, while the Eng-
lish had only 1012 guns, and 8068 men.
The British squadron consisted entirely
of seventy-fours; whereas the French,
besides the noble L'Orient, of 120 guns,
had two 80-gun ships, the Franklin and
Guillaume Tell. The battery on Abou-
kir fort was mounted with four pieces
of heavy cannon and two mortars, be-
sides pieces of lighter calibre.
in the Vanguard, at the head of six
ships, viz., the Minotaur, Defiance, Bel-
lerophon, Majestic, Swiftsure, and Alex-
ander, passed along the French line on
the outside, and cast anchor each by the
stern opposite to their respective op-
ponents." Nelson himself anchored out-
side of the enemy, within pistol-shot of
their third ship, the Spartiate. The ef-
fect of this manoeuvre was to bring an
overwhelming force against two-thirds
of the enemy's squadron, while the
other third, moored at a distance from
the scene of danger, could neither aid
their friends nor injure their enemies.
57. The squadron advanced to the at-
tack at half-past six in the afternoon.
Every ship bore the red cross of St
George and union-jack. After dark, 58. In taking up their respective po-
each British ship had four horizontal sitions, the British vessels had a terrible
lights at the mizen-peak. Admiral fire to sustain from the French line,
Bruéys at first imagined that the battle which they passed within pistol-shot;
would be deferred till the following for the Republicans stood to their guns
morning; but the gallant bearing and with great firmness, and fired with
steady course of the British ships, as equal precision and deliberation. Not
they entered the bay, soon convinced a shot was returned from the British
him that an immediate assault was in- ships till they were all anchored, the
tended. The moment was felt by the men being aloft furling the sails, or on
bravest in both fleets; thousands gazed deck hauling the braces. When the
in silence, and with anxious hearts, on ships, however, had all taken their
each other, who were never destined places, the advantage gained was ap-
again to see the sun; and the shore was parent. Nelson had arranged his fleet
covered with multitudes of Arabs, an- with such skill that, from the moment
xious to behold a fight on which, to all that the ships took up their positions,
appearance, the fate of their country the victory was secure. Five ships had
would depend. When the British fleet passed the line, and anchored between
came within range, they were received the first nine of the enemy and the
with a steady fire from the broadsides shore, while six had taken their station
of all the vessels and the batteries on on the outer side of the same vessels,
the island. It fell right, and with ter- which were thus placed between two
rible severity, on the bows of the lead- fires, and had no possibility of escape.
ing ships; but, without returning a shot, Another vessel, the Leander, was inter-
they bore directly down upon the en- posed across the line, and cut off the
emy. Captain Foley led the way in the vanguard from all assistance from the
Goliath, outsailing the Zealous, under rearmost ships of the squadron, while
Captain Hood, which for some time dis- her guns raked right and left those be-
puted the post of honour with him; tween which she was placed. The Cul-
and when he reached the van of the loden, which came up sounding after it
enemy's line, he steered between the was dark, ran aground two leagues from
outermost ship and the shoal, so as to the hostile fleets, and, notwithstanding
interpose between the French fleet and the utmost efforts of her captain and
the shore. In ten minutes he shot away crew, could take no part in the action
the masts of the Conquérant; while the which followed; but her fate served as
Zealous, which immediately followed, a warning to the Alexander and Swift-
in the same time totally disabled the sure, which would else have infallibly
Guerrier. The other ships in that col-struck on the shoal and perished. The
umn, viz., the Orion, Audacious, and way in which these ships, under the
Theseus, followed in their order, still brave Captain Hallowell's direction,
inside the French line; while Nelson entered the bay, and took up their sta
:
7
1798.]
191
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
tions amidst the gloom of night, by the | was prevented which might have proved
light of the increasing cannonade, ex- fatal to one or both of these ships. The
cited the admiration of all who wit- station of the Bellerophon in combat-
nessed it.
ing the Orient was now taken by the
Swiftsure, which opened at once a steady
fire on the quarter of the Franklin and
the bows of the French admiral; while
the Alexander anchored on his larboard
quarter, and, with the Leander, com-
pleted the destruction of their gigantic
opponent.
59. The British ships, however, had
a severe fire to sustain as they succes-
sively passed along the enemy's line to
take up their appointed stations; and
the great size of several of the French
squadron rendered them more than a
match for any single vessel the British
could oppose to them. The Vanguard, 60. It was now dark, but both fleets
which bore proudly down, bearing the were illuminated by the incessant dis-
admiral's flag, and six colours on differ-charge of above two thousand pieces of
cannon, and the volumes of flame and
smoke that rolled away from the bay
gave it the appearance as if a terrific
volcano had suddenly burst forth in the
midst of the sea. Victory, however,
had already decisively declared for the
British; before nine, three ships of the
line had struck, and two were dismast-
ed; and the flames were seen bursting
forth from the Orient, as she still con-
tinued, with unabated energy, her he-
roic defence. They spread with fright-
ful rapidity; the fire of the Swiftsure
was directed with such fatal precision
to the burning part, that all attempts
to extinguish it proved ineffectual; and
the masts and rigging were soon wrap-
ped in flames, which threw a prodigious
light over the heavens, and rendered
the situation of every ship in both fleets
distinctly visible. The sight redoubled
the ardour of the British seamen, by
exhibiting the shattered condition and
lowered colours of so many of their
enemies, and loud cheers from the whole
fleet announced every successive flag
that was struck. As the fire approached
the magazine of the Orient, many offi-
cers and men jumped overboard, and
were picked up by the British boats;
others were dragged into the port-holes
of the nearest British ships, who for
that purpose suspended their firing;
but the greater part of the crew, with
heroic bravery, stood to their guns to
the last, and continued to fire from the
lower deck. At ten o'clock she blew
up, with an explosion so tremendous
that nothing in ancient or modern war
was equal to it. Every ship in the
hostile fleets was shaken to its centre;
the firing, by universal consent, ceased
ent parts of the rigging, had every man
at the first six guns on the forecastle
killed or wounded in a few minutes,
and they were three times swept off be-
fore the action closed. Such, however,
was the vigour of the fire which they
opened, when their broadsides were de-
livered, that in ten minutes the Guer-
rier was dismasted, and in ten more the
Conquérant and Spartiate were equally
disabled, and struck their colours. The
Spartiate surrendered first, and the
sword of her captain was brought to
Nelson on his quarter-deck. Shortly
after, the Aquilon and the Peuple Souve-
rain hauled down their colours, and
were taken possession of; and the Heur-
eux and Tonnant were so disabled that
their capture was considered certain.
The Bellerophon dropped her stern-
anchor close under the bows of the
Orient, and, notwithstanding the im-
mense disproportion of force, continued
to engage her first-rate antagonist till
her own masts had all gone overboard,
and almost every officer was either kill-
ed or wounded, when she drifted away
with the tide, overwhelmed, but not
subdued-a glorious monument of un-
conquerable valour. As she floated
along, she came close to the Swiftsure,
which was coming into action, and not
having the lights at the mizen-peak,
which Nelson had ordered as a signal
by which his own ships might distin-
guish each other, she was at first mis-
taken for an enemy. Fortunately Cap-
tain Hallowell, who commanded that
vessel, had the presence of mind to or-
der his men not to fire, till he ascer-
tained whether the hulk was a friend
or an enemy, and thus a catastrophe
|
i
" བྷ
1
یلم
192
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
÷
3
on both sides, and the tremendous ex- | him, thought, from the great effusion
plosion was followed by a silence still of blood, that the wound was mortal.
more awful, interrupted only, after the His first words addressed to Captain
lapse of some minutes, by the splash of Berry were-"I am killed: remember
the shattered masts and yards falling me to my wife." When he was carried
into the water from the vast height to to the cockpit, the surgeon quitted the
which they had been thrown. The seamen whose wounds he was dressing,
British ships in the vicinity, with ad- to attend to the admiral. "No," said
mirable coolness, had made prepara- Nelson; "I will take my turn with my
tions to avoid the conflagration; all the brave fellows." Nor would he suffer
shrouds and sails were thoroughly wet- himself to be examined till every man,
ted, and sailors stationed with buckets who had previously been brought down,
of water to extinguish any burning was properly attended to. Fully be-
fragments which might fall upon their lieving that he was about to die, as he
decks. By these means, although large had ever desired, in the moment of
burning masses fell on the Swiftsure victory, he called for the chaplain, and
and Alexander, they were extinguished desired him to deliver what he conceiv-
without doing any serious damage. ed to be his dying remembrance to
Lady Nelson; and, seizing a pen, con-
trived to write a few words, marking
his devout sense of the success which
had already been obtained. When the
surgeon came in due time, after having
visited the others, to inspect the wound
-for no entreaties could prevail on
him to let it be examined sooner-the
most anxious silence prevailed; and the
61. After a pause of ten minutes, the
firing recommenced, and continued
without intermission till after midnight,
when it gradually grew slacker, from
the shattered condition of the French
ships and the exhaustion of the British
sailors, numbers of whom fell asleep be-
side their guns, the instant a momen-
tary cessation of loading took place.
At daybreak the magnitude of the vic-joy of the wounded men, and of the
whole crew, when they found the in-
jury was only superficial, gave Nelson
deeper pleasure than the unexpected
assurance that his life was in no danger.
When the cry rose that the Orient was
on fire, he contrived to make his way,
aided by Captain Berry, to the quarter-
deck, where he instantly gave orders
that boats should be despatched to the
relief of the enemy.
tory was apparent; not a vestige of the
Orient was to be seen; the frigate the
Sérieuse was sunk; the Artémise frig-
ate, after having hauled down her flag,
had been fired by her own crew, who
partly escaped on shore, and she burn-
ed to the water's edge; and the whole
French line, with the exception of the
Guillaume Tell and Généreux,had struck
their colours. These ships, having been
little engaged in the action, cut their
cables, and stood out to sea, followed
by the two frigates; they were gallantly
pursued by the Zealous, which was ra-
pidly gaining on them; but as there
was no other ship of the line in a con-acteristic of their nation. The captain
dition to support her, she was recalled, of the Tonnant, Dupetit-Thouars, when
and these ships escaped. Had the Cul- | both his legs were carried away by a
loden not struck on the shoal, and the cannon-ball, refused to quit the quarter-
frigates belonging to the squadron been deck, and made his crew swear not to
present, not one of the enemy's fleet strike their colours as long as they had
would have escaped to convey the a man capable of standing to their guns.
mournful tidings to France.
Admiral Bruéys, a little after eight,
was struck by a cannon-ball in the
middle, which nearly cut him in two.
His assistants approached to carry him
below; but he refused, saying, “A
French admiral should die on his quar-
63. Nor were heroic deeds confined
to the British squadron. Most of the
captains of the French fleet were killed
or wounded, and they all fought with
the enthusiastic courage which is char-
62. Early in the battle, the British
admiral received a severe wound on the
head, from a piece of langridge shot.
Captain Berry caught him in his arms
as he was falling. Nelson, and all around
1
1798.]
193
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
terdeck." In a quarter of an hour after,
he died the death of the brave, still on
his quarterdeck, exhorting his men to
continue the combat to the last extre-
mity.* Casa Bianca, captain of the
Orient, fell mortally wounded, when
the flames were devouring that splendid
vessel; his son, a boy of ten years of
age, was combating beside him when
he was struck, and, embracing his
father, resolutely refused to quit the
ship, though a gunboat had come along-
side to bring him off. He contrived to
bind his dying parent to the mast,
which had fallen into the sea, and
floated off with the precious charge:
he was seen after the explosion by some
of the British squadron, who made the
utmost efforts to save his life; but, in
the agitation of the waves following
that dreadful event, both were swallow-
ed up and seen no more. †
* Napoleon addressed the following noble
letter to Madame Bruéys on her husband's
death:-"Your husband has been killed by a
cannon-ball while combating on his quarter-
deck. He died without suffering; the death
the most easy and the most to be envied by
the brave. I feel warmly for your grief. The
moment which separates us from the object
which we love is terrible; we feel isolated on
the carth; we almost experience the convul-
sions of the last agony; the faculties of the
soul are annihilated; its connection with the
earth is preserved only across a veil which
distorts everything. We feel in such a situ-
ation that there is nothing which yet binds
us to life-that it were far better to die; but
when, after such first and unavoidable throes,
we press our children to our hearts, tears and
more tender sentiments arise; life becomes
endurable for their sakes. Yes, madam, they
will open the fountains of your heart; you
will watch their childhood, educate their
youth; you will speak to them of their father,
of your present grief, and of the loss which
they and the Republic have sustained in his
death. After having resumed the interest in
life by the chord of maternal love, you will
perhaps feel some consolation from the friend-
ship and warm interest which I shall ever
take in the widow of my friend."-Corresp.
Confid. v. 383.
+ This moving incident is thus beautifully
treated by one of the greatest of modern lyric
poets.
"The boy stood on the burning deck
Whence all but he had fled ;
The flame that lit the battle's wreck
Shone round him on the dead.
64. Such was the battle of the Nile,
for which he who gained it felt that vic-
tory was too feeble a word; he called it
conquest. Of thirteen ships of the line,
nine were taken and two burnt; of four
frigates, one was sunk and one burnt.
The British loss was eight hundred and
ninety-five in killed and wounded; they
had to lament the death of only one
commander, Captain Westcolt, a brave
and able officer. Of the French, five
thousand two hundred and twenty-five
were killed, wounded, or taken, and
three thousand one hundred and five
besides were sent on shore, in great
part wounded, with all their effects, on
their parole not to serve again till regu-
larly exchanged,+-an act of humanity
which was ill requited by Napoleon,
who incorporated the whole who were
capable of bearing arms into different
regiments of his army.§ The annals
Yet beautiful and bright he stood,
As born to rule the storm ;
A creature of heroic blood,
A proud, though child-like form.
The flames roll'd on—he would not go
Without his father's word;
That father, faint in death below,
His voice no longer heard.
'Speak, father!' once again he cried,
"If I may yet be gone!'
And but the booming shots replied,
And fast the flames roll'd on.
Upon his brow he felt their breath,
And in his waving hair,
And look'd from that lone post of death
In still yet brave despair.
And shouted but once more aloud,
'My father! must I stay?'
While o'er him fast, through sail and shroud,
The wreathing fires made way.
They wrapt the ship in splendour wild,
They caught the flag on high,
And stream'd above the gallant child
Like banners in the sky.
There came a burst of thunder-sound-
The boy-oh! where was he?
Ask of the winds that far around
With fragments strew the sea!"'
HEMANS.
8930
"Total crews, per certificates of officers.
on board ships burned and taken
Sent ashore on cartel .
Escaped from Timoléon
From the Hercule, bomb
Officers, &c. on board fileet
•
·
3105
350
50
200
3705
5225
Taken, drowned, and missing
HORATIO NELSON."
-Nelson Despatches, iii. 55.
the disinterestedness to restore everything to
“The English," says Kleber, “have had
their prisoners; they would not permit an
iota to be taken from them. The consequence
is, that they display in Alexandria a luxury
and elegance which exhibit a strange contrast
to the destitute condition of the land forces.”
-Despatch to Napoleon, 22d Aug. 1798; BOUR-
RIENNE, ii. 160. The wounded French sent
ashore are stated by Admiral Gantheaume,
in his official report, to have amounted to
IP
194
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
+
!
fect stillness pervaded the whole squa-
dron; it was the moment of the thanks
giving which, by orders of Nelson, was
offered up through all the fleet, for the
signal success which the Almighty had
vouchsafed to the British arms. The
French prisoners remarked that it was
no wonder such order was preserved in
the English navy, when at such an
hour, and after such a victory, their
minds could be impressed with such
sentiments.
of the world do not afford an example | ceed to sea. Having at length, how-
of so complete an overthrow of so great ever, overcome every obstacle, and de-
an armament. The Arabs and Egyp-spatched an overland messenger to
tians lined the shore during this ter- Bombay, to acquaint the government
rible engagement, and beheld with there with his success, he set sail from
mingled terror and astonishment the Aboukir Bay on the 18th August, leav-
destruction which the Europeans were ing three ships of the line to blockade
inflicting on each other. The beach, the harbour of Alexandria. Three of
for an extent of four leagues, was cover- the prizes, being perfect wrecks, were
ed with wreck, and innumerable bodies burned; the remaining six arrived in
were seen floating in the bay, in spite safety at Gibraltar. Honours and re-
of the utmost exertions of both fleets wards were showered by a grateful na-
to sink them. No sooner, however, tion upon the heroes of the Nile. Nel-
was the conquest completed, than a per-son was created Baron Nelson of the
Nile, with a pension of £2000 a-year to
himself and his two immediate succes-
sors; the Grand Seignor, the Emperor
of Russia, the King of Sardinia, the
King of Naples, the East India Com-
pany, made him magnificent presents;
and his name was embalmed for ever in
the recollection of his grateful country.
With truth did Mr Pitt observe in par-
liament, when reproached for not con-
ferring on him a higher dignity, "Ad-
miral Nelson's fame will be coequal
with the British name, and it will be
remembered that he gained the greatest
naval victory on record, when no man
will think of asking whether he had
been created a baron, a viscount, or an
earl." +
+
65. Had Nelson possessed a few frig-
ates or bomb-vessels, the whole trans-
ports and small craft in the harbour of
Alexandria might have been destroyed
in a few hours. So severely did he feel
the want of them at this period that,
in a despatch to the Admiralty, he de-
clared, "Were I to die at this moment,
want of frigates would be found engraven
on my heart!" The want of such light
vessels, however, rendered any attack
on the shipping in the shoal water of
Alexandria perfectly impossible; and
it was not without the utmost exer-
tions, and the united co-operation of
all the officers and men, that the fleet
was refitted so far as to be able to pro-
nearly eight thousand-an astonishing num-
her, if correct, considernig that the whole
French crews in the action did not exceed
twelve thousand-See Gantheaume's Report;
Corresp. Confid. de Napoléon, v. 483.
misfortune with which he was connected
+ Napoleon, who never failed to lay every
upon destiny, or the faults of others, rather
than his own errors, has laboured to excul-
pate himself with regard to the disaster in
Aboukir Bay, and declared, in his official
despatch to the Directory, that on July 6,
before leaving Alexandria, he wrote to Ad-
miral Bruéys, directing him to retire within
the harbour of that town, or, if that was im-
possible, to make the best of his way to
Corfu, and that the catastrophe arose from
his disobedience. It is true he sent an order,
but it was conditional, and as follows:-
"Admiral Bruéys will cause the fleet, in the
course of to-morrow, to enter the old harbour
of Alexandria, if the time permits, and there
is sufficient depth of water. If there is not
in the harbour sufficient draught, he will
take such measures that, during the course
of to-morrow, he may have disembarked the
artillery and stores, and the individuals be-
longing to the army, retaining only a hun-
soldiers in each ship of the line, and
forty in each frigate. The admiral, in the
course of to-morrow, will let the general
know whether the squadron can get into
Alexandria, or can defend itself, while lying
in the roads of Aboukir, against a superior
enemy; and if it can do neither of these things,
* Nelson's order was as follows:
<<
""
Vanguard, off the mouth of the Nile,
2d Aug. 1798.
Almighty God having blessed his Majes-dred
ty's arms with victory, the Admiral intends
returning public thanksgiving for the same,
at two o'clock this day; and he recommends
every ship doing the same, as soon as conve-
nient. HORATIO NELSON."-Nelson Despatches,
iii. 61.
1798.]
195
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
66. The battle of the Nile was a
mortal stroke to Napoleon and the
French army. He was too clear-sighted
not to perceive the fatal and irremedi-
able nature of the loss there incurred.
It had been his design, after the con-
quest of Egypt was secured, to embark a
great proportion of his forces, return to
Toulon, and employ them on some other
and still greater expedition against the
power of England. By this irreparable
loss he found these prospects for ever
blasted; the army exiled, without hope
of return, on an inhospitable shore, all
means of preserving his recent conquest
frustrated, and himself destined, to all
appearance, instead of changing the
face of the world, to maintain an in-
glorious and hopeless struggle in a
corner of the Turkish empire. All his
dreams of European conquests and ori-
ental revolution appeared at once to
vanish, by the destruction of the re-
sources by means of which they were
to be realised; and nothing remained
but the painful certainty that he had
doomed to a lingering fate the finest
army of the Republic, and endangered
its independence by the sacrifice of so
large a portion of its defenders. But,
though in secret overwhelmed by the
disaster, he maintained in public the
appearance of equanimity, and suffer-
ed nothing to escape his lips which
could add to the discouragement of
his soldiers. "Well," said he, we
must remain here, or issue from it as
great as the ancients.” "Yes," replied
Kleber, "we must do great things: I
am preparing my mind to go through
them."
66
(6
67. But while the chiefs of the army
thus endeavoured to conceal the gloomy
presentiments which overwhelmed their
minds, the inferior officers and soldiers
gave unrestrained vent to the despair
with which they were filled. Already,
before they reached Cairo, the illusion
of the expedition had been dispelled;
the expected riches of the East had
given place to poverty and suffering;
the promised land had turned out an
arid wilderness. But when intelligence
arrived of the destruction of the fleet,
it will make the best of its way to Corfu, leaving est dangers: that is the opinion of all the
at Alexandria only the Dubois and Causse, most experienced officers on board the fleet.
with the Diane, Juno, Alcestis, and Artémise Admiral Villeneuve and Casa Bianca regard
frigates." The order to proceed to Corfu, it as impossible. When I bave sounded the
therefore, was conditional to take effect only roadstead of Beckier, I will send you a report
on failure to get into Alexandria, or to find with regard to it. Want of provisions is
a defensible roadstead; and, from the follow- severely felt in the fleet; on board many
ing letters, it appears that Bruéys, with the vessels there is only biscuit for fourteen
full knowledge of the general-in-chief, pro- days." On the 7th July he again wrote to
ceeded to adopt the prior alternative of tak- Napoleon, "I thank you for the precaution
ing up a defensive position at Aboukir. The you have taken in sending engineer and artil-
day before, Bruéys had written to Napoleon:|lery officers to meet me in the Bay of Beckier.
"All the accounts I have hitherto received I shall concert measures with them as soon
are unsatisfactory as to the possibility of getting as we are moored, and if I am fortunate
into the harbour, as the bar has only twenty-enough to discover a position where batteries
two feet six inches, which our smallest
on shore may protect the two extremities of
seventy-fours-draw, so that entry is impos- my line, I shall regard the position as im-
sible. My present position is untenable, by pregnable, at least during summer and
reason of the rocks with which the bottom autumn. It is the more desirable to remain
of the bay is strewed; and if attacked, I there, because I can set sail en masse when
should be infallibly destroyed by the enemy, I think fit; whereas, even if I could get into
if I had the misfortune to await them in this the harbour of Alexandria, I might be block-
place. The only thing that I see practicable aded by a single vessel of the enemy, and
is, to take shelter in the moorings of_Beckier should be unable to contribute anything to
(Aboukir), where the bottom is good, and I your glory." On the 13th July, he again wrote
could take such a position as would render to Napoleon, "I am fortifying my position, in
me secure from the enemy." On the 6th
case of being obliged to combat at anchor. I
July, Bruéys wrote to Napoleon, in addition have demanded two mortars from Alexandria
to his letter of the 2d, "I have neglected to put on the sand-bank; but I am less ap-
nothing which might permit the ships of the prehensive of that than the other extremity
line to get into the old port; but it is a labour of the line, against which the principal efforts
which requires much time and patience. The of the enemy will in all probability be direct
loss of a single vessel is too considerable to ed." And on the 26th July, he wrote again,
allow anything to be left to chance: and "The officers whom I have charged with the
hitherto it appears that we cannot attempt sounding of the port, have at length announ-
such a measure without incurring the great-ced that their labours are concluded; I shall
"
|
196
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
{CHAP. XXVI.
1
!
•
$
and with it of all hope of returning to
Europe, except as prisoners of war, they
gave vent to such loud complaints that
it required all the firmness of the gene-
rals to prevent a mutiny breaking out.
Many soldiers, in despair, blew out
their brains; others threw themselves
into the Nile, and perished, with their
arms and baggage. When the generals
passed by, the cry, "There go the mur-
derers of the French!" involuntarily
burst from the ranks. By degrees, how-
ever, this stunning misfortune, like
every other disaster in life, was soft-
ened by time. The soldiers, deprived
of the possibility of returning, ceased
to disquiet themselves about it, and
ultimately they resigned themselves
with much greater composure to a
continued residence in Egypt, than
they could have done had the fleet re-
mained to keep alive for ever in their
breasts the desire of returning to their
native country.
will be detailed hereafter, the coalition
against the Republican government;
and in the East, it at once brought on
the Egyptian army the whole weight of
the Ottoman empire. The French am-
bassador at Constantinople had found
great difficulty for long in restraining
the indignation of the Sultaun; the
good sense of the Turks could not easily
be persuaded that it was an act of friend-
ship to the Porte to invade one of the
most important provinces of the Em-
pire, destroy its militia, and subject its
inhabitants to the dominion of a Eu-
ropean power. No sooner, therefore,
was the Divan at liberty to speak its
real sentiments, by the destruction of
the armament which had so long spread
terror through the Levant, than they
gave vent to their indignation. War
was formally declared against France;
the differences with Russia were ad-
justed; and the formation of an army
was immediately decreed to restore the
authority of the Crescent on the banks
of the Nile. Among the many won-
ders of this eventful period, not the
least surprising was the alliance which
|
68. The consequences of the battle
of the Nile were, to the last degree,
disastrous to France. Its effects in
Europe were immense, by reviving, as
|
forthwith transmit the plan, when I have re-
ceived it, that you may decide what vessels are
to enter." On the 30th, Napoleon wrote in an-
swer, "I have received all your letters. The
intelligence which I have received of the
soundings, induces me to believe that you are
by this time safely in the port;" and ordered
him forthwith to do so, or proceed to Corfu. On
the day after this last letter was written,
son's fleet attacked Bruéys in the Bay of Abou-
kir. Napoleon, therefore, was perfectly aware
that the fleet was lying in Aboukir Bay; and
it was evidently retained there by his orders,
or with his approbation, as a support to the
army, or a means of retreat in case of disaster.
In truth, such was the penury of the country,
that the fleet could not lay in provisions at
Alexandria to enable it to stand out to sea.
He was too able a man, besides, to hazard
such an army without any means of retreat
in an unknown country: and Bourrienne de-
clares that, previous to the taking of Cairo, he
often talked with him on re-embarking the
army, and laughed himself at the false colours
in which he had represented the matter to
the Directory. It is proved, by indisputable
evidence, that the fleet was detained by the
orders, or with the concurrence of Napoleon.
"It may perhaps be said," says Admiral
Gantheaume, the second in command, who
survived the defeat, that it would have |
been more prudent to have quitted the coast
after the debarkation was effected; but, con-
sidering the orders of the commander-in-chief,
and the incalculable support which the fleet
"C
gave to the land forces, the admiral conceived
it to be his duty not to abandon those seas.
Bruéys also said to Lavalette, in Aboukir
Bay, on the 21st July, "Since I could not get
into the old harbour of Alexandria, nor re-
tire from the coast of Egypt, without news
from the army, I have established myself
here in as strong a position as I could." The
Nel-inference to be drawn from these documents
is, that neither Napoleon nor Brueys was to
blame for the disaster which happened in
Aboukir Bay; that the former ordered the
fleet to enter Alexandria or to take a de-
fensible position, and if the admiral could do
neither, then he was to proceed to Corfu;
but that the latter was unable, from the
limited draught of water at the bar, to do
the first, and, agreeably to his orders, at-
tempted the second; that the fleet lay at
Aboukir Bay, with the full knowledge of the
general-in-chief, and without his being able
to prevent it, though his penetration in the
outset perceived the danger to which it was
exposed in so doing; and that the only real
culpability in the case belongs to Napoleon,
in having endeavoured, after Bruéys' death,
to blacken his character, by representing the
disaster to the Directory as exclusively im-
putable to that officer, and as having arisen
from his disobedience of orders, when, in
fact, it arose from extraneous circumstances,
over which the admiral had no control, hav-
ing rendered it necessary for him to adopt
the second alternative prescribed to him by
his commander.
"

1798.]
197
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
-1
between Turkey and Russia, and the
suspension of all the ancient animosity
between the Christians and the Mus-
sulmans, under the pressure of a dan-
ger common to both. This soon led to
an event so extraordinary, that it pro-
duced a profound impression even on
the minds of the Mussulman spectators.
69. On the 1st September, a Russian
fleet of ten ships of the line and eight
frigates entered the Bosphorus, and
united at the Golden Horn with the
Turkish squadron; from whence the
combined force, in presence of an im-
mense concourse of spectators, whose
acclamations rent the skies, passed
under the walls of the Seraglio, and
swept majestically through the classic
stream of the Hellespont. The effect
of the passage of so vast an armament
through the beautiful scenery of the
straits, was much enhanced by the
brilliancy of the sun, which shone in
unclouded splendour on its full-spread
sails; the placid surface of the water
reflected alike the Russian masts and
the Turkish minarets; and the multi-
tude, both European and Mussulman,
were never weary of admiring the
magnificent spectacle, which so forcibly
imprinted upon their minds a sense of
the extraordinary alliance which the
French Revolution had produced, and
the slumber in which it had plunged
national antipathies the most violent,
and religious discord the most inveter-
ate. The combined squadrons, not
being required on the coast of Egypt,
steered for the island of Corfu, and im-
mediately established a rigorous block-
ade of its fortress and noble harbour,
which soon began to feel the want of
provisions. Already, without any for-
mal treaty, the courts of St Peters-
burg, London, and Constantinople
acted in concert, and the basis of a
triple alliance was laid, and sent to
their respective courts for ratification.
the French invasion of Egypt produced | hostile population, they were about to
be exposed to the formidable forces of
the Turkish empire. In these dis-
couraging circumstances, the firmness
of Napoleon, far from forsaking him,
only prompted him to redouble his
efforts to establish his authority firmly
in the conquered country. The months
which immediately followed the de-
struction of the fleet were marked by
an extraordinary degree of activity in
every department.
At Alexandria,
Rosetta, and Cairo, mills were estab-
lished, in which flour was ground as
finely as at Paris; hospitals were form-
ed, where the sick were treated with
the most sedulous care by the distin-
guished talents of Larrey and Desge-
nettes; a foundery, in which cannon
were cast, and a manufactory of gun-
powder and saltpetre, rendered the
army independent of external aid for
its ammunition and artillery. An in-
stitute at Cairo, formed on the model
of that at Paris, concentrated the la-
bours of the numerous scientific per-
sons who accompanied the army; the
geography, antiquities, hieroglyphics,
and natural history of Egypt, began to
be studied with an accuracy unknown
in modern times: the extremities and
line of the canal of Suez were explored
by Napoleon in person, with the most
extraordinary ardour; a flotilla was
formed on the Nile; printing-presses
were set agoing at Cairo; the cavalry
and artillery remounted with the ad-
mirable horses of Arabia, the troops
equipped in new clothing, manufac-
tured in the country; the fortifications
of Rosetta, Damietta, Alexandria, and
Salahieh, put in a respectable posture
of defence; while the skilful draughts-
men who accompanied the expedition,
prepared, amidst the wonders of Upper
Egypt, the magnificent work which,
under the auspices of Denon, has im-
mortalised the expedition.
70. The situation of the French
army was now in the highest degree
critical. Isolated from their country,
unable either to obtain succours from
home, or to regain it in case of dis-up with the enemy, consisting of four
aster, pressed and blockaded by the thousand Mamelukes and Arabs, and
fleets of England, in the midst of a six thousand Fellahs, stationed in the
71. As soon as the inundation of the
Nile had subsided, Desaix commenced
his march to Upper Egypt, to pursue
the broken remains of Mourad Bey's
corps. On the 7th October, he came
pt.
›
t
198
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
I
•
?
village of Sidiman. The French were 72. While Desaix was thus extend-
not more than two thousand three ing the French dominion towards the
hundred strong: they formed three cataracts of the Nile, a dangerous re-
squares, and received the charges of volt was extinguished in blood in the
the enemy as at the battle of the pyra- centre of Egypt. Notwithstanding all
mids, of which this action in all its the efforts of Napoleon to conciliate
parts was a repetition on a smaller the Mussulman population, the Beys
scale. The smallest square, however, still retained a considerable influence
was broken by the impetuous shock of over them, and the declaration of war
the Mamelukes; but the soldiers, with by the Porte revived the spirit of re-
admirable presence of mind, fell on ligious hostility, which he had been at
their faces, so that the loss was not so such pains to allay. In the end of
great as might have been expected.* October, the insurrection broke out, at
All the efforts of the cavalry failed a time when the French were so far
against the steady sides of the larger from suspecting their danger, that
squares; and at length, the Mamelukes they had very few troops within the
being broken and dispersed, the village town. Dupuis, the commander of the
was stormed with great slaughter, and city, who proceeded with a feeble escort
the soldiers returned to take a severe to quell the tumult, was slain, with
vengeance on a body of the enemy, several of his officers; a vast number
who during the assault had committed of insulated Frenchmen were murder-
great carnage on those wounded in the ed, and the house of General Caffarelli
broken square. This action was more was besieged and forced. The alarme
bloody than any which had yet oc- was immediately beat in the streets;
curred in Egypt; the French having several battalions in the neighbourhood
lost three hundred and forty men killed, entered the town; the citadel began to
and one hundred and sixty wounded; bombard the most populous quarters;
a great proportion, when every life was and the Turks, driven into the princi-
precious, and no means of replacing it pal mosques, prepared for a desperate
existed. It was decisive, however, of resistance. During the night they
the fate of Upper Egypt. Desaix con- barricaded their posts, and the Arabs
tinued steadily to advance, driving his advanced from the desert to support.
indefatigable opponents before him; their efforts; but it was all in vain.
the rose-covered fields of Fayoum, the The French commander drove back
Lake Moris, the City of the Dead, were the Bedouins into the inundation of
successively visited; another cloud of the Nile; the mosques were forced;
Mamelukes was dispersed by the roll- the buildings which sheltered the in-
ing fire of the French at Samanhout; surgents battered down or destroyed;
and at length the ruins of Luxor open- and, after the slaughter of above five
ed to their view, and the astonished thousand of the inhabitants, and the
soldiers gazed on the avenues of conflagration of a considerable part of
sphinxes, gigantic remains of temples, the city, Cairo submitted to the con-
obelisks, and sepulchral monuments, queror. This terrible disaster, with
which are destined to perpetuate to the cruel executions which followed
the end of the world the glories of the it, struck such a terror into the Maho-
city of Thebes.
metan population, that they never after
of the French authority.
made the smallest attempt to get quit
of the French authority.
73. Meanwhile Napoleon made an
expedition in person to Suez, in order
to inspect the line of the Roman canal,
which united the Mediterranean and
the Red Sea. At that place he visited
the harbour, gave orders for the con-
struction of new works, and the for-
mation of an infant marine; and
* On this, as on other occasions, the scien-
tific characters and draughtsmen who attend
ed the army, were huddled with the baggage
into the centre, as the only place of security,
the moment that the enemy appeared. No
sooner were the Mameluke horse descried,
than the word was given, Form square;
artillery to the angles; asses and savans to
the centre;" a command which afforded no
small merriment to the soldiers, and made
them call the asses demi-savans.-LAS CASES,
i. 225.
66
1798.]
199
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
**
64
passed the Red Sea, in a dry channel | sion, and that human efforts cannot pre-
when the tide was out, on the identi- vail against me. Thus did Napoleon
cal ground which had been traversed, expect that he was to gain the confi-
three thousand years before, by the dence of the Mussulmans, at the very
children of Israel Having refreshed time when he was executing thirty of
himself at the fountains which still their number a-day, and throwing their
bear the name of the Wells of Moses, corpses, in sacks, every night into the
at the foot of Mount Sinai, and visited Nile. Every night," said Napoleon,
a great reservoir, constructed by the in a letter to Reynier, "we cut off thirty
Venetians in the sixteenth century, he heads, and those of several chiefs: that
returned to repass to the African side. will teach them, I think, a good lesson."
It was dark when he reached the shore; The victims were put to death in prison,
and in crossing the sands, as the tide thrust into sacks, and thrown into the
was flowing, they wandered from the Nile. This continued six days after
right path, and were for some time tranquillity was restored. The execu-
exposed to the most imminent danger. tions were continued for long after, and
Already the water was up to their under circumstances that will admit of
middle, and still rapidly flowing, when neither extenuation nor apology.
the presence of mind of Napoleon ex-
tricated them from their perilous situ-
ation. He caused his escort to go in
different directions, and any one to
shout when he found the depth of
water increasing, and that he had lost
his footing; by this means it was dis-
covered in what quarter the slope of
the shore ascended, and the party at
length gained the coast of Egypt.
"Had I perished in that manner, like
Pharaoh," said Napoleon, "it would
have furnished all the preachers of
Christendom with a magnificent text
against me."
75. Being now excluded from all inter-
course with Europe, and menaced with
a serious attack by land and sea from
the Turks, Napoleon resolved to assail
his enemies by an expedition into Syria,
where the principal army of the Sultaun
was assembling. Prudence prescribed
that he should anticipate the enemy, and
not wait till, having assembled their
strength, an overwhelming force was
ready to fall upon the French army.
But it was not merely defensive opera-
tions that the general contemplated; his
ardent mind, now thrown upon its own
resources, and deprived of all assistance
from Europe, reindulged his visions of
oriental conquest. To advance into
Syria with a part of his troops, and rouse
the population of that country and Asia
Minor against the Turkish rule; assem-
ble an army of fifteen thousand French ve-
terans, and a hundred thousand Asiatic
auxiliaries on the Euphrates, and over-
awe at once Persia, Turkey, and India,
formed the splendid project which filled
74. The suppression of the revolt drew
from Napoleon one of those singular
proclamations which are so character-
istic of the vague ambition of his mind;
"Scheiks, Ulemas, Orators of the
Mosque, teach the people, that those
who become my enemies shall have no
refuge in this world or the next. Is
there any one so blind as not to see that
I am the Man of Destiny? Make the
people understand that from the begin-his imagination. His eyes were continu-
ning of time it was ordained, that, hav-ally fixed on the deserts which separ-
ing destroyed the enemies of Islamism, ated Asia Minor from Persia; he had
and vanquished the Cross, I should come sounded the dispositions of the Persian
from the distant parts of the West to court, and ascertained that, for a sum of
accomplish my destined task. Show money, they were willing to allow the
them, that in twenty passages of the passage of his army through their terri-
Koran my coming is foretold. I could tories; and he confidently expected to
demand a reckoning from each of you, renew the march of Alexander, from
of the most secret thoughts of his soul, the shores of the Nile to those of the
since to me everything is known; but Ganges. Having overrun India, and es-
the day will come when all shall know tablished a colossal reputation, he pro-
from whom I have derived my commis-jected returning to Europe, attacking

200
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
•
si.
Turkey and Austria with the whole forces | The sufferings of the troops, however,
of the East, and establishing an empire, were extreme in crossing the desert;
greater than that of the Romans, in the the excessive heat of the weather, and
centre of European civilisation. Full the want of water, produced the greatest
of these ideas, he wrote to Tippoo Saib, discontent among the soldiers, and Na-
that "he had arrived on the shores of poleon felt the necessity of bringing his
the Red Sea with an innumerable and in- men as rapidly as possible through that
vincible army, and inviting him to send perilous district. The garrison were
a confidential person to Suez, to concert conveyed as prisoners in the rear of the
measures for the destruction of the army, which augmented their difficulty
British power in Hindostan."
in obtaining subsistence. Damas was
76. The forces, however, which the abandoned by the Mussulman forces at
French general could command for the the sight of the French squares of in-
Syrian expedition, were by no means fantry; and at length the granite pillars
commensurate with these magnificent were passed which, from the remotest
projects. They consisted only of thirteen ages, have marked the confines of Asia
thousand men; for although the army and Africa; the hitherto clear and glow-
had been recruited by above three thou- ing sky was streaked by a veil of clouds,
sand prisoners, sent back with misplaced some drops of rain refreshed the parch-
and undeserved generosity by the Brit- ed lips of the soldiers, and ere long the
ish after the battle of the Nile, and al- suffering troops beheld the green val-
most all the sailors of the transports, leys and wood-covered hills of Syria.
yet such were the losses which had been The soldiers at first mistook them for
sustained since the period when they the mirage of the desert, which had so
landed, by fatigue, sickness, and the often disappointed their hopes; they
sword, that no larger number could be hardly ventured to trust their own eyes,
spared from the defence of Egypt. These, when they beheld woods and water,
with nine hundred cavalry. and forty-green meadows, and olive groves, and
nine pieces of cannon, constituted the all the features of European scenery.
whole force with which Napoleon ex- At length, however, the appearance of
pected to change the face of the world; verdant slopes and clear brooks con-
while the reserves left on the banks of vinced them, that they had passed from
the Nile did not exceed in all sixteen the sands of Africa to a land watered by
thousand men. The artillery designed the dews of heaven. But if the days
for the siege of Acre, the capital of the were more refreshing, the nights were
Pasha Djezzar, was put on board three far more uncomfortable than on the
frigates at Alexandria; and orders were banks of the Nile; the heavy moisture
despatched to Villeneuve at Malta to in the night, and the rains of Syria,
endeavour to escape the vigilance of the soon penetrated the thin clothing of the
English cruisers, and come to support troops, and rendered their situation ex-
the maritime operations.
tremely disagreeable; and, drenched
with rain, they soon came to regret, at
least for their night bivouacs, the dry
sands and star-bespangled firmament of
Egypt.
|
78. Jaffa, the Joppa of antiquity,
was the first considerable town of Pales-
tine which presented itself to the French
in the course of their march. It was
invested on the 4th of March, and the
bearer of a flag of truce, whom Napo-
leon sent to summon the town, be-
headed on the spot. The breach being
declared practicable, the assault took
place on the 6th, and success was for
some time doubtful; but the grena-
77. On the 11th February, the army
commenced its march over the desert
which separates Africa from Asia. The
track, otherwise imperceptible amidst
the shifting sand, was distinctly mark-
ed by inumerable skeletons of men and
animals, which had perished on that
solitary pathway, the line of communi-
cation between Asia and Africa, which
from the earliest times had been fre-
quented by the human race. 'Six days
afterwards, Napoleon reached El Arish,
where the camp of the Mamelukes was
surprised during the night, and after a
siege of two days the fort capitulated.
£
1799.]
201
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
diers of Bon's division at length dis- | of prisoners in the famished condition
covered, on the seaside, an opening left of the army. The unhappy wretches
unguarded, by which they entered; were made to sit down, with their hands
and in the confusion occasioned by this tied behind their backs, in front of the
unexpected success, the rampart was tents; despair was already painted on
carried, and the Turks driven from the their countenances. They uttered no
walls. A desperate carnage took place, cries, but seemed resigned to death, with
and the town was delivered over to the the patience which is in so peculiar a
horrors of war, which never appeared manner the characteristic of Asiatic
in a more frightful form.* During this habits and predestinarian belief. The
scene of slaughter a large part of the French gave them biscuit and water;
garrison, consisting chiefly of Albani- and a council of war was summoned
ans and Arnouts, had taken refuge in to deliberate on their fate.
some old caravanseries, where they 79. For two days the terrible ques-
called out from the windows that they tion was debated, what was to be done
would lay down their arms, provided with these captives; and the French
their lives were spared; but that if not, officers approached it without any pre-
they would defend themselves to the disposition to cruel measures. But the
last extremity. The officers, Eugene difficulties were represented as insur-
Beauharnais and Crosier, Napoleon's mountable on the side of humanity. If
own aides-de-camp, took upon them- they sent them back, it was said, to
selves to agree to the proposal, although Egypt, a considerable detachment would
the garrison had all been devoted by be required to guard so large a body of
him to destruction; and they brought captives, and that could ill be spared
them, disarmed in two bodies, the one from the army in its present situation:
consisting of two thousand five hun- if they gave them their liberty, they
dred men, the other of fifteen hundred, would forthwith join the garrison of
to the general's headquarters. Napo- Acre, or the clouds of Arabs, who al-
leon received them with a stern and re-ready hung on the flanks of the army;
lentless air, and expressed the greatest if they were incorporated unarmed in
indignation against his aides-de camp, the ranks, the prisoners would add
for encumbering him with such a body grievously to the number of mouths
Though resolved utterly to exterminate, if for whom, already, it was sufficiently
he could, the Pasha of Acre, Napoleon kept up difficult to procure subsistence. No
his usual system of endeavouring to persuade friendly sail appeared in the distance
him that he invaded his country with no hos- to take off the burden on the side of
tile intentions. On the 9th of March he wrote
the ocean; hardly adequate subsist-
ence for their own troops, without any
foreign addition, could be obtained;
the difficulty of maintaining them be-
came every day more insurmountable.
The committee to whom the matter
was referred unanimously reported that
they should be put to death, and Na-
poleon, with reluctance, signed the fatal
order. It was carried into execution
on the 10th March. The melancholy
troop were marched down, firmly fet-
tered, to the sand-hills on the sea-
*
to him from Jaffa, yet reeking with the blood
shed in this terrible assault:-"Since my entry
into Egypt, I have sent you several letters ex-
pressive of my wish not to be involved in hos-
tilities with you, and that my sole object was to
disperse the Mamelukes. The provinces of
Gaza and Jaffa are in my power; I have treated
with generosity those who surrendered at dis-
cretion-with severity those who violated the
laws of war. In a few days I shall march against
Acre; but what cause of hostility have I with
an old man whom I do not know? What are a
few leagues of territory to me? Since God gives
me
I to imitate his
not only towards the people, but their rulers.
You have no reason for being my enemy, since
you were the foe of the Mamelukes; become
again my friend; declare war against the Eng-coast,
hish and the Mamelukes; and I will do you as
much good as I have done, and can do, you
evil." The Pasha, however, paid no regard
to this communication, and continued, with-
where they were divided into
small squares, and mowed down, amidst
shrieks which yet ring in the souls of
all who witnessed the scene, by succes-
sive discharges of musketry. No separ-
ation of the Egyptians from the other
out interruption, his preparations for de-
fence.-Corresp. Confid. de Napoléon, vi. 232.
VOL. IV.
O
202
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
7
#-
prisoners took place; all met the same | effaceable blot on his memory; and so
tragic fate. In vain they appealed to the it is considered by the ablest and most
capitulation by which their lives had partial of his own military historians.
been guaranteed; bound as they stood The laws of war can never justify the
together, they were fired at for hours massacre of prisoners in cold blood,
successively, and such as survived the three days after the action has ceased;
shot were despatched with the bayonet. least of all, of those who had laid down
80. One young man, in an agony of their arms on the promise that their
terror, burst his bonds, threw himself lives should be spared. The plea of
among the horses of the French offi- expedience can never be admitted to
cers, and embracing their knees, pas- extenuate a deed of cruelty. If it were,
sionately implored that his life might it
be spared; he was sternly refused, and
bayoneted at their feet. But, with this
exception, all the other prisoners re-
ceived their fate with the fortitude
which is the peculiar characteristic of
the Mussulman faith; they calmly per-
formed their ablutions in the stagnant
pools among which they were placed,
and taking each other's hands, after
having placed them on their lips and
their hearts, in the Mussulman mode
of salutation, gave and received an
eternal adieu. One old chief, slightly
wounded, had strength enough left to
excavate with his own hands his grave,
where he was interred while yet alive
by his followers, themselves sinking
into the arms of death. After the mas-
sacre had lasted some time, the hor-
rors which surrounded them shook
the hearts of many, especially of the
younger part of the captives. Several
at length broke their bonds, and swam
to a ridge of coral rocks out of the reach
of shot; the troops made signs to them
of peace and forgiveness, and when
they came within a short distance, fired
at them in the sea, where they perish-
ed from the discharge or the waves.
The bones of the vast multitude still
remain in great heaps amidst the sand-
hills of the desert; the Arab turns
from the field of blood, and it remains
in solitary horror, a melancholy monu-
ment of Christian atrocity.
would vindicate the massacres in the
prisons of Paris, the carnage of St Bar-
tholomew, the burning of Joan of Arc,
or any of the other foul deeds with
which the page of history is stained.
Least of all should Napoleon recur to
such an argument, for it justifies at
once all the severities of which he so
loudly complained, when applied in a
much lighter degree to himself at St
Helena. If the peril arising from dis-
missing a few thousand obscure Albani-
ans justified their indiscriminate mas-
sacre, what is to be said against the
exile of him who had wrapt the world
in flames? Nothing was easier than
to have disarmed the captives and sent
them away; the Vendeans, in circum-
stances infinitely more perilous, had
given a noble instance of such human-
ity, when they shaved the heads of
eleven thousand of the Republican sol-
diers, who had been made prisoners,
and gave them their liberty. Even if
they had all taken refuge in Acre, it
would, so far from strengthening, have
weakened the defence of that fortress;
the deed of mercy would have opened
a wider breach than the Republican
batteries. In reality, the iniquitous act
was as short-sighted as it was atrocious;
and, sooner or later, such execrable
deeds, even in this world, work out
their own punishment. It was despair
which gave such resolution to the de-
fenders of the Turkish fortress. Napo-
leon has said, that Sir Sidney Smith
made him miss his destiny, and threw
+
81. It would be to little purpose
that the great drama of human events
were recorded in history, if the judg-him back from the Empire of the East
ment of posterity were not strongly to a solitary island in the Atlantic; in
pronounced on the conduct of the prin- truth, however, it was not alone the
cipal actors in the scene. Napoleon sword of his enemies, but also his own
lived for posthumous celebrity; in this cruelty, which rendered the battle-
instance he shall have his deserts. The ments of Acre invincible to his arms.
massacre of Jaffa is an eternal and in- If the fate of their comrades at Jaffa

1799.]
203
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
had not rendered its garrison desperate, | bably have proved unavailing, had it
not been for the desperation inspired
by the previous massacre at Jaffa, and
the courage and activity of an English
officer, Sir SIDNEY SMITH,‡ who at that
all the bravery of that gallant cheva-
lier might have been exerted in vain;
and, instead of perishing by a lingering
death on the rock of St Helena, the
mighty conqueror might have left to
his descendants the throne of Constan-
tinople.
82. After this hideous massacre, the
French army swept round the promon-
tory of Mount Carmel, and after defeat-
ing a large body of horse, under the
command of Abdallah Pasha, on the
mountains of Naplouse, appeared before
ACRE on the 16th March. The long
files of infantry, cavalry, and artillery,
winding along the shore, realised to
the amazed navigators of those solitary
shores all that the fancy of Tasso had
figured of the march of the Sultaun of
Egypt. This town, so celebrated for
its long siege, and the heroic exploits
of which it was the witness, in the
holy wars, is situated on a peninsula,
which enables the besieged to unite all
their means of defence on the isthmus
which connects it with the mainland.
A single wall, with curtains flanked by
square towers and a wet ditch, con-
stituted its sole means of defence; but
these, in the hands of Ottoman soldiers,
were not to be despised. The Pasha
of Syria, Kara Yussuf, with all his
treasures, arms, and artillery, had shut
himself up in that stronghold, deter-
mined to make the most desperate re-
sistance. But all his efforts would pro-
Napoleon, and all his eulogists, admit the
massacre, but assert that it was justifiable,
because the garrison was partly composed
of those who had been taken at El Arish.
This is now proved to be false. No part of
the garrison at El Arish was in Jaffa, but it
was conveyed in the rear of the French army.
-BOURRIENNE, ii. 216; and JOMINI, X. 403.
—O’MEARA, i. 329.
+ "The passengers to land-ward turn'd their
sight,
And there saw pitched many a stately tent;
Soldier and footman, captain, lord, and
knight,
Between the shore and city came and went:
Huge elephants, strong camels, coursers
light,
With horned hoofs the sandy waves out
rent:
And in the haven many a ship and boat
(With mighty anchors fasten'd) swim and
float
Tasso, Jerusalem Delivered, xv. IL
he was five years older than Napoleon. His
Sidney Smith was born in 1764, so that
father, Captain Smith, having designed him
for his own profession, the navy, entered him
in that service at the age of thirteen; and he
was already a lieutenant, at the age of six-
teen, on board the Alcida 74. He was made
commander in 1782; and, besides several
rious victory of Rodney on 12th April. After
lesser engagements, was engaged in the glo-
the peace of 1783 he was so wearied of the
monotony of pacific life, that he entered the
tinguished in the wars with Russia, that he
Swedish service, where he became so dis-
received from Gustavus the Grand Cross
of the order of the Sword, and was madė
a knight on his return by his own sove-
reign. His ardent spirit, however, could not
brook a pacific life; and after a short stay
at home, as all Christendom was at peace,
he entered the Turkish service, where he
acquired that intimate acquaintance with the
Ottoman character and mode of fighting,
which he turned to such good account in the
siege of Acre.
His heart, however, was still at home; and,
France and England, he purchased one of the
on the breaking out of hostilities between
small-rigged craft of the Archipelago, got to-
gether at Smyrna a motley crew of English
and foreign sailors, and with his vessel re-
fence of Toulon, and obtained the direction
paired to Lord Hood, then engaged in the de-
of the light craft intrusted with the destruc
tion of the French fleet in the harbour, which
but for the blunders of the Spanish officers
he achieved with splendid success, and which,
engaged with him in the enterprise, would
have been complete. This brilliant exploit
command of the Diamond frigate of 44 guns;
led to his being appointed, in 1794, to the
and, soon after, he so skilfully conducted a
duty with which he was intrusted, of recon-
noitering the Brest fleet under Villaret, which
was putting to sea, that he got close to their
squadron, and passed in the Diamond within
hail of one of their seventy-fours without be-
ing discovered. In May 1794 he aided Sir R.
Strachan in the destruction of a convoy of
transports; in July of the same year he made
a bold, though unsuccessful attempt, on two-
French ships and their convoy near La Hogue;
in the end of September he destroyed a cor-
vette on the same station; and in March 1796
achieved a most brilliant exploit, having with
his single frigate, a brig, and lugger, driven
ashore, under a battery, a French squadron
consisting of a corvette, four brigs, two sloops,
and a lugger, stormed the battery, and burnt
the enemy's whole vessels, with the exéep-
tion of the lugger, which fought bravely and
escaped.

These energetic actions rendered Sir Sidney
the terror of the French coast, and he soon
experienced the effects of that feeling, in the
:
204
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
*
period commanded the squadron in the
bay of Acre.
83. This celebrated man, who had
been wrecked on the coast of France,
and confined in the Temple, made his
escape a few days after Napoleon left
Paris to take the command of the Egyp-
tian expedition. After a variety of ad-
ventures, which would pass for fabu-
lous, if they had not occurred in real
life, he arrived in England, where his
enterprise and talents were immediate-
ly put in requisition for the command
of the squadron in the Archipelago.
Having received information from the
Pasha of Syria that Acre was to be at-
tacked, he hastened to the scene of dan-
ger, and arrived there just two days
before the appearance of the French
army, with the Tiger of eighty-four,
treatment which he experienced from his ene-
mies on a reverse of fortune. Being stationed
off Havre-de-Grace in April 1796, he captured
with his boats a large privateer; and the
taken vessel was, by the flowing tide, floated
into the mouth of the Seine above the forts.
In endeavouring to haul their prize out of
this dangerous situation, the British boats
were suddenly attacked by an immensely su-
perior force of the enemy, and Sir Sidney and
eighteen of his followers were made prison-
ers, the Diamond being unable, from the dead
calm, to render any assistance. He was im-
mediately brought to Paris by the French
government, who affected to treat him as a
spy, and sent him to the Abbaye, where he
was detained in close confinement with the
utmost severity. An attempt to effect his
escape by the aid of the wife of an emigrant,
who was one of his fellow-prisoners, failed in
consequence of the plan being discovered
when on the eve of accomplishment, and he
was confined with more rigour than ever.
He succeeded in getting off, however, by
means of fictitious orders which his friends
procured, purporting to order his transference
from the Abbaye to the Temple. The real
stamp of the seal of the minister of the inte-
rior had been obtained by means of a bribe;
and with such skill was the stratagem con-
ducted by the French officers who were privy
to it, that with them Sir Sidney succeeded in
getting clear off in company with M. Philip-
peaux, who afterwards accompanied him
Acre, and was the chief engineer in the de-
fence of that town against the assaults of Na-
poleon. After remaining some days in dis-
guise in Rouen, he succeeded in getting over
with Philippeaux to London in May 1798. His
escape from the far-famed prison of the Temple
was the subject of uncommon congratulation
in England, and he was immediately appoint-
ed to the command of the Tiger of 80 guns,
with which he was despatched to the coast of
Syria, to aid in repelling the attack upon that |
province which was immediately expected |
and Theseus of seventy-four guns, and
some smaller vessels. This precious in-
terval was actively employed by him in
strengthening the works, and making
preparations for the defence of the place.
On the following day, he was fortunate
enough to capture the whole flotilla
despatched from Alexandria with the
heavy artillery and stores for the siege
of the town, as it was creeping round
the headlands of Mount Carmel; and
the guns, forty-four in number, were
immediately mounted on the ramparts,
and contributed, in the most important
manner, to the defence of the place.
At the same time, Colonel Philippeaux,
a French officer of engineers, expatri-
ated from his country by the Revolu-
tion, exerted his talents in repairing and
arming the fortifications; and a large
from Napoleon. He took Philippeaux with
him, who was appointed the chief engineer
of Acre; and to the extraordinary skill and
undaunted courage of these two men, the de-
feat of Napoleon at Acre, and the destruction
of all his projects of Oriental conquest, is be-
yond all doubt mainly to be ascribed. Thus,
the fate of the world was bound up in the es-
cape of an English and French officer from
the dungeons of the Temple.
After his splendid achievements at Acre,
Sir Sidney Smith and some of his officers
made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and such
was the veneration in which he was held by
the Turks, that he was permitted to visit the
Holy City armed,-a privilege never before
granted to any save a Turk. He was subse-
quently engaged in the descent of the Turks,
which afterwards terminated in such disaster
at Aboukir. His effective naval co-operation
compelled Kleber to accede to the Conven-
tion of El Arish; and by the vigour of his
arm, he sustained the defence of Gaeta in
1806, when on the point of surrendering to
the French. He commanded the light squa-
dron in the same year which burned the
Turkish frigates in the Dardanelles at the
time of Sir John Duckworth's passage; and
by the extraordinary vigour of his counsel,
and activity of bis conduct, he succeeded in
extricating the Portuguese royal family from
the grasp of Junot and the French army,
when they approached Lisbon in 1808. Alto-
together, the life of this extraordinary man,
both by sea and by shore, with Christians
and with Mussulmans, in combating kings
and emperors, in turning aside Napoleon
from Asia, and fixing the first European
royal family in America, was so extraordi-
nary as would have passed for romance in
any other age of the world; and, if report
be true, he found that favour in the eyes of
ladies of high degree, which was the bright-
est reward of the knights of chivalry.—Life
of Sir S. Smith, and Naval Biography, 478,
493.

1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
205
す
​body of seamen and marines, headed
by Sir Sidney himself, were landed to
co-operate in the defence of the works.
It is not the least curious fact in that
age of wonders, that the engineer offi-
cer, whose talents so powerfully contri-
buted, at this crisis, to change the fate
of Napoleon, had been his companion
at the Military School at Brienne, and
passed his examinations with him, pre-
vious to their joining their respective
regiments.
sacred at Jaffa. A second assault, on
the 1st April, having met with no better
success, the troops were withdrawn into
the works, and the general-in-chief re-
solved to await the arrival of the heavy
artillery from Damietta. Meanwhile the
Ottomans were collecting all their forces
on the other side of the Jordan, to raise
the siege. Napoleon had concluded a
sort of alliance with the Druses-a bold
and hardy race of mountaineers, inha-
biting the heights of Lebanon, who only
awaited the capture of Acre to declare
openly for his cause, and throw off the
yoke of their Mussulman rulers. The
Turks, however, on their side, had not
84. The irreparable loss sustained by
the capture of the flotilla reduced the
battering cannon of the assailants to
four bombs, four twelve, and eight
eight-pounders. Notwithstanding, how-been idle. By vast exertions they had
ever, these slender means, such was the succeeded in rousing the Mahometan
activity and perseverance of the French population of all the surrounding pro-
engineers, that the works of the be- vinces; the remains of the Mamelukes
siegers advanced with great expedition; of Ibrahim Bey, the Janizaries of Aleppo
a sally of the garrison was vigorously and of Damascus, joined to an innumer-
repulsed on the 26th, and a mine having able horde of irregular cavalry, formed
been run under one of the principal a vast army, which had already pushed
towers which had been severely bat-its advanced posts beyond the Jordan,
tered, the explosion took place two and threatened soon to envelop the be-
days after, and a practicable breach was sieging force. The French troops occu-
effected. The grenadiers instantly ad-pied the mountains of Naplouse, Cana
vanced to the assault, and, running ra- in Galilee, and Nazareth-names for
pidly forward, arrived at the edge of the ever immortal in holy writ, at which
counterscarp. They were there arrested the devout ardour of the Crusaders
by a ditch, fifteen feet deep, which was burned with generous enthusiasm, but
only half filled up with the ruins of the which were now visited by the descend-
wall. Their ardour, however, speedily ants of a Christian people without either
overcame this obstacle; they descended interest in, or knowledge of, the inesti-
into the fosse, and, mounting the breach, mable benefits which were there con-
effected a lodgment in the tower; but ferred upon mankind.
the impediment of the counterscarp
having prevented them from being ade-
quately supported, the Turks returned
to the charge, and, after a desperate
struggle, succeeded in expelling them
from that part of the ramparts, and
driving them, with great slaughter, back
into their trenches.*
85. This repulse convinced the French
that they had to deal with very different
foes from those whom they had mas-
* A striking instance of the attachment of
the soldiers to Napoleon appeared on this
occasion. In the trenches, a bomb, with the
fusee burning, fell at his feet; two grena-
diers instantly seized him in their arms, and,
covering him with their bodies, carried him
out of danger. They got him into safety be-
fore the explosion took place, and no one was
injured.-LAS CASES, i. 235.
86. Napoleon now saw that he had
not a moment to lose in marching to
attack the cloud of enemies which were
collecting in his rear, and preventing
a general concentration of the hostile
forces by sea and land against the camp
before Acre. For this purpose he or-
dered Kleber, with his division, to join
Junot; Murat, with a thousand infantry
and two squadrons of horse, were sta-
tioned at the bridge of Jacob, and he
himself set out from the camp before
Acre with the division of General Bon,
the cavalry, and eight pieces of cannon.
Their arrival was not premature; for
the advanced posts of the enemy had al-
ready crossed the Jordan, at the bridge
of Jacob, and were pressing in vast
multitudes towards the mountain-ridge
206
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
which separates the valley of that river
from the maritime coast. Kleber, on
his march from the camp at Acre to
join Junot, encountered a body of four
thousand horse on the heights of Loubi;
but they were defeated and driven be-
yond the Jordan by the same rolling
fire which had so often proved fatal to
the Mamelukes in Egypt. On the day
following, a grand sortie, headed by
English officers, and supported by some
marines from the fleet, took place from
Acre, and obtained at first considerable
advantages; but the arrival of reinforce-
ments from the camp at length obliged
the assailants to retire into the town.
}
and Guides, pressed still further round
their rear in the direction of Nain. A
twelve-pounder, fired from the heights,
announced to the wearied band of he-
roes the joyful intelligence that succour
was at hand; the columns all advanced
rapidly to the attack, while Kleber, re-
suming the offensive, extended his ranks,
and charged with the bayonet the mass
who had so long oppressed him.
87. Kleber had left Nazareth with all
his forces, in order to make an attack on
the Turkish camp; but he was antici-
pated by the enemy, who advanced to
meet him with fifteen thousand cavalry
and as many infantry, as far as the vil-
lage of Fouli. Kleber instantly drew
up his little army in squares, with the
artillery at the angles; and the forma-
tion was hardly completed when the
immense mass came thundering down,
threatening to trample their handful
of enemies under their horses' hoofs.
The steady aim and rolling fire of the
French veterans brought down the fore-
most of the assailants, and soon formed
a rampart of dead bodies of men and
horses; behind which they bravely
maintained the unequal combat for six
hours, until at length Napoleon, with
the cavalry and fresh divisions, arrived
on the heights which overlooked the
field of battle, and, amidst the multi-
tudes with which it was covered, dis-
tinguished his men by the regular and
incessant volleys which issued from
their ranks, forming steady flaming
spots amidst the moving throng with
which they were surrounded. He in-
stantly took his resolution. General
Letourcq was despatched, with the cav-
alry and two pieces of light artillery,
against the Mamelukes who were in re-
serve at the foot of the mountains of
Naplouse; while the division of Bon,
divided into two squares under Ram-
pon and Vial, advanced to the attack
of the flank and rear of the multitude 89. The French cruisers having at
who were surrounding Kleber's divi- length succeeded in debarking three
sion; and Napoleon, with the cannon | twenty-four and six eighteen-pounders
88. The immense superiority of Eu-
ropean discipline and tactics was then
apparent. The Turks, attacked in so
many quarters at once, and exposed to
a concentric fire from all the squares,
were unable to make any resistance;
no measures, either to arrest the enemy
or secure a retreat, were taken; and
the motley throng, mowed down by the
discharges of grape-shot, fled in confu-
sion behind Mount Thabor, and, finding
the bridge of Jacob seized by Murat,
rushed in desperation, in the night,
through the Jordan, where great num-
bers were drowned. General Junot
had commanded one of these squares
which heroically resisted the Ottomans
His valour and steadiness attracted the
especial notice of Napoleon, who had
the names of the three hundred men of
which it was composed engraved on a
splendid shield, which he presented to
that officer, to be preserved among the
archives of his family. This great vic-
tory, gained by six thousand veterans
over a brave but undisciplined mass of
thirty thousand Oriental militia, com-
pletely secured the flank and rear of
Napoleon's army. The defeat had been
complete; the Turkish camp, with all
their baggage and ammunition, fell into
the hands of the conquerors; the army
which the people of the country called
"innumerable as the sands of the sea
or the stars of heaven," had dispersed,
never again to reassemble. Kleber
occupied in force the bridge of Jacob,
the forts of Saffet and Tabarieh; and,
having stationed patrols along the banks
of the Jordan, fixed his headquarters at
the village of Nazareth, while Napoleon
returned with the remainder of the
army to the siege of Acre.
$
HISTORY OF EUROPE
1799.]
at Jaffa, they were forthwith brought
up to the trenches, and a heavy fire
opened upon the tower, which had been
the object of such vehement contests.
Mines were run under the walls, and
all the resources of art exhausted to
effect the reduction of the place, but in
vain. The defence under Philippeaux |
was not less determined nor less skilful
than the attack; he erected some exter-
nal works in the fosse, to take the gre-
nadiers in flank as they advanced to
the assault; the mines of the besiegers
were countermined, and constant sor-
ties made to retard their approaches.
In the course of these desperate con-
tests, Caffarelli, who commanded the
engineers of the assailants, was slain,
and Philippeaux, who directed the oper-
ations of the besieged, died of fatigue.
The vigour and resolution of the garri-
son increased with every hour the siege
continued. Napoleon, by a desperate
effort, for a time succeeded in effecting
a lodgment in the ruined tower; but
his men were soon driven out with im-
mense loss, and the Turks regained pos-
session of all their fortifications. The
trenches had been open and the breach
practicable for nearly two months, but
no sensible progress was as yet made
in the reduction of the place.
90. At length, on the evening of the
7th May, a few sails were seen from
the towers of Acre, on the furthest
verge of the horizon. All eyes were
instantly turned in that direction, and
the besiegers and besieged equally flat-
tered themselves that succour was at
hand. The English cruisers in the bay
hastily, and in doubt, stood out to re-
connoitre this unknown fleet; but the
hearts of the French sank within them
when they beheld the two squadrons
unite, and, the Ottoman crescent joined
to the English pendant, approach the
roads of Acre. Soon after a fleet of
thirty sail entered the bay, with seven
thousand men, and abundance of artil-
lery and ammunition from Rhodes.
Napoleon, calculating that this rein-
forcement could not be disembarked
for at least six hours, resolved to anti-
cipate its arrival by an assault during
the night. Accordingly, the division
of Bon, at ten at night, drove the
*
Dengan kes
207
enemy from their exterior works. The
artillery took advantage of that circum-
stance to approach to the counterscarp,
and batter the curtain. At daybreak,
another breach in the rampart was de-
clared practicable, and an assault or-
dered. The division of Lannes renewed
the attack on the tower, while General
Rambaud led the column to the new
breach. The grenadiers, advancing
with the most heroic intrepidity, made
their way to the summit of the ram-
part, and the morning sun displayed
the tricolor flag on the outer angle of
the tower. The fire of the place was
now sensibly slackened, while the be-
siegers, redoubling their boldness, were
seen intrenching themselves, with sand-
bags and dead bodies, in the lodgments
they had formed, the points of their
bayonets only appearing above the
bloody parapet. The troops in the
roads were embarked in the boats, and
were pulling as hard as they could
across the bay; but several hours must
elapse before they could arrive at the
menaced point.
91. In this extremity, Sir Sidney
Smith landed the crews of the ships,
and led them, armed with pikes, to the
breach. The sight reanimated the
courage of the besieged, who were be-
ginning to quail under the prospect of
instant death, and they mounted the
long-disputed tower, amidst loud shouts
from the brave men who still defended
its ruins. Immediately a furious con-
test ensued; the besieged hurled down
large stones on the assailants, who fired
at them within half pistol-shot; the
muzzles of the muskets touched each
other, and the spear-heads of the stan-
dards were locked together. At length
the desperate daring of the French
yielded to the unconquerable firmness
of the British and the heroic valour of
the Mussulmans; the grenadiers were
driven from the tower, and a body of
Turks, issuing from the gates, attacked
them in flank while they crossed the
ditch, and drove them back with great
loss to the trenches. But while this
success was gained in one quarter, ruin
was impending in another. The divi-
sion headed by Rambaud succeeded in
reaching the summit of the rampart;
-
1
.
Н
**
i
·
208
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
}
:
C
tained the very garden of the Pasha's
seraglio. Everything seemed lost; but
at the critical moment Sir Sidney Smith,
at the head of a regiment of Janizaries,
disciplined in the European method,
rushed to the spot. The progress of
the assailants was stopped by a tremen-
dous fire from the house-tops and the
barricades which surrounded the serag-
lio; and at length the French, who had
penetrated so far, were cut off from the
breach by which they had entered, and
driven into a neighbouring mosque,
where they owed their lives to the hu-
mane intercession of Sir Sidney Smith.
In this bloody affair the loss of lives was
very great on both sides: Rambaud was
killed, and Lannes severely wounded.
and, leaping down into the tower, at- | permitted to ascend unmolested to the
summit, and descend into the garden
of the Pasha; but no sooner had they
reached that point, than they were
assailed with irresistible fury by a
body of Janizaries, who, with the sabre
in one hand, and the dagger in the other,
speedily reduced the whole column to
headless trunks. In vain other columns,
and even the Guides of Napoleon, his
last reserve, advanced to the attack;
they were all repulsed with dreadful
loss. Among the killed in this last en-
counter was General Bon, and among
the wounded, Crosier, aide-de-camp of
the general-in-chief, and a large propor-
tion of his staff. On this occasion, as
in the assault on Roudschouk by the
Russians, in 1808, it was proved that,
in a personal struggle, the bayonet of
the European is no match for the Turk-
ish scimitar. Success being now hape-
less, preparations were made for a re-
treat, after sixty days of open trenches;
a proclamation was issued to the troops,
announcing that their return was re-
quired to withstand a descent which was
threatened from the island of Rhodes;
and the fire from the trenches was kept
up with such vigour to the last mo-
ment, that the Turks were not aware of
the intentions of the besiegers. Mean-
while, the baggage, sick, and field-artil-
lery were silently defiling to the rear,
the heavy cannon were buried in the
sand, and on the 20th May, Napoleon,
for the first time in his life, ordered a
retreat.
92. Notwithstanding this disaster,
Napoleon was not yet sufficiently sub-
dued by misfortune to order a retreat.
The fate of the East," said he, "is in
yonder fort; the fall of Acre is the ob-
ject of my expedition; Damascus will
be its first fruit." Although the troops
in the fleet were now landed, and the
force in the place greatly increased, he
resolved to make a last effort with the
division of Kleber, which had been re-
called in haste from its advanced post
on the Jordan. Early on the 10th May,
he advanced in person to the foot of the
breach, and, seeing that it was greatly
enlarged by the fire of the preceding
days, a new assault was ordered. The
summit of the ruined wall was again
attained; but the troops were there
arrested by the murderous fire which
issued from the barricades and intrench-
ments, with which the garrison had
strengthened the interior of the tower.
In the evening the division of Kleber
arrived, and, proud of its triumph at
Mount Thabor, eagerly demanded to be
led to the assault. "If St Jean d'Acre
is not taken this evening," said one of
the colonels, as he was marching at the
head of his regiment to the assault,
"be assured Venoux is slain." He kept
his word: the fortress held out; but
he lay at the foot of the walls.
93. A little before sunset, a dark
massy column issued from the trenches,
and advanced with a firm and solemn
step to the breach. The assailants were
94. No event, down to the retreat
from Moscow, so deeply affected Napo-
leon as the repulse at Acre. It had
cost him three thousand of his bravest
troops, slain or dead of their wounds;
a still greater number were irrecover-
ably mutilated, or had in them the
seeds of the plague, contracted during
the stay at Jaffa. Worse than all, the
illusion of his invincibility was dispel-
led. But these disasters, great as they
were to an army situated as his was,
were not the real cause of his chagrin.
It was the overthrow of his dreams of
Oriental conquest which cut him to
the heart. Standing on the mount
which still bears the name of Richard
Coeur-de-Lion, on the evening of the
f
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
209
fatal assault when Lannes was wounded, Indies; I would have changed the face
of the world." Splendid as his situa-
tion afterwards became, he never ceased
to regret the throne which he relin-
quished when he retired from Acre, and
repeatedly said of Sir Sidney Smith,
"That man made me miss my des-
tiny."
he said to his secretary Bourrienne
(c Yes, Bourrienne, that miserable fort
has indeed cost me dear; but matters
have gone too far not to make a last
effort. If I succeed, as I trust I shall,
I shall find in the town all the treasures
of the Pasha, and arms for three hun-
dred thousand men. I shall raise and
arm all Syria, which at this moment
unanimously prays for the success of
the assault. I will march on Damascus
and Aleppo; I shall swell my army as
I advance with the discontented in
every country through which I pass;
I will announce to the people the break-
ing of their chains, and the abolition of
the tyranny of the Pashas. Do you
not see that the Druses wait only for
the fall of Acre to declare themselves?
Have I not been already offered the
keys of Damascus? I have only linger-
ed under these walls because at present
I could derive no advantage from that
great town. Acre taken, I will secure
Egypt; on the side of Egypt cut off all
succour from the Beys, and proclaim
Desaix general-in-chief in that country.
I will arrive at Constantinople with
armed masses; overturn the empire of
the Turks, and establish a new one in
the East, which will fix my place with
posterity and perhaps I may return
to Paris by Adrianople and Vienna,
after having annihilated the House of
Austria."
96. Napoleon, who had been hitherto
accustomed to an uninterrupted career
of victory, achieved frequently with in-
considerable means, did not evince in
this siege the patience requisite for
success; he began it with too slender
resources, and wasted the lives of his
brave soldiers in assaults which, against
Turkish and British troops, were little
better than hopeless. Kleber, whose
disposition was entirely different, and
who shared in none of the ardour which
led him to overlook or undervalue
these obstacles, from the beginning
predicted that the siege would fail, and
loudly expressed, during its progress,
his disapprobation of the slovenly, in-
sufficient manner in which the works
of the siege were advanced, and the
dreadful butchery to which the soldiers
were exposed in so many hopeless as-
saults. Though grievously mortified
by this failure, the French general
evinced no small dexterity in the art
with which, in his proclamation to his
troops, he veiled his defeat :-"Sol-
diers! You have traversed the desert
which separates Asia and Africa with
the rapidity of the Arab horse. The
army which was advancing to invade
Egypt is destroyed; you have made
prisoner its general, its baggage, its
camels; you have captured all the
forts which guard the wells of the
desert; you have dispersed on the field
of Mount Thabor the innumerable host
which assembled from all parts of Asia
to share in the pillage of Egypt.
Finally, after having, with a handful
of men, maintained the war for three
months in the heart of Syria, taken
forty pieces of cannon, fifty standards,
and six thousand prisoners, razed the
fortifications of Gaza, Jaffa, Caffa, and
Acre, we are about to re-enter Egypt;
the season of debarkation demands it.
Yet a few days, and you would have
taken the Pasha in the midst of his
95. Boundless as these anticipations
were, they were not the result merely
of the enthusiasm of the moment, but
were deliberately repeated by Napoleon,
after the lapse of twenty years, on the
rock of St Helena, "St Jean d'Acre
once taken," said he, "the French army
would have flown to Aleppo and Da-
mascus; in the twinkling of an eye it
would have been on the Euphrates; the
Christians of Syria, the Druses, the
Christians of Armenia, would have join-
ed it; the whole population of the East
would have been agitated." Some one
said, he would soon have been rein-
forced by a hundred thousand men;
"Say rather six hundred thousand,"
replied Napoleon; "who can calculate
what would have happened? I would
have reached Constantinople and the
:.
ܝܦ

210
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
J
i
palace; but at this moment such a
prize is not worth a few days' combat;
the brave men who would have perish-
ed in it are essential for further opera-
tions. Soldiers! we have dangers and
fatigues to encounter; after having dis-
abled the forces of the East, for the
remainder of the campaign we shall
perhaps have to repel the attacks of a
part of the West."
98. At Jaffa he himself visited the
plague hospital, inviting those who had
sufficient strength to rise to raise them-
selves on their beds, and endeavour to
get into the litters prepared for their
use. He walked through the rooms,
affected a careless air, striking his boot
with his riding-whip, in order to re-
move the apprehensions which had
seized all the soldiers in regard to
the contagious nature of the malady.
Those who could not be removed were
poisoned by orders of the general;
their numbers did not exceed four
hundred; and, as the Turks were with-
in an hour's march of the place, their
recovery hopeless, and a cruel death
awaiting them at the hands of those
barbarians the moment they arrived,
the painful act may perhaps be justi-
fied, not only on the ground of neces-
sity but of humanity.* Napoleon did
not expressly admit the fact at St
Helena; but he reasoned in such a
manner as plainly implied that it was
true. He argued, and argued justly,
that, in the circumstances in which he
was placed, it could not be considered
as a crime. "What man," said he,
"would not have preferred immediate
death to the horror of being exposed
to lingering tortures on the part of
these barbarians? If my own son,
whom I love as well as any man can
love his child, were in such a situation,
my advice would be, that he should be
treated in the same manner; and if I
were so myself, I would implore that
the same should be done to me."
While history, however, must acquit
Napoleon of criminality in this matter,
the more especially as the Turks mur-
dered all the prisoners and sick who
fell into their hands, notwithstanding
the utmost efforts of the British offi-
cers, it must record with admiration
the answer of the chief of the medical
97. The army occupied two days in
the retreat to Jaffa, and remained there
destroying the fortifications for three
more. The field-artillery was embark-
ed, in order to avoid the painful pas-
sage over the desert, but it all fell into
the hands of Sir Sidney Smith, who
followed the movements of the army,
and harassed them incessantly with
the light vessels of his squadron. All
the horrors of war were accumulated
on the troops and the inhabitants of
the unhappy villages which lay on the
line of the retreat. A devouring thirst,
total want of water, a fatiguing march
through burning sands, reduced the
soldiers to despair, and shook the firm
ness even of the bravest officers. The
seeds of the plague were in the army,
and, independently of the number who
were actually the victims of that dread-
ful malady, the sick and wounded suf-
fered from the unbounded apprehen-
sions of all who approached them. The
dying, lain down by the side of the
road, exclaimed with a faltering voice,
"I am not sick of the plague, but only
wounded;" and to prove the truth of
what they said, tore their bandages
asunder, and let their wounds bleed
afresh. The heavens were darkened
during the day by the smoke which
rose from the burning villages; the
march of the columns at night was il-
luminated by the flames which followed
their steps. On their right was the
sea, on their left and rear the wilder-
ness they had made; before them the
desert with all its horrors. In the
general suffering, Napoleon set the
example of disinterested self-denial;
abandoning his horse, and those of all
his equipage, for the use of the sick,
he marched himself at the head of the
troops on foot, inspiring all around him
with cheerfulness and resolution.
* Sir Robert Wilson states the number of
those poisoned at 580; Miot says merely,
and general rumour, which is often the organ
"If we are to trust the reports of the army
of tardy truth, which power seeks in vain to
suppress, some of the wounded at Mount
Carmel, and a large part of the sick in the hos
pital of Jaffa, died of what was administered
to them in the form of medicine.”—WILSON,
176; MIOT, 206.
1799.]
'211
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
#
""
staff when the proposal for the poison- | of the army; and if you would stand
ing was made by Napoleon to him, well with your comrades, you must
"My vocation is to prolong life, and never need their assistance, and remain
not to extinguish it.
in good health." Facts of a similar
description were very conspicuous dur-
ing the Russian retreat, and in the
Spanish war.
100. Though Egypt in general pre-
served its tranquillity during the ab-
sence of Napoleon, disturbances of a
threatening character had taken place
in the Delta. A chief in Lower Egypt,
who had contrived to assemble together
a number of Mamelukes and discon-
tented characters, gave himself out for
the angel El-Mody, and put to the
sword the garrison of Damanhour; and
it was not till two different divisions
had been sent against him, that the
insurrection was suppressed, and its
leader killed. Meanwhile Desaix, pur-
suing with indefatigable activity his
gallant opponent, had followed the
course of the Nile as far as Sleim, the
extreme limit in that direction of the
Roman empire, where he learned that
Mourad Bey had ascended beyond the
cataracts, and retired altogether into
Nubia. A bloody skirmish afterwards
took place near Thebes, between a body
of French cavalry and a party of Mame-
lukes; and Mahommed-Elfi, one of the
most enterprising of their officers, sus-
tained so severe a defeat at Souhama,
on the banks of the Nile, that out of
twelve hundred horse, only a hundred
and fifty escaped into the Great Oasis
in the desert. This success was counter-
balanced by the destruction of the flo-
tilla on the Nile, containing the wound-
ed and ammunition of Desaix's divi-
sion, and which, when on the point of
being taken by the Arabs, was blown
up by the officer commanding it. At
length Davoust gave a final blow to
the incursions of the Arabs by the
defeat of a large body at Benyhady,
when above two thousand men were
slain. After this disaster, Upper
Egypt was thoroughly subdued, and
the French division took up its can-
tonments in the villages which formed
the southern limits of the Roman em-
pire. Such was the wisdom and equity
of Desaix's administration in those dis-
tant provinces, that it procured for
99. The army reached El-Arish on
the 1st of June, and, after a painful
march over the desert, in the course of
which numbers of the sick and wound-
ed perished from heat and suffering,
at length exchanged the privations and
thirst of the wilderness for the riches
and comforts of Egypt. During this
march the thermometer in the shade
rose to 33° of Reaumur, and when the
globe of mercury was plunged in the
sand, it stood at 45°, corresponding to
109° and 133° of Fahrenheit. The
water to be met with in the desert was
so salt, that numbers of horses expired
shortly after drinking it; and, notwith-
standing their repeated experiences of
the illusion, such was the deceitful
appearance of the mirage which con-
stantly presented itself, that the men
frequently rushed toward the glassy
streams and lakes, which vanished on
their approach into air. It is a curious
fact, illustrative of the inconceivable
effect of such seasons of horror on the
human mind, that while the soldiers
who were ill of the plague expressed
the utmost horror at being left behind,
and rose with difficulty from the bed
of death to stagger a few steps after
their departing comrades, their fate
excited little or no commiseration in
the more fortunate soldiers who had
escaped the pestilence. "Who would
not have supposed," says Miot, "that
in such an extremity, the comrades of
the unhappy sufferers would have done
all they could to succour or relieve
them? So far from it, they were the
objects only of horror and derision.
The soldiers avoided the sick as they
did the pestilence with which they
were afflicted, and burst into immoder-
ate fits of laughter at the convulsive
efforts which they made to rise. 'He
has made up his accounts,' said one;
'He will not get on far,' said another;
and when the poor wretch fell for the
last time, they exclaimed, 'His lodging
is secured.' The terrible truth must
be told: in such a crisis, indifference
and egotism are the ruling sentiments
•
212
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
-
C
:
!
Kinë menyatuan, and man
him the appellation of "the Just Sul-as rendered the concession the object
taun.” *
of dread to every honourable mind.
101. Napoleon, ever anxious to con- Berthier himself, consumed by a ro-
ceal his reverses, made a sort of tri-mantic passion for a lady at Paris,
umphal entry upon his return into twice solicited and obtained his dis-
Cairo, and published a deceitful pro- missal, and twice relinquished the pro-
clamation, in which he boasted of hav-ject, from a sense of honourable shame
ing conquered in all his engagements, at abandoning his benefactor. With
and ruined the fortifications of the Kleber, the general-in-chief had seve-
Pasha of Acre. In truth, though he ral warm altercations; and to such a
had failed in the principal object of his height did the dissatisfaction arise,
expedition, he had effectually prevent that the whole army, soldiers and offi-
ed an invasion from the side of Syria cers, for a time entertained the design
by the terror which his arms had in- of marching from Cairo to Alexandria,
spired, and the desolation which he to await the first opportunity of return-
had occasioned on the frontiers of the ing home-a project which the great
desert; and he had abundant reason personal ascendancy of Napoleon alone
to pride himself upon the vast achieve- prevented them from carrying into
ments of the inconsiderable body of effect.+
men whom he led to these hazardous
exploits. Notwithstanding these ad-
vantages, however, the discontents of
the army increased to the highest de-
gree after the disastrous issue of the
Syrian expedition. They did not arise
from apprehensions of danger, but the
desire to return home, which torment-
ed their minds the further that their re-
turn seemed removed from the bounds
of probability. Every day some gene-
rals or officers demanded, under various
pretexts, leave of absence to return to
Europe, which was always granted,
though with such cutting expressions
* Perhaps the private correspondence of
few conquerors would bear the light; but
unhappily the confidential letters and orders
of Napoleon at this period bear evidence of
great and unnecessary cruelty. On the 28th
June 1799, he wrote to General Dugua:-
“You will cause to be shot, citizen-general,
Joseph, a native of Cherkene, near the Black
Sea, and Selim, a native of Constantinople,
both prisoners in the citadel.” On the 12th
July: "You will cause to be shot Hassan,
Jousset Ibrahim, Saleh, Mahomet Bekir, Hadj
Saleh, Mustapha Mahomet, all Mamelukes."
And on 13th July: "You will cause to be shot
Lachin and Emir Mahomet, Mamelukes.'
What crimes these persons had been guilty of
towards the French army does not appear; but
from the circumstance of their execution being
intrusted to the French officers, and not to the
civil authorities of the country, there seems
no reason to believe that they had done any-
thing further than taken a share in the effort
to liberate their country from the yoke of the
French; an attempt which, however much it
might authorise measures of hostility in the
field, could never justify executions in prison,
without trial, in cold blood.-Corresp. Confid.
de Nap. vi. 374, 392, 394.
""
102. Influenced by an ardent desire
to visit the indestructible monuments
of ancient grandeur at Thebes, Napo-
leon was on the point of setting out
for Upper Egypt, when a courier from
Marmont, governor of Alexandria, an-
nounced the disembarkation of a large
body of Turks in Aboukir Bay. They
had appeared there on the 10th July,
and landed, under the protection of
the British navy, on the following day.
This intelligence was received by Na-
† It deserves notice, as an indication of
the total disregard of Napoleon and the
French army for the Christian religion, that
all his proclamations and addresses to the
powers or people of Egypt, or the East, at
this period, set out with the words:-"In
the name of the merciful God; there is but
one God, and Mahomet is his prophet."-
Letters to Sultaun Darfour, 30th June 1799,
and 17th July 1799; to the Scherif of Mecca,
30th June 1799; Proclamation to the people of
Egypt, 17th July 1799; and to the Sultans of
Morocco and Tripoli, 16th August 1799.-
Corresp. Confid. de Nap. vi. 377, 391, 402, 436.
"After all," said he, at St Helena, "it is by
no means impossible but that circumstances
might have induced me to embrace Islam-
ism; but I would not have done so till I
came to the Euphrates. Henry IV. said,
truly, Paris is worth a mass. Do
Do you think
the empire of the East, possibly the subjuga-
tion of all Asia, was not worth a turban and
trousers: for, after all, the matter comes to
that? The army would undoubtedly have
joined in it, and would only have made a
joke of its conversion. Consider the conse-
quences; I would have taken Europe in rear;
its old institutions would have been beset on
all sides; and who, after that, would have
thought of interrupting the destinies of
France, or the regeneration of the age?"-
LAS CASES, iii. 91.
1799.]
213
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
poleon on the evening of the 15th at | sion of it gave them a secure place of
Cairo; he sat up all night dictating retreat in case of disaster. It was the
orders for the direction of all the divi- more necessary for Napoleon to get quit
sions of his army, and on the 16th, at of this army, as there was reason to ex-
four in the morning, he was on horse- pect that a new host of invaders would
back, and all his troops in full march. ere long make their appearance on the
On the 23d he arrived at Alexandria side of Syria.
with the divisions of Murat, Lannes,
and Bon, where he joined the garrison
under Marmont, which had not ven-
tured to leave its intrenchments in pre-
sence of such formidable enemies. The
division of Desaix was at the same time
ordered to fall back from Upper Egypt
to Cairo; so that, if necessary, the whole
French force might be brought to the
menaced point. Mourad Bey, in con-
cert with the Turks at Aboukir, de-
scended from Upper Egypt with three
thousand horse, intending to cut his
way across to the forces which had
landed at Aboukir; but he was met and
encountered near the lake Natron by
Murat, at the head of a body of cavalry,
and after a severe action obliged to re-
trace his steps, and take refuge in the
desert.
103. The army which landed at Abou-
kir, nine thousand strong, consisting of
the forces which had arrived at the
close of the siege of Acre from Rhodes,
and had been transported thence to the
mouth of the Nile by Sir Sidney Smith's
squadron, though almost destitute of
cavalry, was much more formidable
than any which the French troops had
yet encountered in the East. It was
composed, not of the miserable Fellahs
who constituted the sole infantry of the
Mamelukes, but of intrepid Janizaries,
admirably equipped, and well disci-
plined, accustomed to discharge their
firelock and throw themselves on the
enemy with a sabre in one hand and a
pistol in the other. The artillery of
those troops was numerous and well
served; they were supported by the
British squadron; and they had re-
cently made themselves masters of the
fort of Aboukir, after putting its garri-
son of three hundred men to the sword.
This fort was situated at the neck of
an isthmus of sand, on which the Turk-
ish forces were disembarked: the pen-
insula there is not above four hundred
toises in breadth; so that the posses-
104. Napoleon arrived within sight of
the peninsula of Aboukir on the 25th
July, and, though his force did not ex-
ceed eight thousand men, including Kle-
ber's division, which had just arrived and
was in reserve, he no sooner saw the dis-
positions of the enemy, than he resolved
to make an immediate attack. The
Turks occupied the peninsula, and had
covered the approach to it with two
lines of intrenchments. The first, which
ran across the neck of land, abouta mile
in front of the village of Aboukir, from
the lake Maadieh to the sea, extended
between two mounds of sand, each of
which was strongly occupied and cov-
ered with artillery, and was supported
in the centre by a village, which was
garrisoned by two thousand men. The
second, a mile in the rear, was strength-
ened in the centre by a redoubt, con-
structed by the French, and termi-
nated at one extremity in the sea, at
the other in the lake. Behind the two
lines was placed the camp. In rear of
all was the fort or castle of Aboukir.
The first line was guarded by four thou-
sand men, the second by five thousand,
and supported by twelve pieces of can-
non, besides those mounted on the fort.
So strongly was the mind of Napoleon
already impressed by the great desti-
nies to which he conceived himself
called, that when he arrived in sight of
these intrenchments, he said to Murat
This battle will decide the fate of
the world."-" At least of this army,"
replied the other; "but you should feel
confidence from the circumstance, that
all the soldiers feel they must now con-
quer or die. The enemy have no ca-
valry-ours is brave; and be assured, if
ever infantry were charged to the teeth
by cavalry, the Turks shall be to-mor-
row by mine.'
""
105. The dispositions of the general
were speedily made. Lannes, with two
thousand men, attacked the left of the
first line; d'Estaing, with the like force,
W
¡
F
214
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
2
the right; while Murat, whose cavalry | sion, were to enter at the open space,
was arranged in three divisions, was des- between the trenches and the lake, and
tined at once to pierce the centre and take the line in rear. At three o'clock
turn both wings, so as to cut off all the charge was beat, and the troops
communication with the reserve in the advanced to the attack. D'Estaing led
second intrenchment. These measures his men gallantly forward, arranged in
were ere long crowned with success. The echelons of battalions; but the Turks,
Turks maintained their ground on the transported by their ardour, advanced
height on the left, till they saw it turned out of their intrenchments to meet
by Murat's cavalry; but the moment them, and a bloody conflict took place
that was done, they fled in confusion in the plain. In vain the Janizaries,
to the second line, and, being charged after discharging their fusils and pistols,
in their flight by the French horse, rushed to the attack with their formi-
rushed tumultuously into the water, dable sabres in the air; their desperate
where almost the whole were either valour at length yielded to the steady
drowned or cut down by grape-shot. pressure of the European bayonet, and
The same thing occurred at the other they were borne back, contesting every
extremity of the line. D'Estaing at- inch of ground to the foot of the in-
tacked the height on the right, while trenchments. Here, however, the plung-
the other division of Murat's cavalry ing fire of the redoubt, and the sus-
turned it. The Turks broke at the first tained discharge of musketry from the
onset, and were driven by Murat into top of the works, arrested the French
the sea.
Lannes and d'Estaing, now soldiers: Letourcq was killed, Fugières
united, attacked the village in the cen- wounded, and the column, in disorder,
tre. The Janizaries defended them- recoiled from the field of carnage to-
selves bravely, calculating on being sup-wards the exterior line. Nor was Murat
ported from the second line; but the more successful on his side. Lannes in-
column detached for that purpose from deed forced the intrenchments towards
the fort of Aboukir having been charged the extremity of the lake, and occupied
in the interval between the two lines, some of the houses in the village; but
and routed by Murat, the village was when the cavalry attempted to pass the
at length carried with the bayonet, and narrow defile between the works and
its defenders, who refused all quarter, the lake, they were assailed by such a
put to the sword, or drowned in the terrible fire from the gun-boats, that
water.
they were repeatedly forced to retire.
The attack had failed at both extremi-
ties, and Napoleon was doubtful whether
he should continue the combat, or rest
contented with the advantage already
gained.
106. The extraordinary success of this
first attack inspired Napoleon with the
hope that, by repeating the same man-
œuvre with the second, the whole re-
mainder of the army might be destroyed.
For this purpose, after allowing a few
hours' repose to the troops, and estab-
lishing a battery to protect their opera-
tions, he commenced a new attack upon
the interior and more formidable line of
defence. On the right a trench joined the
fort of Aboukir to the sea; but on the
left it was not carried quite so far, leaving
a small open space between the intrench-
ment and the lake Maadieh. Napo- | advantage, and quickly turned it to the
leon's dispositions were made accord-best account. Advancing rapidly with
ingly. On his left d'Estaing was to at- his reserves in admirable order, he ar-
tack the intrenchment, while the prin- rested the sortie of the centre, while
cipal effort was directed against the Lannes returned to the attack of the
enemy's left, where the whole cavalry, intrenchments, now in a great measure
marching under cover of Lannes' divi- denuded of their defenders, and d'Es-
107. From this perplexity he was re-
lieved by the imprudent conduct of the
Turks themselves. No sooner did they
see the column which had assailed their
right retire, than they rushed out of
the redoubt of Aboukir, in the centre,
and began to cut off the heads of the
dead bodies which lay scattered over
the plain. Napoleon instantly saw his
1799.]
215
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
effort on the lines to the right. All
these attacks proved successful; the
whole line of redoubts, now almost des-
titute of troops, was captured, while
several squadrons, in the confusion, pe-
netrated through the narrow opening
on the margin of the lake, and got into
the rear of the second line. The Turks
upon this fled in confusion towards
the fort of Aboukir; but the cavalry of
Murat, which now inundated the space
between the second line and the fort,
charged them so furiously in flank, that
they were thrown into the sea, and al-
most all perished in the waves. Murat
penetrated into the camp of Mustapha
Pasha, where, with his own hand, he
made that commander prisoner, and
shut up the remnant of the army,
amounting to about two thousand men,
in the fort of Aboukir. Heavy cannon
were immediately planted against the
fort, which surrendered a few days after.
Five thousand corpses floated in the
Bay of Aboukir; two thousand had per-
ished in the battle, and the like num-
ber were made prisoners of war in the
fort. Hardly any escaped; a circum-
stance almost unexampled in modern
warfare.
taing re-formed his troops for another | ing the utmost secresy as to his intended
departure, proceeded to Cairo, where he
drew up long and minute instructions
for Kleber, to whom the command of
the army was intrusted, and immedi-
ately returned to Alexandria. On the
22d August he secretly set out from
that town, accompanied by Berthier,
Lannes, Murat, Marmont, Andréossy,
Berthollet, Monge, and Bourrienne, and
escorted only by a few of his faithful
Guides. The party embarked on a soli-
tary part of the beach, on board a few
fishing-boats, which conveyed them out
to the frigates which lay at a little dis-
tance from the shore. The joy which
animated all these persons when they
were told that they were to return to
France, can hardly be conceived. De-
sirous to avoid a personal altercation
with Kleber, whose rude and fearless
demeanour led him to apprehend some
painful sally of passion on receiving the
intelligence, Napoleon communicated
to him his resolution by letter, which
he was aware could not reach Cairo till
several days after his departure. Kle-
ber afterwards expressed the highest
indignation at that circumstance, and
in a long and impassioned report to the
Directory, charged Napoleon with leav
ing the army in such a state of destitu-
tion, that the defence of the country for
any length of time was impossible.
109. It was almost dark when the
boats reached the frigates, and the dis-
tant lights of Alexandria were faintly
descried by the glimmering of the stars
on the verge of the horizon. How dif-
ferent from the pomp and circumstance
of war which attended his arrival on the
same shore,--in the midst of a splendid
fleet, surrounded by a powerful army,
with the visions of hope glittering be-
fore his eyes, and dreams of Oriental
conquest captivating his imagination!
Napoleon directed that the ships should
steer along the coast of Africa, in order
that, if escape from the English cruisers
became impossible, he might land on
the deserts of Libya, and force his way
to Tunis, Oran, or some other port, de-
claring that he would run any danger
rather than return to Egypt. For three-
and-twenty days they beat against ad-
ready for sea; and Napoleon, preserv-verse winds along the coast of Africa;
108. The day after this extraordi-
nary battle, Napoleon returned to Alex-
andria. He had ample subject for me-
ditation. Sir Sidney Smith, having des-
patched a flag of truce on shore to settle
an exchange of prisoners, sent some files
of English newspapers, which made him
acquainted with the disasters experi-
enced by the Directory in Europe, the
conquest of Italy, the reverses in the
Alps, the retreat at Zurich. At the same
time he learned the capture of Corfu by
the Russians and Turks, and the close
blockade which promised soon to de-
liver over Malta to the enemy. His re-
solution was instantly taken. He de-
termined to return alone, braving the
English fleets, to Europe. All prospects
of great success in Egypt were at an
end, and he now only wished to regain
the scene of his early triumphs and pri-
mitive ambition in France. Orders were
immediately given that two frigates, the
Muiron and the Carrère, should be made
T
216
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
..
$
and at length, after passing the site of with their glasses, that they were of Ve-
Carthage, a favourable wind from the netian construction, Venice being then
south-east enabled them to stretch across at peace with Great Britain, they did
to the western side of Sardinia, still not give chase. The night was spent in
keeping near the shore, in order to run the utmost anxiety, during which Na-
aground, if necessary, to avoid the ap- poleon resolved, if escape otherwise was
proach of an enemy. The sombre dis- impossible, to throw himself into a boat,
quietude of this voyage afforded the and trust for safety to his oars; but the
most striking contrast to the brilliant morning sun dispelled these apprehen-
anticipations of the former. His fa- sions, by disclosing the British fleet
vourite aides-de-camp were all killed; steering peaceably towards the north-
Caffarelli, Bruéys, Casa-Bianca, were no east. All sail was now spread for France.
more; the illusions of hope were dis- At length, on the 8th October, the long-
pelled, the visions of imagination ex- wished-for mountains of Provence ap-
tinguished; no more scientific conversa-peared; and the frigates shortly after
tions enlivened the weary hours of na- anchored in the Bay of Frejus. The
vigation, no more historical recollec impatience and enthusiasm of the in-
tions gilded the headlands which they habitants, when they heard of his ar-
passed. One only apprehension occu- rival, knew no bounds; the sea was
pied every mind, the dread of falling in covered with boats eager to get a glimpse
with British cruisers; an object of ra- of the Conqueror of the East; the qua-
tional disquietude to every one on board, rantine laws were, by common consent,
but of mortal anxiety to Napoleon, from disregarded; and Napoleon landed in a
the overthrow which it would insure of few hours, and set off the same day for
the fresh ambitious projects which al- Paris.
ready occupied his mind.
|
111. The expedition to Egypt demon-
110. Contrary winds obliged the ves- strates one fact of more importance to
sel which conveyed him to put into mankind than the transitory conquests
Ajaccio in Corsica, where he revisited, of civilised nations over each other. It
for the first time since his prodigious can no longer be doubted, from the con-
elevation, the house of his fathers and stant triumphs of a small body of Euro-
the scenes of his infancy. He there pean troops over the whole forces of the
learned the result of the battle of Novi East, that the invention of firearms and
and the death of Joubert. This only in- artillery, the improvement of discipline,
creased the feverish anxiety of his mind; and the establishment of regular sol-
and he began to contemplate with hor-diers as a separate profession, have given
ror the ennui of the quarantine at Tou- the European a decided superiority over
lon, where he proposed to land. His the other nations of the world. The suc-
project at times was to make for Italy, cesses, under circumstances still more
take the command of the Italian army, marvellous, of small bodies of British
and gain a victory, the intelligence of troops against the vast forces of Asia in
which he hoped would reach Paris as Hindostan and the Punjaub, illustrate
soon as that of his victory at Aboukir. the same truth. Europe, in the words of
At length, after a sojourn of eight days Gibbon, may now contemplate without
at the place of his nativity, he set sail apprehension an irruption of the Tartar
with a fair wind. On the following even-horse; barbarous nations, to overcome
ing, an English fleet of fourteen sail was civilised, must cease to be barbarous.
descried in the midst of the rays of the The progress of this superiority since
setting sun. Admiral Gantheaume pro- the era of the Crusades is extremely re-
posed to return to Corsica; but Napo-markable. On the same ground where
leon replied "No! Spread every sail; the whole feudal array of France, under
every man to his post; steer for the St Louis, perished by the arrows of the
north west." This order proved the Egyptians, the Mameluke cavalry was
salvation of the ships; the English saw dispersed by half the Italian army of
the frigates, and made signals to them; the Republic; and ten thousand vete-
but concluding, from the view they got rans could with ease have wrested that
بھیجے
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1799.]
Holy Land from the hordes of Asia,
which Saladin successfully defended
against the united forces of France and
England under Richard Coeur-de-Lion.
Civilisation, therefore, has given Europe
a decided superiority over barbaric val-
if it is a second time overwhelmed
by savage violence, it will not be be-
cause the means of resistance are want-
ing, but because the courage to wield
them has decayed.
our;
112. It is a curious speculation, what
would have been the fate of Asia and
the world if Napoleon had not been ar-
rested at Acre by Sir Sidney Smith, and
had accomplished his project of arming
the Christian population of Syria and
Asia Minor against the Mussulman
power. When it is recollected that, in
the parts of the Ottoman empire where
the Turkish population is most abun-
dant, the number of Christians is in
general equal to, sometimes double, and
even triple, that of their oppressors, there
can be little doubt that, headed by that
great general, and disciplined by the
French veterans, a force could have been
formed which would have subverted the
tottering fabric of the Turkish power,
and possibly secured for its rulera name
as terrible as that of Genghis Khan or
Tamerlane. "With the French infantry
and the Mameluke horse," said Napo-
leon, "I would conquer the world." But
there seems no reason to believe that
such a sudden apparition, how splendid
soever, would have permanently altered
217
the destines of mankind, or that the
oriental empire of Napoleon would have
been more lasting than that of Alex-
ander or Nadir Shah. With the life of
the hero who had formed it, with the
energy of the veterans who had cement-
ed it, the vast dominion would have
perished. The Crusades, though sup-
ported for above a century by the in-
cessant tide of European enthusiasm,
were unable to form a lasting establish→
ment in Asia. It is in a different re-
gion, from the arms of another power,
that we are to look for the permanent
subjugation of the Asiatic powers, and
the final establishment of the Christian
religion in the regions where it first
arose. The north is the quarter from
whence all the great settlements of man-
kind have come, and by its inhabitants
all the lasting conquests of history have
been effected. Napoleon indirectly
paved the way for a permanent revolu-
tion in the East; but it was destined
to be accomplished, not by the capture
of Acre, but by the conflagration of
Moscow. The recoil of his ambition to
Europe, which the defeat in Syria oc-
casioned, still further increased by mu-
tual slaughter the warlike skill of the
European states; and from the strife of
civilisation at last has arisen that gigan-
tic power which now overshadows the
Asiatic empires, and is pouring down
upon the corrupted regions of the East
the energy of northern valour and the
blessings of Christian civilisation.
CHAPTER XXVII.
CAMPAIGN OF 1799.—FROM THE RENEWAL OF THE WAR, TO THE
BATTLE OF THE TREBBIA.
1. THE cannon of Nelson, which de-
stroyed the French fleet at Aboukir,
re-echoed from one end of Europe to
the other, and everywhere revived the
spirit of resistance to the ambition of
only destroyed the charm of her invin-
cibility, but relieved the Allies from
the dread arising from the military
talents of Napoleon and his terrible
Italian army, whom it seemed perma-
the Republic. That great event notnently to sever from Europe. The sub-
VOL. IV.
P
T
218
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVII.
!
L
ESPANAMA
jugation of Switzerland and the con-
quest of Italy were no longer looked
upon with mere secret apprehension;
they became the subject of loud and
impassioned complaint over all Eu-
rope and the Allied sovereigns, upon
this auspicious event, determined to
engage in open preparations for the re-
sumption of hostilities.
2. Austria felt that the moment was
approaching when she might regain
her lost provinces, restore her fallen
influence, and oppose a barrier to the
revolutionary torrent which was over-
whelming Italy. She had accordingly
been indefatigable in her exertions to
recruit and remodel her armies since
the treaty of Leoben; and they were
now, both in point of discipline, num-
bers, and equipment, on the most for-
midable footing. She had two hun-
dred and forty thousand men, support-
ed by an immense artillery, ready to
take the field, all admirably equipped
and in the finest order; and to these
were to be added fifty thousand Rus-
sians, who were advancing under the
renowned Suwarroff, flushed with the
storming of Ismael and Warsaw, and
anxious to measure their strength with
the conquerors of southern Europe.
The Emperor of Russia, though he had
been somewhat tardy in following out
the designs of his illustrious predeces-
sor, had at length engaged warmly in
the common cause; the outrage com-
mitted on the Order of Malta, which
had chosen him for their protector,
filled him with indignation; and he
seemed desirous not only to send his
armies to the support of the Germanic
states, but to guarantee the integrity
of their Confederation. Turkey had
forgotten its ancient enmity to Russia,
in animosity against France for the un-
provoked attack upon Egypt; and its
fleets and armies threatened to enclose
the conqueror of the pyramids in the
kingdom he had won. Thus, while the
ambition of the Directory in Switzer-
land and Italy roused againt them the
hostility of the centre of Europe, their
impolitic and perilous expedition to the
shores of Africa arrayed against France
the fury of Mussulman zeal and the
weight of Russian power.
Mчou
3. On the 29th December 1798, a
treaty of alliance, offensive and de-
fensive, was concluded between Great
Britain and Russia, for the purpose of
putting a stop to the further encroach-
ments of France. By this treaty, Rus-
sia engaged to furnish an auxiliary
force of forty-five thousand men, to act
in conjunction with the British forces
in the north of Germany; and Eng-
land, besides an immediate advance of
£225,000, was to pay a monthly sub-
sidy of £75,000. The Emperor Paul
immediately entered, with all the ve-
hemence of his character, into the pro-
secution of the war. He gave an asylum
to Louis XVIII., in the capital of Cour-
land, behaved with munificence to the
French emigrants who sought refuge
in his dominions; accepted the office
of Grand Master of the Knights of St
John of Malta, and excited by every
means in his power the spirit of resist-
ance to the advances of republican am-
bition. All his efforts, however, failed
in inducing the Prussian cabinet to
swerve from the cautious policy it had
adopted ever since the retreat of the
Duke of Brunswick, and the neutrality
it had observed since the treaty of Bâle.
That power stood by in apparent in-
difference, while a desperate strife was
raging between the hostile powers, in
which her own independence was at
stake, when her army, now two hun-
dred thousand strong, might have in-
terfered with decisive effect in the
struggle; and she was rewarded for
her forbearance by the battle of Jena.
4. Great Britain made considerable
exertions to improve the brilliant pro-
spects thus unexpectedly opened to her.
Parliament met on the 20th November
1798, and shortly after entered on the
arduous work of financial arrangement.
To meet the increased expenses which
the treaty with Russia, and the vigor-
ous prosecution of the war in other
countries, were likely to occasion, Mr
Pitt proposed a new tax, hitherto un-
known in this island-that on incomes.
No income under £60 a-year was to
pay any duty at all; those from £100
to £105 only a fortieth part, and above
£200 a tenth. The total income of the
nation was estimated at £102,000,000,
1799.]
219
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
including £20,000,000 as the rent of
lands; and the estimated produce of
the tax, on this graduated scale, was
£7,500,000. This tax proceeded on the
principle of raising by taxation as large
a portion as possible of the supplies of
the year within its limits, and com-
pelling all persons to contribute, ac-
cording to their ability, to the exigen-
cies of the state-an admirable prin-
ciple, if it could have been fully carried
into effect, and one which, if practi-
cable and uniformly acted upon, would
have prevented all the financial em-
barrassments consequent on the war.
But this was very far indeed from being
the case.
The expenses incurred so
far exceeded the income, even in that
very year, that a supplementary budget
was brought forward on June 6, 1799,
which very much augmented the an-
nual charges. Between the two bud-
gets, loans were contracted to the
amount of £15,000,000; and the total
expenditure including £13,653,000
for the army, £8,840,000 for the navy,
and a subsidy of £825,000 to Russia-
amounted, exclusive of the charges of
the debt, to no less than £31,000,000.
man, whose present income is not worth
five years' purchase; the young annui-
tant, whose chance of life is as twenty,
and the aged spinster, in whom it is
not two, are all assessed at the same
annual rate. The tax, in consequence,
falls with excessive and undue severity
upon one class, and with unreasonable
lightness upon others; it extinguishes
the infant accumulations of capital,
and puts an end to the savings of labori-
ous industry; while it is comparatively
unfelt by the great capitalists and the
opulent landed proprietors. Unlike the
indirect taxes, which are paid without
being felt, or forgotten in the enjoy-
ments of the objects on which they are
laid, it brings the bitterness of taxation,
in undisguised nakedness, home to every
individual, and produces, in conse-
quence, a degree of discontent and ex-
asperation which nothing but the ex-
citement of continual warfare, or a sense
of uncontrollable necessity, can induce
a nation possessing but the shadow of
real freedom to bear for any consider-
able time.
6. A considerable addition was made
to the army this year. The land forces
5. The principle of making the sup- were raised to 138,000 men;
the sea
plies of the year as nearly as possible to 120,000, including 20,000 marines;
keep pace with its expenditure, is the and 104 ships of the line were put in
true system of public as well as private commission. Besides this, 80,000 men
finance; which has suffered, in every were embodied in the militia of Great
country, from nothing so much as the Britain, and 40,000 in Ireland-an ad-
convenient but ruinous plan of borrow-mirable force, which soon attained a
ing for immediate exigencies, and lay- very high degree of discipline and effi-
ing the permanent burden of interest ciency; proved, through the whole re-
upon the shoulders of posterity. But mainder of the war, the best nursery
a greater error in finance never was for the troops of the line; and was in-
committed than the introduction of the ferior only in the quality and composi-
income-tax, without any graduation but tion of its officers to the regular army.
that arising from amount of revenue to
correct its manifold inequalities. In
appearance the most equal, such a tax
is in reality the most unequal of bur-
dens; because it assesses at the same
rate many classes whose resources are
widely different. The landed proprie-internally the utmost discontent and
tor, whose estate is worth thirty years' dissatisfaction existed. The Republi-
purchase of the rental at which it is can armies, which in the outset roused
assessed; the fundholder, whose stock division among the inhabitants of so
is worth twenty or twenty-five of the many states by the delusive promises
same annual rate; the merchant, whose of liberty and equality, had excited
profits one year may be swallowed up universal hatred by the exactions which
by losses the next; the professional they had made, and the stern tyranny
7. The forces with which France was
to resist this formidable confederacy
were by no means commensurate either
with the ambition of the Directory, or
the vast extent of territory which they
had to defend. Both externally and
220
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:.
:
to which they had everywhereṣubjected | prudent nor practicable to attempt en-
their new allies. Their most devoted forcing their return. Forty thousand
adherents no longer attempted to palli- of the best troops were exiled under
ate their conduct. From the frontier Napoleon on a distant shore; and
of the Jura to the extremity of Calabria, though the addition of two hundred
one universal cry had arisen against the thousand conscripts had been ordered,
selfish cupidity of the Directory, and the levy proceeded but slowly, and some
the insatiable rapacity of its civil and months must yet elapse before they
military officers. The Swiss democrats, could be in a condition to take the
who had called in the French to revo- field. The result of the whole was,
lutionise their country, made the loudest that for the actual shock of war, from
lamentations at the unrelenting severity the Adige to the Maine, the Directory
with which the great contributions, to could only count on one hundred and
which they were so little accustomed, seventy thousand men; the remainder
had been exacted from the hard-earned of their great forces being buried in the
fruits of their industry. The Cisalpine Italian peninsula, or too far removed
republic was a prey to the most vehe- from the theatre of hostilities to be able
ment divisions; furious Jacobinism to take an active part in the approach-
reigned in its legislative assemblies; ing contest. The administration of the
the authorities imposed on them by the armies was on the most corrupt foot-
French bayonets were in the highest ing; the officers had become rapacious
degree unpopular; while in Holland, and insolent in the command of the
the whole respectable class of citizens conquered countries; and the civil
felt the utmost dissatisfaction at the agents either lived at free quarters on
violent changes made, both in their the inhabitants, or plundered without
government and representative body, control the public money and stores
by their imperious allies. From the which passed through their hands.
affiliated republics, therefore, no effi- Revolutionary energy had exhausted
cient support could be expected; while itself; regular and steady government
the French government, nevertheless, was unknown; and the evils of a dis-
was charged with the burden of their ordered rule, an unrestrained demo-
defence. From the Texel to Calabria, cracy, and an abandoned administra-
their forces were expanded over an im- tion, were beginning to recoil on those
mense surface, in great, but still insuffi- who had produced them.
cient numbers; while the recent occu-
pation of Switzerland had opened up a
new theatre of warfare hitherto untrod
by the Republican soldiers.
9. The disposition of the Republican
armies was as follows:-Of one hun-
dred and ten thousand men who were
stationed in Italy, thirty thousand un-
der Macdonald were lost in the Neapo-
litan dominions, and the remainder so
dispersed over the extensive provinces
of Lombardy, Tuscany, and the Roman
states, that only fifty thousand could
be collected to bear the weight of the
contest on the Adige. Forty-two thou-
sand, under General Jourdan, were
destined to carry the war from the
Upper Rhine, across the Black Forest,
into the valley of the Danube. Massena,
at the head of forty-five thousand, was
stationed in Switzerland, and intended
to dislodge the Imperialists from the
Tyrol and the upper valley of the Adige.
Thirty thousand, under Bernadotte,
were destined to form a corps of obser-
vation on the Lower Rhine from Düs-
8. During the two years which had
elapsed since the termination of hostil-
ities, the military force of France had
signally declined. The fervour which
had filled, the ardent spirit which had
sustained, the armies of the Republic
in the first years of hostilities, were no
more. To them had succeeded the lan-
guor and depression which, in nations
not less than individuals, invariably
succeeds a vehement burst of passion.
Sickness and desertion had greatly di-
minished the ranks of the army; twelve
thousand discharges had been granted
to the soldiers, but more than ten times
that number had left their colours, and
lived without disguise at their homes,
in such numbers as rendered it neither
1799.1
221
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
seldorf to Mannheim; while Brune, at ❘ that of the plains, and that the key to
the head of fifteen thousand French, the Austrian monarchy was to be found
and twenty thousand Dutch troops, in the Tyrolese Alps-a great error,
was intrusted with the defence of the and one which has been since abun-
Batavian Republic. The design of the dantly refuted by the campaigns of Na-
Directory was to turn the position of poleon, and the reasoning of the Arch-
the Imperialists on the Adige by get- duke Charles. The true road to Vienna
ting possession of the mountains which is the valley of the Danube; it is there
enclosed the upper part of the stream, that a serious blow struck is at once
and then to drive the enemy before decisive, and that the gates of the mo-
them, with the united armies of Switz-narchy are laid open by a single great
erland and Italy, across the mountains defeat on the frontier. It was not in
of Carinthia; while that of the Upper the valley of the Inn, nor in the moun-
Rhine, descending the course of the tains of the Grisons, but on the heights
Danube, was to unite with them under of Ulm and in the plains of Bavaria,
the walls of Vienna.
that Napoleon prostrated the strength
of Austria in 1805 and 1809 ; and of all
the numerous defeats which that power
experienced, none was felt to be irre-
trievable but that of Hohenlinden, on
the banks of the Iser, in 1800. There
is no analogy between the descent of
streams from the higher to the lower
grounds, and the invasion of civilised
armies from mountains to the adjacent
plains. Military strength ascends from
plains and great rivers to the summits
of the adjacent ridges; it does not de-
scend like water from the mountains to
the level fields at their feet. In tactics,
or the art of handling troops on a field
of battle, the case is different; the pos-
session of the heights which command
the plain is often of decisive import-
ance; but the principle of strategy, or
the directions of armies in a campaign,
is in general just the reverse. A ridge of
glaciers is an admirable fountain for the
perennial supply of rivers, but the worst
possible base for military operations.
12. By the invasion of Switzerland,
the French government had greatly
weakened, instead of having strength-
ened, their military position. Nothing
was so advantageous to them as the
neutrality of that republic, because it
covered the only defenceless frontier of
the state, and gave them the means of
carrying on the campaigns in Germany
and Italy, for which the fortresses on
the Rhine and in Piedmont afforded
an admirable base, without the fear of
being taken in rear by a reverse in the
mountains. But all these advantages
were lost when the contest was con-
ducted in the higher Alps, and the line
|
10. The forces of the Austrians were
both superior in point of number, bet-
ter equipped, and stationed in more
advantageous situations. Their armies
were collected behind the Lech, in the
Tyrol, and on the Adige. The first,
under the command of the Archduke
Charles, consisted of fifty-four thou-
sand infantry and twenty-four thou-
sand cavalry; in the Grisons and Tyrol,
forty-four thousand infantry and two
thousand five hundred horse were
assembled under the banners of Belle-
garde and Laudon; twenty-four thou-
sand foot-soldiers and one thousand
four hundred horse, under the com-
mand of Hotze, occupied the Voral-
berg; while the army on the Adige,
seventy-two thousand strong, includ-
ing eleven thousand cavalry, obeyed
the orders of Kray; and twenty-four
thousand on the Maine, or in garrison
at Würtzburg, observed the French
forces on the Lower Rhine. Thus two
hundred and forty-six thousand men
were concentrated between the Maine
and the Po, their centre resting on the
mountains of the Tyrol-a vast fortress
which had often afforded a sure refuge
in case of disaster to the Imperial troops,
and whose inhabitants were warmly
attached to the house of Austria. Above
fifty thousand Russians were expected;
but they could not arrive in time to
engage in operations either on the
Danube or the Adige at the commence-
ment of the campaign.
11. These dispositions on both sides
were made on the principle that the
possession of the mountains insures
List
J
?
2
7
r
222
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
of the Rhine or the Adige was liable to | Austrian cabinet having returned no
answer to the peremptory note, in
which the Directory required the send-
ing back of the Russian troops, Jour-
dan received orders to cross the Rhine,
which was immediately done at Kehĺ
and Huningen, and the Republicans ad-
vanced in four columns towards the
Black Forest. A few days after, Ber-
nadotte, with ten thousand men, took
possession of Mannheim, and advanced
against Philippsburg, which refused to
capitulate, notwithstanding an angry
summons from the Republican general.
Upon receiving intelligence of these
movements, the Archduke passed the
Lech, and advanced in three columns
towards Biberach, Waldsee, and Ra-
vensberg, at the head of thirty-seven
thousand infantry, and fifteen thousand
cavalry; while Starray, with thirteen
thousand men, was moved upon Neu-
marckt, and six thousand men were
thrown into the fortifications of Ulm.
be turned by a single reverse on the
Aar or the St Gothard. The surface
over which military operations were
carried, was by this conquest immense-
ly extended, without any proportionate
addition either to the means of offen-
sive or defensive warfare. The Tyrol
was a great central fortress, in which
the Imperialists had often found shelter
in moments of disaster, but no such
advantage could be hoped for by the
Republicans from their possession of
the hostile or discontented cantons of
Switzerland; while
while no avenue to the
heart of Austria was so difficult as that
which lay through the midst of the
brave and indomitable inhabitants of
the former almost inaccessible province.
Nor had the invasion of the Roman
and Neapolitan states, and the banish-
ment of Napoleon to the sands of Egypt,
contributed less to weaken the formid-
able power with which, two years be-
fore, he had shattered the Austrian
monarchy. Now was seen the sagacity
with which he had chosen the line of
the Adige for tenacious defence, and
the wisdom of the declaration, that if
he had listened to the suggestions of the
Directory, and advanced to Rome, he
would have endangered the Republic.
Though the forces in the Peninsula
were above one hundred and ten thou-
sand, and were soon increased by the
arrival of conscripts to one hundred
and thirty thousand men, the Repub-
licans were never able to meet the Im-
perialists in equal force on the Adige;
and Italy was lost, and the retreat of
the army from Naples all but cut off,
while yet an overwhelming force, if it
could only have been assembled at the
decisive point, existed in the peninsula.
13. Notwithstanding the deficient
state of their military preparations, and
the urgent representations of all their
generals, that the actual force under
their command was greatly inferior to
the amount which the Directory had
led them to expect, the French govern-
ment, led away by ill-founded audacity,
and eager to replenish the now ex-
hausted coffers of the Republic by the
plunder of the adjoining states, re-
solved to commence hostilities. The
14. While the hostile armies were
thus approaching each other, in the
space between the Rhine and the Da-
nube, the contest had commenced, on
the most extended scale, in the moun-
tains of the Grisons.* During the night
of the 5th March, Massena marched
upon Sargantz, and having summoned
the Austrian general, Auffenberg, to
evacuate the district, his troops ad-
vanced at all points to cross the Rhine.
The left wing, under OUDINOT,† after-
|

war in this memorable campaign in Switzer-
* See the descriptions of the theatre of
land and the Grisons in Chap XXXVIII. at the
commencement.
of Reggio, was born at Bar-sur-Ornain, on
+ Charles Nicolas Oudinot, afterwards Duke
the 25th April 1767. He was originally in-
tended for commerce; but hardly had he
cible attraction drew him into the profession
attained his sixteenth year, when an invin-
of arms. He entered, in 1781, into the regi-
ment of Médoc; but, at the earnest entreaties
of his old father, quitted it in 1787, and re-
turned to his paternal home, where he re-
mained till 1789. During the tumults of
July in that year, which were so general in
the kingdom, he distinguished himself by
lecting a band of volunteers, he checked the
and intrepidity with which, col-
depredations of a band of rioters who had
begun to plunder Bar-sur-Ornain. In 1792,
when the war with Austria broke out, he
art, elected by his comrades chief of the
was, from his acquaintance with the military
third battalion of the Volunteers of the
1799.]
223
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
J
wards Duke of Reggio, "a general," | chasseurs, who scaled an almost inac-
said Napoleon afterwards, "tried in a cessible height which commanded it,
hundred battles," was destined to make and eight hundred men, with five pieces
a false attack on the post of Feldkirch, of cannon, were made prisoners. Mean-
so as to hinder Hotze, who command- | while Dumont, having forced the pass
ed at that important point, from send- of Kunkel, and made himself master of
ing any succour to the centre at Coire, the central point and important bridge
and the left at Reichenau; the right of Reichenau, situated at the junction
wing, under Dumont, was destined to of the two branches of the Rhine, not
cross at the latter place, and turn the only succeeded in maintaining himself
position of Coire by the upper part of there, but made prisoners an Austrian
the stream; while Massena himself, in detachment which had resisted Loison
the centre, was to force the passage op- at Disentis. The result of this move-
posite to Luciensteg, and carry the in- ment was, that Auffenberg, who fell
trenchments of that fort. Subordinate back slowly, contesting every inch of
to these principal attacks, Loison, with ground, towards Coire, found his re-
a brigade, was directed to descend from treat cut off by the Rhine: and, being
the valley of Unsern upon Disentis, surrounded there by superior forces,
and support the attack of Dumont. At he had no alternative but to lay down
the same time Lecourbe, who lay at his arms, with two thousand men, and
Bellinzona, received orders to penetrate ten pieces of cannon, while a battalion
over the snowy summit of the Bernard- he had stationed at Ems underwent
ine, and down the stupendous defile of the same fate.
the Via-mala, by Tusis, into the Engad-
ine, and open up a communication with
the Italian army on the Adige.
15. These attacks were almost all
successful. The Rhine, yet charged
with melting snows, was crossed under
a murderous fire; after an obstinate
resistance, the fort of Luciensteg was
carried by the intrepidity of the French
Meuse, in which capacity he distinguished
himself by the defence of the fort of Bitsch,
and by several successful actions against the
Prussians in the close of the campaign of that
year. These services led to his
the command as colonel of the regiment of
Picardy, where his personal influence and
entreaties had the effect of retaining in their
command a large proportion of the officers
who had intended to emigrate. On the 2d
June 1794 he gloriously distinguished him-
self, at the head of his regiment, in resisting
a greatly superior force of Austrian cuiras-
siers-a service which immediately procured
for him the rank of general of brigade. In
July of the same year he made himself mas-
ter, by a bold advance, of the town of Trêves,
of which he obtained the command, and re-
mained there till the end of 1795, when he
joined the army of the Rhine and Moselle.
He took an active part in the campaign which
followed in 1796, between Moreau and the
Archduke Charles, and distinguished himself
at Nordlingen, Donauwerth, and Ingolstadt.
In the latter action he was severely wound-able accidents, General Bellegarde, who
ed, but he soon rejoined his regiment, and commanded the Austrian forces in that
charged, with his arm in a sling, at Etten-
heim, where he made prisoners an entire
battalion. Biographie des Hommes Vivants,
16. While these successes were gained
on the centre and right, Oudinot ad-
vanced against Feldkirch. Hotze in-
stantly collected his troops, and ad-
vanced to meet him, in order to pre-
serve his communication with Auffen-
berg; but, after maintaining his ground
for a whole day, he was at length driven
back to the intrenchments of Feldkirch,
with the loss of a thousand men and
At the same
several pieces of cannon.
time, Lecourbe, having broken up from
Bellinzona, crossed the Bernardine, yet
encumbered with snow, and arrived at
Tusis by the terrible defile of the Via-
mala, where he divided his forces into
two columns, one of which moved over
the Julian Alps, towards the sources
of the Inn, while the other, under Le-
courbe in person, began to ascend the
wild and rocky valley of the Albula.
The intention of the Republicans was
to have supported this irruption by
Dessoles, who received orders to de-
bouch from the Valteline into the val-
ley of the Upper Adige; but the march
of the latter column across the moun-
tains having been retarded by unavoid-
iv. 578-4.
►
quarter, made preparations, by occupy-
ing all the passes in the neighbourhood,
to envelop the invaders.
224
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVIL
17. Martinsbruck in consequence was
assailed by Lecourbe without success;
but although Laudon, in his turn, made
an attack with his own troops, com-
bined with its garrison, in all fourteen
thousand men, upon the French forces,
he was unable to gain any decisive ad-
vantage; and the Republicans, await-
ing their reinforcements, suspended
their operations for ten days. At
length, Dessoles having come up, and
other reinforcements arrived, Lecourbe
commenced a general attack on Lau-
don's forces, leading his division against
Martinsbruck; while Dessoles was di-
rected to cross the mountains into the
Munstersthal, and cut off their retreat.
To arrive at that valley, it was neces-
sary for the division of the former to
cross, amidst ice and snow, ridges which
might have deterred the most intrepid
chasseurs. With undaunted courage
his soldiers ascended the glaciers of the
Wurmser Joch, which separates the
sources of the Adda from one of those
of the Adige. After having turned the
fortifications on the summit, which
the Imperialists occupied in perfect
security, he descended by the wild and
rocky bed of the torrent of Rambach,
amidst frightful precipices, where a
handful of men might have arrested an
army, surprised the post of Tauffers,
which Laudon had fortified with care,
and totally routed its garrison, after a
desperate resistance, with the loss of four
thousand prisoners and all its artillery.
The situation of the Austrian general
was now altogether desperate; for while
Dessoles was achieving this decisive
success, Loison had seized upon Nau-
ders, and Lecourbe forced the post and
passage of Martinsbruck in his rear; so
that all the avenues by which his re-
treat could be effected were cut off, and
he had no resource but to throw him-
self, with three hundred men, into the
glaciers of Gebatch, from whence, after
undergoing incredible hardships, he at
length reached the valley of Venosta,
and joined General Bellegarde, who was
marching to his relief. After this glo-
rious success, achieved with forces
hardly half the number of the van-
quished, and which cannot be appre-
ciated but by those who have traversed
the rugged and inhospitable ridges
among which it was effected, Dessoles
advanced to Glurns; and the French
found themselves masters of the
upper
extremities of the two great valleys of
the Tyrol, the Inn and the Adige But
here their advance was arrested by
General Bellegarde, who had collected
nearly forty thousand men to oppose
their progress, and by the intelligence
of events in other quarters, which re-
stored victory to the Imperial stand-
ards.
18. The intelligence of the first suc-
cess in the Grisons reached Jourdan
on the 11th, and induced him to move
forward. On the 12th he passed the
Danube, and advanced in four marches
to Pfullendorf and Mengen, between
that river and the lake of Constance.
Judging, however, that he was not in
sufficient strength to attempt anything
until the post of Feldkirch was carried,
the French general urged Massena to
renew his attacks in that quarter.
That important town, situated on a
rocky eminence in the middle of the
valley, and supported by intrenchments
extending from the river Ill, which
bathed its feet, to inaccessible cliffs on
either side, was repeatedly assaulted
by Oudinot, at the head of the French
grenadiers, with the utmost impetu-
osity; but all his efforts recoiled before
the steady courage of the Imperialists.
Massena, conceiving this post to be of
the last importance, from its command-
ing the principal passage from the Vo-
ralberg into the Tyrol, united the whole
division of Menard to the troops of
Oudinot, and advanced in person to
the attack. But the great strength of
the works, and the invincible tenacity
of the Austrians, defeated all his efforts.
In vain the French sought to establish
themselves on the right of the position;
the Tyrolese sharpshooters ascended
the adjacent eminences, and assailed
the Republicans with such a close and
destructive fire, as rendered it impos-
sible for them to maintain their ground;
and Massena, after beholding the flower
of his army perish at the foot of the
intrenchments, was obliged to draw off
his forces, with the loss of three thou-
sand men, to Luciensteg and Coire,
1
1799.]
225
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
while Oudinot recrossed the Rhine, | the advantages of a first success. Now
and established himself at Rheineck.
19. While the war was thus furiously
raging amidst the precipices of the Alps,
events of still greater importance had
taken place under the Archduke in
person, between the Upper Rhine and
the Danube. Jourdan, to compensate
the inferiority of his force, had taken
up a strong position between the Lake
of Constance and the Danube. Two
torrents, the Ostrach and the Aach,
flowing in opposite directions-the one
into the Danube, the other into the
lake-from a marsh in his centre, ran
along the front of his position. St-Cyr,
with the left, was stationed at Mengen;
Souham, with the centre, at Pfullen-
dorf; Ferino, with the right, at Barns-
dorf; while Lefebvre, with the advanced
guard, occupied the heights behind the
village of Ostrach. That point was
the most accessible of the line: placed
at the source of the two torrents, it
was to be reached by a chaussée, which
crossed the marshy ground from which
they descended. It was against this
part of the line that the principal efforts
of the Imperialists were directed, while
subordinate attacks were simultaneous-
ly commenced on the right and left
against St-Cyr and Ferino. The force
brought to bear against Ostrach, under
the Archduke in person, was long re-
sisted, notwithstanding the great supe-
riority of numbers in the attacking
columns, by the Republicans under
Jourdan; but at length the left, under
St-Cyr, having been outflanked at Men-
gen, and the centre being on the point
of sinking under the increasing masses
of the assailants, a general retreat was
ordered; and such was the danger of
the left wing that it was continued,
without intermission, on the day fol-
lowing, till they reached the position
of STOCKACH.
appeared the good use which they had
made of their time during the short
interval of peace. Their cannon, well
served and formidable, were much more
numerous in proportion to the troops
engaged than they had been in the
former war; and the light artillery in
particular, formed on the French mo-
del, had attained a degree of perfec-
tion which entirely deprived the Re-
publicans of their advantage in that
important weapon of modern warfare.
21. Jourdan clearly saw the import-
ance of the village of Stockach, where
all the roads to Suabia, Switzerland,
and the valley of the Neckar, unite,
and beyond which he could not con-
tinue his retreat, without abandoning
his communications with Massena and
the Grisons. Perceiving that the Arch-
duke was preparing an attack, he re-
solved to anticipate him, and obtain
the advantage of the initiative, always
an object of importance in the com-
mencement of a campaign. The Aus-
trians were by this time in great force
on the Stockach, a small stream which
flows in a winding channel before the
village of the same name, and termi-
nates its devious course in the Lake of
Constance; their centre occupied the
plateau of Nellenberg in front of the
river, their right extended along the
same plateau towards Liptingen, their
left from Zollbruck to Wahlweis. On
the side of the Republicans, Souham
commanded the centre, Ferino the right,
and St-Cyr, whose vanguard was led by
Soult, the left wing. This last body
was destined to attack Liptingen, where
Meerfeld was stationed; and it was in
that quarter that the principal effort
was to be made, with a view to turn
the Austrians, and force them to re-
treat by the single chaussée of Stock-
ach in their rear, where they of neces-
sity must, in case of disaster, have lost
all their artillery. At five in the morn-
ing all the columns were in motion,
and the advanced guard of Soult soon
came in sight of the videttes of Meer-
feld. The Imperialists were soon at-
20. This affair did not cost above two
thousand men to the vanquished party,
and the loss of the victors was nearly
as great; but it had the most import-
ant effect upon the fate of the cam-
paign. It broke the charm of Republi- |
can invincibility, compelled the French tacked so vigorously by that general
standards openly to retreat before the and St-Cyr, that they were driven from
Imperial, and gave to the Austrians all Liptingen, and thrown back in confu-
|
226
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
·
i
22. No sooner, however, did the Arch-
duke perceive the impression which the
French had made on his right wing,
than he set off at the gallop for that
quarter of the field, followed by twelve
squadrons of cuirassiers, after whom
succeeded six battalions of grenadiers;
while a powerful body of cavalry was
stationed on the plateau of Nellenberg
to protect the retreat of the army, in
case of its becoming necessary to have
recourse to that extremity. These
dispositions, rapidly adopted at the de-
cisive moment, changed the fortunes of
the day; and their effect was increased
by a faulty step of Jourdan, who, in-
stead of supporting the menaced point
with all his disposable force, sent orders
to St-Cyr to advance to Maskirch, in
the idea of cutting off the retreat of the
Imperialists. A violent struggle now
ensued in the woods near Liptingen,
which Soult had gained in the first
moment of success. The Archduke
attacked them with fresh troops, the
Republicans defended them with heroic
valour; and one of the most furious
combats that occurred in the whole
war continued, without intermission,
in those copses for several hours. Three
times the French advanced out of the
wood to meet their enemies, and three
times, notwithstanding the most vigor-
ous efforts, they were repulsed by the
obstinate perseverance of the Germans.
At length the Imperialists became the
assailants; the Archduke charged in
person at the head of the Hungarian
grenadiers. Prince Furstemburg and
sion into the woods which lay along | Prince Anhalt-Bemburg were killed
the road to Stockach. Speedily they while leading on their respective regi-
were expelled from that stronghold; ments, and the flower of the army on
the infantry in great disorder retreated both sides perished under the terrible
to Stockach, and the cavalry on the road fire which overspread the field of battle.
towards Moskirch. Meanwhile the two Jourdan, who felt that St-Cyr had
armies were engaged along the whole gained what, if properly supported,
line. Souham and Ferino in the centre might have become a decisive success,
and right repulsed the light troops of long and obstinately maintained his
the enemy as far as Wahlweis and Or- ground; but at length, finding that the
singen on the Stockach, and menaced principal effort of the Austrians was di-
the plateau of Nellenberg. A violent rected against his left wing, and that
cannonade was heard along the whole their reserves were coming into action,
front of the army; a decisive success he ordered Soult to evacuate the wood,
had been gained on one point, the Aus- and retire into the plain of Liptingen.
trian right was turned, the victory This perilous movement was performed
seemed already decided.
by that able officer in presence of a vic-
torious enemy, and when his rearguard
was almost enveloped by their cuiras-
siers, with admirable steadiness; but,
when they reached the open country,
they were charged by Kollowrath, at the
head of the six battalions of grenadiers
and twelve squadrons of cuirassiers,
which the Archduke had brought up
from the reserve. This effort proved de-
cisive. In vain Jourdan charged the Aus-
trian cavalry with the French horse; they
were broken and driven back in disorder
by the superior weight and energy of the
cuirassiers, and the general-in-chief nar-
rowly escaped being made prisoner in
the flight. This overthrow constrained
the infantry to a disastrous retreat,
during which two regiments were en-
veloped and made prisoners; and St-
Cyr, who was now entirely cut off from
the centre of his army, only escaped
total destruction by throwing himself
across the Danube, the sole bridge over
which he was fortunate enough to find
unoccupied by the enemy.
23. This great success, and the con-
sequent separation of St-Cyr from the
remainder of the army, was decisive of
the victory. Souham and Ferino, with
the centre and right, had maintained
their position, notwithstanding the
superiority of force on the part of their
opponents; but they had gained no ad-
vantage, and they were totally unequal,
now that the left wing of the army was
separated, and unable to render any assis-
tance, to maintain their ground against
the victorious troops of the Archduke.
Although, therefore, the French had
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE
227
bravely withstood the superior forces of
the enemy, and the loss on both sides
was nearly equal, amounting to about
five thousand men to each party, yet,
by the separation of their left wing, they
had sustained all the consequences of a
serious defeat; and it became necessary,
renouncing all idea of co-operating with
the Republicans in Switzerland, which
could not be accomplished without the
sacrifice of St-Cyr and his wing, to en-
deavour to reunite the scattered divi-
sions of the army by a retreat to the
passes of the Black Forest. Jourdan
was so much disconcerted with the re-
sult of this action, that, after reaching
the defiles of that forest, he surrender-
ed the command of the army to Ernouf,
the chief of the staff, and set out for
Paris, to lay in person his complaints
as to the state of the troops before the
Directory.
campaign had been commenced with so
much presumption and so little consi-
deration by the Directory, their armies
on the German frontier were every-
where reduced to the defence of their
own territory. The bad success of their
armies at the opening of this campaign,
to which the French had been so little
accustomed since the brilliant era of Na-
poleon's victories, might have proved
fatal to the government at Paris, had it
not been for an unexpected event which
occurred at this time, and restored to
the people much of the enthusiasm and
vigour of 1793. This was the massacre
of the French plenipotentiaries at the
Congress of Rastadt.
25. Though at war with Austria,
France was yet at peace with the Ger-
man empire, and the Congress at Ras-
tadt was still continuing, under the safe-
guard of neutrality, its interminable
labours. When the victory of Stockach
had placed that city in the power of the
Imperialists, the cabinet of Vienna or-
dered the Count Lehrbach, their mini-
ster plenipotentiary, to endeavour to
obtain intelligence of the extent to
which the princes of the empire had
24. With superior forces, and twenty
thousand cavalry in admirable order,
the Austrians had now an opportunity
of overwhelming the French army in
the course of its retreat to the Rhine,
such as never again occurred to them
till the battle of Leipsic. The Archduke
clearly perceived that there was the im-made secret advances to the Directory.
portant point of the campaign; and had The Count conceived the most effectuai
he been the unfettered master of his ac- way would be to seize the papers of the
tions, he would, in all probability, have French embassy at the moment of their
constrained the enemy's army to a re- leaving the city; and for this purpose
treat as disastrous as that from Würtz- he solicited and obtained from his court
burg in 1796. But the Aulic Council, authority to require an armed force from
influenced by the erroneous idea that the Archduke Charles. That gallant
the key to ultimate success was to be officer refused, in the first instance, to
found in the Alps, forbade him to ad- comply with the request, alleging that
vance towards the Rhine till Switzer- his soldiers had nothing to do with the
land was cleared of the enemy. He was concerns of diplomacy; but fresh orders
compelled, in consequence, to put his from Vienna obliged him to submit, and
army into cantonments between Engen a detachment of the hussars of Szeckler
and Wahlweis; while the Republicans was in consequence placed at the dis-
leisurely effected their retreat through posal of the Imperial plenipotentiary.
the Black Forest, by the valley of Kin-
zig and that of Hell, to the Rhine, which
stream they crossed at Old Brisach and
Kehl a few days after, leaving only posts
of observation on the right bank. This
retreat compelled Bernadotte, who, with
his little army of eight thousand men,
had already commenced the siege of
Philippsburg, to abandon his works
with precipitation, and regain the left
bank; so that, in a month after the
26. Towards the end of April, the
communications of the ministers at
Rastadt having been interrupted by
the Austrian patrols, the Republicans
addressed an energetic note on the sub-
ject to the Austrian authorities, and
the remonstrance having been disre-
garded, the Congress declared itself
dissolved The departure of the di-
plomatic body was fixed for the 28th
April, but the Austrian colonel gave


228
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVIL

having taken nothing but state papers;
and although the Directory has not
escaped the suspicion of having been
the secret authors of the crime, in
order to inflame the national spirit of
the French, there seems no ground for
imputing to them so atrocious a pro-
ceeding, or ascribing it to any other
cause than an unauthorised excess by
drunken or brutal soldiers in the dis-
charge of a duty committed to them
by their government, requiring more
than ordinary discretion and forbear-
ance. But though Austria has escaped
the imputation of having been acces-
sary to the guilt of murder, she can-
not escape from the disgrace of having
been remotely the cause of its perpe-
tration; of having authorised an attack
upon the sacred persons of ambassa-
dors, which, though not intended to
have been followed by assassination,
was at best a violation of the law of
nations, and a breach of the slender
links which unite humanity together
during the rude conflicts of war, and
of having taken guilt to herself by
adopting no judicial steps for the dis-
covery of the perpetrators of the of-
fence. As such, it is deserving of
the severest reprobation, and, like all
other unjustifiable actions, its conse-
quences speedily recoiled upon the
head of its authors. The military
spirit of the French, languid since the
recommencement of hostilities, was
immediately roused to the highest
pitch by this outrage upon their am-
27. This atrocious violation of the law
of nations excited the utmost indigna-
tion and horror throughout Europe.
The honour of the Germans felt itself
seriously wounded by the calamitous
event, and the members of the depu-bassadors. No difficulty was any longer
tation who remained at the Congress experienced in completing the levies
unanimously signed a declaration ex- of the conscription; and to this burst
pressive of detestation at its authors. of national feeling is, in a great mea-
It is, perhaps, the strongest proof of sure, to be ascribed the rapid aug-
the high character and unstained hon- mentation of Massena's army, and the
our of the Emperor Francis and the subsequent disasters which overwhelm-
Archduke Charles, that although the ed the Imperialists at the conclusion
crime was committed by persons in of the campaign.
the Austrian uniform, and the hussars
of Szeckler had been detached from
the army of the Archduke to the en-
virons of Rastadt, no suspicion fell up-
on either of these exalted persons as
having been accessary to the nefarious
proceeding. That it was committed
for political purposes, and not by com-
mon robbers, is evident from their
them orders to set out on the 19th, as
the town was to be occupied on the
following day by the Imperial troops,
and refused to grant the escort which
they demanded, upon the plea that it
was wholly unnecessary. The French
plenipotentiaries, in consequence, Jean
Debry, Bonnier, and Roberjot, set out
on the same evening for Strassburg;
but they had scarcely left the gates of
Rastadt, when they were attacked by
some drunken hussars of the regiment
of Szeckler, who seized them, dragged
them out of their carriages, slew Bon-
nier and Roberjot, notwithstanding the
heroic efforts of the wife of the latter
to save her husband, and struck down
Jean Debry, by sabre blows, into a
ditch, where he escaped destruction
only by having the presence of mind
to feign that he was already dead. The
assassins seized and carried off the
papers of the legation, but committed
no other spoliation; and leaving two
of their victims lifeless, and one des-
perately wounded, on the ground, dis-
appeared in the obscurity of the night.
Jean Debry, whose wounds were not
mortal, contrived to make his way,
after their departure, into Rastadt, and
presented himself, bleeding and ex-
hausted, at the hotel of M. Goertz, the
Prussian envoy.
28. While an implacable war was
thus breaking out to the north of the
gator of this atrocious act, though the catas-
* The Queen of Naples was the real insti-
trophe in which it terminated was as little
intended by her as by the single-hearted gen-
by whom it was committed.—D'ABRANTES,
eral who detached from his army the hussars
ii. 304.

Vol 4
Nagran
Assassination of the French Plenipotentiaries.
ALT EL
eguns
p. 228.

1799.]
229
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
Alps, reverses of a most serious cha-
racter attended the first commence-
ment of hostilities in the Italian plains.
The approach of the Russians, under
Suwarroff, who, it was expected, would
reach the Adige by the middle of April,
rendered it an object of the last im-
portance for the Republicans to force
their opponents from the important
line formed by that stream before the
arrival of so powerful a reinforcement;
but by the senseless dispersion of their
vast armies, suggested by the desire of
plunder, through the whole peninsula,
they were unable to collect a sufficient all the avenues by which it could be
body of men in the plains of the Min- | approached were carefully fortified; a
eio, in the commencement of the cam-flotilla of forty boats, carrying three
paign to effect that object. The total hundred pieces of cannon, was prepar-
force commanded by Scherer on the ed, either to defend the Laguna of that
Adige was now raised, by the arrival of capital, or carry the supplies of the army
conscripts, to fifty-seven thousand men; up the Po: while bridges, established
Macdonald was at the head of thirty- over the Piave and the Tagliamento,
four thousand at Rome and Naples; secured the communication of the army
ten thousand were in the Cisalpine re- in the field with the reserves by which
public, the like number in Piedmont, it was to be supported. Scherer had
five thousand in Liguria; but these obtained the command of the French
latter forces were too far removed to be army-an officer who had served with
able to render any assistance at the de- distinction in the Pyrenees and the
cisive point; while, on the other hand, Alps during the campaign of 1795;
the Imperial troops consisted of fifty- but, being unknown to the Italian army,
eight thousand combatants, including he possessed the confidence neither of
six thousand cavalry, cantoned between the officers nor soldiers; while Moreau,
the Tagliamento and the Adige, be- the commander of the retreat through
sides a reserve of twenty thousand in- the Black Forest in 1796, occupied the
fantry and five thousand horse in Car- unworthy situation of inspector of in-
inthia and Croatia. Their field-artil- fantry. On the side of the Austrians,
lery amounted to a hundred and eighty Melas had obtained, upon the death of
pieces; the park of the army to a hun- the Prince of Orange, the supreme
dred and seventy more; and a heavy command-an officer of considerable
train of eighty battering-guns, admir- experience and ability, but whose age,
ably provided with horses and ammu- above seventy years, rendered him little
nition, was ready at Palma-Nuova, for competent to cope with the enterpris-
the siege of any of the fortresses that ing generals of the Republic. Until
might be attacked. The summary is his arrival, however, the troops were
sufficient to demonstrate the erroneous | under the orders of General Kray, a
principles on which the Directory pro-Hungarian by birth, and one of the
ceeded in their plan of the campaign, most distinguished officers of the Em-
and their total oblivion of the lessons pire. Active, intrepid, and indefati-
taught by Napoleon as to the import- gable; gifted with a cool head and an
ance of the line of the Adige to the admirable coup-d'œil in danger, he was
fate of the peninsula. While the Im- one of the most illustrious generals of
perialists were collecting all their forces the Imperial army, and, after the Arch-
for a decisive blow in that quarter, duke Charles, has left the most bril-
half the French troops lay inactive liant reputation in its military ar-
and scattered along the whole extent of chives of the last century.
its surface, from Piedmont to Calabria.
30. The plan of the Directory was
29. The Austrians had, with great
foresight, strengthened their position
on the Adige during the cessation of
hostilities. Legnago, commanding a
bridge over that river, had become a
formidable fortress; the castles of Ve-
rona were amply supplied with the
means of defence; a bridge of boats at
Polo enabled them to communicate
with the intrenched camp of Pastrengo,
on the eastern slope of the Monte-Bal-
do; Venice, placed beyond the reach
of attack, contained their great maga-
zines and reserves of artillery stores;
230.
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
li
į
T
::
།
L
for Scherer to pass the Adige, near Ve- |
rona, drive the Austrians over the
Piave and the Brenta, while the right
wing of Massena's army, commanded
by Lecourbe, was to form a junction
with a corps detached from the Italian
army into the Valteline, and fall, by
Brixen and Botzen, on the right flank
of the Imperial army. But at the very
time that they meditated these exten-
sive operations, they detached General
Gauthier, with five thousand men, to
Occupy Tuscany -a conquest which
was indeed easily effected, but was as
unjustifiable as it was inexpedient,
both by weakening the effective force
on the Adige, and affording an addi-
tional example of that insatiable desire
for conquest and plunder which the
Allied powers so loudly complained of
in the Republican government. Mean-
while Scherer, having collected his
forces, established himself on the right
bank of the Adige, opposite to the Aus-
trian army, the right at Sanguinetto,
the left at Peschiera; and immediate-
ly made preparations for crossing the
river. At the same time Kray threw
eight thousand men into the intrench-
ed camp of Pastrengo, under Generals
Gottesheim and Elnitz, while the divi-
sions Kaim and Hohenzollern, twenty
thousand strong, were established round
Verona, with detachments at Arcola;
Froelich and Mercantin, with an equal
force, were encamped near Bevilacqua;
and Klenau, with four thousand, was
stationed near Arqua; and the re-
serves, under Ott and Zoph, received
orders to draw near to the Brenta.
|
31. The French general having been
led to imagine that the bulk of the Aus-
trian forces were encamped at Past-
rengo, between Verona and the lake of
Garda, resolved to make his principal
effort in that quarter. With this view,
the three divisions of the left wing,
commanded by Serurier, Delmas, and
Grenier, were moved in that direction;
while Moreau, with the divisions of
Hatry and Victor, received orders to
make a false attack near Verona, and
on the extreme right Montrichard was
to advance against Legnago. Kray, on
his part, being led to believe that their
principal force was directed against
Verona, repaired in haste to Bevil-
acqua, where he concerted with Kle-
nau an attack on the right flank of the
Republicans. Thus both parties mutu-
ally deceived as to each other's designs,
manoeuvred as if their object had been
reciprocally to avoid each other; the
bulk of the Austrian forces being di-
rected against the French right, and
the principal part of the Republicans
against the Imperial left.
32. At three in the morning of the
26th March, the whole French left
wing was in motion, while the flotilla
on the lake of Garda set sail during the
night to second their operations. In
this quarter they met with brilliant
success. The redoubts and intrench-
ments of Pastrengo were carried, Ri-
voli fell into their hands; and the gar-
rison of the intrenched camp, crossing
in haste the bridge of Polo, left fifteen
hundred prisoners and twelve pieces of
cannon in the hands of the Republi-
cans. In the centre, the action did not
begin till near ten o'clock, but it soon
became there also extremely warm. The
villages in front of Verona were obsti-
nately contested, but, after a desperate
resistance, the Republicans pressed for-
ward, and nearly reached the walls of
that town. At this sight, Kaim, who
was apprehensive of being attacked in
the town, made a general attack on the
front and flanks of the assailants with
fresh forces; and the village of San Mas-
simo, taken and retaken seven times
during the day, finally remained in the
possession of the Austrians till night
separated the combatants. The Im-
perialists sensibly lost ground, how-
ever, upon the whole, in that quarter;
and the post of Saint Lucie, also the
theatre of obstinate contest, was car-
ried by the Republicans. But while
fortune favoured their arms on the left,
and divided her favours in the centre,
the right was overwhelmed by a su-
perior force, conducted by Kray in
person. General Montrichard advanced
in that quarter to Legnago, and had
already commenced a cannonade on
the place, when Frolich debouched in
three columns, and commenced a furi-
ous attack along the dikes which led
to the French column, while the divi-

1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
231
sion of Mercantin advanced as a re-
serve. The Republicans were speedily
routed; attacked at once in front and
both flanks, they lost all their artillery,
and were driven with great loss behind
Torre on the road to Mantua.
33. The loss of the French in this
battle amounted to four thousand men,
while that of the Imperialists was near-
ly seven thousand; but nevertheless,
as the success on the left and centre
was in some degree balanced by the
disaster on the right, the former were
unable to derive any decisive advan-
tage from this large difference in their
favour. The capture of the camp at
Pastrengo and of the bridge of Polo
was of little importance, as the Aus-
trians held Verona, and the only road
from thence to the plain passed through
that town. Kray, abandoning the pur-
suit of Montrichard, hastened to Ve-
rona with the divisions of Mercantin
and Frœlich, leaving a few battalions
only to guard the line of the Lower
Adige; while the Republicans recross-
ed the upper part of that river above
Verona, and retired towards Peschiera.
Thus the bulk of the forces on both
sides were assembled near Verona,
which was felt to be the key to the
Adige equally by the Imperialists and
Republicans. Already the courage of
the Austrians was elevated by the bal-
anced success which they had obtain-
ed; and, from the hesitation of the
enemy in following up his advantage
at Pastrengo, they perceived with plea-
sure that the genius of Napoleon had
not been inherited by his successor. *
34. After much irresolution, and as-
sembling a council of war, Scherer re-
solved to descend the Adige with the
bulk of his forces, to attempt a passage
between Verona and Legnago at Ronco
or Albaredo: while Serurier, with one
division, was thrown across the upper
stream, at Polo, to distract the attention
of the enemy. Preparatory to this de-
sign, the army was countermarched
from left to right, a complicated opera-
* "The courage of the Saguntines increased,
because they had succeeded in their resistance
beyond their hopes; while the Carthaginian,
because he had not conquered, felt as van-
quished.”—LIVY, xxi. 9.
tion, which fatigued and embarrassed
the soldiers without any adequate ad-
vantage. At length, on the 30th March,
while the main body of the army was
descending the river, Serurier crossed
with seven thousand men at Polo, and
boldly advanced towards Verona on the
high-road leading to Trent; Kray, de-
bouching from the central point at
Verona, assailed the advancing columns
with fifteen thousand men of the divi-
sions Frolich and Elnitz, and attacking
the Republicans with great vigour, drove
them back in disorder to the bridge, and
pressing forward, approached so near,
that it would have fallen into his hands,
if the French had not sunk the boats of
which it consisted. The situation of
Serurier was now altogether desperate:
part of his men dispersed and saved
themselves in the mountains; a few
escaped over the river at Rivoli; but
above fifteen hundred were made pri-
soners, and the total loss of his division
was nearly three thousand men.
35. Notwithstanding this severe check,
Scherer persisted in his design of pass-
ing the Adige below Verona. After
countermarching his troops, without
any visible reason, he concentrated
them below Villa-Franca, between the
Adige and the Tartaro; his right en-
camped near Porto-Legnago, the re-
mainder in the position of Magnano.
Kray, perceiving the defects of their
situation, wisely resolved to bring the
weight of his forces to bear on the Re-
publican left, so as to threaten their
communications with Lombardy. For
this purpose he directed Hohenzollern
and St Julien to the Monte-Baldo and
the road to Trent; while Wukassowich,
who formed part of Bellegarde's corps
in the Tyrol, was to move on La Chiesa,
by the western side of the lake of Garda,
and he himself debouched from Verona,
at the head of the divisions of Kaim,
Zoph, and Mercantin, right against the
Republican centre at Magnano. The
peril of the left wing of the French was
now extreme, and it became indispen-
sable to move the right and centre to-
wards it, in order to avoid its total de-
struction. Had Kray, whose army was
now raised, by the arrival of his re-
serves, to forty-five thousand, attacked

+
I
-
232
{CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
.
:
I
i
3
on the 4th April, he would have sur- | Moreau, having arrived at the open plain,
favourable to the operations of cavalry,
executed several brilliant charges, and
drove the Austrians from all the villages
which they occupied, almost into the
walls of Verona.
|
prised the French in the midst of their
lateral movements, and probably have
destroyed two of their divisions; but
by delaying the action till the day fol-
lowing, the perilous change of position
was completed, and the opportunity lost.
36. It was just when the lateral move-
ment was on the point of being accom-
plished that the hostile armies encoun-
tered each other on the plains of MAG-ation of all the divisions, and the uncon-
NANO. The French force amounted to nected operations which they were seve-
thirty-four thousand infantry and seven rally carrying on. But Kray changed the
thousand cavalry; the Austrians were fortune of the day by a decisive operation
superior, having nearly forty-five thou- against the French right. Placing himself
sand in the field, of whom five thousand at the head of the reserve of Froelich, sup-
were horse. Mercantin was intrusted ported by two batteries of heavy artil-
with the attack of the French right; lery, he fell unawares upon the division
Kaim of the centre, and Zoph of the of Grenier, and put it to the rout; Vic-
left;
while Frœlich, at the head of a tor, trying to restore the combat, was
powerful reserve, was to follow the steps charged in flank by the Imperial horse,
of Kaim, and Hohenzollern was moved and driven back in disorder, while the
forward against Villa Franca on the road overthrow of that wing was completed
to Mantua. The marshy plain to the by the attack of Mercantin's division,
south of Magnano is intersected by a which had now rallied in its rear. Mean-
multitude of streams, which fall into while, Moreau continued to maintain
the Tartaro and the Menago, and ren- his ground in the centre, and Serurier
der the deploying of infantry difficult, made himself master on the left of Villa
that of cavalry impossible. The right Franca, and advanced near to Verona.
wing of the French, commanded by But the rout of the right wing, which
Victor and Grenier, overwhelmed the was now driven a mile and a half from
division of Mercantin to which it was the field of battle, so as to leave the
opposed. But while this success at- centre entirely uncovered, was decisive
tended the Republicans in that quarter, of the victory. Before night, Scherer
the Austrian centre, under Kaim, pene- drew off his shattered forces behind the
trated, without opposition, between the Tartaro, carrying with them two thou-
rear of Montrichard and the front of sand prisoners and several pieces of can-
Delmas, who were in the act of complet- non-a poor compensation for the loss
ing their lateral movement from right to of four thousand, killed and wounded,
left, and occupied a salient angle in the four thousand prisoners, seven stan-
centre of the French position. Had the dards, eight pieces of cannon, and forty
Imperialists been in a situation to have caissons, which had fallen into the hands
supported this advantage by fresh troops, of the Imperialists.
it would have been decisive of the fate
of the day; but Kray, alarmed at the pro-
gress of the Republican right, was at the
moment hastening to support Mercantin |
with the reserve of Froelich; and thus
time was given to Moreau and Delmas,
not only to restore affairs in that quar-
ter, by causing their rear and vanguards
to form in line to resist the further pro-
gress of the enemy, but even to attack
|
38. This victory, one of the most
glorious in the annals of the Austrian
monarchy, was decisive of the fate of
Italy. Thenceforth, the French fell
from one disaster into another, till
they were driven over the Maritime
Alps, and expelled from the whole
peninsula-a striking example of the
importance of early victory to the
whole fate of a campaign, and of the
and carry the village of Buttapreda, not-facility with which the confidence and
withstanding the most vigorous resist- vigour resulting from long-continued
ance from Kaim's division. On the left, triumphs may, by a single well-timed
37. Victory on every side seemed to
incline to the Republican standards,
though decisive success was no longer
to be expected from the insulated situ-
1799.]
233
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
is
success, be exchanged for the depres- | were in progress to the south of the Alps,
sion and irresolution which are the sure the Austrians evinced an unpardonable
forerunners of defeat. The advantages tardiness in following up their success
gained by the Imperialists were mainly at Stockach. In vain the Archduke
owing to the possession of the fortified urged the Aulic Council not to lose
posts of Verona and Legnago, and the the precious moments. Desirous not
interior line of operations which they to endanger the advantages which they
afforded them on the Adige-another had already gained, they peremptorily
instance, among the many which this enjoined him to confine his operations
war exhibited, of the inestimable im- to clearing the right bank of the Dan-
portance of a central position in the ube by detached parties. After several
hands of one who can avail himself of engagements, the French were finally
it, and the degree to which it may expelled from the German side; but
sometimes, in the hands of a skilful in their retreat they, with needless
general, counterbalance the most de- barbarity, burned the celebrated wood-
cided superiority in other respects. en bridge at Schaffhausen, the most
The Republicans, thrown into the deep- perfect specimen of that species of
est dejection by this defeat, retired on architecture that existed in the world.
the following day behind the Mincio; Massena, to whom the command of
and not feeling themselves in security the army on the Rhine, as well as of
there, even with the fortress of Mantua that in the Alps, was now intrusted,
on one flank and that of Peschiera on found himself, by these disasters, un-
the other, Scherer continued his re- der the necessity of changing entirely
treat behind the Oglio, and then the the disposition of his forces. Turned
Adda. This retrograde movement was on the one flank by the Imperialists
performed in such confusion, that it on the lake of Constance, and on the
entirely lost that general the little con- other by the advance of Kray beyond
sideration which remained to him with the Adige, he was compelled to retire
his troops, and they loudly demanded into the central parts of Switzerland;
the removal of a leader who had torn and the Directory soon found how
from their brows the laurels of Rivoli grievous an error they had committed
and Arcola. The Austrians, astonish-in attacking that country, and render-
ed at their own success, and fearfuling its rugged frontiers the centre of
of endangering it by a precipitate ad- military operations.
vance, moved slowly after the beaten
army. Eight days after the battle
elapsed before they crossed the Mincio,
and established themselves at Castil-
laro, after detaching Elnitz, with ten
thousand men, to observe Mantua, and
three battalions to form the investment
of Peschiera.
41. Deprived of the shelter which
they had hitherto found for their flanks
in the neutral ridges of the Alps, the
Republicans were now compelled to
maintain one uninterrupted line of de-
fence from the Texel to the gulf of
Genoa, and any considerable disaster
in one part of that long extent weak-
ened their operations in every other.
Massena was well aware that a moun-
tainous country, in appearance the
most easy, is frequently in reality the
most difficult of defence; because the
communication from one part of the
line to another is often so much ob-
structed, and it is so easy for a skilful
adversary to bring an overwhelming
force to bear against an unsupported
part. Impressed with these ideas, he
drew back his advanced posts at Tau-
fers, Glurns on the Adige, and Finster-
Q

39. While the Republican fortunes
were thus sinking in Italy, another dis-
aster overtook them in the capture of
Corfu, which surrendered to the combin-
ed forces of Russia and Turkey, shortly
after the commencement of hostilities;
and thus they were deprived of their
last footing in the Ionian isles. Thus
on every side the star of the Republic
seemed to be on the wane, while that
of Austria was rising to the ascendant.
40. While these important events
VOL. IV.
234
[CHAP. XXVI.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
T
müntz on the Inn, and arranged his | into the romantic lake of the Four
forces in the following manner. The Cantons at Altdorf, and, leaving its
right wing was composed of the divi-wood-clad cliffs at Luzern, falls into the
sion Lecourbe in the Engadine, that Aar, near its junction with the Rhine.
of Menard in the Grisons, and that of All these lines, shut in on either side
Lorges in the valley of the Rhine, as in the upper part of their course by
far down as the lake of Constance; enormous mountains, strengthened by
the centre, consisting of four divisions, deep rivers, and intersected by vast
supported by an auxiliary Swiss corps, lakes and ridges of rock, present the
occupied the line of that river as far greatest advantages for defence. Massena
as Huningen. Headquarters were es- soon found that the exterior circle, that
tablished at Bâle, which was put in a of the Rhine, could not be maintained,
The with the troops at his disposal, against
respectable posture of defence.
left wing, scattered over Huningen, the increasing forces of the Austrians,
Old Brisach, Kehl, and Mannheim, and he retired to the inner line, that of
was destined to protect the line of the the Limmat and Linth, and established
Rhine below that place. The whole his headquarters at Zurich, in a posi-
of these forces amounted to one hun- tion of the most formidable strength.
dred thousand men, of whom about
two-thirds were stationed in Switzer-
land and in the Grisons.
43. Meanwhile Hotze and Bellegarde
were combining a general attack upon
the whole line of the Republicans in
the Grisons. Towards the latter end
of April, their forces were all in motion
along the immense extent of moun-
tains from the valley of Coire to the
Engadine. After a vigorous attack,
Bellegarde was repulsed by Lecourbe,
from the fortified post of Ramis, in the
Lower Engadine; while a detachment
sent by the Col de Tcherfs to Zernetz
was cut to pieces, with the loss of six
hundred prisoners, among whom was
the young Prince de Ligne. But, as the
Imperialists were advancing through
the valleys on his flanks, Lecourbe re-
sea.
42. Three impetuous streams, each
flowing within the other, descend from
the snowy ridges of the Alps towards
the north, and form, by their junction,
the great river of the Rhine. The first
of these is the Rhine itself, which,
rising in the glaciers near the St Goth-
ard, and flowing through the Grisons to
the north, loses itself in the great lake of
Constance; issues from it at Stein,
and flows to the westward as far as
Bâle, where it commences its majestic
and perpendicular course towards the
This river covers the whole of
Switzerland against an enemy advanc-treated in the night, and next day was
ing from the eastward, and contains attacked by Bellegarde at Suss, whence,
within the ample circuit of its course after an obstinate resistance, he was
all the secondary streams. The second driven with great loss to the sources
is formed by the course of the Linth, of the Albula. At the same time a
which, rising in the Alps of Glarus and general attack was made, in the valley
the Wallenstätter See, forms in its of the Rhine, on the French posts;
course the charming lake of Zurich, but though the Imperialists were at
and issuing from its northern extrem- first so far successful as to drive back
ity at the town of the same name, un- the Republicans to Luciensteg and the
der the appellation of the Limmat, heights of Mayenfield, yet, at the close
falls into the Aar, not far from the of the day, they were obliged to fall
junction of that river with the Rhine. back to their former position.
That line only covers a part of Switz-
erland, and is of much smaller extent
than the former; but it is more con-
centrated, and offers a far more ad-
vantageous position for defence. Last-
ly, there is the Reuss, which, descend-
ing from the St Gothard through the
precipitous valley of Schollenen, swells
44. This general attack upon the
French line in the Grisons was com-
bined with an insurrection of the pea-
sants in their rear and in the small
cantons, where the desire for revenge,
on account of the cruelties of the Re-
publicans during the preceding year,
had become extremely strong. This
1799.]
235
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
feeling had been worked up to a per- |
fect fury by an attempt of the Direc
tory to complete the auxiliary force of
eighteen thousand men, which Switzer-
land was bound to furnish, by levies
from the militia of the different can-
tons. Determined to combat rather
against than for the destroyer of their
liberties, ten thousand men took up
arms in the small cantons and adjoin-
ing districts of the Grisons, and fell
with such rapidity upon the French
posts in the rear, that they not only
made themselves masters of Disentis
and Ilantz, but surprised the important
bridge of Reichenau, which they strong-
ly barricaded, thus cutting off all com-
munication between the divisions of
Lecourbe, at the sources of the Albula,
and the remainder of the army. Had
the attack of Hotze and Bellegarde
succeeded at the same time that this
formidable insurrection broke out in
their rear, it is highly probable that
Massena's right wing would have been
totally destroyed; but the check of
Hotze at Luciensteg gave the Republi-
cans time to crush it before it had ac-
quired any formidable consistency. to the rear to quell the insurrection.
Massena, aware of the vital importance Loison retired from Tirrano, and join-
of early success in subduing an insured Lecourbe at St Giacomo; and as
rection, acted with the greatest vigour the Imperialists, who were now far
against the insurgents; Menard moved advanced in Lombardy, were collecting
towards Reichenau, which was aban- forces at Lugano, evidently with the
doned at his approach, and pursued design of seizing upon the St Gothard,
the peasants to Ilantz and Disentis. and so turning the flank of Massena's
At this latter place they stood firm, position, that active general instantly
in number about six thousand; and, crossed the Bernardine, and descending
though destitute of artillery, made a the Misocco, advanced to Bellinzona,
desperate resistance. At length, how- in order to protect the extreme right
ever, they were broken, and pursued of his interior line, which rested on the
with great slaughter into the moun- St Gothard, the lake of Zurich, and the
tains, leaving about one thousand men Limmat.
slain on the spot. At the same time,
Soult proceeded with his division to
Schwytz, where he overthrew a body
of peasants; and, embarking on the
lake of Luzern, landed, in spite of the
utmost resistance, at Altdorf, and cut
to pieces a column of three thousand
men, supported by four pieces of can-
non, who had taken post in the defiles
of the Reuss about that place. The
broken remains of this division fled by
Wasen to the valley of Schollenen, but
there they were met and entirely dis-
persed by Lecourbe, who, after sub-
duing the insurrection in the Val-
levantina, had crossed the St Gothard,
and fallen upon the fugitives in rear.
45. In this affair, above two thou-
sand peasants. were killed and wound-
ed; and such was the consternation
excited by the military executions
which followed, that the people of that
part of Switzerland made no further
attempt, during the progress of the
campaign, to take a part in hostilities.
They saw that their efforts were of
little avail amidst the immense masses
of disciplined men by whom their
country was traversed; and, suffering
almost as much, in the conflicts which
followed, from their friends as from
their enemies, they resigned them-
selves, in indignant silence, to be the
spectators of a contest, from which
they had nothing to hope, everything
to fear, and which they had no power
to prevent. These movements, how-
ever, rendered it indispensable for the
French to evacuate the Engadine, as
great part of the troops who formed
the line of defence had been drawn in-
46. The Archduke, convinced that
it was by turning the right of Massena
in the mountains, that he would be
most easily forced from this strong
line of defence, strengthened Hotze by
fresh troops, and combined a general
attack on Lecourbe for the 14th May.
The forces they brought into action
on that day were very considerable,
amounting to not less than thirty thou-
sand men; while those of Menard,
since the greater part of Lecourbe's
division had retreated to Bellinzona,
!
:
j

**
가
​-
236
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
C
.
ii.
did not exceed fourteen thousand. | while the total loss of the Imperialists
was only seventy-one men-an extra-
ordinary, but well-authenticated proof
of the immense advantage of offensive
operations in mountain warfare, and
the great disasters to which even the
best troops are subjected by being ex-
posed, when acting on the defensive,
to the loss of their communications,
by their adversary turning their posi-
tion. This catastrophe obliged Massena
to alter entirely his line of defence.
The right wing in the Alps being
driven back, it was no longer possible
to maintain the line of the lake of
Constance and the Rhine from Stein
to Eglisau. In consequence, he fell
back from the Rhine behind the Thur;
Lecourbe received orders to evacuate
the St Gothard, and concentrate his
forces below the Devil's Bridge, in the
valley of the Reuss; while the bulk of
his army was assembled round the
headquarters at Zurich, all the ap-
proaches to which were fortified with
the utmost care.
Luciensteg, since it fell into the hands
of the Republicans, had been greatly
strengthened; a narrow defile, bounded
by the precipices of the Alps on one
side, and a rocky eminence bathed by
the Rhine on the other, was crossed by
strong intrenchments, mounted with a
formidable artillery; but the intelli-
gence which the Archduke received of
the approach of thirty thousand Rus-
sians to support his army, who had
already arrived in Gallicia, determined
him without delay to commence offen-
sive operations. Accordingly, on the
12th May, the columns were every-
where put in motion on the mountains,
and two days afterwards this important
post was attacked. The assailants were
divided into four columns; one was
destined to engage the attention of the
enemy by a false attack in front; the
second to make a circuit by the Alps
of Mayenfeld, and descend on the in-
trenchments in rear; a third to cross
the Suvisir Alps; and the fourth, to
which the cavalry and artillery were
attached, to assail the pass called the
Slapiner Joch. Hotze commanded in
person the attack in front, while Jel-
lachich directed the other columns.
After twelve hours of fatiguing march,
the latter succeeded in bringing his
troops in rear to attack the intrench-
ments. When the animating sound of
their hurra was heard, Hotze pressed
forward to assail the works in front,
and, after a stout resistance, the bar-commanded by Suwarroff, leaving only
riers were burst open, and the fort car- ten thousand men to guard the Valte-
ried, with the loss to the Republicans line and gain possession of the St
of fifteen hundred prisoners.
Gothard. In pursuance of these orders
he crossed the Splugen, and proceeded
by the lake of Como to Milan; while
Hotze vigorously pursued the retreat-
ing enemy in the valley of the Rhine,
and everywhere drove them back to
the Swiss frontiers. Encouraged by
these successes, and the near approach
of the Russian auxiliaries, to push the
war with vigour, the Archduke pub-
lished a proclamation to the Swiss, in
which he announced that he was about
to enter their territory to deliver them
from their chains, and exhorted them
to take up arms against their oppressors.
48. Notwithstanding the strength of
this position, Lecourbe would have
been unable to have maintained his
ground with the right wing against
the impetuous attacks of Hotze, had
that enterprising general been support-
ed by Bellegarde. But the Aulic Coun-
cil, conceiving that Italy was to be the
theatre of decisive operations, directed
the latter to descend into Lombardy,
and reinforce the army there, now
47. This important success occasion-
ed the immediate retreat of the French
armies from the Grisons. Their left
fell back by Sargans to Wallenstatt;
the centre by the gorge of Vettis; the
right by Reichenau, Ilantz, and Disen-
tis, into the valley of Unsern. The
centre of the army was forced; and
had Bellegarde been at hand to follow
up the successes of Hotze, it would
have been all over with the Republi-
cans in Switzerland. As it was, they
did not effect their retreat from the
Grisons without sustaining a loss of
three thousand men in prisoners alone; | At the same time the Rhine was passed
↓
1799.]
237
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
Stein, under Nauendorf; another at
Eglisau; while Hotze crossed the upper
part of the stream in the Grisons, and
penetrated, by the source of the Thur,
into the Toggenberg. To prevent the
junction of the Archduke and Hotze,
Massena left his intrenchments on the
Limmat, and commenced an attack on
the advanced guard of Nauendorf. A
desultory action ensued, which was
maintained with great vigour on both
sides; fresh troops continually came up
to reinforce those who were exhausted
with fatigue; and, though undecisive
upon the whole, Oudinot gained a con-
siderable advantage over an Austrian
division, commanded by Petrasch, which
was defeated with the loss of fifteen hun-
dred prisoners. Nothwithstanding that
check, however, the object was gained;
the Archduke marched on the following
day towards Winterthur, while Hotze
descended with all his forces to support
him. The important post called the
Steigpass was attacked at noon, and
carried by that intrepid general; while
the Archduke effected his junction with
the left wing of his army at Winterthur
and Nestenbach. Massena, upon this,
fell back to Zurich, and the Republicans
confined themselves to their defensive
position on the Limmat.
at all points: a large column crossed at | loss of six hundred prisoners. An Aus-
trian brigade even chased him from
Wasen down to Amsteg, within three
miles of Altdorf, on the lake of Luzern;
but Lecourbe, justly alarmed at so near
an approach, sallied forth from that
place, at the head of a considerable
body of troops, and attacked them with
such vigour, that they were obliged
to retrace their steps in confusion up
the whole valley of Schollenen, and
could only prevent the irruption of
the enemy into the valley of Unsern,
by cutting an arch of the Devil's Bridge.
At the same time, General Xaintrailles,
at the head of a strong French division
which Massena had despatched to the
support of the army of Italy, attacked
and routed a body of six thousand pea-
sants, who had taken post at Leuk, in
the upper Valais, and made himself
master of Brieg, the well-known village
at the foot of the Simplon.
50. Meanwhile, the bulk of the Aus-
trian forces were concentrated in the
environs of Zurich, where Massena still
maintained, with characteristic obsti-
nacy, his defensive position. The
French lines extended from the in-
trenched heights of Zurich, through
those of Regensberg, and thence to the
Rhine, in a direction nearly parallel to
the course of the Aar. The camp around
Zurich was strengthened by the most
formidable redoubts, at which the army
had laboured for above a month; while
the whole country by which it could
be approached, situated between the
Glatt, the Limmat, and the Aar, filled
with wooded heights, and intersected
by precipitous ravines, presented the
greatest obstacles to an attacking army.
On the 5th June, the Archduke, having
assembled all his forces, assailed him
along the whole line. The chief weight
of his attack was directed against Mas-
sena's centre and right. At the latter
point, Hotze gained at first what seem-
ed an important success; his advanced
49. While the French centre was thus
forced back to their interior line of de-
fence, the right wing, under Lecourbe,
was still more severely pressed by the
Imperialists. No sooner had Bellegarde
arrived in Lombardy, than Suwarroff,
who had now arrived and assumed the
general command in Italy, detached
General Haddick, with ten thousand
men, to drive the French from the St
Gothard. Loison's division, defeated at
the Monte Cenere by Hohenzollern, re-
tired up the valley of the Tessino to
Airolo, where it was reinforced by seve-
ral additional battalions, in order to
maintain the passage of the St Gothard,
and give time for the baggage and artil-posts even penetrated into the suburbs
lery to defile to Altdorf. Overwhelmed of Zurich, and carried the whole in-
by numbers Loison was at length driven trenchments which covered the right
over the snowy summit of that rugged of the army. But before the close of
mountain, through the smiling valley of the day, Soult, coming up with the re-
Unsern, and down the deep descent be- serve, regained the lost ground, and
low the Devil's Bridge, to Wasen, with the forced back the Imperialists, after a
|
}
238
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
J
=
I
desperate struggle, to the ground they | the interest of France. The battalions
had occupied at the commencement of of Berne and Soleure, already much
the action. The combat, at the same weakened by desertion, were entirely
time, raged in the centre with uncertain dissolved by that event; while those
success; and at length the Archduke, of Zurich and Turgovia, menaced with
seeing the repulse of Hotze, and deeming military execution on their dwellings
the Zurichberg the decisive point, de- if they continued longer with the ene-
tached General Wallis, with a portion of my, made haste to abandon a cause of
the reserve, to renew the attack, while the which they were already ashamed in
Prince of Lorraine made a simultaneous their hearts. In a week the battalions
effort on the side of the Attisberg. of the Pays de Vaud, and a few hun-
Wallis at first made a great impression, dreds of the most ardent of the Zu-
carried the farm of Zurichberg, and, rich democrats, alone remained of the
after a vehement struggle, arrived at eighteen thousand auxiliaries first as-
the palisades of the intrenchments; but sembled under the tricolor standard.
Massena, seeing the danger, flew to the At the same time, the provisional gov-
spot at the head of a column of grena- ernment of Helvetia, no longer in safety
diers, and assailed the Imperialists in in Luzern, set off for Berne; the long
flank, while a tremendous fire of grape file of its carriages excited the ironical
and musketry from the summit of the contempt of the peasantry, still ardently
works tore down the foremost of their attached to the institutions of their fa-
ranks. Notwithstanding all their ef- thers, in the rural districts through
forts, the Austrians were unable to force which they passed.
the intrenchments; Hotze himself was
severely wounded; and, after a bloody
conflict, they retired over the Glatt,
leaving three thousand killed and
wounded on the field of battle.
52. The details which have now
been given of the campaign of the Alps,
though hardly intelligible to those who
have not traversed the country, or stu-
died the positions with care in an ex-
cellent map, offer the most remarkable
spectacle, in a military point of view,
which the revolutionary war had yet
exhibited. From the 14th May, when
the attack on the fort of Luciensteg
commenced, to the 6th June, when the
intrenched camp at Zurich was aban-
doned, was nothing but one continual
combat, in a vast field of battle, extend-
51. Noways discouraged by this check,
the Archduke, after a day's repose, made
arrangements for a renewal of the at-
tack; and, taught by experience, adopt
ed such dispositions as must have in-
sured success. Before daybreak on the
morning of the 6th, two columns, of
eight thousand men each, were destined
to assault the Zurichberg and the Wip-
chengerberg, while all the left, the re-ing from the snowy summits of the Alps
serve, and part of the centre, were to to the confluence of the great streams
support their attack. But Massena, ap- which flow from their perennial foun-
prehensive of the result, retreated dur- tains. Posterity will hardly believe that
ing the night, defiled over the bridges great armies could be maintained in such
of Zurich and Wettingen, and took post, a situation, and the same unity of opera-
between Luzern and Zurich, on Mount tions communicated to a line one hun-
Albis, a rocky ridge stretching from the dred and fifty miles long, extending from
lake of Zurich to the Aar, in a position Bellinzona to Bâle, across the highest
even stronger than the one he had left. mountains in Europe, as to a small body
The retreat was effected without loss of men manoeuvring on the most favour-
under cover of night; but the great able ground for military operations.
arsenal of Zurich, containing a hundred The consumption of human life during
and fifty pieces of cannon, and immense these actions, prolonged for twenty days
warlike stores, fell on the day following -the forced marches by which they
into the hands of the Imperialists. The were succeeded-the sufferings and pri-
evacuation of the intrenched camp at vations which the troops on both sides
Zurich drew after it the dissolution of endured-the efforts necessary to find
the forces of the Swiss Confederacy in provisions for large bodies in those in-
1799.1
239
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
hospitable regions, in many of which | and benevolent in every age, but which
the traveller or the chamois-hunter can the experienced observer of human
often hardly find a footing, combined events will dismiss to the regions of
to render this warfare both the most imagination, and class with the Utopia
memorable and the most animating of Sir Thomas More, or the probable
which had occurred since the fall of the extinction of death which amused the
Roman empire.
reveries of Condorcet.
}
53. While success was thus attending
the Imperial standards on the Rhine
and the Alps, events of a still more de-
cisive character occurred on the Italian
plains. A few days after the important
battle of Magnano, twenty thousand
Russians, under Suwarroff, joined the
Imperial army, still encamped on the
shores of the Mincio. Thus were the
forces of the north, for the first time
since the commencement of the Revolu-
tion, brought into collision with those
of the south, and that desperate contest
begun which was destined to inflict such
terrible wounds on both empires; to
wrap in flames the towers of the Krem-
lin, to bring the Tartars of the desert
to the shores of the Seine, and ultimate-
ly to establish a new balance of power
in Europe, by arraying all its forces
under the banners either of Asiatic des-
potism or European ambition. The
Emperor Paul, who now entered, with
all the characteristic impetuosity of his
character, into the alliance against
France, had embraced the most exten-
sive and visionary ideas as to the ulte-
rior measures which should be adopted
upon the overthrow of the French re-
volutionary power. He laboured to ac-
complish the formation, not only of a
cordial league between all the sovereigns
of Europe, to stop the progress of an-
archy, but of a system which should
effect the restoration of all the poten-
tates and interests which had been sub-called to command, or turned to such
verted by the French arms, and the good account that ardent spirit and
closing of the great schism between the mingled enthusiasm and superstition
Greek and Catholic Churches, which which distinguish the Sclavonic charac-
had so long divided the Christian world. ter. His favourite weapon was the
He went even so far as to contemplate bayonet; his system of war incessant
the union of the Catholics and Protes- and vigorous attack; and his great ad-
tants, the stilling of all the controver-vantage the impression of superiority
sies which distracted the latter body, and invincible power which a long
and the assemblage of the followers course of success under that method
of Christ, of whatever denomination, had taught to his soldiers. The first
under the banners of one Catholic orders he gave to General Chastelar,
Church. Captivating ideas, which will chief of the staff to the Imperialists,
never cease to attract the enthusiastic were singularly characteristic, both of
►
54. The troops thus brought against
the Republicans, though very different
from the soldiers of Eylau and Boro-
dino, were still formidable by their
discipline, their enthusiasm, and their
stubborn valour. Their cavalry, in-
deed, was poorly equipped, and their
artillery inferior in skill and science to
that of the French; but their infantry,
strong, hardy, and resolute, yielded to
none in Europe in the energy and ob-
stinacy so essential to military success.
Field-marshal SUWARROFF, who com-
manded them, and now assumed the
general direction of the allied army,
though the singularity of his manner
and the extravagance of his ideas in
some particulars have detracted, in the
estimation of foreigners, from his well-
earned reputation, was yet unquestion-
ably one of the most remarkable gene-
rals of the last age. Impetuous, enthu-
siastic, and impassioned, brave in con-
duct, invincible in resolution, endowed
with the confidence and ardour which
constitute the soul of the conqueror,
rather than the vigilance or foresight
which are requisite to the general, he
was better fitted to sweep over the
world with the fierce tempest of Scy-
thian war, than to conduct the long
and cautious contests which civilised
nations maintain with each other. No
man ever understood so well the pecu-
liar character of the troops he was
240
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVIL
E.
3
his temper of mind and system of tac-
tics. That general having proposed a
reconnoissance, the marshal answered
warmly, "Reconnoissance! I am for
none of them; they are of no use but
to the timid, and to inform the enemy
that you are approaching. It is never
difficult to find your opponents when
you really wish it.
Form column;
charge bayonet; plunge into the centre
of the enemy: these are my reconnois-
sances;" words which, amid some ex-
aggeration, unfold more of the real
genius of war than is generally sup-
posed.
55. Pierre Alexis Wasiltowich, Count
Suwarroff, was born in 1730 at Suskoi,
in the Ukraine; so that, when he took
the field against the French in 1799, he
was already sixty-nine years of age.
His father was an officer, and sent him
early to the school of young cadets at
St Petersburg. At the age of seventeen
he entered the army, and made his first
campaign against the Swedes in 1748.
But his energy and valour was soon
called to a greater theatre, and in com-
bating the Prussians under the great
Frederick during the Seven Years' War,
he found an enemy alike worthy of his
imitation, and fit to arouse his rivalry.
He took an active part in the terrible
battle of Cunnersdorf, where the invin-
cible steadiness of the Russian troops
first became known to all Europe, and
was with the detachment which after-
wards gained possession of Berlin. He
distinguished himself subsequently in
several lesser affairs in the same war, par-
ticularly at Landsberg, near Schweid-
nitz, when he made General Corbière
and a considerable body of the Prussians
prisoners. On the conclusion of peace
between the cabinets of St Petersburg
and Berlin in 1762, he returned to his
own country, where he was soon pro-
moted to the rank of colonel, which
was ere long exchanged for that of
brigadier-general.
56. His genius for military affairs
having now become known to the war-
office at St Petersburg, he was employ-
ed, when hostilities next broke out, in
more important commands. In 1768
he commanded a brigade which, in the
first Polish war, took Cracow by assault;
and by the rapidity of its marches, and
the ability with which it was conducted,
rendered the most essential service dur-
ing the campaign. When the Turkish
war broke out in 1773, he was intrusted
with the command of a separate corps,
with which he swam across the Danube,
attacked and beat the enemy in two
encounters, and gained a victory at
Hirsova. Soon after, under Kaminski's
orders, he contributed to the decisive
victory of Korlidgie; and in 1782 effect-
ed the reduction of the Nogay Tartars,
who had revolted against the govern-
ment of Catherine. War having again
broken out with the Turks in 1785, he
was unexpectedly attacked by a large
body of Osmanli horse, in the town of
Kinburn, when his corps, dispersed in
the adjoining country, could ill con-
centrate, and in consequence they gain-
ed at first great suceess over one of his
generals. Instead of showing any agi-
tation when the news arrived, he went
instantly to church, caused "Te Deum"
to be chanted as for a decisive victory,
in which he fervently joined; and hav-
ing meanwhile collected a small body
of troops, he sallied forth when the
service was concluded, attacked the
enemy, who were already approaching
in strength, and, by the vehemence of
his onset, drove them back to a consi-
derable distance. In the middle of his
success, however, he was wounded, and
his soldiers, discouraged by the disap-
pearance of their beloved commander,
again fell into confusion and fled, upon
which Suwarroff leapt from the litter
in which he was carried, mounted bleed-
ing as he was on horseback, and ex-
claiming, "My children, I am still alive,"
again led them against the enemy. The
attack was now so vigorous that the
Turks were driven down to the water's
edge, and all killed or taken, to the
number of six thousand men.

57. Shortly after this glorious ex-
ploit, he took part under Potemkin in
the siege of Oczakoff, on which memor-
able occasion he commanded the right
wing of the army, and received a severe
wound in the neck, and was soon after
nearly killed by the blowing-up of a
powder magazine. These injuries con-
fined him for some months to bed. In
1799.]
241
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
Sa
1789, however, being recovered from | but you have made yourself field-mar-
his wounds, he again commanded a di- shal by the conquest of Poland."
vision of the Muscovites on the Danube, Shortly after, the Empress died; and
and gained the brilliant victory of Fok- Suwarroff, who had the most profound
schany. Shortly after, the Turks hav-veneration for her, was far from being
ing received immense reinforcements, equally submissive to her successor
the Grand Vizier advanced at the head Paul, whose minute and peremptory
of a hundred thousand men against the regulations about the soldier's dress,
Austrian army under Cobourg, which proved exceedingly vexatious to the
was reduced by sickness and the losses of old field-marshal. "Hair-powder," said
the campaign to eighteen thousand com- he, "is not gunpowder, and pig-tails to
batants. Their destruction appeared in- the hair are not bayonets." These, and
evitable; for the Osmanlis, who had en- a variety of similar sallies, occasioned
tirely surrounded the Austrian general, his banishment from the court; but
had regained all their ancient audacity, the army loudly murmured at his dis-
and confidently anticipated his immedi- grace, and, on the breaking out of the
ate surrender. But Suwarroff no sooner war with France in 1799, he was al-
heard of his danger than he flew at the most as a matter of course placed at
head of ten thousand Russians to his the head of the army.
relief; and, skilfully concealing his
march from the enemy, combined his
attack with Cobourg with such ability,
that he gained a complete victory. The
victorious Russians immediately in-
vested Ismael, which was carried by
storm after a dreadful struggle, in which
twelve thousand of the victors, and
twenty-four thousand of the vanquish-
ed, fell. The booty was immense; but
Suwarroff, without retaining an article
to himself, surrendered his whole share
to his soldiers. His despatch to the
Empress announcing this triumph was
laconic and characteristic-"Mother,*
Ismael is at your feet."
59. Suwarroff was not only a general
of the very highest order, but he was
a man of a character and turn of mind
peculiar to Russia, and which belong
perhaps exclusively to the Sclavonic
race. He united, in the most eminent
degree, the enthusiastic ardour with the
nice perception and address in manner
which distinguishes that great family
of mankind. Eminently national in
his ideas and attachments, he often af-
fected the dress, habits, and manners
of his Tartar ancestors; and the bizarre
contrast which this afforded to the re-
finements of a luxurious court and ele-
gant nobility, frequently gave occasion
among foreigners to misconception and
surprise. But although, to maintain
his influence over his troops, to whom
such peculiarities were inexpressibly
dear, he retained these habits, he had
58. The conquest of Poland and sack
of Praga, which was the next achieve-
ment of the conqueror of Ismael, has
affixed a darker spot on his memory,
for the carnage was terrific, and fell in
great part on the citizens. Yet, even the whole diplomatic finesse of the
on that dreadful day, when the Vistula | Russian in his character.
He was
ran red with Christian blood, and Po-highly educated, polished in his man-
land expiated the popular insanity of ners, could speak and write seven lan-
five centuries, impartial justice must guages with facility, had read much,
admire the skill of his design, the irre- especially on the art of war, and no one,
sistible fury of his attacks, the iron when necessary, could assume a more
arm which terminated a war and ex- refined and courtly address. When
tinguished a nation in a single day. introduced to the Empress Catherine,
"You know," said Catherine, in reply he often, to amuse her, spoke at first
to his despatch announcing this deci- in the uncouth strains of the soldiers,
sive triumph, "that I never promote and sometimes like a mere buffoon; but
an officer before his turn; I am in- when she said, "Come now, general,
capable of doing injustice to his senior; we have had enough of this, let us pro-
ceed to business," no one brought for-
ward more lucid views, or more clearly
* The usual expression of the soldiers in ad-
dressing the Empress.
244
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVII.
f
Ti
j
1
:
!
:
tion by embarking on the Lake of Como,
steering for Menagio, and making his
way to the Lake of Lugano by the
beautiful valley, so well known to tra-
vellers, which leads from that place to
Porlezza. By remaining in his position
at Verderio while the allied army was
advancing, Serurier necessarily was
soon enveloped by their columns;
evincing thus rather the courage of a
soldier who disdains to retire, than
the conduct of an officer who knows
how to extricate his men from diffi-
culties. He was soon surrounded on
all sides by the Imperialists; and, after
an honourable resistance, finding his
retreat cut off, and the assailants triple
his own force, laid down his arms with
seven thousand men. At the same
time, Melas carried the tête-de-pont at
Cassano, and pursued the fugitives
with such vigour that he passed the
bridge pell-mell with them, and pushed
on before night to Gorgonzale, on the
road to Milan.
65. The situation of the French was
now in the highest degree critical. In
these engagements they had lost above
eleven thousand men, and could now,
even with all the reinforcements which
they received, hardly muster in their
retreat twenty thousand to meet the
great army of the Allies, above sixty
thousand strong, which was advancing
in pursuit. In these disastrous cir-
cumstances, Milan was abandoned, and
the army withdrawn behind the Tes-
sino. Suwarroff, the same day, made
his triumphal entry into that capital,
amidst the transports of the Catholic
and aristocratic party, and the loud ap-
plause of the multitude, who greeted
him with the same acclamations which
they had lavished, on a similar occasion,
on Napoleon three years before. The
Republican army, having left a garri-
son of two thousand men in the castle,
moved slowly in two columns towards
Turin in deep dejection, and heavily
burdened with the numerous families
compromised by the Revolution, who
now pursued their mournful way
wards the frontiers of France.
66. Nothing now remained to Mor-
eau but to retire to such a position, as
might enable him to rally to his stan-
噂
​dards the yet unbroken army which
Macdonald was bringing up from the
south of the peninsula. For this pur-
pose he divided his forces into two
columns, one of which, under his own
command, escorting the parks of artil-
lery, the baggage, and military chest
took the road to Turin, while the other,
consisting of the divisions of Victor
and Laboissière, moved towards Ales-
sandria, with a view to occupy the de-
files of the Bochetta and the approaches
to Genoa. Having effected the evacu-
ation of the town and the arsenal of
Turin, provided for the defence of the
citadel, in which he left a garrison of
three thousand men, under General
Fiorilla, and secured the communica-
tions with the adjacent passes of the
Alps, the French general moved the
remainder of his army into the plain
between the Po and the Tanaro, at the
foot of the northern slope and prin-
cipal debouches of the Apennines, where
they encircle the Bay of Genoa and join
the Maritime Alps. This position,-ex-
tending only over a front of four leagues,
supported on the right by Alessandria,
and on the left by Valence, affording
the means of manoeuvring either on
the Bormida or the Po, and covering at
once the roads from Asti to Turin and
Coni, and those from Acqui to Nizza
and Savona,-was better adapted than
any other that could have been selected
to enable the Republicans to maintain
their footing in Italy, until they were
reinforced by the army of Macdonald,
or received assistance from the interior
of France.
|
67. Master of all the plain of Lom-
bardy, and at the head of an over-
whelming force, Suwarroff did not
evince that activity in pursuing the
broken remains of his adversary which
might have been expected from the
general vigour of his character. For
above a week he gave himself up to
festivities at Milan, while an army hard-
ly a third of his own was in full retreat,
by diverging columns, before him. At
to-length, finding his active disposition
wearied with triumphal honours, he
set out for Alessandria, leaving Latter-
man to blockade the castle of Milan
with four thousand men. At the same
1799.]
241
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1789, however, being recovered from | but you have made yourself field-mar-
his wounds, he again commanded a di- shal by the conquest of Poland."
vision of the Muscovites on the Danube, Shortly after, the Empress died; and
and gained the brilliant victory of Fok- Suwarroff, who had the most profound
schany. Shortly after, the Turks hav-veneration for her, was far from being
ing received immense reinforcements, equally submissive to her successor
the Grand Vizier advanced at the head Paul, whose minute and peremptory
of a hundred thousand men against the regulations about the soldier's dress,
Austrian army under Cobourg, which proved exceedingly vexatious to the
was reduced by sickness and the losses of old field-marshal. "Hair-powder," said
the campaign to eighteen thousand com- he, "is not gunpowder, and pig-tails to
batants. Their destruction appeared in- the hair are not bayonets." These, and
evitable; for the Osmanlis, who had en- a variety of similar sallies, occasioned
tirely surrounded the Austrian general, his banishment from the court; but
had regained all their ancient audacity, the army loudly murmured at his dis-
and confidently anticipated his immedi- grace, and, on the breaking out of the
ate surrender. But Suwarroff no sooner war with France in 1799, he was al-
heard of his danger than he flew at the most as a matter of course placed at
head of ten thousand Russians to his the head of the army.
relief; and, skilfully concealing his
march from the enemy, combined his
attack with Cobourg with such ability,
that he gained a complete victory. The
victorious Russians immediately in-
vested Ismael, which was carried by
storm after a dreadful struggle, in which
twelve thousand of the victors, and
twenty-four thousand of the vanquish-
ed, fell. The booty was immense; but
Suwarroff, without retaining an article
to himself, surrendered his whole share
to his soldiers. His despatch to the
Empress announcing this triumph was
laconic and characteristic-" Mother,*
Ismael is at your feet."
58. The conquest of Poland and sack
of Praga, which was the next achieve-
ment of the conqueror of Ismael, has
affixed a darker spot on his memory,
for the carnage was terrific, and fell in
great part on the citizens. Yet, even
on that dreadful day, when the Vistula
ran red with Christian blood, and Po-
land expiated the popular insanity of
five centuries, impartial justice must
admire the skill of his design, the irre-
sistible fury of his attacks, the irou
arm which terminated a war and ex-
tinguished a nation in a single day.
"You know," said Catherine, in reply
to his despatch announcing this deci-
sive triumph, "that I never promote
an officer before his turn; I am iz-
capable of doing injustice to his senior;
59. Suwarroff was not only a general
of the very highest order, but he was
a man of a character and turn of mind
peculiar to Russia, and which belong
perhaps exclusively to the Sclavonic
race. He united, in the most eminent
degree, the enthusiastic ardour with the
nice perception and address in manner
which distinguishes that great family
of mankind. Eminently national in
his ideas and attachments, he often af-
fected the dress, habits, and manners
of his Tartar ancestors; and the bizarre
contrast which this afforded to the re-
finements of a luxurious court and ele-
gant nobility, frequently gave occasion
among foreigners to misconception and
surprise. But although, to maintain
his influence over his troops, to whom
such peculiarities were inexpressibly
dear, he retained these habits, he had
the whole diplomatic finesse of the
Russian in his character.
He was
highly educated, polished in his man-
ners, could speak and write seven lan-
guages with facility, had read much,
especially on the art of war, and no one,
when necessary, could assume a more
refined and courtly address. When
introduced to the Empress Catherine,
he often, to amuse her, spoke at first
in the uncouth strains of the soldiers,
and sometimes like a mere buffoon; but
when he said, "Come now, general,
we hav; had enough of this, let us pro-
ceed to Jusiness," no one brought for-
ward more lucid views, or more clearly
* The usual expression of the soldiers in ad-
dressing the Empress.
j
::
242
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVII.
•
!
1
i
H
12
Gothard by the French posted in the
rocks, he desired a grave to be dug,
and ordered his soldiers to place him
in it, for he would not survive his chil-
dren's discomfiture. He was perhaps
the only general, after Marlborough,
recorded in history, who never sus-
tained a defeat; a fact which speaks
volumes as to his military capacity,
for none ever exceeded him in the dar-
ing and hardihood of his attacks.
+
struck at the essential points of the
subject. He had the greatest admira-
tion of Napoleon, and was peculiarly
captivated by the vehemence and dar-
ing of his campaign in Italy, which was
entirely in accordance with his own
fiery temperament in war. Alone, per-
haps, of all the statesmen and warriors
in Europe, he saw the necessity of
straining every nerve to arrest his dan-
gerous ascendancy. In 1797, he said
to General Koves, "They should in-
stantly send me to combat Buonaparte;
if not, he will ere long pass over the
body of Germany, and will end by
coming to seek us at our hearths."
60. No general, in ancient or modern
times, understood better the spirit of
the soldier and the moral incitements
which have so material an influence in
war. He had also, like Alexander and
Hannibal, that great quality which is
perhaps of still higher importance in
gaining their affections, a constitution
of iron, and a patience under privation |
which enabled him to share without
difficulty all their hardships. Often,
when provisions were scarce, he pro-
claimed a fast for a day, telling his
soldiers that their sins called for such
a mortification; and it was cheerfully
obeyed, for he set the first example of
abstaining from food during the pre-
scribed period himself. Like Napo-
leon, he frequently shared the soldier's
bivouac, and partook of his fare; he
marched on foot with the infantry,
rode at the head of the cavalry, labour-
ed in the trenches with the pioneers,
and often strove to pull a gun out of
the mud with the artillerymen. To
inspire confidence in his men was his
great object. When the Grand Vizier
threatened him with an immediate at-
tack at Rimniski, and the danger was
imminent, as the Austrians under Co-
bourg had not yet arrived, seeing that
two hours must elapse before the ac-
tion commenced, he retired to a warm
bath after his dispositions were made,
and when the intelligence arrived that
the heads of the Austrian columns were
in view, he came out, dressed in pre-
sence of the soldiers, and led them to
the attack. And when his leading files
were repulsed at the foot of the Stracy.
61. Fearless and impetuous in con-
versation as action, the Russian veteran
made no secret of the ultimate designs
with which his imperial master had
entered into the war. To restore every-
thing to the state in which it was be-
fore the French Revolution broke out;
to overturn the new republics, re-estab-
lish, without exception, the dispossess-
ed princes, restrain universally the
spread of revolutionary ideas, punish
the authors of fresh disturbances, and
substitute for the cool policy of calcu-
lating interest, a frank, generous, dis-
interested system, was the only way,
he constantly maintained, to put down
effectually the Gallic usurpation. The
Austrian officers, startled at such novel
ideas, carefully reported them to the
cabinet of Vienna, where they excited
no small disquietude. To expel the
French from the whole Italian penin-
sula, and, if possible, raise up an effec-
tual barrier against any future incur-
sions in that quarter from their ambi-
tion, was, indeed, a favourite object of
their policy; but it was no part of
their designs to sanction a universal
restitution of the possessions acquired
since the commencement of the war,
or exchange the distant and rebellious
province of Flanders for the rich and
submissive Venetian territories adjoin-
ing the Hereditary States, and afford-
ing them at all times a secure entrance
into the Italian plains. Hence a secret
jealousy and distrust speedily arose
between the coalesced powers; and ex-
perienced observers already began to
predict, from the very rapidity of the
success with which their arms were at
first attended, the evolution of such
causes of discord as would ultimately
lead to the dissolution of the confede-
4
1799.]
243
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
3
v
62. The plan of operations concerted | retired behind the line of the Adda, a ra-
between the Archduke and Suwarroff pid stream, which, descending from the
was to separate entirely the French lake of Lecco, runs in a deep and swift
armies of Switzerland and Italy, and torrent, over a surface of twenty-four
to combine the movements of the two leagues, to the Po. The right bank is
allied armies by the conquest of the almost everywhere so lofty as to com-
Italian Alps, Lombardy, and Piedmont, mand the left; and the bridges at Lec-
in order to penetrate into France on its co, Cassano, Lodi, and Pizzighitone are
most defenceless side, by the Vosges defended either by fortified towns or
mountains and the defiles of the Jura strong têtes-de-pont. On the 25th April
-the same quarter on which the great the Allies approached this formidable
invasion of 1814 was afterwards effect- line; and a sharp skirmish ensued be-
ed. It was on this principle that they ween the Russians, under Prince BA-
maintained so vigorous a contest under GRATHION, destined to meet a glorious
Bellegarde and Hotze, in the Val-le- death on the field of Borodino, and the
vantina and the Grisons; and by their French, before the walls of Lecco, in
successes the right wing of Massena which the former were repulsed; com-
was forced to retire: the Imperialists mencing thus a contest which was
were interposed in a salient angle be- never destined to be finally extinguish-
tween the Republican armies, and the ed till the Russian standards waved on
one of these thrown back on the line the heights of Montmartre.
of the Po, the other on that of the
Aar. Moreau succeeded Scherer in
the command of the army of Italy at
this momentous crisis. He found it
reduced by sickness and the sword to
twenty-eight thousand combatants;
and, after a vain attempt to maintain
the line of the Oglio, the troops retired
towards Milan, leaving the immense
military stores and reserve artillery
parks at Cremona to the conquerors;
while a bridge equipage, which was de-
scending the Mincio from Mantua,
with a view to gain the Po, also fell
into the hands of the Allies.
*
63. Moreau, finding himself cut off
from his connection with Massena in
the Alps, and being unable to face the
Allies in the plains of Lombardy, re-
solved to retire towards the mountains
of Genoa, in order to facilitate his junc-
tion with Macdonald, who had received
orders to evacuate the Parthenopeian
republic, and retire upon the Apen-
nines. Mantua was blockaded; and all
the frontier towns of the Cisalpine re-
public were abandoned to their own re-
sources. Soon after, Peschiera was in-
vested, Ferrara besieged, and Brescia
summoned. Kray, to whom the right
wing was intrusted, carried the latter
town without opposition; and the gar-
rison, eleven hundred strong, who had
retired into the castle, soon after sur-
64. Suwarroff left twenty thousand
men, under Kray, to besiege Peschiera
and blockade Mantua, and prepared to
force the passage of the Adda. To
frustrate this intention, Moreau accu-
mulated his troops in masses on that
part of the river which seemed chiefly
threatened. But while actively en-
gaged in this design, the Austrian di-
vision of General Ott succeeded in
throwing_over a bridge during the
night at Trezzo, and before morning
his whole troops had crossed over to
the right; while, at the same time,
Wukassowich surprised the passage at
Brivio. The French line was thus di-
vided into three parts; and Serurier's
division, eight thousand strong, which
formed the extreme left, was not only
cut off from all support, but even from
receiving any orders from the remain-
der of the army. The divisions of Ott
and Zoph commenced a furious attack
on Grenier's men, and, after a brave
resistance, drove them back towards
Milan, with a loss of two thousand four
hundred men, including eleven hun-
dred prisoners; while Serurier, whose
division was entirely isolated by the
passage of Wukassowich at Brivio, took
post at Verderio, in a strong position,
determined to defend himself to the
last extremity. Guillet, with the bri-
gade under his orders, who was return-
rendered at discretion. The Frenchnowing from the Valteline, escaped destruc-
..
244
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
steering for Menagio, and making his
way to the Lake of Lugano by the
beautiful valley, so well known to tra-
vellers, which leads from that place to
Porlezza. By remaining in his position
at Verderio while the allied army was
advancing, Serurier necessarily was
soon enveloped by their columns;
evincing thus rather the courage of a
soldier who disdains to retire, than
the conduct of an officer who knows
how to extricate his men from diffi-
culties. He was soon surrounded on
all sides by the Imperialists; and, after
an honourable resistance, finding his
retreat cut off, and the assailants triple
his own force, laid down his arms with
seven thousand men. At the same
time, Melas carried the tête-de-pont at
Cassano, and pursued the fugitives
with such vigour that he passed the
bridge pell-mell with them, and pushed
on before night to Gorgonzale, on the
road to Milan.
tion by embarking on the Lake of Como, | dards the yet unbroken army which
Macdonald was bringing up from the
south of the peninsula. For this pur-
pose he divided his forces into two
columns, one of which, under his own
command, escorting the parks of artil-
lery, the baggage, and military chest
took the road to Turin, while the other,
consisting of the divisions of Victor
and Laboissière, moved towards Ales-
sandria, with a view to occupy the de-
files of the Bochetta and the approaches
to Genoa. Having effected the evacu-
ation of the town and the arsenal of
Turin, provided for the defence of the
citadel, in which he left a garrison of
three thousand men, under General
Fiorilla, and secured the communica-
tions with the adjacent passes of the
Alps, the French general moved the
remainder of his army into the plain
between the Po and the Tanaro, at the
foot of the northern slope and prin-
cipal debouches of the Apennines, where
they encircle the Bay of Genoa and join
the Maritime Alps. This position,-
tending only over a front of four leagues,
supported on the right by Alessandria,
and on the left by Valence, affording
the means of manoeuvring either on
the Bormida or the Po, and covering at
once the roads from Asti to Turin and
Coni, and those from Acqui to Nizza
and Savona,-was better adapted than
any other that could have been selected
to enable the Republicans to maintain
their footing in Italy, until they were
reinforced by the army of Macdonald,
or received assistance from the interior
of France.
65. The situation of the French was
now in the highest degree critical. In
these engagements they had lost above
eleven thousand men, and could now,
even with all the reinforcements which
they received, hardly muster in their
retreat twenty thousand to meet the
great army of the Allies, above sixty
thousand strong, which was advancing
in pursuit. In these disastrous cir-
cumstances, Milan was abandoned, and
the army withdrawn behind the Tes-
sino. Suwarroff, the same day, made
his triumphal entry into that capital,
amidst the transports of the Catholic
and aristocratic party, and the loud ap-
plause of the multitude, who greeted
him with the same acclamations which
they had lavished, on asimilar occasion,
on Napoleon three years before. The
Republican army, having left a garri-
son of two thousand men in the castle,
moved slowly in two columns towards
Turin in deep dejection, and heavily
burdened with the numerous families
compromised by the Revolution, who
now pursued their mournful way to-
wards the frontiers of France.
66. Nothing now remained to Mor-
eau but to retire to such a position, as
might enable him to rally to his stan-
67. Master of all the plain of Lom-
bardy, and at the head of an over-
whelming force, Suwarroff did not
evince that activity in pursuing the
broken remains of his adversary which
might have been expected from the
general vigour of his character. For
above a week he gave himself up to
festivities at Milan, while an army hard-
ly a third of his own was in full retreat,
by diverging columns, before him. At
length, finding his active disposition
wearied with triumphal honours, he
set out for Alessandria, leaving Latter-
man to blockade the castle of Milan
with four thousand men. At the same
1799.]
245
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
time Orci, Novi, Peschiera, and Pizzig- | first into the island, then across to the
hitone surrendered to the Allies, with a northern bank, with the loss of eight
hundred pieces of cannon, twenty gun-hundred killed and wounded, four
boats, a siege equipage, and immense pieces of cannon, and seven hundred
stores of ammunition and provisions; prisoners. No sooner was Suwarroff
an advantage which enabled Kray to informed of the first success of Rosen-
draw closer the blockade of Mantua, berg's attack, than he pushed forward
and despatch Hohenzollern to assist at two divisions to support him, while
the siege of the castle of Milan. On the another was advanced towards Maren-
9th the Allies reached Tortona, blew go to effect a diversion; but the bad
open the gates and drove the French success of the enterprise, which failed
into the citadel; while their advanced because. it was not combined with suf-
posts were pushed to San Juliano, Garo- ficient support at the first, rendered it
falo, and Novi. Meanwhile, though a necessary that they thould be recalled,
reinforcement of six thousand Russians and the allied army was concentrated
arrived at Tortona, Moreau remained anew in the intrenched camp of Garo-
firm in his position behind the Po and falo. A few days after this, Suwarroff
the Tanaro. To divert his attention, raised his camp at San Juliano, with
the Russian general extended his left the design of crossing the Po near
from Novi to Serravalle and Gavi, Casa Tenia, and marching upon Sesia.
threatening thereby his communica- The attempt was not attended with
tions with Genoa and France; but this decisive success. A warm action en-
was a mere feint, intended to mask his sued between the division of Victor,
real design, which was to cross the Po, which had crossed the Bormida near
turn Moreau's left, and force him to a Alessandria, and the Russian advanced-
general and decisive action.
guard, nine thousand strong, under the
68. The right, or southern bank of orders of Generals Bagrathion and
the Po, from the junction of the Ta- Lusignan. Victory was long doubt-
naro to Valence, is more lofty than the ful, and although the French were at
northern, which is low, marshy, and length forced to retreat under shelter
approachable only on dykes. Some of the cannon of Alessandria, the de-
large islands opposite Mugarone hav-monstration led to no serious impres-
ing afforded facilities for the passage, sion at the time on the position of the
Rosenberg, who commanded one of Republican general.
Suwarroff's divisions directed against
Valence, was induced, by his military
ardour, to attempt to cross it in that
quarter. In the night of the 11th, he
threw six thousand men across the
principal arm into a wooded island,
from whence they shortly passed over,
some by swimming, others by wading,
with the water up to their armpits,
and took possession of the village of
Mugarone. Moreau no sooner heard
of this descent, than he directed an
overwhelming force to the menaced
point; the Russians, vigorously attack-
ed in the village, were soon compelled
to retire; in vain they formed squares,
and, under Prince Rosenberg and the
Archduke Constantine, defended them-
selves with the characteristic bravery
of their nation; assailed on every side,
and torn to pieces by a murderous fire
of grape-shot, they were driven back,
69. Tired with the unsatisfactory
nature of these manoevures, Suwarroff
resolved to march with the bulk of his
forces upon Turin, where the vast ma-
gazines of artillery and military stores
of the French army were assembled, in
the hope that, by reducing its citadel,
and occupying the plains of Piedmont
to the foot of the Alps, the position of
Moreau on the Po and the Tanaro
might be rendered no longer tenable,
from the interruption of his communi-
cations with France. By a singular
coincidence, not unusual in war, at the
very time that the Russian marshal
was adopting this resolution, Moreau
had resolved, on his part, to retire by
Asti, upon Turin and Coni, and, aban-
doning the line of the Apennines, con-
centrate his forces upon the inhospit-
able ridges which connect them with
the Alps for the preservation of his
+
T
246
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
+
communication with France on the
one hand, and with Macdonald's army,
approaching through Tuscany from the
south of Italy, on the other. Invincible
necessity compelled him to adopt this
retrograde movement. Great part of
Piedmont was in a state of insurrec-
tion; a large body of peasants had re-
cently occupied Ceva, another had made
themselves masters of Mondovi, which
closed the principal line of retreat for
the army, the only one then practicable
for artillery and carriages. The recent
success of the Russians towards Ales-
sandria led him to believe that the
weight of their force was to be moved
in that direction, and that he would
soon be in danger of having his com-
munications with France cut off. In-
fluenced by these considerations, he
detached the division of Victor, with-
out artillery or baggage, by the moun-
tain paths, towards Genoa, in order to
maintain the crest of the Apennines,
and reinforce, when necessary, the
army of Macdonald, which was ap-
proaching from Naples; while he him-
self, having first thrown three thousand
men into Alessandria, retired by Asti
towards Turin, with the design of main-guard, under Grouchy, to clear the road
taining himself, if possible, at Coni, the he was to follow, by retaking Mondovi
last fortified place on the Italian side of and Ceva, into the latter of which the
the Alps, until he received the pro- Austrians had succeeded in throwing a
mised reinforcements from the interior small garrison to support the insurgents
of France.
who had occupied it. That general re-
took Mondovi; but all his efforts failed
before the ramparts of Ceva. The clos-
ing of the great road through this town
rendered Moreau's situation apparently
hopeless. Suwarroff, with a superior
force, was close in his rear; the only
route practicable for artillery by which
he could regain the Apennines was
blocked up; and he could not retire by
the Col de Tende into France, without
abandoning all prospect of rejoining
Macdonald, and leaving the army of that
general to certain destruction. From
this desperate situation, the Republi-
cans were extricated by the skill and
vigour of their chief, aided by the re-
sources of Guilleminot and the engineer
corps under his directions. By their
exertions, and the indefatigable efforts
of one-half of the French army, a moun-
tain path, leading across the Apen-
·
3
70. No sooner was Suwarroff inform-
ed of the retreat of Moreau, than he
occupied Valence and Casale, which
had been abandoned by the Republi-
cans; and, after having moved forward
a strong body under Schwiekowsky to
form the investment of Alessandria, ad-
vanced himself with the main body of
the army towards Turin. Wukassovich,
who commanded the advanced-guard,
with the aid of some inhabitants of the
town who favoured his designs, sur-
prised one of the gates, and rapidly
introducing his troops, compelled the
French to take refuge in the citadel.
The fruits of this conquest were two
hundred and sixty-one pieces of can-
non, eighty mortars, sixty thousand
muskets, besides an enormous quan-
tity of ammunition and military stores,
which had been accumulating in that
city ever since the first occupation of
Italy by the arms of Napoleon This
great stroke, the success of which was
owing to the celerity and skill of the
Russian generals, deprived Moreau of
all his resources, and rendered the si-
tuation both of his own army and that
of Macdonald in the highest degree
critical. At the same time, intelli-
gence was received of the fall of the
castle of Milan, after four days of open
trenches-an advantage which permit-
ted the division of Hohenzollern to re-
inforce the besieging army before Man-
tua; while the artillery was despatched
to Tortona, the citadel of which was
now closely invested.
71. Unable from these disasters to
maintain his ground in the basin of
Piedmont, Moreau now thought only
of regaining his position on the ridge
of the Apennines, and covering the ap-
proaches to the city of Genoa-the only
rallying point where he could still hope
to effect a junction with Macdonald, and
which covered the principal line of re-
treat for both armies into France. For
this purpose he retired to Savigliano,
having first moved forward an advanced
1799.]
247
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
nines from the valley of Garessio to the | the whole plain of Lombardy was re-
gained, with the exception of a few of
its strongest fortresses; the conquests of
Napoleon had been lost in less time
than it had taken to make them; and
the Republican armies, divided and dis-
coast of Genoa, was, in four days, render-
ed practicable for artillery and chariots;
and as soon as this was done, the block-
ade of Ceva was raised, three thousand
men were thrown as a garrison into Coni,
which was abandoned to its own re-pirited, instead of carrying the thunder
sources; and the remainder of the army, of their victorious arms over the Ital-
after a strong rear-guard had been post-ian peninsula, were reduced to a pain-
ed at Murialto to cover the passage, ful and hazardous defence of their own
defiled over the narrow and rocky path, frontiers. A hundred thousand men
and arrived in safety at Loano, on the were spread over the plain of Lombardy,
southern side of the mountains. No of whom forty thousand were grouped
sooner were they arrived there than under Suwarroff round Turin. History
they formed a junction with Victor, has not a more brilliant or decisive
who had successfully accomplished his series of triumphs to record; and they
retreat by Acqui, Špegno, and Dego, demonstrate on how flimsy and inse-
and occupied all the passes leading to- cure a basis the French dominion at
wards Genoa over the Apennines; Vic- that period rested; how much it was
tor was intrusted with the important dependent on the genius and activity
post of Portremoli, while the other di- of a single individual; how inadequate
visions placed themselves on the crest the revolutionary government was to
of the mountains from Loano to the the long-continued and sustained efforts
Bochetta.
which were requisite to maintain the
contest from their own resources; and
how easily, by a combined effort of all
the powers at that critical period, when
Napoleon was absent, and time and wis-
dom had not consolidated the conquests
of democracy, they might have been
wrested from their grasp, and the peace
of Europe established on an equitable
foundation. But, notwithstanding all
their reverses, the European govern-
ments were not as yet sufficiently awak
ened to the dangers of their situation.
Prussia still kept aloof in dubious neu-
trality; Russia was not irrevocably en-
gaged in the cause; and Great Britain,
as yet confining her efforts to the sub-
sidising of other powers, had not de-
scended as a principal into the field, or
begun to pour forth, on land at least,
those streams of blood which were
destined to be shed before the great
struggle was brought to a termination.
74. These successes, great as they
were, were yet not such as might have
been achieved, if the Russian general,
neglecting all minor considerations, and
blockading only the principal fortresses,
had vigorously followed up with his
overwhelming force the retreating army
of the Republicans, and driven it over
the Maritime Alps. Unable to with-
stand so formidable an assailant, they
72. Suwarroff, on being informed of
the retreat of Moreau from the plain of
Piedmont, spread his troops overits rich
surface, and up the glens which run from
thence into the heart of the Alps. The
Russian divisions entered into the beau-
tiful valleys of Suza, St Jean de Mauri-
enne, and Aosta. Froelich pushed his
advanced posts to the neighbourhood
of Coni: Pignerol capitulated; Suza
surrendered at discretion; and the ad-
vanced posts of the Allies, everywhere
appearing on the summit of the Alpine
passes, spread consternation over the
ancient frontiers of France. At the same
time the citadel of Turin was closely
invested; the sieges of Tortona and
Alessandria were pushed with vigour;
while intelligence was received that a
detachment, sent by Kray from before
Mantua, had made itself master of Fer-
rara; that a flotilla from Venice had
surprised Ravenna, and an insurrection
had broken out in the mountainous
parts of Tuscany and the Ecclesiastical
States, which threatened Ancona, and
had already wrested Arezzo and Lucca
from the Republicans.
73. Thus, in less than three months
after the opening of the campaign on
the Adige, the French standards were
driven back to the summit of the Alps;
·
•
248
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
F

to
must have retired within the French | been involved in those consequences,
frontier, leaving not only Mantua and the invariable attendant on a sudden
Genoa, but the army which occupied concession of power to the people—
the Neapolitan territory, to its fate. spoliation of the rich, misery among
This bold and decisive plan of opera- the poor, destruction of credit, and in-
tions was such as suited the ardent cha- extricable embarrassment in the fin-
racter of the Russian general, and the ances of the state. In truth, the Di-
one which, if left to himself, he would rectory, pressed by extreme pecuniary
unquestionably have adopted; but his difficulties, looked to nothing so much
better judgment was overruled by the in their conquests as indemnifying them-
cautious policy of the Aulic Council, selves for the expenses of their expedi-
who, above all things, were desirous tions, and invariably made it the first
secure a fortified frontier for their Ve- condition with all the revolutionary
netian acquisitions, and compelled him, states which they established, that they
much against his will, to halt in the should pay the costs of the war, and
midst of the career of victory, and be- take upon themselves the sole support
siege in form the fortresses of Lombardy. of the armies which were to defend
Something was no doubt gained by them. In conformity with these in-
their reduction; but not to be compar-structions, the first fruits of democratic
ed with what might have been expect- ascendancy in Naples were found to be
ed if an overwhelming mass had been bitter in the extreme. The successive
interposed between the French armies, contributions of twelve and fifteen mil-
and the conquerors of Naples had been lions of francs levied on the capital and
compelled to lay down their arms be- provinces, of which mention has al-
tween the Apennines and the Po.* ready been made, excited the utmost
dissatisfaction, which was greatly in-
creased soon after by the experienced
insolence and rapacity of the civil agents
of the Directory. A provisional gov-
|
75. While these disastrous events were
in progress in the north of the Penin-
sula, the affairs of France were not in
a more favourable train in its southern
provinces. The Parthenopeian repub-ernment was established, which intro-
lic, established at Naples in the first duced innovations that excited general
fervour of revolutionary success, had alarm; the Jacobin clubs speedily be-
gan to diffuse the arrests and terror of
revolutionary times; the national guard
totally failed in producing any efficient
force to insure the public safety; while
the confiscation of the church property,
and the abolition of its festivals, spread
dismay and horror through that large
portion of the population who were
still attached to the Catholic faith, or
lived on its charities. These circum-
stances speedily produced partial in-
surrections. Cardinal Ruffo, in Cala-
bria, succeeded in exciting a revolt, and
led to the field an army, fifteen thousand
strong, composed of the descendants
of the Bruttians and Luccanians; while
another insurrection, hardly less for-
midable, broke out in the province of
Apulia. But these tumultuary bodies,
imperfectly armed, and totally undis-
ciplined, were unable to withstand the
veteran troops of France. Trani, where
the principal force of the insurgents of
the latter province had established
* A Russian officer of Suwarroff's staff at
this juncture wrote to Count Rostopchin at
St Petersburg:-" Our glorious operations
are thwarted by those very persons who are
most interested in their success. Far from
applauding the brilliant triumphs of our arms,
the cursed cabinet of Vienna seeks only to re-
tard their march. It insists that our great
Suwarroff should divide his army, and direct
it at once to several points, which will save
Moreau from total destruction. That cabinet,
which fears a too rapid conquest of Italy, from
designs which it dares not avow, as it knows
well those of our magnanimous Emperor,
has, by the Aulic Council, forced the Arch-
duke Charles into a state of inactivity, and
enjoined our incomparable chief to secure his
conquests rather than extend them; that the
army is to waste its time and strength in the
siege of fortresses which would fall of them-
selves if the French army were destroyed.
What terrifies them even more than the ra-
pidity of our conquests, is the generous pro-
ject, openly announced, of restoring to every
one what he has lost. Deceived by his min-
isters, the Emperor Francis has, with his
own hand, written to our illustrious general
to pause in a career of conquest of which the
very rapidity fills him with alarm."-HARD.
vii. 249, 250.

1799.]
249
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
themselves, was carried by assault with
great slaughter; but, on the other hand,
Ruffo, in Calabria, defeated an attack
on Castellucio by the democratic bands
of the new republic; and, encouraged
by this success, marched into Apulia,
where his forces were soon greatly aug-
mented, and he was reinforced by some
regular troops despatched from Sicily.
76. Affairs were in this dangerous state
in the Neapolitan dominions, when or-
ders reached Macdonald to evacuate,
without loss of time, the south of Italy,
in order to bring his army to support
the Republican arms in Lombardy. He
immediately assembled all his dispos-
able forces, and after having left garri-
sons in fort St Elmo, Capua, and Gaeta,
set off for Rome at the head of twenty
thousand men. His retreat, conducted
with great rapidity and skill, was ex-
posed to serious dangers. The pea-
santry, informed by the English cruisers
of the disasters experienced by the
French in Upper Italy, broke out into
insurrection in every quarter. Duhesme
left Apulia in open revolt, and had a
constant fight to maintain before he
reached Capua; a few hundred English
landed at Salerno, and, aided by the
peasantry, advanced to Vietri and Cas-
tel-a-Mare; while the insurgents of the
Roman and Tuscan states, becoming
daily more audacious, interrupted all
the communications with the north of
Italy. Notwithstanding these menacing
circumstances, Macdonald effected his
retreat in the best order, and without
sustaining any serious loss. He ar-
rived at Rome on the 16th, where he
reinforced his army by the divisions of
Grenier, continued his route by Acqua-
pendente to Florence, where he rallied
to his standards the division of Gau-
thier and Montrichard, who were in
the environs of Pistoia and Bologna,
and established his headquarters at
Lucca in the end of May. The left
wing, composed of the Polish division
Dombrowsky, took post at Carzana and
Aula; the centre occupied the great
road from Florence to Pistoia; the
right, the high-road to Bologna, and all
the passes into Modena, with an advan-
ced guard in the city of Bologna itself.
VOL. IV.
77. In this situation, Moreau and
Macdonald were in open communica-
tion; and it was concerted between
them that the chief body of their united
forces should be brought to bear upon
the Lower Po, with a view to threaten
the communications of the Allies, dis-
engage Mantua, and compel their re-
treat from the plain of Lombardy. For
this purpose it was agreed that Mac-
donald should cross the Apennines and
advance towards Tortona, his left rest-
ing on the mountains, his right on the
right bank of the Po, while Moreau,
debouching by the Bochetta, Gavi, and
Serravalle, should move into the plain
of that river. As the weight of the
contest would in this view fall upon
the former of these generals, the divi-
sion of Victor, which formed the east-
ern part of Moreau's army, was placed
under his orders, and a strong division
directed to descend the valley of the
Trebbia, in order to keep up the com-
munication between the two armies,
and support either as occasion might
require.
78. The positions of the allied armies,
when these well-combined preparations
were making to dislodge them from
their conquests, were as follows:
Kray, who commanded the whole forces
on the Lower Po, had twenty-four
thousand men under his orders, of
whom one-half were engaged in the
siege of Mantua, while five thousand,
under Hohenzollern, had been des-
patched to cover Modena, and six thou-
sand, under Ott, watched the mouths
of the lateral valleys of the Taro and
the Trebbia. The main body of the
army, consisting of the divisions Zoph,
Kaim, and the Russians, amounting
to twenty-eight thousand men, was en-
camped in the neighbourhood of Turin,
with its advanced posts pushed into
the entrance of the Alpine valleys.
Frolich, with six thousand men, ob-
served Coni; Wukassowich, with five
thousand seven hundred, occupied
Mondovi, Ceva, and Salicetto; Lusig-
nan, with three thousand combatants,
blockaded Fenestrelles; Bagrathion,
with a detachment of fifteen hundred
men, was posted in Cezanna, and the
B
+
250
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
Col de l'Asietta; Schwiekowsky, with a bloody engagement, driven out with
six thousand men, invested Tortona the loss of fifteen hundred men. Had
and Alessandria; the corps of Count the right wing of the Republicans punc-
Bellegarde, fifteen thousand strong, de- tually executed their instructions, and
tached from the Tyrol, was advancing occupied the road to Ferrara, during
from Como to form the siege of these the combat round the town, the whole
two fortresses: while that of Haddick, of the Imperialists would have been
numbering fourteen thousand bayonets, made prisoners. Immediately after this
which kept up the communication be- success, Macdonald advanced to Parma,
tween the rear of the army and the driving the Austrian cavalry before
left wing of the Archduke Charles, was him; while Ott, who was stationed at
preparing to penetrate into the Valais the entrance of the valley of the Taro,
by the Simplon and the pass of Nuf- seeing that his retreat was in danger of
fenen.
being cut off, retired to Placentia, leav-
ing the road open to Victor, who upon
that debouched entirely from the Apen-
nines, and effected his junction with
Macdonald at Borgo San Donino, to the
north of the mountains. On the day
following, Placentia was occupied by
the Republicans, and their whole army
established in the neighbourhood of
that city.
81. No sooner was Suwarroff informed
of the appearance of Macdonald's army
in Tuscany, than he adopted the same
energetic resolution by which Napoleon
had repulsed the attack of Wurmser
on the Adige three years before. All
his advanced posts in Piedmont were
recalled; the brigade of Lusignan near
Fenestrelles, the divisions Froelich,
Bagrathion, and Schwiekowsky, began
their march on the same day for the
general rendezvous at Asti; and Kray
received orders instantly to raise the
siege of Mantua, despatch his artillery
with all imaginable speed to Peschiera
and Verona, and hasten with all his
disposable force to join the main army
in the neighbourhood of Placentia. The
vigour of the Russian general commu-
nicated itself to all the officers of his
army. These movements were all punc-
tually executed, notwithstanding the
excessive rains which impeded the
movements of the troops; the castles
of Milan and Pizzighitone were provi-
sioned, a great intrenched camp was
formed near the tête-de-pont of Valence,
and all the stores recently captured,
not necessary for the siege of the cita-
del, were removed from Turin. By
these means the allied army was ra-
pidly reassembled, and on the 15th
June, although Kray with the troops
79. Thus, though the Allies had above
a hundred thousand men in the field,
they could hardly assemble thirty thou-
sand men at any one point; so im-
mensely had they extended themselves
over the plains of Lombardy, and so
obstinately had the Aulic Council ad-
hered to the old system of establishing
a cordon of troops all over the territory
which they occupied. This vast dis-
persion of force was attended with little
danger as long as the shattered army
of Moreau alone was in the field; but
the case was widely different when it
was supported by thirty-five thousand
fresh troops, prepared to penetrate into
the centre and most unprotected part
of their line. Had Macdonald been
able to push on as rapidly from Flor-
ence as he had done in advancing to it,
he might have crushed the divisions of
Klenau, Hohenzollern, and Ott, before
they could possibly have been succoured
from other quarters; but the time con-
sumed in reorganising his army in Tus-
cany, and concerting operations with
Moreau, gave Suwarroff an opportunity
of repairing what was faulty in the dis-
position of his forces, and assembling
a sufficient body of men to resist the
attack at the menaced point.
80. Macdonald, having at length
completed his preparations, raised his
camp in the neighbourhood of Pistoia
on the 7th June, with an army, in-
cluding Victor's division, of thirty-seven
thousand men, and marched across the
Apennines to Bologna Hohenzollern,
who commanded in the adjoining ter-
ritory, Modena, withdrew his posts into
the town of the same name, where he
was attacked in a few days, and, after
2
1799.]
251
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
thousand infantry and six thousand
cavalry were encamped at Garofalo, on
ground they had occupied six weeks
before.
from Mantua had not yet arrived, thirty | was advancing along the Po to gain
possession of the bridge of St Giovani,
when the rout of Dombrowsky's divi-
sion obliged them to retire. This retreat
was conducted in good order, till the
retiring columns were charged in flank
by the Cossacks who had overthrown
the Poles; in vain the French formed
squares, and received the assailants
with a rolling fire; they were broken,
82. The intelligence of Suwarroff's
approach induced Macdonald to concen-
trate his forces; but, nevertheless, he
flattered himself that he would succeed
in overwhelming Ott before he could
be supported by the succours which great part cut to pieces, and the re-
were advancing. Three torrents, flow-mainder fled in disorder over the Treb-
ing parallel to each other in a northern bia. The Russians, in the heat of the
direction from the Apennines to the pursuit, plunged like the Romans of
Po, intersected the plain occupied by old into that classic stream; but they
the French army; the Nura, the TREB- were received with so destructive a
BIA, and the Tidone. The bulk of the fire of musketry and grape-shot from
Republican forces were on the Nura; the batteries of the main body of the
the divisions Victor, Dombrowsky, and French on the other side, that they
Rusca, were in advance on the Treb- were forced to retire with great loss;
bia, and received orders to cross it, in and the hostile armies respectively bi-
order to overwhelm the Austrian divi- vouacked for the night on the same
sion stationed behind the Tidone. For ground which had been occupied two
this purpose, early on the morning of thousand years before by the troops
the 17th, they passed both the Trebbia of Hannibal and the Roman legions.*
and the Tidone, and assailed the Im-
perialists with such vigour and supe-
riority of force, that they were speedily
driven back in great disorder; but Su-
warroff, aware, from the loud sound
of the cannonade, of what was going
forward, despatched Chastellar, with
the advanced-guard of the main army,
which speedily re-established affairs.
By degrees, as their successive troops
came up, the superiority passed to the
side of the Allies; the Austrians ral-
lied, and commenced a vigorous attack
on the division of Victor, while the
Russian infantry, under Bagrathion,
supported the left of the Imperialists.ders to pass the Trebbia, and advance
Soon after, Dombrowsky, on the left,
having brought up his Polish division,
by a sudden charge captured eight
pieces of cannon, and pushed forward
to Caramel; but at this critical mo-
ment Suwarroff ordered a charge in
flank by Prince Gortschakoff, with two
regiments of Cossacks, and four bat-
talions, while Ott attacked them in
front. This movement proved deci-
sive; the Poles were broken, and fled
in disorder over the Tidone. Mean-
while the right of the Republicans,
composed of Victor's division, with
stood all the efforts of Bagrathion, and
83. During the night, Suwarroff
brought up all his forces, and, en-
couraged by the success of the preced-
ing day, made his dispositions for a
general action. Judging, with great
sagacity, that the principal object of
Macdonald would be to maintain his
ground on the mountains, by which
his communication with Moreau was
to be preserved, he directed towards
his own right, which was to assail that
quarter, his best infantry, consisting of
the divisions Bagrathion and Schwie-
kowsky, under the orders of Prince
Rosenberg. These troops received or-

* It is remarkable that the fate of Italy has
thrice been decided on the same spot; once
in the battle between the Romans and Car-
thaginians, again, in 1746, in that between
the Austrians and French, and in 1799, be-
tween the French and Russians. A similar
coincidence will frequently again occur in the
Leipsic, Lutzen, Fleurus, and many others;
course of this work, particularly at Vitoria,
a striking proof how permanent are the oper-
ation of the causes, under every variety of
the military art, which conduct hostile na-
the same fields of battle-See ARCHDUKE
tions, at remote periods from each other, to
CHARLES, ii. 61. The author visited this field
in 1818, along with his valued friend, Captain
Basil Hall: the lapse of nearly two thousand
years had altered none of the features describ-
led by the graphic pen of Livy.
..
ZZARELATION*
1
S
יי
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVII.
days of Hannibal, flows in a gravelly
bed, between banks of considerable
height, clothed with stunted trees,
brambles, and underwood.* The corps
of Rosenberg alone had crossed the
stream, and reached Settimo, in the
road to Placentia, rather to preserve
the communication with its castle,
than to take any active part in the
engagement. The day was the anni-
versary of the battle of Kolin; and
Suwarroff, to stimulate the ardour of
the Austrians, gave for the watchword,
"Theresa and Kolin," while the gen-
eral instructions to the army were to
combat in large masses, and as much
as possible with the bayonet.
252
by Settimo to St Giorgio, on the Nura,
in order to interpose between the French
left and the mountains. Melas com-
manded the centre, supported by a
powerful reserve under Frolich; while
Ott, with a small corps, formed the
left, and was established on the high-rear of the French lines; but, disquiet-
ed by its separation from the remain-
der of the army, and ignorant of the
immense advantages of its position, it
passed an anxious night, in square,
with the cavalry bridled and the men
sleeping on their guns, and before day-
break withdrew to the Russian side of
the river. Towards midnight, three
French battalions, misled by false re-
ports, entered, in disorder, into the
bed of the Trebbia, and opened a fire
of musketry upon the Russian videttes,
J
84. Macdonald, who intended to have
delayed the battle till the day follow-upon which the two armies immedi-
ing, had only the divisions Victor, ately started to their arms; the cavalry
Dombrowsky, and Rusca, with the on both sides rushed into the river,
brigade of Salm, in position on the the artillery played, without discrimi-
Trebbia; those of Olivier and Mont- nation, on friends and foes, and the
richard could not arrive in line till noon. extraordinary spectacle was exhibited
A furious action commenced at six of a nocturnal combat by moonlight,
o'clock, between the troops of Bagra- carried on by hostile bodies up to the
thion and Victor's division, which middle in water. At length the officers
formed the extreme left of the French, succeeded in putting an end to this
and rested on the mountains. The useless butchery, and the rival armies,
French general, seeing he was to be separated only by the stream, sank in-
attacked, crossed the Trebbia, and ad- to sleep within a few yards of each
vanced against the enemy. A bloody other, amidst the dead and the dying.
conflict ensued on the ground inter-
sected by the Torridella, till at length,
towards evening, the steady valour of
the Russians prevailed, and the Repub-
licans were driven back with great
slaughter over the Trebbia, followed
by the Allies, who advanced as far as
Settimo. On the French right, Salm's
division, enveloped by superior forces,
retreated with difficulty across the
river. In the middle of the day, the
divisions of Olivier and Montrichard
arrived to support the centre; but
though they gained at first a slight ad-
vantage, nothing decisive occurred, and
at the approach of night, they retired
at all points over the Trebbia, which
again formed the line of separation be-
tween the hostile armies.
85. Worn out with fatigue, the
troops on both sides lay down round
their watchfires, on the opposite shores
of the Trebbia, which still, as in the
86. The sun arose for the third time
on this scene of slaughter; but no dis-
position appeared on either side to give
up the contest. Suwarroff, reinforced
by five battalions and six squadrons,
which had come up from the other
side of the Po, again strengthened his
right, renewed to Rosenberg the orders
to press vigorously on in that quarter,
and directed Melas to be ready to sup-
port him with the reserve. Hours,
even minutes, were of value; for the
Russian general was aware that Moreau
had left his position on the Apennines,
and that the force opposed to him was
totally inadequate to arrest his pro-
gress. In extreme anxiety, he was in
momentary expectation of hearing the
* "Between the armies was a rivulet, bor-
dered on each side with very high banks, and
covered around with marshy plants, and with
cultivated places are generally overspread.
-LIVY, xxi. 54.
the brushwood and brambles with which un-
Su
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
253
distant sound of his cannon in the rear
of the army. Everything, therefore,
depended on a vigorous prosecution of
the advantages gained on the two pre-
ceding days, so as to render the co-
operation of the Republican armies im-
possible. On the other hand, Mac-
donald, having now collected all his
forces, and reckoning on the arrival of
Moreau on the following day, resolved
to resume the offensive. His plan was
to turn at once both flanks of the
enemy; a hazardous operation at all
times, unless conducted by a greatly
superior army, by reason of the dis-
persion of force which it requires, but
doubly so in the present instance, from
the risk of one of his wings being
driven into the Po. The battle was to
be commenced by Dombrowsky mov-
ing in the direction of Niviano to out-
flank the corps of Rosenberg, while
Rusca and Victor attacked it in front;
Olivier and Montrichard were charged
with the task of forcing the passage of
the river in the centre; while the ex-
treme right, composed of the brigade
of Salm and the reserve of Watrin,
were to drive back the Russian left by
interposing between it and the river Po.
87. Such was the fatigue of the men
on both sides, that they could not com-
mence the action before ten o'clock.
Suwarroff at that hour was beginning
to put his troops in motion, when the
French appeared in two lines on the
opposite shore of the Trebbia, with the
intervals between the columns filled
with cavalry; and instantly the first
line, exactly as the Romans had done,
crossed the river with the water up to
the soldiers' arm-pits,* and advanced
fiercely to the attack. Dombrowsky
pushed on to Rivalta, and soon out-
flanked the Russian right; and Suwar-
roff, seeing the danger in that quarter,
ordered the division Bagrathion to
throw back its right in order to face
the enemy, and, after a warm contest,
that general succeeded in driving the
Poles across the river. But that man-
* “But when, in pursuit of the flying Numi-
dians, they entered the water, (and it was swol-
len by rain in the night as high as the breasts),
then in truth the bodies of all, on landing,
were so benumbed that they were scarcely
able to hold their arms."-Livy, xxi. c. 54.
oeuvre having uncovered the flank of the
division Schwiekowsky, it was speedily
enveloped by Victor and Rusca, driven
back to Casaleggio, and only owed its
safety to the invincible firmness of the
Russian infantry, who formed square,
faced about on all sides, and by an in-
cessant rolling fire maintained their
ground till Bagrathion, after defeating
the Poles, came up in the enemy's rear,
and Chastellar brought up four bat-
talions of the division of Forster to at-
tack them in front. The Poles, en-
tirely disconcerted by their repulse,
remained inactive; and, after a mur-
derous strife, the French were over-
whelmed, and Victor and Rusca driven,
with great loss, over the Trebbia.
88. In the centre, Olivier and Mont-
richard had crossed the river, and at-
tacked the Austrians under Melas, with
such vigour that they made themselves
masters of some pieces of artillery, and
threw the line into disorder. Already
Montrichard was advancing against the
division Forster, in the middle of the
Russian line, when the Prince of Lich-
tenstein, at the head of the reserve,
composed of the flower of the allied
army, which at that moment was de-
filing towards the right to support
Schwiekowsky, suddenly fell upon their
flank, already somewhat disordered by
success, and threw them into confu-
sion, which was soon increased into a
defeat by the heavy fire of Forster on
the other side. This circumstance de-
cided the fate of the day. Forster was
now so far relieved as to be able to
succour Suwarroff on the right, while
Melas was supported by the reserve,
who had been ordered, in the first mo-
ment of alarm, in the same direction.
Prince Lichtenstein now charged the
division of Olivier with such fury, that
it was forced to retire across the river.
At the extreme left of the Allies, Watrin
advanced, without meeting any resist-
ance, along the Po; but he was ulti-
mately obliged to retreat, to avoid
being cut off and driven into the river
by the victorious centre. Master of
the whole left bank of the river, Suwar-
roff made several attempts to pass it;
but he was constantly repulsed by the
firmness of the French reserves, and
18
40
L
...
254
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVII.
T
;
$
night at length closed on this scene of
carnage.
|
89. Such was the terrible battle of
the Trebbia, the most obstinately con-
tested and bloody which had occurred
since the commencement of the war,
since, out of thirty-six thousand men
in the field, the French, in the three
days, had lost above twelve thousand
in killed and wounded, and the Allies
nearly as many. It shows how much
more fierce and sanguinary the war
was destined to become when the iron
bands of Russia were brought into the
field; and how little all the advantages
of skill and experience avail, when op-
posed to the steady perseverance and
heroic valour of northern states. But
though the losses on both sides were
nearly equal, the relative situation of
the combatants was very different at
the termination of the strife. The
Allies were upon the whole successful,
and soon expected great reinforcements
from Hohenzollern and Klenau, who
had already occupied Parma and Mo-
dena, and would more than compensate
their losses in the field; whereas the
Republicans had exhausted their last
reserves, were dejected by defeat, found
themselves cut off from Moreau, and
had no second army to fall back upon
in their misfortunes. These considera-
tions determined Macdonald; he de-
camped during the night, and retired
over the Nura, directing his march
with the view of re-entering the Apen-gress of Moreau. Macdonald retired,
nines by the valley of the Taro.
therefore, unmolested to Modena and
Bologna, where he repulsed General
Ott, who made an attack on his army
at Sassecolo, and regained the positions
which he had occupied before the ad-
vance to the Trebbia.
and flank, and, after a gallant resist-
ance, broken, great part made prison-
ers, and the remainder dispersed over
the mountains. Melas, on his side,
quickly made himself master of Placen-
tia, where the French wounded, five
thousand in number, were taken pri-
soners, including the generals Olivier,
Rusca, Salm, and Cambray; and had
he not imprudently halted the division
Froelich at that town, the whole troops
of Watrin would have fallen into his
hands. Macdonald, on the following
day, retired to Parma, from whence he
dislodged Hohenzollern, and with in-
finite difficulty rallied the remains of
his army behind the Larda, where they
were reorganised in three divisions.
The melancholy survey showed a chasm
in his ranks of above fifteen thousand
men since crossing the Apennines. At
the same time Lapoype, defeated at
Casteggio by a Russian detachment, was
driven from the high-road, and with
great difficulty escaped by mountain
paths into the neighbourhood of Genoa.
All the French wounded fell into the
hands of the Allies; they made pri-
soners in all, during the battle and in
the pursuit, four generals, five hundred
and six officers, and twelve thousand
seven hundred and seventy-eight pri-
vate soldiers. The pursuit of Suwar-
roff was not continued beyond the
Larda, in consequence of intelligence
which there reached him of the pro-
90. Early on the following morning,
a despatch was intercepted from the
French general to Moreau, in which he
represented the situation of his army
as almost desperate, and gave informa-
tion as to the line of his retreat. This
information filled the allied generals
with joy, and made them resolve to
pursue the enemy with the utmost
vigour. For this purpose, all their
divisions were instantly despatched in
pursuit; Rosenberg, supported by For-
ster, moved rapidly towards the Nura,
while Melas, with the divisions Ott and
Froelich, advanced to Placentia. Vic-
tor's division, which formed the rear-
guard on the Nura, was speedily as-
sailed by superior forces both in front
91. In effect, the return of Suwar-
roff towards Tortona had become in-
dispensable, and the dangerous situa-
tion of matters in his rear showed the
magnitude of the peril from which, by
his rapid and decided conduct, he had
extricated his army. Moreau on the
16th debouched from the Apennines by
Gavi, and moved in two columns to-
wards Tortona, at the head of fourteen
thousand men. He advanced, how-
ever, with such circumspection, that
on the 18th he had not passed Novi
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
255
and Seravalle; and on that day the
fate of Macdonald's army was deter-
mined on the banks of the Trebbia.
Bellegarde, unable with four brigades
to arrest his progress, retired to a de-
fensive position near Alessandria, leav-
ing Tortona uncovered, the blockade of
which was speedily raised by the French
general. Immediately after, Moreau at-
tacked Bellegarde with forces immense
ly superior, and defeated him, after a
sharp action, with a loss of fifteen hun-
dred prisoners and five pieces of can-
non. The Austrians, in disorder, sought
refuge behind the Bormida, intending to
fall back under the cannon of Valence;
and Moreau was advancing towards
Placentia, when he was informed of
the victory of Suwarroff and the fall
of the citadel of Turin.
and Gavi to his former defensive posi-
tion on the Apennines. The Allies oc-
cupied Novi, and pushed their advanced
posts far up the valleys into the moun-
tains, while the blockade of Tortona
was resumed; and the besieging force,
which had been removed from the lines
before Mantua, sat down again before
that important fortress. Macdonald
commenced a long and painful retreat
over the Apennines into Tuscany and
the Genoese territory; a perilous lateral
operation at all times in presence of an
enemy in possession of the plain of the
Po, and doubly so after the recent
disaster which had been experienced.
Fortunately for the French, Suwarroff
had received at this time positive orders
from the Aulic Council, ever attached
to methodical proceedings, to attempt
no operation beyond the Apennines
till the fortresses of Lombardy were
reduced; in consequence of which he
was compelled to remain in a state of
inactivity on the Orba, while his antag-
onist completed his hazardous move-
ments. Macdonald arrived, leaving
only a detachment on the Apennines
near the sources of the Trebbia, at Ge-
noa by Lerici, in the middle of July, in
the most deplorable state-his artillery
dismounted or broken down, the ca-
valry and caissons without horses, the
soldiers half-naked, without shoes or
linen of any sort, more like spectres
How different from the
than men.
splendid troops which, three years be-
fore, had traversed the same country,
in all the pomp of war, under the
standards of Napoleon!
92. The vast military stores found
by the Allies in the city of Turin had
enabled them to complete their pre-
parations for the siege of its citadel
with great rapidity. A hundred pieces
of heavy cannon speedily armed the
trenches; forty mortars were shortly
after added; the batteries were opened
on the night of the 10th June, and on
the 19th the second parallel was com-
pleted. Without intermission the be-
siegers from that time thundered on
the walls from above two hundred
pieces of artillery; and such was the
effect of their fire, that the garrison
capitulated within twenty-four hours
after it commenced, on condition of
being sent back to France. This con-
quest was of immense importance. Be-
sides disengaging the besieging force of
General Kaim, which instantly set out
to reinforce Bellegarde, and rendering
the Allies masters of one of the strong-
gest fortresses in Piedmont, it put into
their hands 618 pieces of cannon, 40,000
muskets, and 50,000 quintals of powder,
with the loss of only fifty men.
94. Mutual exhaustion, and the in-
tervening ridge of the Apennines, now
compelled a cessation of hostilities for
above a month. Suwarroff collected
forty-five thousand men in the plain
between Tortona and Alessandria, to
watch the Republicans on the moun-
93. No sooner was Suwarroff inform-tains of Genoa, and cover the sieges of
ed, upon the Larda, of the advance of those places and of Mantua, which were
Moreau and the defeat of Bellegarde, now pressed with activity. The French,
than, without losing an instant, he in deep dejection, commenced the re-
wheeled about, and marched with the organisation of their two armies into
utmost expedition to meet this new one; Macdonald was recalled, and yield-
adversary. But Moreau fell back as ed the command of the right wing to
rapidly as he approached, and after St Cyr; Perignon was intrusted with
revictualling Tortona, retired by Novi | the centre, and Lemoine, who brought
Af
256
[CHAP. XXVIL
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
$
95. The remarkable analogy must
strike the most inattentive observer,
between the conduct of Suwarroff pre-
vious to the battle of the Trebbia, and
that of Napoleon on the approach of
Wurmser to succour Mantua. Imitat-
ing the vigour and activity of his
great predecessor, the Russian general,
though at the head of an army con-
siderably inferior to that of his adver-
saries, was superior everywhere at the
decisive point. The citadel of Turin,
with its immense magazines, was cap-
tured by an army of only forty thou-
sand men, in presence of two whose
united force exceeded fifty thousand;
foralthough Suwarroff ordered up great
part of the garrison of Mantua to rein-
force his army previous to the battle of
the Trebbia, they were prevented from
joining by an autograph order of the
Emperor, who deemed the acquisition
of that fortress of greater importance
than any other consideration to the
Austrian empire. The Russian gen-
eral, therefore, had to contend not only
with the armies of Macdonald and Mor-
eau, but with the obstacles thrown in
his way by the Imperial authorities;
and when this is considered, his defeat
of the Republicans, by rapidly inter-
posing the bulk of his forces between
them, and turning first on the one, and
then on the other, must be regarded as
one of the most splendid feats which
the history of the war afforded.
up twelve fresh battalions from France, | part of their force as had resulted from
put at the head of the left. Montrich- the expedition to Egypt, they exerted
ard and Lapoype were disgraced, and all their efforts to accomplish their re-
Moreau continued in the chief com- turn, or at least to open a communica-
mand. Notwithstanding all the rein- tion with that far-famed, now isolated
forcements he had received, this skilful army. No sooner was intelligence re-
general was not able, with both armies ceived of the defeat of Jourdan at
united, to reckon on more than forty Stockach, than Bruix, minister of ma-
thousand men for operations in the rine, repaired to Brest, where he urged,
field; the poor remains of above a hun- with the utmost diligence, the prepa-
dred thousand that might have been rations for the sailing of the fleet.
assembled for that purpose at the open- Such was the effect of his exertions,
ing of the campaign.
that, in the end of April, he was en-
abled to put to sea, with twenty-five
ships of the line, at the time when Lord
Bridport with the Channel fleet was
blown off the coast. As soon as intel-
ligence was received that they had
sailed, the English admiral steered for
the southern coast of Ireland; while
Bruix, directing his course straight to
Cadiz, raised the blockade of that har-
bour, which Admiral Leith was main-
taining with fifteen ships of the line,
and passed the straits of Gibraltar.
The entrance of the combined fleet into
the Mediterranean seemed to announce
decisive events, but nevertheless it came
to nothing. The immense armament,
amounting to fifty ships of the line,
steered for the bay of Genoa, where it
entered into communication with Mor-
eau, and for a time powerfully sup-
ported the spirits of his army. But
after remaining some weeks on the Ital-
ian coast, Bruix sailed for Cadiz, from
whence he returned to Brest, which he
reached in the middle of August, with-
out either having fallen in with any of
the English fleets, or achieved anything
whatever, with one of the most power-
ful squadrons that ever left a European
harbour.
96. During these critical operations
at the foot of the Apennines, the Direc-
tory had succeeded in assembling a
great naval force in the Mediterranean.
Already convinced by the disasters they
had experienced, of the impolicy of the
eccentric direction of so considerable a
7

97. The retreat of Macdonald was
immediately followed by the recovery
of his dominions by the King of Naples.
The army of Cardinal Ruffo, which was
soon swelled to twenty thousand men,
advanced against Naples, and having
speedily dispersed the feeble bands of
the revolutionists who opposed his pro-
gress, took possession of that capital;
and a combined force of English, Rus-
sians, and Neapolitans having a few
days after entered the port, the Fort
St Elmo was so vigorously besieged,
1799.]
257
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
}
98. But these wise and humane mea-
that it was obliged to capitulate, the | nal Ruffo, as viceroy of the kingdom;
garrison returning to France, on con- by Kerandy, on the part of the Empe-
dition of not again serving till exchang- ror of Russia, and by Captain Foote,
ed. Capua was next attacked, and sur- on the part of the King of Great Bri-
rendered, by capitulation, to Commo- tain; and the cardinal, in the name
dore Troubridge; and this was followed, of the King, shortly after published a
two days after, by the reduction of the proclamation, in which he granted an
important fortress of Gaeta, on the same entire amnesty to the republicans;
terms, which completed the deliverance guaranteeing to them perfect security
of the Neapolitan dominions. The if they remained at Naples, and a free
French, who surrendered in the last- navigation to Marseilles, if they pre-
mentioned fortresses, gave up uncon- ferred following the fortunes of the
ditionally to their indignant enemies tricolor standard. In terms of this
the revolted Neapolitans who had taken treaty, two vessels, containing the re-
a part in the late revolution. A spe- fugees from Castel-a-Mare, had already
cial commission was immediately ap- arrived safe at Marseilles.
pointed, which, without much formal-
ity, and still less humanity, condemned sures were instantly interrupted by the
to death the greater part of those who arrival of the king and queen, with the
had been engaged in the insurrection; court, on board of Nelson's fleet. They
and a dreadful series of executions, or were animated by the strongest feelings
rather massacres, took place, which but of revenge against the republican party;
too clearly evinced the relentless spirit and unfortunately the English admiral,
of Italian revenge. But the executions who had fallen under the fascinating
at Naples were of more moment, and influence of Lady Hamilton, the cele-
peculiarly call for the attention of the brated wife of the British ambassador
British historian, because they have at the court of Naples, who shared in
affixed the only stain that exists upon all the feelings of that court, was too
the character of the greatest naval hero much inclined to adopt the same prin-
of his country. The garrisons of the ciples. He instantly declared the ca-
Castello Nuovo, and the Castello del pitulation null, which had not been
Uovo, had capitulated to Cardinal Ruf-carried into execution at that time,
fo, who commanded the Neapolitan owing to the want of vessels to convey
forces as vicar-general, on the 23d June, the persons in the forts to Marseilles.
on the express condition that they The ground assigned was, that it had
themselves, and their families, should been entered into by Cardinal Ruffo
be protected, and that they should without sufficient authority, and that
have liberty either to retire to Toulon, the king refused to ratify it. Soon
or remain in Naples, as they should after, entering the harbour at the head
feel inclined; but in this latter case of his fleet, he made all those who had
they were to experience no molestation issued from the castles, in virtue of it,
in their persons or property.* This prisoners, and had them chained, two
capitulation was subscribed by Cardi-and two, on board his own fleet. The
king, whose weakness could not endure
the sight of the punishments which
were preparing, returned to Sicily, and
left the administration of justice in the
hands of the queen and Lady Hamilton.
Nelson was made aware, soon after his
arrival on the evening of the 24th, that
the capitulation had been signed by
the Russian admiral and Captain Foote
on the part of Great Britain; but he
at once condemned the treaty as infa-
mous, and intimated to the rebels they
must surrender at discretion. Cardinal
* "1. The troops composing the garrisons
shall keep possession of their forts until the
vessels, which shall be spoken of hereafter,
destined to convey such as are desirous of
going to Toulon, are ready to sail. 2. The
garrisons shall march out with the honours
of war, each with five pieces of artillery. 3.
Persons and property, both movable and im-
movable, of every individual of the two gar-
risons, shall be respected and guaranteed. 4.
All the said individuals shall have their choice
of embarking on board of cartels, which shall
be furnished them to go to Toulon, or of re-
maining at Naples, without being molested
either in their persons or families."-See the
capitulation in Nelson Despatches, iii. 487.
¿
-
حمد
E
1
"
258
[CHAP. XXVIL
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
•
Ruffo strongly protested against this, | ferent and irrelevant question. Suffice
and refused to be a party to the sus- it to say, that it had taken place, and
pension of the capitulation. In this that, in virtue of its provisions, the al-
debate between Cardinal Ruffo and lied powers had gained the command
Nelson, Sir William and Lady Hamil- of the castles of Naples. To assert in
ton acted as interpreters. On the 26th such a case that the king had not rati-
Nelson took possession of the Castello fied the capitulation, and that without
del Uovo and the Castello Nuovo; and such a sanction it was null, is a quibble,
the prisoners, who had no means of re- which, though frequently resorted to
sistance, suffered great hardships dur- by the Continental powers, and some-
ing their removal to the fleet in the times by the French, is unworthy of a
roads. Some petitioned Nelson for generous mind, and destitute of any sup-
mercy; others indignantly referred to port in the law of nations. Cardinal
the capitulation. But it was of no Ruffo, who concluded the capitulation,
avail. Numbers were immediately con- was not merely the commander-in-chief
demned and executed; the vengeance of the royal Neapolitan forces, but the
of the populace supplied what was vicar-general of the king, and signed it
wanting in the celerity of the criminal as such. His powers unquestionably
tribunals; neither age, nor sex, nor extended to concluding such a treaty,
rank was spared; women as well as and the deed of the king has never been
men, youths of sixteen, and grayhead- produced, restraining his powers ab ante
ed men of seventy, were alike led out in this particular. The capitulation,
to the scaffold, and children of twelve when Nelson arrived in the bay of
years of age sent into exile. The re- Naples, had not been fully executed,
publicans behaved, in almost every in- but matters had arrived at that point
stance, in their last moments, with that it could not be rescinded. The Brit-
heroic courage, and made men forget, ish line-of-battle ships lay alongside of
in pity for their misfortunes, the in- the transports which were to convey
gratitude or treason of which they had away the prisoners, who were for the
previously been guilty. The fate of most part on board. The deserted
the Neapolitan admiral, Prince Francis fortresses were at their mercy. When
Carraccioli, was particularly deplorable. Nelson intimated to them that the capi-
He had been one of the principal lead-tulation would not be observed, they
ers of the revolution, and after the ca- had no alternative but submission, for
pitulation of the castles had retired to their means of defence were at an end.
the mountains, where he was betrayed The capitulation of the vanquished
by a domestic, and brought bound on should ever be held sacred in civilised
board the British admiral's flag-ship. warfare-for this reason, if no other ex-
A naval court-martial was there imme- isted, that, by acceding to it, they have
diately summoned, composed of Nea- deprived themselves of all chance of re-
politan officers, by whom he was con- sistance, and put the means of violating
demned to death. In vain the old man it with impunity into the hands of their
entreated that he might be shot, and adversaries: it then becomes a debt of
not die the death of a malefactor; his honour which should be paid. The
prayers were disregarded, and, after sovereign power which takes benefit
being strangled by the executioner, he from one side of a capitulation, by gain-
was thrown from the vessel into the ing possession of the fortress which
sea. Before night his body was seen the capitulants held, is unquestionably
erect in the waves from the middle bound to perform the other part of the
upwards, as if he had risen from the bilateral engagement, by whomsoever
deep to reproach the English hero with entered into, seeing it has, by that very
his unworthy fate.
act, so far from repudiating, homolo-
gated and acquiesced in it. If the Nea-
politian authorities were resolutely de-
termined to commit such a breach of
99. For these acts of cruelty no sort
of apology can or ought to be offered.
Whether the capitulation should or
should not have been granted, is a dif-public faith, the English admiral, if he
1799.]
259
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
!
had not sufficient influence to prevent | turning its position by the lateral val-
it, should at least have taken no part leys, and appearing unexpectedly in its
in the iniquities which followed, nor rear. The nature of the ground is sin-
stained the standard of England by ju-gularly favourable to such an operation,
dicial murders committed under its sha- by the concealment which lofty inter-
dow. In every point of view, therefore, vening ridges afford to the turning col-
the conduct of Nelson in this tragic af- umn, and the impossibilty of escape to
fair was inexcusable: his biographer the one turned, shut in on both sides
may perhaps with justice ascribe it to by difficult, perhaps impassable ridges,
the fatal ascendancy of female fascina- and suddenly assailed in rear when fully
tion; but the historian, who has the in- occupied in front. The brilliant suc-
terests of humanity and the cause of cesses of Lecourbe at Glarus and Mar-
justice to support, can admit of no such tinsbruck, and of Hotze at Luciensteg,
palliation, and will best discharge his were both achieved, in opposition to
duty by imitating the conduct of his superior forces, by the skilful applica-
eloquent annalist, and with shame ac- tion of this principle. Against such
knowledging the disgraceful deeds.* a danger, the intrenchments usually
thrown up in the gorge or at the sum-
mit of mountain passes, afford but little
protection; for, open behind, they are
easily taken by the column which has
penetrated into the rear by a circuitous
route, and, destitute of casemates, they
afford no sort of protection against a
100. The events of this campaign de-
monstrate, in the most striking manner,
the vast importance of assuming the
offensive in mountain warfare; and how
frequently a smaller force, skilfully led,
may triumph over a greater in such a
situation, by the simple expedient of
* It deserves to be recorded to the honour
of Napoleon, that he endeavoured to palliate
Nelson's share in these dark transactions,
ascribing it to misinformation, and the fas-
cinating ascendant of Lady Hamilton.
O'MEARA, i. 308.
Volumes have been written on the subject
of Nelson's proceedings at Naples, but all the
essential facts of the case will be found in the
preceding narrative. Sir Nicholas Harris has
attempted a laboured vindication in the ap-
pendix to the third volume of his valuable
edition of the Nelson Despatches; but no zeal
or ability can overcome the facts above stat-
ed. The substance of Nelson's defence is to
be found in the following letter to Mr Ste-
phens, which will be given in his own words:
"Neither Cardinal Ruffo nor Captain Foote,
nor any other person, had any power to enter
into any treaty with the rebels; even the
paper they signed was not acted upon. I
happily arrived at Naples, and prevented
such an infamous transaction from taking
place: therefore, when the rebels surrender-
ed, they came out of the castles as they
ought, without any of the honours of war,
and trusting to the judgment of their sove-
reign. I put aside, and sent them notice of
it, the infamons treaty, and the rebels sur-
rendered, as I have before said."-NELSON
to ALEXANDER STEPHENS, ESQ., Feb. 10, 1803;
Nelson Despatches, iii. 520. This contains
Nelson's whole vindication, and therefore
has been given in his own words. But it is
evidently insufficient to exculpate him, for
the following reasons:-1. In the first place,
it does not appear that Nelson held any com-
mission in the Neapolitan service; at least
none such has ever been referred to or al-
leged to exist, though from his great influence
M
and reputation he seems to have by common
consent become vested with the supreme di-
rection of affairs. He had no right, there-
fore, to declare null, or infringe upon the
treaty concluded in the king's name by his
vicar-general or vicegerent. 2. Cardinal Ruf-
fo's powers as vicar-general beyond all ques-
tion extended to concluding a capitulation
with the rebels; a power inherent in a mere
general of the royal forces. 3. Though Nel-
son asserts that Cardinal Ruffo had no power
to conclude such a capitulation, he does not
allege that his powers as vicegerent had been
restrained by any express prohibition in this
particular, which alone could have prevented
him from concluding it legally. 4. If Nelson
had the king's authority to refuse to sanc-
tion the capitulation, what he should have
done was to have reinstated the rebels in the
full possession of the forts, and drawn his
own ships out of the range of shot, and given
them full time for their preparation before
hostilities were renewed, as Schwartzenberg
offered to St Cyr's men, when he refused to
sanction the capitulation of Dresden in Nov.
1813.-Infra, Chap. LXXXII. § 36. Even if such
an offer had been made, it is more than
doubtful whether it would have justified a
breach of the capitulation; for it is impos-
sible to restore a garrison which has surren-
dered to the statu quo before the surrender,
for their minds are depressed, and their
destitution has become known to the be-
siegers. But even such an illusory offer
as this was not made; the garrison were
simply told they must surrender at discre-
tion, a demand which, as their defence was
abandoned, and commanded by the British,
they could not resist.-Nelson Despatches, iii.
520.
i
3
260
[CHAP. XXVII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
3
=
¦
1
plunging fire from the heights on either | tween the allied powers. The principle
side.
laid down by the Emperor Paul, of re-
101. Nor did this memorable struggle storing to every one what he had lost-
evince in a less convincing manner the though the true foundation for the anti-
erroneous foundation on which the opin-revolutionary alliance, which had been
ion then generally received rested, that eloquently supported by Mr Burke, and
the possession of the mountains insur-afterwards became the basis of thegreat
ed that of the plains at their feet; and confederacy which brought the war to
that the true key to the south of Ger- a successful issue-gave the utmost un-
many and north of Italy was to be found easiness to the cabinet of Vienna. They
in the Alps which were interposed be- were terrified at the very rapidity of
tween them. Of what avail was the the Russian conqueror's success, and
successful irruption of Massena into the endeavoured, by every means in their
Grisons, after the disaster of Stockach power, to moderate his disinterested
brought back the Republicans to the fervour, and render his surprising suc-
Rhine; or the splended stroke of Le- cess the means only of securing their
courbe in the Engadine, when the dis- great acquisitions in the north of Italy.
aster of Magnano caused them to lose Hence the jealousies, heartburnings,
the line of the Adige? In tactics, or and divisions which destroyed the cor-
the lesser operations of strategy, the dial co-operation of the allied troops,
possession of mountain ridges is often which led to the fatal separation of the
of decisive importance, but in the great Russian from the Austrian forces both
designs of extensive warfare it is seldom in Italy and Switzerland, and ultimate-
of any lasting value. He that has gained ly brought about all the disasters of the
a height which commands a field of campaign. Had the hands of Austria
battle is often secure of the day; but been clean, she might have invaded
the master of a ridge of lofty mountains France by the defenceless frontier of
is by no means equally safe against the the Jura, and brought the contest to a
efforts of an adversary, who, by having glorious issue in 1799, while Napoleon
acquired possession of the entrance of was as yet an exile on the banks of the
all the valleys leading from thence into Nile. Twice did the European powers
the plain, is enabled to cut him off both lose the opportunity of crushing the
from his communications and his re- forces of the Revolution, and on both
sources. Water descends from the high- occasions from their governments hav-
er ground to the lower; but the strength ing imitated its guilt; first by the with-
and sinews of war in general follow an drawal of Prussia in 1794, to secure her
opposite course, and ascend from the share in the partition of Poland, and
riches and the fortresses of the plain to next from the anxiety of Austria, in
the sterility and desolation of the moun- 1799, to retain her unjust acquisitions
tains. It is in the valley of the Danube in Italy. England alone remained
and the plain of Lombardy that the throughout unsullied by crime, unfet-
struggle between France and Austria tered by the consciousness of robbery;
ever has been and ever will be deter- and she alone continued to the end un-
mined; the lofty ridges of Switzerland subdued in arms. It is not by adopt-
and the Tyrol, important as an ac-ing the iniquities of a hostile power,
cessary to secure the flanks of either but by steadfastly shunning them, that
army, are far from being the decisive ultimate success is to be obtained; the
point.
gains of iniquity to nations, not less
than individuals, are generally more
than compensated by its pains; and the
only true foundation for durable pros-
perity is to be found in that strenuous
but upright course, which resists equal-
102. Although the campaign had
lasted so short a time, it was already
apparent how much the views of the
Austrian cabinet were hampered by the
possession of Venice, and how com-
pletely the spoliation of that republicly the seduction and the violence of
had thrown the apple of discord be-
wickedness.
2
1799.]
261
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
F
CHAPTER XXVIII.
CAMPAIGN OF 1799-PART II.-FROM THE BATTLE OF THE TREBBIA TO THE
CONCLUSION OF THE CAMPAIGN.
while the Revolution had destroyed the
capacity which directed, as well as wore
out the energy which sustained its for-
tunes. The master-spirit of Carnot had
ceased to guide the movements of the
French armies; the genius of Napoleon
languished on the sands of Egypt; the
boundless enthusiasm of 1793 had ex-
hausted itself; the resources of the as-
signats were at an end; the terrible
Committee of Public Salvation no
longer was at the helm to wrench out
of public suffering the means of victory.
An exhausted nation and a dispirited
army had to withstand the weight of
Austria and the vigour of Russia, guided
by the science of the Archduke Charles
and the energy of Suwarroff.
1. SINCE the period when the white
flag waved at Saumur, and the tricolor
was displaced at Lyons and Toulon, the
Republic had never been in such dan-
ger as after the first pause in the cam-
paign of 1799. It was, in truth, within
a hairbreadth of destruction. If the
allied forces in 1793 were nearer her
frontier, and the interior was torn by
more vehement dissensions, on the other
hand the attacking powers in 1799 were
incomparably more formidable, and the
armies they brought into the field great-
ly superior both in military prowess and
moral vigour. The war no longer lan-
guished in affairs of posts or indecisive
actions, leading to retreat on the first
reverse. A hundred thousand men no
longer fought with the loss of three or
four thousand to the victors, and as
many to the vanquished. The passions
had been roused on both sides, and
battles were not lost or won without a
desperate effusion of human blood. The
military ardour of the Austrians, slow
of growth, but tenacious of purpose,
was now thoroughly awakened, from
the reverses the monarchy had under-
gone, and the imminent perils to which
it had been exposed; the steady valour
of the Russians had been roused to the
highest pitch by the ardent genius and
enthusiastic courage of Suwarroff; and
Great Britain, taught by past misfor-
tunes, was preparing to abandon the
vacillating system of her former war-
fare, and put forth her strength in a
manner worthy of her present greatness
and ancient renown. From the bay of
Genoa to the mouth of the Rhine, was posted in Switzerland; while their
nearly three hundred thousand veteran left stretched over the plain of Lom-
troops were advancing against the Re-bardy to the foot of the Apennines;
public, flushed by victory, and conduct- and a shock was felt all along this vast
ed by consummate military talent; line, from the rocks of Genoa to the
2. Though the war had lasted for so
short a time since its recommencement,
the consumption of human life had
already been prodigious; the contend-
ing parties fought with unprecedented
exasperation, and the results gained
had outstripped the calculations of the
most enthusiastic speculators. In little
more than four months, the French
and allied armies had lost nearly a
half of their effective force-those cut
off or irrecoverably mutilated by the
sword being above one hundred and
sixteen thousand; while the means of
supplying these vast chasms were much
more ample on the part of the allied
monarchs than of the French Directory.
Never in ancient or modern times had
such immense armies contended on so
extensive a field. The right of the
Allies rested on the Maine; their centre
262
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
2.
1
marshes of Holland. The results hither- | which could not muster twenty thou-
to had been, to an unprecedented de- sand soldiers round its banner. This
gree, disastrous to the French. From army was destined to clear the Mari-
being universally victorious, they had time Alps and Savoy of the enemy, and
everywhere become unfortunate; at the turn the position of Massena, who still
point of the bayonet they had been maintained himself with invincible ob-
driven back, both in Germany and stinacy on the banks of the Limmat.
Italy, to the frontiers of the Republic; The Archduke had not under his im-
the conquests of Napoleon had been mediate orders at that period above
lost as rapidly as they had been won; forty-three thousand men, twenty-two
and the power which recently threat- thousand having been left in the Black
ened Vienna, now trembled lest the Forest, to mask the garrisons in the
Imperial standards should appear on têtes-de-pont which the French pos-
the summits of the Jura, or the banks sessed on the Upper Rhine, and six-
of the Rhone.
teen thousand in the Grisons and the
central Alps, to keep possession of the
important ridge of the St Gothard.
But a fresh Russian army of twenty-six
thousand men was approaching under
Korsakoff, and was expected in the
environs of Zurich by the middle of
August; and something was hoped from
the insurrection of the Swiss who had
been liberated from the French armies.
3. It was now apparent what a capi-
tal error the Directory had committed
in òverrunning Switzerland; in extend-
ing their forces through the Italian
peninsula, instead of concentrating them
to bear the weight of Austria on the
Adige; and in exiling their best army
and greatest general to Africa, at the
very time when the Allies were sum-
moning to their aid the forces of a new
monarchy, and the genius of a hitherto
invincible conqueror. But these errors
had been committed; their conse-
quences had fallen like a thunderbolt
on France; the return of Napoleon
and his army seemed impossible; Italy
was lost; and nothing but the invin-
cible tenacity and singular talents of
Massena enabled him to maintain him-
self in the last defensive line to the
north of the Alps, and avert invasion
from France in the quarter where its
frontier is most vulnerable. To com-
plete its misfortunes, internal dissen-
sion had paralysed the Republic at
the very time when foreign dangers
were most pressing, and a new govern-
ment added to its declining fortunes
the weakness incident to every infant
administration.
4. The preparations of the Allies to
follow up this extraordinary flow of
prosperity were of the most formidable
kind. The forces in Italy amounted
to one hundred and fifteen thousand
men; and, after deducting the troops
required for the sieges of Mantua, Ales-
sandria, and other fortresses in the rear,
Suwarroff could still collect above fifty
thousand men to press on the dispirited
army of Moreau in the Ligurian Alps,
5. To meet these formidable forces,
the French, who had directed all the
new levies to the north of Switzerland,
as the point most menaced, had seventy-
five thousand men, under Massena, on
the Limmat, and the utmost efforts
were made in the interior to augment
to the greatest degree this important
army. The English and Russians had
also combined a plan for the descent
of above forty thousand men on the
coast of Holland; for which purpose
seventeen thousand men were to be fur-
nished by his Imperial Majesty, and
twenty-five thousand men by Great
Britain. This force, it was hoped,
would not only liberate Holland, but
paralyse all the north of France, as
General Brune had only fifteen thou-
sand French troops in the United Pro-
vinces, and the native soldiers did not
exceed twenty thousand. Thus, while
the centre of the French was threaten-
ed with an attack from overwhelming
forces in the Alps, and an inroad was
preparing, by the defenceless frontier
of the Jura, into the heart of their
territory, their left was menaced by a
more formidable invasion from the
northern powers than they had yet ex-
perienced, and their right with diffi
culty maintained itself with inferior

.
6. But although the plan of the Allies
was so extensive, the decisive point lay
in the centre of the line; and it was
by the Archduke that the vital blow
was to be struck, which would at once
have opened to them an entrance into
the heart of France. This able com-
mander impatiently awaited the arrival
of the Russians under Korsakoff, which
would have conferred a superiority of
thirty thousand men over his oppon-
ent, and enabled him to resume the
offensive with an overwhelming advan-
tage. The object of Massena, of course,
was to strike a blow before this great
reinforcement arrived; as, though his
army was rapidly augmenting by con-
scripts from the interior, he had no
such sudden increase to expect as
awaited the Imperial forces. It was
equally indispensable for the Republi-
cans to resume the offensive without
any delay in Italy, as the important
fortresses of Mantua and Alessandria
were now hard pressed by the Allies,
and, if not speedily relieved, must not
only, by their fall, give them the entire
command of the plain of Lombardy,
but enable them to render the position
of Massena untenable to the north of
the Alps.
7. To meet these accumulating dan-
gers, the French government exhibited
an energy commensurate to the crisis
in which they were placed. The im-
minence of the peril induced them to
reveal it without disguise to both
branches of the legislature. General
Jourdan proposed to call out at once
all classes of the conscripts, which, it
was expected, would produce an in-
crease of two hundred thousand men
to the armies, and to levy a forced loan
of 120,000,000 francs, or £4,800,000,
on the opulent classes, secured on the
national domains. Both motions were
at once agreed to by the Councils. To
render them as soon as possible avail-
able, the conscripts were ordered to be
formed into regiments, and drilled in
their several departments, and marched
off, the moment they were disposable,
to the nearest army on the frontier;
while the service of Lille, Strassburg,
J
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
263
forces on the inhospitable summits of | and the other fortresses, was, in great
the Maritime Alps.
part, intrusted to the national guards
of the vicinity. Thus, with the recur-
rence of similar circumstances in the
affairs of the Republic, the revolution-
ary measures which had already been
found so efficacious were again put in
activity. Bernadotte, who at this crisis
was appointed minister at war, rapidly
infused into all the departments of the
military service his own energy and
resolution; and we have the best of
all authorities-that of his political
antagonist, Napoleon himself-for the
assertion, that it was to the admirable
measures which he set on foot, and the
conscripts whom he assembled round
the Imperial standards, that not only
the victory of Zurich, at the close of
the campaign, but the subsequent
triumph of Marengo, were in a great
degree owing.
8. In order to counteract as far as
possible the designs of the Allies, it was
resolved to augment to thirty thousand
men the forces placed on the summit
of the Alps, from the St Bernard to the
Mediterranean; while the Army of Italy,
debouching from the Apennines, should
resume the offensive, in order to pre-
vent the siege of Coni, and raise those
of Mantua and Alessandria; and Mas-
sena should execute a powerful diver-
sion on the Limmat ere the arrival of
the Russians under Korsakoff. For
this purpose all the conscripts in the
eastern and southern departments were
rapidly marched off to the armies at
Zurich and on the Alps; and the for-
tresses of Grenoble, Briançon, and
Fenestrelles, commanding the princi-
pal entrances from Piedmont into
France, were armed and provisioned.
At the same time the direction of the
troops on the frontier was changed.
Championnet, liberated from confine-
ment, was intrusted with the command
of the army of the Alps; while that
of the Army of Italy was taken from
Moreau, under whom, notwithstanding
his great abilities, it had experienced
nothing but disaster, and given to
Joubert a youthful hero, who joined
heroic valour to great natural abilities,
and who, though as yet untried in the
separate command of large armies, had
264
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
:
:
evinced such talents in subordinate | ous of the exclusive sovereignty of the
situations as gave the promise of great conquests in Italy, to be willing to
future renown. He was cut off in the share their possession with a powerful
very outset of his career, in high com- rival; while the pride of the Russians
mand, on the field of Novi.
was hurt at beholding their unconquer-
ed commander, whom they justly re-
garded as the soul of the confederacy,
subjected to the orders of the Aulic
Council, who could not appreciate his
energetic mode of conducting war, and
frquently interrupted him in the midst
of his career of conquest. At the same
time, the English government were de-
sirous of allowing the Russian forces
to act alone in Switzerland, aided by
the insurrection which they hoped to
organise in that country, and beheld
with satisfaction the removal of the
Muscovite standards from the shores of
the Mediterranean, where their estab-
lishment in a permanent manner might
possibly have occasioned them some
uneasiness, and where they saw no cor-
dial co-operation with the Austrians
was to be expected. These feelings on
all sides led to an agreement between
the allied powers, in virtue of which it
was stipulated, that the whole Russian
troops, after the fall of Alessandria and
Mantua, should be concentrated in
Switzerland under Marshal Suwarroff;
that the Imperialists should alone pro-
secute the war in Italy, and that the
army of the Archduke Charles should
act under his separate orders on the
Upper Rhine. This plan was of itself
highly advisable, as it tended to re-
move the jealousies consequent on the
troops of different nations acting to-
Dis-gether; but, from the time at which it
was carried into execution, and the im-
mediate dislocation of force with which
it was attended, it led to the most ca-
lamitous results. The whole forces of
the Republic at this period, actually on
foot, did not exceed two hundred and
twenty thousand combatants; and al-
though the new conscription was press-
ed with the utmost vigour, it could not
be expected that it would add materially
to the efficiency of the defending armies
for several months, in the course of
which, to all appearance, their fate
would be decided.
11. The arrival of the army of Naples
at Genoa in the end of July having
9. Suwarroff, who was well aware of
the inestimable importance of time in
war, was devoured with anxiety to com-
mence operations against the army of
Moreau in the Ligurian Alps, now not
more than twenty thousand strong, be-
fore it had recovered from its conster-
nation, or was strengthened by the ar-
rival of Macdonald's forces, which were
making a painful circuit by Florence
and Pisa in its rear. But the Aulic
Council, who looked more to the im-
mediate concerns of Austria than the
general interest of the common cause,
and were invincibly attached to a slow
and methodical system of war, insisted
upon Mantua being put into their hands
before anything was attempted either
against Switzerland, Genoa, or the Ma-
ritime Alps; and the Emperor again
wrote to Suwarroff positively forbid-
ding any enterprise until that import-
ant fortress had surrendered. The im-
petuous marshal, unable to conceal his
vexation, and fully aware of the disas-
trous effects this resolution would have
upon the general fate of the campaign,
exclaimed, "Thus it is that armies are
ruined!" Nevertheless, like a good
soldier, obeying the orders, he des-
patched considerable reinforcements
and a powerful train of artillery by the
Po, to aid the siege of Mantua, and as-
sembled at Turin the stores necessary
for the reduction of Alessandria.
gusted, however, with the subordinate
part thus assigned to him, the Russian
general abandoned to General Ott the
duty of harassing the retreat of the
army of Naples, and encamped with his
veterans on the Bormida, to await
the tedious operations of the besieging
forces.
10. This circumstance contributed
to induce an event, attended ultimately
with important effects on the fate of
the campaign-viz., the separation of
the Austrian and Russian forces, and
the rupture of all cordial concert be-
tween their respective governments.
The cabinet of Vienna was too desir-
1799.]
265
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
raised the French force to forty-eight 12. Mantua, situated in the middle
thousand men, including three thousand of a lake formed by the Mincio in the
cavalry and a powerful artillery, it was course of its passage from the Alps to
deemed indispensable on every account the Po, depends entirely for its secu-
to resume offensive operations, in con- rity upon its external works, and the
junction with the army of the Alps, command of the waters which surround
which had now been augmented to a its walls. Two chaussées traverse the
respectable amount. Everything, ac- whole extent of the lake on bridges of
cordingly, was put in motion in the stone: the first leads to the citadel,
valleys of the Alps and Apennines; the second to the faubourg St George.
and the French army, whose head- Connected with the citadel are the ex-
quarters were at Cornegliano, occupied ternal works and intrenched camp,
at Voltri, Savona, Vado, and Loano, which surround the lake, and prevent
nearly the same position which Napo- all access to its margin. These works,
leon held previous to his memorable with the exception of the citadel, are
descent into Italy in March 1796. But not of any considerable strength; the
it was too late all the activity of Mo- real defence of Mantua consists in the
reau and Joubert could not prevent the command which the garrison has of
fall of the bulwarks of Lombardy and the waters in the lake, which is formed
Piedmont. The siege of Mantua, which by three locks. That of the citadel en-
had been blockaded ever since the ables them at pleasure to augment the
battle of Magnano, was pressed in good upper lake; that of Pradella gives them
earnest by General Kray after the vic- the command of the entrance of its
tory of the Trebbia. The capture of waters into the Pajolo; while that of
Turin having placed at the disposal of the port Gérèse puts it in their power
the Allies immense resources, both in to dam up the canal of Pajolo, and let
artillery and ammunition, and the de- it flow into inundations to obstruct the
feat of Macdonald having relieved them approach to the place. But, on the
from all anxiety as to the raising of the other hand, the besiegers have the
siege, thirty thousand men were soon means of augmenting or diminishing
collected round its walls, and the bat- the supply of water to the lake itself,
teries of the besiegers armed with two by draining off the river which feeds
hundred pieces of cannon. The garri- it above the town; and the dykes which
son originally consisted of nearly eleven lead to Pradella are of such breadth as
thousand men; but this force, barely to permit trenches to be cut and ap-
adequate at first to man its extensive proaches made along them. Upon the
ramparts, was now considerably weak- whole, an exaggerated idea had been
ened by disease. The peculiar situ- formed both of the value and strength
ation of this celebrated fortress ren- of Mantua, by the importance which it
dered it indispensable that, at all ha- had assumed in the campaign of 1796,
zards, the exterior works should be and the result of the present siege re-
maintained, and this was no easy mat- vealed the secret of its real weakness.
ter with an insufficient body of troops.
The soldiers were provisioned for a
year; but the inhabitants, thrice im-
poverished by enormous contributions,
were in the most miserable condition;
and the famine with which they were
menaced, joined to the natural un-
healthiness of the situation during the
autumnal months, soon produced those
contagious disorders ever in the rear of
protracted war, which, in spite of every
precaution, seriously weakened the
strength of the garrison.
VOL IV.
13. Kray, taking advantage with abi-
lity of all the means at his disposal,
had caused his flotilla to descend by
Peschiera and Goito from the lake of
Garda, and brought up many gunboats
by the inferior part of the Mincio into
the lower lake. By means of these ves-
sels, which were armed with cannon of
the heaviest calibre, he kept up an in-
cessant fire on the dykes, and at the
same time established batteries against
the curtain between the citadel and
fort St George. These were intended
8
!
266
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
merely as feints, to divert the attention | Alessandria. Trenches were opened on
of the besiegers from the real point of the 8th July; in a few days, eighty
attack, which was the front of fort Pra- pieces of cannon were placed in bat-
della. On the night of the 14th July, tery; and such was the activity with
while the garrison were reposing, after which they were served, that in seven
having celebrated by extraordinary re- days they discharged no less than forty-
joicings the anniversary of the taking two thousand projectiles. On the 21st,
of the Bastille, the trenches were open- the garrison, consisting of sixteen hun-
ed, and after the approaches had been dred men, surrendered at discretion.
continued for some days, the tower of This conquest was of great importance
Gérèse was carried by assault, and the to the future projects of Suwarroff; but
besiegers' guns rapidly brought close it was dearly purchased by the loss of
up to the outworks of the place. On General Chastellar, his chief of the staff,
the night of the 24th, all the batteries who was severely wounded soon after
of the besiegers being fully armed, they the first trenches were opened—an offi-
opened their fire, from above two hun- cer whose talents and activity had, in
dred pieces, with such tremendous ef- a great degree, contributed to the suc-
fect, that the defences of the fortress ces of the campaign. After the fall of
speedily gave way before it. In less Alessandria and Mantua, Suwarroff,
than two hours the outworks of fort faithful to the orders he had received
Pradella were destroyed; while the from Vienna, to leave no fortified place
guns intended to create a diversion in the enemy's hands in his rear, com-
against the citadel soon produced a seri- menced the siege of Tortona. His
ous impression. Nothing could stand army was soon augmented by the ar-
against the vigour and sustained weight rival of General Kray, with twenty
of the allied fire; their discharges gra- thousand men, from the siege of Man-
dually rose from six thousand cannon- tua, who entered into line on the 12th
shot to twelve thousand in twenty-four August. The trenches were opened be-
hours, and the loss of the garrison from fore Tortona on the 5th August, and
its effects was from five to six hundred on the 7th, the castle of Serravalle,
a-day. Under the pressure arising from situated at the entrance of one of the
so terrible an attack, the fort of St valleys leading into the Apennines, was
George and the battery of Pajolo were taken after a short cannonade. But the
successively abandoned; and at length French army, which was now concen-
the garrison, reduced to seven thousand trated under Joubert on the Apennines,
five hundred men, surrendered, on con- was preparing an offensive movement,
dition of being sent back to France, and and the approaches to Genoa were des-
not serving again until regularly ex- tined to be the theatre of one of the
changed. Hardly were the terms agreed most bloody battles which had yet oc-
to, when the upper lake flowed with curred in modern times.
such violence into the under, through
an aperture which the governor had
cut to let in the waters, that sixty feet
of the dyke were carried away, and the
inundation of Pajolo deepened to such
a degree that it might have prolonged
for at least eight days his means of de-
fence, and possibly, by preventing the
besieging force taking a part in the
battle of Novi, which shortly followed,
altered the fate of the campaign.
14. While the bulwark of Lombardy
was thus falling, after an unexpectedly
short resistance, into the hands of the
Imperialists, Count Bellegarde was not
less successful against the citadel of
15. The Republicans at this epoch
occupied the following positions. The
right wing, fifteen thousand strong,
under St Cyr, guarded the passes of
the Apennines from Portremoli to Tor-
riglia, and furnished the garrison of
Genoa. The centre, consisting of ten
thousand, held the important posts of
the Bochetta and Campo Freddo at the
summit of the mountains; while the
left, twenty-two thousand strong, was
encamped on the reverse of the range,
on the side of Piedmont, from the up-
per end of the valley of the Tanaro—
and both guarded the communications
of the whole army with France, and

1799.]
267
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
kept up the connection with the corps |
under Championnet, which was begin-
ning to collect on the higher passes
of the Alps. On the other hand, the
Allies could only muster forty-five thou-
sand men in front of Tortona: General
Kaim, with twelve thousand, being at
Chierasco to observe the army of the
Alps; Klenau in Tuscany, with seven
thousand combatants; and the remain-
der of their great army occupied in
keeping up the communications be-
ween their widely scattered forces.
following positions: Kray, with the
divisions of Bellegarde and Ott, was
encamped in two lines on the right,
near the road from Novi to Bosco, the
centre, consisting of the divisions of
Forster and Schwiekowsky, command-
ed by Derfelden, bivouacked in rear of
Pozzolo-Formigaro; while Melas, with
the left, consisting of the Austrian di-
visions of Froelich and Lichtenstein,
occupied Rivalta. The army of Jou-
bert was grouped on the plateau in the
rear of Novi, with his right on the
16. The arrival of Joubert, to super- Scrivia, his centre at Novi, and his left
sede him in the command of his army, at Basaluzzo-a position which enabled
had no tendency to excite feelings of him to cover the march of the columns
jealousy in the mind of his great pre-detached from his right, which were
decessor. Moreau was incapable of a destined to advance by Cassano to ef-
personal feeling when the interest of fect the deliverance of Tortona. The
his country was at stake; and with a French occupied a semicircle on the
magnanimity truly worthy of admira- northern slopes of the Monte Roton-
tion, he not only gave his youthful suc- do; the left, composed of the divisions
cessor the full benefit of his matured Grouchy and Lemoine, under the com-
counsel and experience, but offered to mand of Perignon, extended itself, in a
accompany him for some days after circular form, around Pasturana; in
he opened his campaign; contributing the centre, the division Laboissière,
thus, by his advice, to the glory of a under St Cyr, covered the heights to
rival who had just supplanted him in the right and left of Novi; while the
the command. Joubert, on his side, division Watrin, on the right, guarded
not only profited by the assistance thus the approaches to the Monte Rotondo
generously proffered, but deferred on from the side of Tortona, and Dom-
every occasion to the advice of his illus-browsky, with the Polish division,
trious friend; and to the good under- blockaded Serravalle. The position was
standing between these great men the strong, and the concentrated masses of
preservation of the Republican forces the Republicans presented a formidable
after the defeat at Novi and the death front among the woods, ravines, slopes,
of Joubert, is mainly to be ascribed. and vineyards with which the foot of
How different from the presumption of the Apennines was broken. On the side
Lafeuillade, who, a century before, had of the French, forty-three thousand
caused the ruin of a French army near men were assembled; while the forces
the same spot, by neglecting the advice of the Allies were above fifty-five thou-
of Marshal Vauban before the walls of sand-a superiority which made the
Turin !
first desirous of engaging upon the
rugged ground at the foot of the hills,
and the latter anxious to draw their
opponent into the plain, where their
great superiority in cavalry might give
them a decisive advantage.
|
|
18. Joubert, who had given no credit
to the rumours which had reached the
army of the fall of Mantua, and con-
tinually disbelieved the asseverations of
St Cyr, that he would have the whole
allied army on his hands, received a
painful confirmation of its truth, by be-
holding the dense masses of Kray en-
17. On the 9th of August, the French
army commenced its forward move-
ment; and, after debouching by the
valleys of the Bormida, the Erro, and
the Orba, assembled on the 13th at Novi,
and blockaded Serravalle, in the rear
of their right wing. A fourth column,
under the orders of St Cyr, destined to
raise the siege of Tortona, descended
the defiles of the Bochetta. Suwarroff
no sooner heard of this advance than
he concentrated his army, which, on
the evening of the 14th, occupied the
恋
​268
[CHAP. XXVIIL.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
*
',
camped opposite to his left wing. He was | Austrians without being able either to
thrown by this unexpected discovery deploy or answer it. Notwithstand-
into the utmost perplexity. To engage ing the heroic resistance of some bri-
with so great an inferiority of force gades, the Imperialists sensibly gained
was the height of temerity, while re- ground, and the heads of their columns
treat was difficult in presence of so en- were already mounting the plateau on
terprising an enemy. In these circum- which Novi stands, when Joubert hur-
stances, he resolved, late on the night ried in person to the spot, and when in
of the 14th-after such irresolution as the act of waving his hat, giving the
throws great doubts on his capacity as word, "Forward, let us throw our-
general-in-chief, whatever his talents as selves among the tirailleurs !" received
second in command may have been-on a ball in his breast. He instantly fell,
retiring into the fastnesses of the Apen- and with his last breath exclaimed,
nines; and he was only waiting for the "Advance, my friends, advance !"
arrival of his scouts in the morning,
to give the necessary orders for carry-
ing it into effect, when the commence-
ment of the attack by the Allies com-
pelled him to accept battle in the posi-
tion which he occupied. Suwarroff's
order of battle at Novi was highly cha-
racteristic of that singular warrior. It
was simply this: "Kray and Bellegarde
will attack the left, the Russians the
centre, Melas the right." To the sol-
diers he said, "God wills, the Emperor
orders, Suwarroff commands, that to-
morrow the enemy be conquered."
Dressed in his usual costume, in his
shirt down to the waist, he was on
horseback at the advanced posts the
the whole preceding evening, attended
by a few horsemen, minutely recon-
noitring the Republican position. He
was recognised from the French lines
by the singularity of his dress, and a
skirmish of advanced posts in conse-
quence took place.
20. The confusion occasioned by this
circumstance would have proved fatal,
in all probability, to the French army,
had the other corps of the Allies been
so far advanced as to take advantage
of it. But, by a strange fatality, though
their attacks were all combined and
concentric, they were calculated to
and
take place at different times;
while this important advantage was
gained on their left, the Russians in
the centre were still resting at Pozzolo-
Formigaro, and Melas had merely des-
patched a detachment from Rivalta to
observe the course of the Scrivia. This
circumstance, joined to the opportune
arrival of Moreau, who assumed the
command and harangued the troops,
restored order, and the Austrians were
at length driven down to the bottom of
the hill on their second line. During
this encounter, Bellegarde endeavoured
to gain the rear of Pasturana by a ra-
vine which encircled it, and was on the
point of succeeding, when Perignon
charged him so vigorously with the
grenadiers of Partonneaux and the ca-
valry of Richepanse, that the Imperial-
19. Suwarroff's design was to force
back the left of the French, by means
of the corps of Kray, while Bagrathion
had orders to turn their right, and
unite in their rear, under cover of theists were driven back in confusion, and
cannon of Serravalle, with that corps. the whole French left wing rescued
At the same time, Derfelden was to from danger. Hitherto the right of
attack Novi in the centre, and Melas the Republicans had not been attacked,
commanded the reserve, ready to sup- and St Cyr availed himself of this re-
port any part of the army which re-spite to complete his defensive arrange-
quired his aid. In pursuance of these ments. Kray, finding the whole weight
orders, Kray commenced the attack at of the engagement on his hands, pressed
five in the morning; Bellegarde assail- Bagrathion to commence an attack on
ed Grouchy-and Ott, Lemoine. The Novi; and though the Russian gene-
Republicans were at first taken by sur-ral was desirous to wait till the hour
prise; and their masses, in great part assigned by his commander for his
in the act of marching or entangled in moving, he agreed to commence, when
the vineyards, received the fire of the it was evident that, unless speedily
1799.]
269
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
21. The failure of these partial at-
tacks rendered it evident that a com-
bined effort of all the columns was
necessary. It was now noon, and the
French line was unbroken, although
the superiority of numbers on the part
of the Allies was fully twelve thousand
men. Suwarroff, therefore, combined
all his forces for a decisive movement.
Kray, whom nothing could intimidate,
received orders to prepare for a fresh
attack; Derfelden was destined to sup-
port Bagrathion in the centre, Melas
was directed to break up from Rivalta
to form the left of the line, while Ro-
senberg was ordered in all haste to
advance from Tortona to support his
movement. The battle, after a pause,
began again with the umost fury at
all points. It was long, however, most
obstinately disputed. Notwithstand
ing the utmost efforts of Kray, who
returned above ten times to the charge,
the Imperialists could make no im-
pression on the French left: in vain
column after column advanced to the
harvest of death-nothing could break
the firm array of the Republicans;
while Bagrathion, Derfelden, and Mila-
radowitch, in the centre, after the most
heroic exertions, were compelled to re-
coil before the terrible fire of the in-
fantry and batteries which were dis-
posed around Novi. For above four
hours, the action continued with the
utmost fury, without the French in-
fantry being anywhere displaced; until
at length the fatigue on both sides
produced a temporary pause, and the
contending hosts rested on their arms
amidst a field covered with the slain.
supported, Kray would be compelled | of a kind which nothing could subdue.
to retreat. The Russians advanced At four o'clock the left wing of the
with great gallantry to the attack; but Allies came up under Melas, and pre-
a discharge from the division Labois- parations were instantly made to take
sière of musketry and grape, at half advantage of so great a reinforcement.
gun-shot, threw them into confusion; Melas was directed to assail the ex-
and, after an obstinate engagement, treme right of the Republicans, and
they were finally broken by a charge endeavour, by turning it, to threaten
by Watrin, with a brigade of infantry, the road from Novi to Genoa; while
on their flank, and driven back with Kray again attacked the left, and Su-
great loss to Pozzolo-Formigaro. warroff himself, with the whole weight
of the Russians, pressed the centre.
The resistance experienced on the left
was so obstinate that, though he led
on the troops with the courage of a
grenadier, Kray could not gain a foot
of ground; but the Russians in the
centre, after a terrible conflict, suc-
ceeded in driving the Republicans into
Novi, from the old walls and ruined
towers of which, however, they still
kept up a murderous fire. But the
progress of Melas on the right was
much more alarming. While one of
his columns ascended the right bank
of the Scrivia and reached Serravalle,
another by the left bank had already
turned the Monte Rotondo, and was
rapidly ascending its sides; while the
general himself, with a third, was ad-
vancing against the eastern flank of
the plateau of Novi. To make head
against so many dangers, Moreau order-
ed the division Watrin to move towards
the menaced plateau; but finding itself
assailed during its march, both in front
and rear, by the divisions of Melas, it
fell into confusion, and fled in the
utmost disorder, with difficulty cutting
its way through the enemy on the road
in the rear of the French position.
22. The resolution of any other gen-
eral but Suwarroff would have been
shaken by so terrible a carnage without
any result; but his moral courage was
|
23. It now became indispensable for
the Republicans to retire, for Lichten-
stein, at the head of the Imperial
cavalry and three brigades of grena-
diers, was already established on the
road to Gavi; his triumphant battal-
ions, with loud shouts, were sweeping
round the rear of the Republicans,
while the glittering helmets of the
horsemen appeared on every eminence
behind their lines, and no other way
of communication remained open but
that which led by Pasturana to Ovada.
Suwarroff, who saw his advantage, was
preparing a last and simultaneous at-
270
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
tack on the front and flanks of his op- | his hand, and when it was torn from
him in the mêlée, he raised his helmet
on his sabre, and was thrown down
and wounded in the shock of the op-
posing squadrons; and Kray, Bagra-
thion, and Melas led on their troops
to the mouth of the enemy's cannon,
as if their duty had been that of merely
commanding grenadier battalions.
ponent, when Moreau anticipated him
by a general retreat. It was at first
conducted in good order, but the im-
petuous assaults of the Allies soon con-
verted it into a rout. Novi, stripped
of its principal defenders, could no
longer withstand the assaults of the
Russians, who, confident of victory,
and seeing the standards of the Allies
in the rear of the French position,
rushed forward with resistless fury and
deafening cheers, over the dead bodies
of their comrades, to the charge. Le-
moine and Grouchy with difficulty sus-
tained themselves, in retiring, against
the impetuous attacks of their un-
wearied antagonist Kray, when the vil-
lage of Pasturana in their rear was
carried by the Russians, whose vehe-
mence increased with their success, and
the only road practicable for their ar-
tillery cut off. Despair now seized
their ranks; infantry, cavalry, and ar-
tillery disbanded, and fled in tumultu-
ous confusion across the vineyards and
orchards which adjoined the line of
retreat. Colli and his whole brigade
were made prisoners; and Perignon
and Grouchy, almost cut to pieces with
sabre-wounds, fell into the hands of
the enemy. The army, in utter con-
fusion, reached Gavi, where it was ral-
lied by the efforts of Moreau, the Allies
being too much exhausted with fatigue
to continue the pursuit.
25. The consequences of the battle
of Novi were not so great as might
have been expected from so desperate
a shock. On the night of the 15th,
Moreau regained in haste the defiles of
the Apennines, and posted St Cyr,
with a strong rearguard, to defend the
approaches to the Bochetta. In the
first moments of consternation, he had
serious thoughts of evacuating Genoa,
and the artillery was already collected
at St Pietro d'Arena for that purpose;
but, finding that he was not seriously
disquieted, he again dispersed his
troops through the mountains, nearly
in the positions they held before the
battle. St Cyr was intrusted with the
right, where a serious attempt was
chiefly apprehended; and an attack
which Klenau made on that part of
the position, with five thousand men,
was repulsed with the loss of seven
hundred men to the Imperialists. Su-
warroff himself, informed of the suc-
cesses of the French in the small can-
tons of Switzerland, immediately de-
tached Kray, with twelve thousand
men, to the Tessino; while he himself,
in order to keep an eye on Championnet,
whose force was daily accumulating on
the Maritime Alps, encamped at Asti,
where he covered at once the blockade
of Coni and the siege of Tortona.
24. The battle of Novi was one of
the most bloody and obstinately con-
tested that had yet occurred in the
war. The loss of the Allies was 1800
killed, 5200 wounded, and 1200 pri-
soners; that of the French was still
greater, amounting to 1500 killed, 5500
wounded, and 3000 prisoners, besides
37 cannons, 28 caissons, and 4 stand-
ards. As the war advanced, and fiercer
passions were brought into collision,
the carnage was daily becoming greater;
the officers were more prodigal of their
own blood and that of their soldiers;
and the chiefs themselves, regardless
of life, at length led them on both sides
to the charge, with an enthusiasm
which nothing could surpass. Joubert
was the victim of this heroic feeling;
Grouchy charged with a standard in
26. During the concentration of the
Allied forces for the battle of Novi,
this active commander so ably disposed
his little army, which only amounted
to sixteen thousand combatants, in-
stead of thirty thousand, as he had
been promised by the Directory, that
he succeeded in forcing the passage of
the Little St Bernard, and driving the
Imperialists back to Suza. These suc-
cesses continued even after the Russian
commander took post at Asti; and in
a variety of affairs of posts in the val-
leys of the Alps, he succeeded in tak-


1799.]
271
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1
ing fifteen hundred prisoners and four | these elevated ridges, which were uni-
pieces of cannon. But these advan-versally at that period deemed the key
tages were more than counterbalanced to the seat of war.
by the fall of Tortona, which capitu-
lated on the 25th August, on condition
that, if not relieved by the 11th Sep-
tember, the place should be surrender-
ed to the Allies. This conquest was
the only trophy which they derived
from the bloody battle of Novi. Mor-
eau made an ineffectual attempt to re-
lieve the blockade, and, finding it im-
possible to effect the object, retired
into the fastnesses of the Apennines;
while Suwarroff, who had received
orders to collect the whole Russians
in the Alps, set out, agreeably to the
plan fixed on, with seventeen thousand
men, for the canton of the Tessino.
28. At the very time when the
French general was making prepara-
tions for these important movements,
the Aulic Council gave every possible
facility to their success, by compelling
the Archduke to depart with his ex-
perienced troops for the Rhine, and
make way for the Russians under
Korsakoff, equally unskilled in moun-
tain_warfare, and unacquainted with
the French tactics. In vain that able
commander represented that the line
of the Rhine, with its double barrier
of fortresses, was equally formidable
to an invading as advantageous to an
offensive army; that nothing decisive,
therefore, could be expected from the
operations of the Imperialists in that
quarter, while the chances of success
were much greater from a combined
attack of the Russians and Austrians
on the frontier of the Jura, where no
fortresses existed to impede an invad-
27. While these great events were
passing to the south of the Alps, events
of still more decisive importance oc-
curred to the north of those moun-
tains. Immediately after the capture
of Zurich and the retreat of Massena
to Mount Albis, the Archduke estab-ing force; that fifty thousand Russians
lished the bulk of his forces on the in Switzerland could not supply the
hills which separate the Glatt from the place of seventy thousand Austrians,
Limmat, and placed a chain of posts and the chances, therefore, were that
along the whole line of that river, and some serious disaster would occur in
the Aar, to observe the movements of the most important part of the line of
the Republicans. Each of the opposing operations; and that nothing could be
armies in Switzerland numbered about more hazardous than to make a change
seventy-five thousand combatants; but of troops and commanders in presence
the French had acquired a decided of a powerful and enterprising enemy,
superiority on the Upper Rhine, where at the very time that he was meditating
they had collected forty thousand men, offensive operations. These judicious
while the forces of the Imperialists observations produced no sort of effect,
amounted in that quarter only to and the court of Vienna ordered "the
twenty-two thousand. Both parties immediate execution of its will, with-
were anxiously waiting for reinforce out further objections."
ments; but as that expected by the
Archduke, under Korsakoff, was by
much the most important, Massena re-
solved to anticipate his adversary, and
strike a decisive blow before that auxi-
liary arrived. For this purpose he com-
menced his operations by means of his
right wing in the higher Alps, hoping,
by the advantage which the initiative
always gives in mountainous regions,
to dispossess the Imperialists from the
important position of the St Gothard,
and separate their Italian from their
German armies by the acquisition of
29. To understand the important
military operations which followed, it
is indispensable to form some idea of
the ground on which they took place.
The St Gothard, though inferior in
elevation to many other mountains in
Switzerland, is nevertheless the central
point of the country, and from its sides
some of the greatest rivers in Europe
take their rise. On the east, the Rhine,
springing from the glaciers of Disentis
and Hinter Rhein, carries its waters,
by a circuitous course, through the
expanse of the lake of Constance to the
“
272
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
3
i
*
German Ocean; on the north, the Reuss to Altdorf.+ Ascending from Bellinzona
and the Aar, descending in parallel on the southern side, it passed through
ravines, through rugged mountains, a narrow defile close to the Tessino,
feed the lakes of Luzern, Thun, and between immense walls of rock between
Brientz, and ultimately contribute their Faido and Airolo; climbed the steep
waters to the same majestic stream. ascent above Airolo to the inhospitable
On the west, a still greater river rises summit of the St Gothard; descended,
in the blue and glittering glacier of the by a torrent's edge, its northern de-
Rhone, and descending through the clivity, to the elevated mountain valley
long channel of the Valais, expands of Unsern, from whence, after travers-
into the beautiful lake of Geneva; ing the dark and humid gallery of the
while to the south, the snows of the Unnerloch, it crossed the foaming cas-
St Gothard nourish the impetuous tor- cade of the Reuss by the celebrated
rent of the Tessino, which, after foam- Devil's Bridge, and descended, through
ing through the rocks of Faido, and the desolate and rugged valley of Schol-
bathing the smiling shores of the Ital- lenen, to Altdorf on the lake of Luzern.
ian bailiwicks, swells out into the sweet But there all vestige of a practicable
expanse of the Lago Maggiore, and road ceased, and must ever cease; the
loses itself in the classic waves of the sublime lake of Uri lies before the tra-
Po. The line of the Limmat, which veller, the sides of which, formed of
now separated the hostile armies, is gigantic walls cf rock, defy all attempt
composed of the Linth, which rises in at the formation of a path, and the
the snowy mountains of Glarus, and, communication with Luzern is carried
after forming in its course the Lake of on by water along the beautiful lake of
Zurich, issues from that great sheet of the Four Cantons. The only way in
water, under the name of the Limmat, which it is possible to proceed on land
and throws itself into the Aar at Bruick. from this point, is either on the left by
Hotze guarded the line of the Linth; shepherd's tracks towards Stanz and
the Archduke himself that of the Lim- the canton of Unterwalden, or on the
mat. Korsakoff was considerably in right by the rugged and almost im-
the rear, and was not expected at practicable pass of the Schächenthal,
Schaffhausen till the 19th August.* by which the traveller may reach the
upper extremity of the canton of
Glarus. From the valley of Unsern,
in the heart of the St Gothard, a diffi-
30. One road, practicable for cavalry,
but barely so for artillery at that period,
crossed the St Gothard from Bellinzona
* The relative situation and strength of the two armies, at this period, is thus given by
the Archduke Charles:-
French.
From Huningen to the mouth of the Aar,
From the mouth of the Aar to Mount Uetli,
From Mount Albis to the lake of Luzern,
From the lake of Luzern to the valley of Oberhasli,
In the Valais, from Briag to St Maurice,
In the interior of Switzerland,
•
Total,
Allies.
Between Weiss and Wutach,
From the mouth of the Aar to the lake of Zurich,
Between the lake of Zurich and Luzern,
From the lake of Luzern to the St Gothard,
On the St Gothard, the Grimsel, and the Upper Valais,
In the Grisons,
Swiss,
Infantry.
10,991
23,792
11,761
7,732
10,886
2,088
67,250
Cavalry,
3,208
3,239
564
554
1,126
8,691
-75,941
4,269 1,329
37,053 10,458
8,722
4,184
5,744
1,188
3,453
64,613 13,301
834
175
150
355
Total,
-77,914
†The magnificent chaussée which now traverses this mountainous and romantic re-
gion was not formed till the year 1819.
1799.]
273
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
cult and dangerous path leads over the | lected his forces to resist the inroad.
Furka and the Grimsel, across steep After considerable bloodshed, as the ob-
and slippery slopes, where the most ject was gained, the Republicans drew
experienced traveller can with difficulty off, and resumed their positions on the
keep his footing, to Meyringen in the Limmat. The real attack of Lecourbe
valley of Oberhasli.
was attended with very different results.
The forces at his disposal, including
those of Thurreau in the Valais, were
little short of thirty thousand men,
and they were directed with the most
consummate ability. General Gudin,
with five battalions, was to leave the
valley of the Aar, force the ridge of
the Grimsel, and, forming a junction
with General Thurreau in the Valais,
drive the Austrians from the source
of the Rhone and Mount Furka. A
second column of three battalions,
commanded by Loison, received orders
to cross the Steinerberg between Ober-
hasli and the valley of Schollenen, and
descend upon Wasen; while a third
marched from Engelberg upon Erst-
feld, on the lake of Luzern; and a
fourth moved direct by the valley of
Issi upon Altdorf. Lecourbe himself
was to embark from Luzern on board
his flotilla, make himself master of
Brunen and Schwytz on its eastern
shore, and combine with the other
corps for the capture of Altdorf and
all the posts occupied by the enemy in
the valley of the Reuss.

31. The plan of the Allies was, that
Hotze, with twenty-five thousand Aus-
trians, should be left on the Linth;
and at the end of September a general
attack should be made on the French
position along the whole line. Korsa-
koff was to lead the attack on the left
with his Russian forces; Hotze in the
centre with the Austrians; while Su-
warroff, with seventeen thousand of his
best troops, flushed with the conquest
of Italy, was to assail the right flank
of the Republicans, and by the St Go-
thard throw himself into the rear of
their position on the Limmat. This
design might have been attended with
success, if it had been undertaken with
troops already assembled on the theatre
of operations; but when they were to
be collected from Novi and Bavaria,
and undertaken in presence of a general
perfectly master of the ground, and
already occupying a central position in
the midst of these converging columns,
it was evidently attended with the most
imminent hazard. If any of the columns
did not arrive at the appointed time,
the whole weight of the enemy might
be expected to fall on the first which
appeared. Massena intrusted to Le-
courbe, whose skill in mountain war-
fare had already been amply evinced,
the important duty of throwing for-
ward his right wing, and expelling the
Imperialists from the higher Alps;
while he himself, by a false attack
along the whole line, and especially
upon Zurich in the centre, distracted
the attention of the enemy, and pre-
vented him from perceiving the accu-
mulation of force which was brought
to bear on the St Gothard.
33. These attacks all proved success-
ful. The Republican parties, under
Lecourbe and Oudinot, advanced by
land and water against Schwytz, and,
after an obstinate combat, the united
Swiss and Imperialists were driven
from that canton into the Muttenthal.
From Brunen, the harbour of Schwytz
on the lake, Lecourbe conducted his
flotilla under Tell's Chapel, through
the sublime scenery of the lake of Uri,
beneath precipices fifteen hundred feet
high, to Fluelen, where he landed with
great difficulty, under a heavy fire from
the Austrian troops; and, after a warm
engagement, forced General Simbschen,
who defended Altdorf, to retire farther
up the valley of the Reuss. Meanwhile
Loison, after encountering incredible
difficulties, had crossed the Steinerberg
and the glaciers of Susten, and not
only forced the enemy back into the
rich, where the Archduke rapidly col-valley of Reuss, but, after five assaults,
32. Early on the morning of the 14th
August, the French troops were every-
where in motion. On the left, the
allied outposts were driven in along
the whole line; and in the centre the
attack was so impetuous that the Aus-
trians were forced back almost to Zu-
.
1.
274
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVIII.
made himself master of the important | Strauch, finding himself now exposed
elevated post of Wasen, in the middle on both flanks, had no alternative but
of its extent, so as to expose the troops to retire by the dangerous pass called
who had been driven up from Altdorf the Nufenen, over a slippery glacier, to
to be assailed in rear as well as front. Faido on the Tessino, from whence he
In this extremity they had no resource rejoined the scattered detachments of
but to retire by the lateral gorge of his force, which had made their escape
the Maderanerthal, from whence they from the Valais, by paths known only
reached by Tavätsch the valley of the to chamois hunters, through the Val
Rhine.
Formazza at Bellinzona.
34. Meanwhile successes still more
decisive were achieved by the Republi-
cans in the other part of their moun-
tain line. General Thurreau at the
same hour attacked Prince Rohan, who
was stationed in the Valais, near Brieg,
to guard the northern approach to the
Simplon; and defeated him with such
loss that he was constrained to evacuate
the valley of the Rhone, and retired by
the terrific gorges of the Simplon to
Duomo d'Ossola, on the Italian side of
the mountains.* This disaster obliged
Colonel Strauch, who guarded amidst
snow and granite, the rugged sides of
the Grimsel and the Furka with eight
battalions, to fly to the relief of the
Imperialists in the Upper Valais, leav-
ing only fifteen hundred to guard the
summit of that mountain. He suc-
ceeded in stopping the advance of the
Republicans up the Valais; but during
his absence the important posts of the
Grimsel and Furka were lost. General
Gudin, at the head of three thousand
men, set out from Guttanen, in the
valley of the Aar, and after climbing
up the valley, and surmounting with
infinite difficulty the glaciers of Ghel-
men, succeeded in assailing the corps
who guarded, amidst ice and snow, the
rugged summit of the Grimsel, from a
higher point than that which they oc-
cupied. After a desperate conflict, in
which a severe loss was experienced on
both sides, the Imperialists were driven
down the southern side of the moun-
tain into the Valais; and Colonel
35. Lecourbe, ignorant of the suc-
cesses of his right wing, on the succeed-
ing day pursued his career of victory
in the valley of the Reuss. Following
the retiring columns of the Imperialists
up the dark and shaggy pass of Scholl-
enen, he at length arrived at the Devil's
Bridge, where a chasm thirty feet wide,
formed by the blowing up of the arch,
and a murderous fire from the rocks on
the opposite side of the ravine, arrested
his progress. But this obstacle was not
of long duration. During the night the
Republicans threw beams over the
chasm; and the Austrians, finding them-
selves menaced on their flank by Gen-
eral Gudin, who was descending the
valley of Unsern from the Furka by
Realp, were obliged to evacuate that
almost impregnable post, and retire to
the heights of the Crispalt, behind the
Oberalp, near the source of the Rhine.
There they maintained themselves, with
great resolution, against the Republi-
can grenadiers till the evening; but on
the following day, being assailed by the
united forces of Lecourbe and Gudin,
they were finally broken and driven
back to Ilanz, in the Grisons, farther
down that river, with the loss of a thou-
sand prisoners and three pieces of can-
non. At the same time, a detachment
took possession of the summit of the
St Gothard, and established itself at
Airolo, on the southern declivity of the
mountain.
* The magnificent road which now crosses
the Simplon, and awakens the admiration of
every traveller from the skill with which it
is executed, and the splendid scenery which
it reveals, was not then made; and the only
passage from the Valais to Duomo d'Ossola
36. While Lecourbe was gaining these
great successes on the right, his left, be-
tween the lakes of Luzern and Zurich,
was equally fortunate. General Chabran,
on the extreme left, cleared the whole
western bank of the lake of Zurich
as far as Wiggis; the central columns
drove the Imperialists from Schwyz
into the Muttenthal, and defeated Jel-
was by a break-neck path, highly dangerous
during winter in the upper parts, and prac-
ticable, even in summer, only for foot pas-lachich at Ensiedeln; and on the follow-
sengers.
£
1799.]
275
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
ing day, aided by Chabran, who moved | thing promised a favourable issue to
against his flank by the Waggithal, they the enterprise, when it proved abortive
totally routed the Austrians, who fell from the difficulties of the passage, and
back, with the loss of twelve hundred the want of skill and due preparation
prisoners, by the Klonthal, into the can- in the Austrian engineers. The bridges
ton of Glarus. Thus, by a series of ope- for the crossing of the troops were com-
rations as ably executed as they were menced under such a violent fire of ar-
skilfully conceived, was the whole left tillery as speedily cleared the opposite
wing of the Imperialists routed and banks, but it was found impossible to
driven back in less than forty-eight anchor the pontoons in the rocky bed
hours, with the loss of ten pieces of can- of the stream, and the rapidity of the
non, four thousand prisoners, and two current rendered it hopeless to con-
thousand in killed and wounded; while struct the bridges in any other manner.
the important post of the St Gothard, Thus, from the want of a little foresight
with all its approaches and lateral val- and a few precautions on the part of the
leys, was wrested from their hands.*
engineers, did a project fail, as ably con-
ceived as it was accurately executed by
the military officers, and which pro-
mised to have altered the fate of the
campaign, and perhaps of the war. Had
the passage been effected, the Archduke,
with forty thousand men, would have
cleared all the right bank of the Aar,
separated the French left wing on the
Rhine from their centre and right in
Switzerland, compelled Massena to un-
dertake a disastrous retreat into the
canton of Berne, exposed to almost cer-
tain destruction the small corps at Bâle,
and opened the defenceless frontier of
the Jura to immediate invasion from the
united troops of the Archduke, Korsa-
koff, and Suwarroff. The want of a
few grappling-irons defeated a project
on which perhaps the fate of the world
depended. Such is frequently the for-
tune of war.
37. These brilliant successes, however,
were only gained by Massena through
the great concentration of his forces on
the right wing. To accomplish this he
was obliged to weaken his left, which,
lower down in the plain, guarded the
course of the Aar. The Archduke re-
solved to avail himself of this circum-
stance to strike a decisive blow against
that weakened extremity; in which he
was the more encouraged by the arrival
of twenty thousand Russians of Korsa-
koff's corps at Schaffhausen, and the
important effect which success in that
quarter would have in threatening the
communications of the Republican army
with the interior of France. For this
purpose thirty thousand men were as-
sembled on the banks of the river, and
the point selected for the passage at
Gross Dettingen, a little below the junc-
tion of the Reuss and the Aar. Hotze
was left in Zurich with eight thousand
men, with which he engaged to defend
it to the last extremity; while Korsa-
koff promised to arrive at Ober Endin-
gen, in the centre of the line, with
twenty-three thousand men. The march
of the columns was so well concealed,
and the arrangements made with such
precision, that this great force reached
the destined point without the enemy
38. Desirous still of achieving some-
thing considerable with his veteran sol-
diers before leaving the command in
Switzerland, the Archduke, after his
troops had resumed their position, again
concentrated his left under Hotze. But
the usual jealousies between the troops
and commanders of rival nations pre-
vented his projects from being carried
into execution; and before the end of
the month the Austrians, under their
being aware of their arrival, and every-able commander, were in full march for
Many readers will recognise, in the theatre
of these operations, the scenes indelibly en-
graven on their memory by the matchless
sublimity of their features. The author tra-
versed them on foot in 1816, and again in 1821;
the lapse of twenty years has taken nothing
from the clearness of the impressions left on
his mind during these delightful excursions.
*
the Upper Rhine, leaving twenty-five
thousand men under Hotze, as an auxi-
liary force to support Korsakoff until
the arrival of Suwarroff from the plains
of Piedmont. This change of comman-
ders, and weakening of the allied forces,
presented too great chances of success
像
​34
#
276
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
|
40. After the departure of the Arch-
duke, it was concerted between Suwar-
roff, Korsakoff, and Hotze, that the
former of these commanders should set
out from Bellinzona on the 21st Sep-
tember, and attack the Republican po-
sitions near Airolo on the Tessino. On
the 25th, he expected to be at Altdorf,
to escape the observation of so able a | one of fourteen thousand men, the other
general as Massena, whose army was of seven thousand, with a reserve of eight
now augmented, by reinforcements from thousand, moved towards Mannheim,
the interior, to above eighty thousand and on the following day gave the as-
men. He instantly resolved on a gen-sault. A thick fog favoured the enter-
eral attack along the whole line. The prise; the Austrians got into the re-
movement commenced with an attack doubts almost before the French were
by Soult, with the right wing of the aware of their approach, and drove them
Republicans, upon Hotze, who occu- over the Rhine, with the loss of eighteen
pied the canton of Glarus; and, after hundred prisoners, and twenty-one
several sharp skirmishes, a decisive ac- pieces of cannon. This success threw
tion took place near Näfels, in which a momentary lustre over the expedition,
the Austrians were defeated, and com- for which the Allies were about to pay
pelled to fall back to a defensive line dear by the disasters experienced before
in their rear, extending from the lake Zurich.
of Zurich by Wesen through the Wal-
lenstätter See by Sarganz, to Coire in
the Grisons. It was at this critical
moment that the Archduke, yielding
to the pressing commands of the Aulic
Council, was compelled to abandon the
army with the great body of his troops,
leaving the united force of Korsakoff and
Hotze, fifty-six thousand strong, scat-after having made himself master of
tered over a line forty miles in length, the St Gothard. From thence he was
to sustain the weight of Massena, who, to form a junction with Korsakoff at
without weakening his force at other Zurich, and with their united forces
points, could bring sixty-five thousand assail the position of Massena on the
to bear upon the decisive point around Limmat in front, while Hotze attacked
the ramparts of Zurich.
it in flank. By this means they flat-
tered themselves that they would be
able to march on the Aar with the mass
of their forces, and drive the French
back upon the frontier of the Jura and
their own resources. This project was
well conceived, in so far as the turning
the French position by the St Gothard
was concerned; and if it had been exe-
cuted as vigorously and accurately by
all the commanders engaged as it was
by Suwarroff, the result might have
been very different from what actually
occurred. But it presented almost in-
surmountable difficulties in the execu-
tion, from the rugged nature of the
country in which the principal opera-
tions were to be conducted, the diffi-
culty of communicating between one
valley, or one part of the army and an-
other, and the remote distances from
which the corps which were to com-
bine in the operation were to assemble.
It would have been more prudent, with
such detached bodies, to have chosen
the Misocco and the Bernardine for the
Russian field-marshal's march to the
39. The arrival of the Archduke was
soon attended with important effects
upon the Upper Rhine. The French
had crossed that river at Mannheim on
the 26th August with twelve thousand
men, and driving General Muller, who
commanded the Imperialists, before
them, laid siege to Philippsburg, on
which they had commenced a furious
bombardment. But the approach of
the Austrian prince speedily changed
the state of affairs. The columns of
that commander, rapidly approaching,
threatened to cut off their retreat to the
Rhine, and they were obliged hastily to
raise the siege and retire to Mannheim.
The insufficient state of defence of that
important place inspired the Archduke
with the design of carrying it by a coup-
de-main. Its fortifications had, some
months before, been levelled by the Re-
publicans; but since that time they had
been indefatigable in their endeavours
to restore them, and they were already
in a respectable state of defence. On
the 17th, the Austrians in two columns,
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
277
they had conceived both an unreason-
able confidence in their own strength,
and an unfounded contempt for their
enemies. This feeling was not the re-
sult of a course of successes over an an-
tagonist with whom they had repeat-
edly measured their strength, but of a
blind idea of superiority, unfounded
either in reason or experience, and
likely to lead to the most disastrous
consequences. In presence of the first
general then in Europe, at the head
of a greatly superior force, Korsakoff
thought it unnecessary to adopt other
41. Meanwhile Korsakoff collected measures, or take greater precautions,
the greater part of his forces in the than if he had been on the banks of
neighbourhood of Zurich, where they the Dniester, in front of an undisci-
were encamped between the ramparts plined horde of barbarians. Thus
of the town and the banks of the Sill. everything, both on the French and
The position which they occupied, and allied side, prepared the great catas-
the necessity of striking a decisive blow trophe which was approaching. The
before the arrival of Suwarroff, sug- presumption and arrogance of Korsa-
gested to Massena a plan which he con- koff were carried to such a pitch, that,
ceived and executed with the most in a conference with the Archduke
consummate ability. He had a supe- Charles, shortly before the battle, when
riority, until the arrival of Suwarroff, that great general was pointing out the
of six thousand over the Allies; but the positions which should in an especial
corps which that commander brought manner be guarded, and said, pointing
with him would turn the balance still to the map, "Here you should place a
Now, there- battalion."—" A company, you mean,
farther the other way.* Now, there- battalion."
fore, was the moment, by a decisive said Korsakoff. "No," replied the
blow in the centre, to ruin the allied Archduke,
(C a battalion."-"I under-
army before the junction of that dread-stand you," rejoined the other;
ed commander. But the distribution Austrian battalion, or a Russian com-
of these troops rendered this superi-
ority still more important; for Massena
could assemble thirty-nine thousand on
the decisive line of the Limmat, while
Korsakoff could only collect twenty-
five thousand, the bulk of whom were
grouped together under the cannon of
Zurich, where their numbers were of
no avail, and their crowded state in a
narrow space only impeded any mili-
tary movements.
""
an
theatre of war from the Italian plains,
as that would have brought him down,
by roads practicable for artillery,
through the Via-Mala into the heart
of the Austrian army, under cover of
the posts which they still occupied in
the Grisons. But it did not promise
such brilliant results in the outset as
that which he adopted; and it was
more suitable to the impetuous charac-
ter of the Russian veteran to throw
himself at once through the narrow
ravines of the St Gothard, upon the
flank of his adversary's line.
42. The temper and feeling of the
Russian troops, even more than their
defective position, rendered them the
ready victims of a skilful and daring
adversary. Justly proud of their long
series of victories over the Turks, and
of the decisive impression which Suwar-
roff had made in the Italian campaign,
* The French in the field was
that of the Allies, without Suwarroff, 70,000;
with him, 88,000.—JOMINI, xii. 245.
pany."
43. Having minutely reconnoitred
the position of the enemy, Massena re-
solved to make only a feigned attack
on Zurich, and to cross with the bulk
of his forces farther down the river at
Closter-Fahr, where it was slenderly
guarded; and thus to turn the posi-
tion under the ramparts of that town,
and attack Korsakoff both in front and
rear, at the same time that the Repub-
licans had cut him off from his right
wing farther down the river, and the
lake of Zurich separated him from his
left in the mountains. The execution
of this plan was as able as its concep-
tion was felicitous, on the part of the
French commander. By great exer-
tions the French engineers collected,
by land-carriage, twelve pontoons and
thirty-seven barks at Dietikon, on the
evening of the 24th September, where
278
[CHAP. XXVIIL
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
'.
they were concealed behind an emi- | alarming accounts of the progress of
nence and several hedges, and brought | Oudinot: he had made himself master
down to the margin of the river at of Hongg, and the heights which sur-
daybreak on the following morning. round Zurich on the north-west; and,
The French masked batteries then in spite of a sally which the Russian
opened their fire; by the superiority of general made towards evening, at the
which the opposite bank was speedily head of five thousand men, which com-
cleared of the feeble detachments of pelled the enemy to recede to the foot
the enemy who occupied it, and the of the heights to the north of the
passage commenced. Six hundred men, town, they still maintained themselves
in the first instance, were ferried over, in force on that important position,
and the French artillery, directed by barred the road of Winterthur, the
General Foy, protected this gallant sole issue to Germany, and all but sur-
band against the attacks of the increas- rounded the allied army within the
ing force of the enemy, till the boats walls of the city. Before nightfall,
returned with a fresh detachment. Massena, fully sensible of his advan-
Meanwhile the pontoons arrived at a tages, summoned the Russian com-
quick trot from Dietikon; the bridge mander to surrender, a proposal to
began to be formed, and the troops which no answer was returned.
ferried over attacked and carried the
height on the opposite side, from
whence seven pieces of cannon had
hitherto thundered on their crossing
columns, though defended with the
most obstinate valour by three Rus-
sian battalions. By seven o'clock the
plateau of Closter-Fahr, which com-
manded the passage, was carried, with
the artillery which crowned it, and be-
fore nine the bridge was completed,
and Oudinot, with fifteen thousand
men, firmly established on the right
bank of the river.
45. During these disasters the con-
fusion in Zurich rose to the highest
pitch. The immense confluence of
horsemen, artillery, and baggage-wag-
gons, suddenly thrown back upon the
city, and by which its streets were
soon completely blocked up; the cries
of the wounded brought in from all
quarters; the trampling of the cavalry
and infantry, who forced their way
through the dense mass, and merci-
lessly trod under foot the wounded and
the dying, to make head against the
enemy threatening to break in from all
sides, formed a scene hitherto unex-
ampled in the war, and for which a
parallel can only be found in the hor-
rors of the Moscow retreat. When
night came, the extensive watch-fires
on all the heights to the north and west
of the city showed the magnitude of
the force with which they were threat-
ened in that quarter; while the un-
ruffled expanse of the lake offered no
hope of escape on the other side; and
the bombs, which already began to fall
in the streets, gave a melancholy pre-
sage of the fate which awaited them if
they were not speedily extricated from
their perilous situation.
46. In these desperate circumstances,
Korsakoffevinced a resolution as worthy
of admiration as his former presumptu-
ous confidence had been deserving of
censure. Disdaining the proposal to
surrender, he spent the night in mak-
44. While this serious attack was go-
ing on in the centre, General Menard,
on the left, had by a feigned attack in-
duced the Russian commander, Duras-
soff, to collect all his forces to resist
the threatened passage on the Lower
Limmat; and Mortier, by a vigorous
demonstration against Zurich, retained
the bulk of the Russian centre in the
neighbourhood of that city. His troops
were inadequate to produce any serious
impression on the dense masses of the
Russians who were there assembled;
but while he was retiring in confusion,
and Korsakoff was already congratu-
lating himself on a victory, he was
alarmed by the increasing cannonade
in his rear, and intelligence soon ar-
rived of the passage at Closter-Fahr,
and the separation of the right wing
under Durassoff from the centre, now
left to its own resources at Zurich.
Shortly after, he received the mosting arrangements for forcing, sword in
1799.]
279
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
hand, a passage on the next morning | its way through all the troops which
through the dense masses of the Repub- could be collected to oppose its pro-
licans. Fortunately, considerable rein- gress. But the efforts of the Repub-
forcements arrived during the night; licans against the cavalry in the centre
two strong battalions detached by were more successful. The divisions
Hotze, and the whole right wing under Lorges and Gazan, by reiterated charges
Durassoff, successively made their ap- on the moving mass, at length succeed-
pearance. The latter had been de- ed in throwing it into confusion; the
tained till late in the evening by the disorder soon spread to the rear; all
feigned attacks of Menard; but having the efforts of the generals to arrest it
at length learned the real state of af- proved ineffectual; the brave SACKEN,
fairs, he lost no time in rejoining his destined to honourable distinction in
commander at Zurich, by a long cir- a more glorious war, was wounded and
cuit which enabled him to avoid the made prisoner; and amidst a scene
French outposts. Strengthened by of unexampled confusion, a hundred
these reinforcements, Korsakoff re- pieces of cannon, all the ammunition,
solved to attempt the passage through waggons, and baggage of the army, and
the enemy on the following day. the military chest, fell into the hands
of the victors. Meanwhile the fire ap-
proached Zurich on all sides. Mortier
was thundering from the other side of
the Limmat, while Oudinot, carrying
everything before him, pressed down
from the heights on the north; the gar-
rison defiled after the main army in con-
fusion; soon the gates were seized; a
mortal struggle ensued in the streets, in
the course of which the illustrious Lava-
ter, seeking to save the life of a soldier
47. At daybreak on the 28th the
Russian columns were formed in order
of battle, and attacked with the utmost
impetuosity the division Lorges and
the brigade Bontems, which had es-
tablished themselves on the road to
Winterthur, the sole line of retreat
which remained to them. The resist-
ance of the French was obstinate, and
the carnage frightful; but the Russians
fought with the courage of despair, and
at length succeeded in driving the Re-threatened with death, was barbarously
publicans before them and opening a shot. At length all the troops which
passage. The whole army of Korsa- remained at Zurich laid down their
koff was then arranged for a retreat; arms; and Korsakoff, weakened by the
but, contrary to every rule of common loss of eight thousand killed and
sense, as well as the military art, he wounded, and five thousand prisoners,
placed the infantry in front, the ca- besides his whole artillery and ammu-
valry in the centre, and the artillery nition, was allowed to retire without
and equipages in the rear, leaving only farther molestation by Eglisau to Schaff-
a slender rearguard, to defend the ram- hausen.
parts of Zurich until the immense mass
had extricated itself from the city.*
Massena, perceiving his intention, col-
lected his forces to prevent or distress
his retreat; but the intrepidity of the
Russian infantry overthrew all his ef-
forts, and the head of the column cut
* Caesar's principle was just the reverse:
"When he approached the enemy, Cæsar,
according to his usual custom, led up six
legions in front, ready equipped for battle;
after them followed the baggage of the whole
army; and then the two new legions, who
closed the march, and served as a guard to
the carriages."-CESAR de Bell. Gall. ii. 19.
The principles of war are the same in all ages,
whatever may be the difference of the arms
with which the combatants engage: Cæsar's
rule would have saved Korsakoff's defeat.
48. While Zurich was immortalised
by these astonishing triumphs, the at-
tack of Soult on the Imperial right, on
the upper part of the line above the
lake, was hardly less successful. Hotze
had there retained only two battalions
at his headquarters of Kaltbrunn ; the
remainder were dispersed along the
vast line, from the upper end of the
lake of Zurich, by Sarganz, to Coire in
the Grisons. Accumulating his forces,
Soult skilfully and rapidly passed the
Linth at three in the morning of the
25th. One hundred and fifty volun-
teers first swam across the river, with
their sabres in their teeth, during the
darkness of the night, and, aided by
280
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVIII.
..
菲
​the artillery from the French side,
speedily dispersed the Austrian posts
on the right bank, and protected the
disembarkation of six companies of
grenadiers, who soon after made them
selves masters of Schenis. Wakened
by the sound of the cannon, Hotze
ran, with a few officers and a slender
escort, to the spot, and fell dead by
the first discharge of the Republican
videttes. This calamitous event threw
the Austrians into such consternation
that they fell back from Schenis to
Kaltbrunn, from which they were also
dislodged before the evening. At the
same time the French had succeeded
in crossing a body of troops over the
river, a little lower down, at Schmeri-
koon, and advanced to the bridge of
Grynau, where a desperate conflict en-
sued. These disasters compelled the
Austrians to retreat to their position
at Wescott, where they were next day
assaulted by Soult, and driven first be-
hind the Thur, and at length over the
Rhine, with the loss of three thousand
prisoners, twenty pieces of cannon, all
their baggage, and the whole flotilla,
constructed at a great expense, on the
lake of Wallenstädt.
the utmost resolution by the Russian
troops; but in spite of all their efforts,
they were arrested in the steep zigzag
ascent above Airolo by the rapid and
incessant fire of the French tirailleurs.
In vain the Russians, marching boldly
up, answered by heavy platoons of
musketry; their fire, however sustain-
ed, could produce little impression on
detached parties of sharpshooters, who,
posted behind rocks and scattered fir-
trees, caused every shot to tell upon
the dense array of their assailants.
Irritated at the unexpected obstacles,
the old marshal advanced to the front,
lay down in a ditch, desired his sol-
diers to dig a grave, and declared his
resolution "to be buried there, where
his children had retreated for the first
time." Joining generalship to resolu-
tion, however, he despatched detach-
ments to the right and left to turn the
French position; and, when their fire
began, putting himself at the head of
his grenadiers, he at length drove the
Republicans from their position, and
pursued them, at the point of the bayo-
net, over the rugged summit of the St
Gothard to the valley of Unsern. At
the same time, Rosenberg had assailed
the French detachment on the summit
of the Crispalt, and, after destroying
the greater part, driven them down in
great disorder into the eastern ex-
tremity of the same valley; while a
detachment under Auffenberg, des-
patched from Disentis, was proceeding
through the Maderanerthal to Amsteg,
to cut off their retreat by the valley of
Schollenen.
49. While these disasters were ac-
cumulating upon the allied force,
which he was advancing to support,
Suwarroff, who was entirely ignorant
of them, was resolutely and faithfully
performing his part of the general
plan. He arrived at Taverne on the
15th August, and, despatching his ar-
tillery and baggage, by Como and Chia-
venna, towards the Grisons, set out
himself, with twelve thousand veterans,
to ascend the Tessino and force the
passage of the St Gothard; while Ro-
senberg, with six thousand, was sent
round by the Val Blegno, to turn the
position by the Crispalt and Disentis,
and so descend into the valley of
sern by its eastern extremity. On the
21st September the Russian main body
arrived at Airolo, at the foot of the
mountain, where General Gudin was
strongly posted, with four thousand
men, covering both the direct road over
the St Gothard and the path which led
diagonally to the Furka. Two days
after, the attack was commenced with |
50. Assailed by such superior forces,
both in front and flank, Lecourbe had
no alternative but a rapid retreat.
During the night, therefore, he threw
his artillery into the Reuss, and re-
tired down the valley of Schollenen,
Un-breaking down the Devil's Bridge to
impede the progress of the enemy,
while Gudin scaled the Furka by moon-
light, descended by the glacier of the
Rhone, and, again ascending, took post
on the inhospitable summit of the
Grimsel. On the following morning
the united Russian forces approached
the Devil's Bridge; but they found an
impassable gulf, two hundred feet deep,
1799.]
F
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
281
sand feet high, which stopped the lead-
ing companies, while a dreadful fire
from all the rocks on the opposite side
swept off all the brave men who ap-
proached the edge of the abyss. Hear-
ing the firing in front, the column of
Bagrathion pressed on, in double quick
time, through the dark passage of the
Unnerloch, and literally, by their pres-
sure, drove the soldiers in front head-
long over the rocks into the foaming
Reuss. At length the officers, tired of
the fruitless butchery, despatched a
few companies across the Reuss to scale
the rocks on the left, by which the
post at the bridge was turned, and
beams being hastily thrown across, the
Russian troops, with loud shouts, pass-
ed the terrific defile, and pressing hard
upon the retiring column of the Repub-
licans, effected a junction with Auffen-
berg at Wasen, and drove the enemy
beyond Altdorf to take post on the
sunny slopes where the Alps of Su-
renen descend into the glassy lake of
Luzern.
surmounted by precipices above a thou- | to move to the left towards Stanz was
to plunge into the midst of the French
army; and Suwarroff, with troops ex-
hausted with fatigue, and a heart boil-
ing with indignation, was compelled to
commence the perilous journey by the
right through the Shächenthal towards
the canton of Glarus. No words can
do justice to the difficulties experienced
by the Russians in this terrible march,
or the heroism of the brave men en-
gaged in it. Obliged to abandon their
artillery and baggage, the whole army
advanced in single file, dragging the
beasts of burden after them, up rocky
paths, where even an active traveller
can with difficulty find a footing. Num-
bers slipped down the precipices and
perished miserably; others, worn out
with fatigue, lay down on the track,
and were trodden under foot by the
multitude who followed after them, or
fell into the hands of Lecourbe, who
hung close upon their rear.
So com-
plete was the dispersion of the army,
that the leading files had reached Mut-
ten before the last had left Altdorf;
the precipices beneath the path were
covered with horses, equipages, arms,
and soldiers unable to continue the la-
51. The capture of the St Gothard
by the Russians, and the expulsion of
the French from the whole valley of the
Reuss, was totally unexpected by Mas-borious ascent. At length the marshal
sena, and would have been attended reached Mutten, where the troops in a
with important results upon the gene- hospitable valley, abounding with cot-
ral fate of the campaign, if it had not tages and green fields, hoped for some
been simultaneous with the disaster of respite from their fatigues; and where,
Korsakoff at Zurich, and the defeat of in conformity to the plan agreed on,
Hotze's corps by the Republicans on they were to have met the Austrian
the Linth. But, coming as it did in corps of Jellachich and Linken, to
the midst of these misfortunes, it only threaten the right of the Republicans.
induced another upon the corps whose
defeat was about to signalise the Re-
publican arms. Arrived at Altdorf,
Suwarroff found his progress in a di-
rect line stopped by the lake of Luzern,
while the only outlet to join the allied
forces on his right lay through the hor-
rible defile of the Shächenthal, in which
even the audacious Lecourbe had not
ventured to engage his troops, however
long habituated to mountain warfare.
There was now, however, no alterna-
tive. Advance he could not, for the
lake of Luzern, without a bark on its
bosom, lay before him; inaccessible pre-
cipices shut in its banks on either side:
VOL. IV.
52. But it was too late: the disasters
of the Imperialists deprived them of
all hope of relief from this quarter.
Jellachich, faithful to his instructions,
had broken up from Coire and the val-
ley of the Rhine on the 25th with eight
battalions, made himself master of the
village of Mollis, and driven the Re-
publicans back to Näfels, at the bridge
of which, however, they resolutely de-
fended themselves. But on the follow-
ing day, the French, issuing from We-
sen, menaced the retreat of the Aus-
trians by the side of the Wallenstätter
See; and Jellachich, informed of the
disasters at Zurich, the death of Hotze,
T
►
.5

...
ļ.
.
282
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
2
and the retreat of his corps, made haste | and, for the first time in his life, he
to fall back behind the Rhine. On the ordered a retreat-weeping with indig-
same day, Linken, who had crossed nation at thus finding the reputation
from the valley of the Rhine by the of invincibility, which his marvellous
Sernft-thal and the sources of the Linth, successes had won for him, lost in the
after making prisoners two battalions close of his career by the absurd com-
whom he encountered, appeared in the binations of the Aulic Council, and the
upper part of the valley of Glarus, so faults of the generals placed under his
as to put Molitor between two fires. command.
The situation of the latter now appear-
ed all but desperate, and by a little
more vigour on the part of the Allies
might have been rendered so. But the
retreat of Jellachich having enabled
Molitor to accumulate his forces against
this new adversary, he was obliged to
retreat, and, after remaining inactive
for three days at Schwanden, recrossed
the mountains, and retired behind the
Rhine.
53. Suwarroff thus found himself in
the Muttenthal in the middle of the
enemy's forces, having the whole of
Massena's forces on one side, and that
of Molitor on the other. Soon the
masses of the Republicans began to
accumulate round the Russian marshal.
Molitor occupied Mont Bragel and the
Klonthal, the summit of the pass be-
tween the Muttenthal and Glarus;
while Mortier entered the mouth of the
valley towards Schwyz, and Massena
himself arrived at Flüelen, to concert
with Lecourbe a general attack on the
Russian forces. In this extremity, Su-|
warroff, having with the utmost diffi-
culty assembled his weary troops in the
Muttenthal, called a council of war, and,
following only the dictates of his own
impetuous courage, proposed an im-
mediate advance to Schwyz, threaten-
ing the rear of the French position at
Zurich, and wrote to Korsakoff, that
he would hold him answerable with his
head for one step further that he con-
tinued his retreat. The officers, how-
ever, perceiving clearly the dangerous
situation in which they were placed,
after Korsakoff's defeat, strongly urged
the necessity of an immediate retreat
into Glarus and the Grisons, in order
to strengthen themselves by that wing
of the allied army which alone had
escaped a total defeat. At length, with
the utmost difficulty, the veteran con-
queror was persuaded to alter his plans,
54. Preceded by the Austrian divi-
sion under Auffenberg, the Russians
ascended Mont Bragel, and chasing be-
fore them the detachment of Molitor,
great part of whom were made prison-
ers near the Klonthal lake, threw back
that general upon the banks of the
Linth. It was now the turn of the
French general to feel alarm; but,
calm in the midst of dangers which
would have overturned the resolution
of an ordinary commander, he made
the most resolute defence, disputing
every inch of ground, and turning every
way to face the adversaries who assail-
ed him. Determined to block up the
passage to the Russians, he ultimately
took post at Näfels, already immortal-
ised in the wars of Swiss independence,
where he was furiously attacked for a
whole day by Prince Bagrathion. Both
parties fought with the most heroic
courage, regardless of ten days' pre-
vious combats and marches, in which
they had respectively been engaged.
But all the efforts of the Russian grena-
diers could not prevail over the steady
resistance of the Republicans; and to-
wards evening, having received rein-
forcements from Wesen, they sallied
forth, and drove the assailants back to
Glarus. On the same day Massena,
with a large force, attacked the rear-
guard of the Russians, which was wind-
ing, encumbered with wounded, along
the Muttenthal, in its descent from the
Shächenthal to Glarus; but Rosenberg,
halting, withstood their attack with
such firmness that the Republicans
were compelled to give way, and then,
breaking suddenly from a courageous
defensive to a furious offensive, he
routed them entirely, and drove them
back as far as Schwyz, with the loss of
five pieces of cannon, a thousand pri-
soners, and as many killed and wounded.
55. Unable to force the passage. at
19
1799.]
283
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
|
Näfels, the Russian general, after giv- | able to extricate themselves, and where
ing his troops some days' repose at they were soon choked by the drift-
Glarus, which was absolutely indis- ing of the snow.
pensable after the desperate fatigues
they had undergone, resolved to retreat
over the mountains into the Grisons
by Engi, Matt, and the Sernft-thal. To
effect this in presence of a superior
enemy, pressing on his footsteps both
from the side of Näfels and the Klon-
thal, was an enterprise of the utmost
hazard, as the path over the arid sum-
mits of the Alps, which divide the can-
ton of Glarus from the valley of the
Rhine, was even more rugged than that
through the Shächenthal, and the
horses and beasts of burden had near-
ly all perished under the fatigues of
the former march. Nothing could ex-
ceed the difficulties which presented
themselves. Hardships, tenfold greater
than those which all but daunted the
Carthaginian conqueror in the outset
of his career in the Pennine Alps,
awaited the Russians, at the close of a
bloody and fatiguing campaign among
mountains to which they were entire
strangers. On the morning on which the
army set out from Glarus, a heavy fall
of snow obliterated all traces of a path,
and augmented the natural difficulties
of the passage. With incredible dif-
ficulty the weary column wound its
painful way amongst inhospitable moun-
tains in single file, without either stores
to sustain its strength, or covering to
shelter it from the weather. The snow,
which, in the upper parts of the moun-
tains, was two feet deep, and perfectly
soft from being newly fallen, rendered
the ascent so fatiguing that the strong-pices, or rest the exhausted bodies of
est men could with difficulty advance the troops. On the southern descent
a few miles in a day. No cottages were the difficulties were still greater; the
to be found in these dreary and sterile snow, hardened by a sharp freezing
mountains; not even trees were to be wind, was so slippery that it became
met with to form the cheerful fire of impossible for the men to keep their
the bivouacs; vast gray rocks starting footing; whole companies slipped to-
up amongst the snow alone broke the gether into the abysses below, and
mournful uniformity of the scene, and numbers were crushed by the beasts
under their shelter, or on the open sur- of burden rolling down upon them
face of the mountain, without any cov- from the upper parts of the ascent,
ering or fire, were the soldiers obliged or the masses of snow which became
to lie down, and pass a long and dreary loosened by the incessant march of the
autumnal night. Great numbers perish- army, and fell down with irresistible
ed of cold, or sank down precipices, or force upon those beneath. All the day
into crevices, from which they were un- was passed in struggling with these
56. With incredible difficulty the
head of the column, on the following
day, at length reached, amidst colossal
rocks, the summit of the ridge; but it
was not the smiling plains of Italy
which there met their view, but a sea
of mountains, wrapped in the snowy
mantle which seemed the winding-sheet
of the army, interspersed with cold grey
clouds which floated round their higher
peaks. Winter, in all its severity, had
already set in on those lofty solitudes.
The mountain sides, silent and melan-
choly even at the height of summer,
when enamelled with flowers and dotted
with flocks, presented then an unbroken
sheet of snow; the blue lakes, which
are interspersed over the level valley at
their feet, were frozen over, and undis-
tinguishable from the rest of the dreary
expanse; and a boundless mass of snowy
peaks arose on all sides, presenting ap-
parently an impassable barrier to their
further progress. The Alps of the
Grisons and Tyrol, whose summits
stretched as far as the eye could reach
in every direction, seemed a vast wil-
derness, in the solitudes of which the
army was about to be lost; while not
a fire nor a column of smoke was to be
seen in the vast expanse to cheer the
spirits of the soldiers. The path, long
hardly visible, now totally disappeared;
not a shrub or a bush was to be met
with; the naked tops of the rocks,
buried in the snow, no longer served
to indicate the position of the preci-
HE
284
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVIII.
r
;
·

difficulties, and with the utmost exer-
tions the advanced-guard reached the
village of Panix, in the Grisons, at
night, where headquarters were estab-
lished. The whole remainder of the
columns slept upon the snow, where
the darkness enveloped them without
either fire or covering. But nothing
could overcome the unconquerable
spirit of the Russians. With heroic
resolution and incredible perseverance
they struggled on, through hardships
which would have daunted any other
soldiers; and at length the scattered
stragglers were rallied in the valley
of the Rhine, and headquarters es-
tablished at Ilanz on the 10th, where
the troops obtained some rest after the
unparalleled difficulties which they had
experienced.
all the posts they yet occupied in Swit-
zerland, to the Grisons, and the Rhine
formed the boundary between the hos-
tile armies, the Russians being charged
with its defence from Petershausen to
Diesenhofen, and the Austrians with
the remainder of the line.
58. While these desperate conflicts
were going on in the south of Europe,
England, at length rousing its giant
strength from the state of inactivity
in which it had so long been held by
the military inexperience and want of
confidence in its prowess on the part
of government, was preparing an ex-
pedition more proportionate than any
it had yet sent forth to the station
which it occupied in the war. Hol-
land was the quarter selected for at-
tack, both as being the country in the
hands of the enemy nearest the British
shores, and most threatening to its
maritime superiority, and as the one
where the most vigorous co-operation
might be expected from the inhabi-
tants, and the means of defence within
the power of the Republicans were
most inconsiderable. By a treaty, con-
cluded on the 22d June, between Eng-
land and Russia, it was stipulated that
the former of these powers was to fur-
nish twenty-five thousand, and the lat-
ter seventeen thousand men, towards
a descent in Holland, and that £44,000
a-month should be paid by England
for the expenses of the Russian troops,
and her whole naval force be employed
to support the operations. To re-es-
tablish the Stadtholder in Holland, and
terminate the revolutionary tyranny
under which that opulent country
groaned; to form the nucleus of an
army which might threaten the north-
ern provinces of France, and restore
the barrier which had been so insanely
destroyed by the Emperor Joseph; to
effect a diversion in favour of the great
armies now combating on the Rhine
and the Alps, and destroy the ascen-
dancy of the Republicans in the mari-
time provinces and naval arsenals of
the Dutch, were the objects proposed
in this expedition; and these, by efforts
more worthy of the strength of Eng-
land, might unquestionably have been
attained.
57. Meanwhile Korsakoff, having re-
organised his army, and recovered in
some degree from his consternation,
halted his columns at Busingen, and
turning fiercely on his pursuers, drove
them back to Trullikon; but the ene-
my having there received reinforce-
ments, the combat was renewed with
the utmost obstinacy, and continued,
without any decisive result on either
side, till nightfall. On the same day,
a body of Russian and Austrian ca-
valry, three thousand strong, posted
in the vineyards and gardens which
form the smiling environs of Constance,
were attacked by a superior body of
Republicans, under the command of
General Gazan; a furious combat com-
menced, in the course of which the
town was three times taken and re-
taken, barricades were thrown up in
the streets, and the unhappy citizens
underwent all the horrors of a fortress
carried by assault. The Archduke
Charles, informed of these circum-
stances, hastened with all his dispos-
able forces from the environs of Mann-
heim. From the 1st to the 7th of
October, twenty-seven battalions and
forty-six squadrons arrived in the
neighbourhood of Villingen, and the
prince himself fixed his headquarters
at Donauschingen, in order to be at
hand to support the broken remains
of Korsakoff's army. The Allies were
withdrawn from the St Gothard, and
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
285
|
59. The preparations for this expe-
dition, both in England and the Baltic,
were pushed with the utmost vigour;
and the energy and skill with which
the naval armaments and arrangements
for disembarkation were made in the
British harbours, were such as to ex-
tort the admiration of the French his-
torians. In the middle of July, Sir
Home Popham sailed for the Baltic to
receive on board the Russian contin-
gent; while twelve thousand men, early
in August, were assembled on the coast
of Kent, and twelve thousand more
were preparing for the same destina-
tion. All the harbours of England re-
sounded with the noise of preparation;
it was openly announced in the news-
papers that a descent in Holland was
in contemplation; and the numerous
British cruisers, by reconnoitring every
river and harbour along the Channel,
kept the maritime districts in constant
alarm from Brest to the Texel. The
best defensive measures which their cir-
cumstances would admit were adopted
by the Directory, and Brune, the French
general, was placed at the head of the
forces of both nations; but he could
only collect fifteen thousand French
and twenty thousand Dutch troops to
resist the invasion.
60. On the 13th August, the fleet,
with the first division of the army,
twelve thousand strong, set sail from
Deal, and joined Lord Duncan in the
North Sea. Tempestuous weather, and
from being effected for a fortnight;
but at length, on the 26th, the fleet
was anchored off the Helder, in North
Holland, and preparations were imme-
diately made for a descent on the fol-
lowing morning. At daylight on the
27th the disembarkation began, the
troops led with equal skill and resolu-
tion by Sir RALPH ABERCROMBY,* and
the landing covered by the able exer-
tions of the fleet under Admiral Mit-
chell; and never was the cordial co-
operation of the land and sea forces
more required than on that trying ser-
vice. The naval strength of England
was proudly evinced on this occasion;
fifteen ships of the line, forty-five frig-
ates and brigs, and one hundred and
thirty transport vessels, covered the
sea, as far as the eye could reach, with
their sails. General Daendels, who
was at the head of a division of twelve
thousand men in the neighbourhood,
marched rapidly to the menaced point;
and when the first detachment of the
British, two thousand five hundred
strong, was landed, it found itself as-
sailed by a much superior force of Ba-
tavian troops. But the fire from the
ships carried disorder into their ranks,
and they were driven back to the sand-
hills on the beach, from which, after
an obstinate conflict, they were expelled
before six in the evening; and the de-
barkation of the remaining divisions
was effected without molestation. ln
the night, the enemy evacuated the
a tremendous surf on the coast of Hol-fort of the Helder, which was taken
land, prevented the disembarkation | possession of next day by the English
mand, more than once saved the English
army from destruction: and in the dreadful
retreat through Holland in the winter 1794-5,
his coolness, intrepidity, and indomitable re-
solution were of the most essential service.
In 1796 he did good service in the command
of the expedition which effected the reduc-
tion of Ste Lucie, St Vincent, and Grenada,
as well as of Guiana, Demerara, and Berbice.
* Ralph Abercromby, afterwards Sir Ralph,
was born in the year 1743, the eldest son of
George Abercromby, Esq. of Tullibody, head
of an old and respectable family in Stirling-
shire. He first entered the army as a cornet,
in the 3d regiment of guards, in 1766. In
that regiment he gradually rose, and in 1773
was its lieutenant-colonel. In 1781 he was
made colonel of the 103d regiment of infantry;
in 1787 was promoted to the rank of major-In
general, and next year obtained the com-
mand of the 69th foot. Subsequently, in 1797,
he was moved to the command of the 7th dra
goons, which he held to his death. He served
with distinction in the campaign of 1794, in
Flanders, especially at the brilliant affair of
Catteau, on 16th April of that year, when
the French general Chapuy, and thirty pieces
of cannon, were taken by the British. The
masterly manœuvres which followed, on the
part of Abercromby, who was second in com-
February 1797, he commanded the land
forces in an important expedition which ef-
fected the reduction of Trinidad and the de-
struction of four Spanish sail of the line in
that island; and soon after made an unsuc-
cessful attack on Puerto Rico. Nearly all
these important colonies still remain to Great
Britain, and these great services led to Aber-
cromby being made a knight of the bath, and
employed in 1799 in the command of a divi-
sion in the expedition to Holland.-CHAM-
BERS' Scottish Biog. i. 5, 6, and Biog. Univ. i. 77.
|
sir
286
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
r
troops. In this affair the loss of the
different parties was singularly at vari-
ance with what might have been expect-
ed; that of the British did not exceed
five hundred, while that of the Dutch
was more than thrice that number.
|
62. The Russian troops not having
yet arrived, the British commander, who
was only at the head of twelve thou-
sand men, remained on the defensive,
which gave the Republicans time to
assemble their forces; and having soon
61. This success was soon followed collected twenty-four thousand, of
by another still more important. The whom seven thousand were French,
position at the Helder having been under the orders of VANDAMME,* Gen-
fortified, and a reinforcement of five eral Brune, who had assumed the com-
thousand fresh troops arrived from mand-in-chief, resolved to anticipate
England, the British fleet entered the the enemy, and resume the offensive,
Texel-of the batteries defending which On the 10th of September all the col-
they had now the command by the umns were in motion; Vandamme,
occupation of the Helder-and sum- who commanded the right, was direct-
moned the Dutch fleet, under Admiral ed to move along the Langdyke, and
Story, consisting of eight ships of the make himself master of Ennsginberg;
line, three of fifty-four guns, eight of Dumonceau, with the centre, was to
forty-four, and six smaller frigates, who march by Schorldam upon Krabben-
had retired into the Vlietich canal, to ham, and there force the key of the
surrender. At the sight of the Eng-position; while the left was charged
lish flag, symptoms of insubordination with the difficult task of chasing the
manifested themselves in the Dutch enemy from the Sand-dyke, and pene-
fleet, who had never become reconciled trating by Kampto Petten. The con-
to the Republican yoke, which was test, like all those which followed, was
ruining their country; the admiral, of the most peculiar kind. Restricted
unable to escape, and despairing of as- to dikes and causeys, intersecting in
sistance, surrendered without firing a different directions a low and swampy
shot; and immediately the Orange flag ground, it consisted of detached con-
was hoisted on all the ships, and on flicts at insulated points rather thán
the towers and batteries of the Helder any general movements; and, like the
and Texel. By this important success struggle between Napoleon and the
the Dutch fleet was finally extricated Austrians in the marshes of Arcola,
from the grasp of the Republicans-a was to be determined chiefly by the
circumstance of no small moment in intrepidity of the heads of columns.
after times, when England had to con- The Republicans advanced bravely to
tend, single-handed, with the combined the attack, but they were everywhere
maritime forces of all Europe.
repulsed. All the efforts of Vandamme
!
* Dominique Vandamme was born of
humble parents at Cassel, in the department
of the North, in 1771. He early took to the
profession of arms as a private soldier, and
served several years in that capacity, in one
of the colonial regiments, but returned to
France in 1789 at the time of the meeting
of the States-General. He then formed in
his native town a company of volunteers,
known under the name of the chasseurs of
Mount Cassel, of which he was elected
tain. It was at the head of this company
that he went through the campaign of 1792;
and so rapid was military promotion in those
days of popular election of officers, to those
who were favourites with the soldiers, that
before the end of the campaign he had al-
ready risen to the rank of general of brigade.
In 1793 he served with the army of the North,
and was engaged both in the capture of Fur-
nes and the blockade of Nieuport in that
campaign. In spring 1794 he gained some
success with the same army in conjunction
with General Moreau, and having been after-
wards transferred to the army of the Sambre
and Meuse, served under Jourdan the whole
campaign in that quarter. In the memor-
able campaign of 1796 he was attached to the
army of the Upper Rhine under Moreau;
and distinguished himself in several affairs,
especially at the passage of the Lech and the
attack on the heights of Friedberg. In the
cap-opening of the campaign of 1797 he displayed
undaunted gallantry at the celebrated pas-
sage of the Rhine by Moreau, and not less so
in the subsequent combats of Hanau and
Diersheim. In February 1799 he was raised
to the rank of general of division, and in
that capacity commanded in the left wing of
the army of the Danube, till the invasion of
Holland by the English caused him to be
transferred to the defence of the Batavian
plains.-Biographie des Contemporains, (VAN-
DAMME,) XX. 134, 135.
1.799.]
287
HISTORY OF EUROPE.

were shattered against the intrepidity
of the English troops who guarded the
Sand-dyke; Dumonceau was defeated
at Krabbenham, and Daendels com-
pelled to fall back in disorder from
before Petten. Repulsed at all points,
the French resumed their position at
Alkmaer, with a loss of two thousand
men, while that of the British did noted in that quarter, to within half a
exceed three hundred.
league of Alkmaer. But the assailants
were not supported with equal vigour
by the British; they fell into disorder
in consequence of the rapidity of their
advance, and Brune, having speedily
moved up the division of Daendels and
considerable reinforcements from his
centre to the support of his left, Van-
damme was enabled to resume the of-
fensive. Thus the Russians were at-
tacked at once in front and both flanks
in the village of Bergen, from whence,
after a murderous conflict, they were
driven at the point of the bayonet.
Their retreat, which at first was con-
ducted with some degree of order, was
soon turned into a total rout by the
sudden appearance of two French bat-
talions on the flank of their column.
Hermann himself was taken prisoner,
with a considerable part of his division;
and General Essen, his second in com-
mand, who had advanced towards
Schorldam, was obliged to seek shelter,
under cover of the English reserve, be-
hind the allied intrenchments of Zype.
|
63. Instructed by this disaster as to
the quality of the troops with which
he had to deal, General Brune remained
on the defensive at Alkmaer, while the
remainder of the expedition rapidly
arrived to the support of the British
army. Between the 12th and 15th
September, the Russian contingent,
seventeen thousand strong, and seven
thousand British, arrived, and the Duke
of York took the command. The Eng-
lish general, finding himself now at the
head of thirty-five thousand men, and
being aware that extensive reinforce-
ments were advancing to the support
of the Republicans from the Scheldt
and the Meuse, resolved to move for-
ward and attack the enemy. As the
nature of the ground precluded the
employment of large masses, the at-
tacking force was divided into four
columns. The first, under the com-
mand of General Hermann, composed
of eight thousand Russians and a bri-
gade of English, was destined to ad-
vance by the Sand-dyke and the Slap-
per-dyke against the left of Brune, rest-
ing on the sea; the second, under the
orders of General Dundas, consisting
of seven thousand men, of whom five
thousand were English, was charged
with the attack on Schorldam and the
French centre; the third, under Sir
James Pulteney, which required to ad-
vance along the Langdyke, which was
defended by powerful intrenchments,
was intended rather to effect a diver-
sion than make a serious attack, and
was not to push beyond Oude Scarpell,
at its head, unless in the event of un-
looked-for success; while the fourth,
consisting of ten thousand choice troops,
under Sir Ralph Abercromby, was des-
tined to turn the enemy's right on the
Zuyder Zee.
64. The action commenced at day-
break on the 19th September with a
furious attack by the Russians, under
Hermann, who speedily drove in the
advanced-guard of the Republicans at
Kamp and Groot, and pressing forward
along the Sand-dyke, made themselves
masters of Schorldam and Bergen, and
forced back Vandamme, who command-
*
65. While the Russians were under-
going these disasters on the right, the
Duke of York was successful in the
centre and left. Dundas carried the
villages there, after an obstinate resist-
ance; Dumonceau was driven back
from Schorldam, and two of his best
battalions were compelled to surrender.
At the same time Sir James Pulteney,
having been encouraged, by the im-
prudence of Daendels in pursuing too
warmly a trifling advantage, to convert
his feigned attack into a real one, not
only drove back the Dutch division,
but made a thousand prisoners, and
forced the whole line, in utter confusion,
towards St Pancras, under the fire of
the English artillery. Abercromby had
not yet brought his powerful division
into action; but everything promised
decisive success in the centre and left
遼
​150

288
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
of the Allies, when intelligence was | tained a lavish accumulation of gifts in
Flanders and Java from her ancient
rival, such as rarely rewards even the
steadiest fidelity of an allied power.
brought to the Duke of York of the
disaster on the right, and the rapid
advance of the Republicans in pursuit
of the flying Russians. He instantly
halted his victorious troops in the
centre, and marched with two brigades
of English and three Russian regiments
upon Schorl, which was speedily car-
ried, and if Essen could have rallied
his broken troops, decisive success
might yet have been attained. But all
the efforts of that brave general could
not restore order or rescue the soldiers
from the state of discouragement into
which they had fallen; and the conse-
quence was, that as they continued
their retreat to the intrenchments of
Zype, the Republicans were enabled to
accumulate their forces on the Duke of
York, who, thus pressed, had no alter-
native but to evacuate Schorl, and
draw back his troops to their fortified
line. In this battle the Republicans
lost 3000 men in killed, wounded, and
prisoners; but the British lost 500 killed
and wounded, and as many prisoners,
while the Russians were weakened by
3500 killed and wounded, twenty-six
pieces of cannon, and seven standards.
67. The Duke of York was not dis-
couraged by the issue of the attack on
the 19th September. Having been re-
inforced, a few days after, by a fresh
brigade of Russians and some English
detachments, he arranged his army, as
before, in four columns; and although
the heavy rains for long prevented the
projected operation from taking place,
yet he was enabled to resume the of-
fensive on the 2d October. The re-
collection of the success which had
everywhere crowned their efforts in the
preceding action, animated the English
troops; while the Russians burned with
anxiety to wash out the stain which their
disasters on that occasion had cast on
the Imperial eagles. The allied army on
this occasion was about thirty thousand
strong, and the Republicans nearly of
equal force. At six in the morning the
attack was commenced at all points.
The Russian division of Essen, anxious
to efface its former disgrace, supported
by the English division of Dundas, ad-
vanced to the attack in the centre with
such impetuosity, that the villages of
Schorl and Schorldam were quickly
carried, and the Republicans driven in
confusion to the downs above Bergen.
An attack was there projected by the
Duke of York; but Essen, who recol-
lected the consequence of the former
eagerness of the Russians on the same
ground, refused to move till the ad-
vance of Abercromby on the right was
ascertained; a circumstance which
paralysed the success of the Allies in
that quarter. Meanwhile Abercromby,
who commanded nine thousand men,
advanced gallantly at the head of his
troops along the Sand-dyke which ad-
joined the sea; and notwithstanding a
hot fire of musketry and grape, by
which he had two horses shot under
him, succeeded in forcing the French
left, and expelling them from the sand-
hills and downs on which they rested.
On the left, Sir James Pulteney had
|
66. While these events were in pro-
gress, the Dutch fleet was conveyed to
the British harbours. It is remarkable
that this measure gave equal dissatis-
faction to the sailors on both sides.
The Dutch loudly complained that
their ships, instead of being employed
in their own country, under Orange
colours, should be taken as prizes to
Great Britain; while the English sailors
lamented that a fleet which could not
escape had not fallen into their hands
as glorious trophies, like those at St
Vincent or Camperdown. The officers
on both sides were anxious to preserve
a good understanding between their
respective crews; but the sailors kept
up a sullen distrust;-so much more
easy is it to accommodate differences
between rival cabinets than to heal the
national animosity which centuries of
warfare have spread among their sub-
jects. Holland, however, had no reason
in the end to complain of British gene-made little progress, and his measures
rosity; after a decided though unwill- were confined to demonstrations; but
ing hostility of twenty years, she ob- as the allied centre and right were
1799.]
•
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
289
victorious, and they had completely | ed him with the greater part of a fresh
turned the French left, Brune retired division, and a vigorous charge threw
in the night from the field of battle, back the Allies in confusion towards
and took up a fresh position, abandon- their own position. In their turn, how-
ing Alkmaar and all his former line. ever, the victorious Republicans were
The loss sustained by the Republicans charged, when disordered with success,
in this contest was above three thou- by an English regiment of cavalry,
sand men and seven pieces of cannon; thrown into confusion, and driven back
that of the Allies about fifteen hun- with great loss to Kastricam, where they
dred. Already the attention of the were with difficulty rallied by Van-
French was attracted by the courage damme, who succeeded in checking the
and address of the Highland regiments, advance of the pursuers. The action
arrayed in the tartan and plumes of was less obstinately contested on the
their mountain land, who bravely right, as Abercromby, who commanded
fought up to the knees in water, and in that quarter, was obliged to detach
rapidly overcame the strongest ob- a considerable part of his troops to rein-
stacles, in their attack on the flank of force Essen; while on the left the im-
the Republicans.
mense inundations which covered the
front of the Republican position, pre-
vented Pulteney from reaching the
French right under Daendels. The loss
on both sides was nearly equal, amount-
ing to about two thousand in killed,
wounded, and prisoners. That of the
English alone was twelve hundred men.
t
70. The barren honours of this well-
contested field belonged to the Allies,
who had forced back the French centre
to a considerable distance from the field
of battle; but it is with an invading
army as an insurrection-an indecisive
success is equivalent to a defeat. Haar-
lem was the object of the English gen-
68. But although he had gained this
success, the situation of the Duke of
York's army was far from encourag-
ing. The enemy's force was daily in-
creasing, while for his own no further
reinforcements could be expected; the
autumnal rains, which had set in with
more than usual severity, rendered the
roads almost impassable for artillery
or chariots; the insalubrity of the cli-
mate at that period of the year was al-
ready beginning to affect the health of
the soldiers and none of the expected
movements of the inhabitants or Ba-
tavian troops in favour of the house of
Orange had taken place. In these cir-eral, without the possession of which
cumstances it was evident that, unless he could not maintain himself in the
some important place could be cap-country during the inclement weather
tured, it would be impossible for the which was approaching, and Haarlem
Allies to retain their footing in North was still in the hands of the Republi-
Holland, and Haarlem was pitched on cans. The enemy's force was hourly in-
as most likely to furnish the necessary creasing; two days after the action, six
supplies. To achieve the conquest of thousand infantry arrived to strength-
this important city, the allied forces en their already formidable position on
were put in motion to attack the French the isthmus, by which alone access
position, which occupied the narrow could be obtained to the interior of the
isthmus between Beverwick and the country; and the total absence of all
Zuyder Zee, by which it was necessary the necessary supplies in the corner of
to pass to approach Haarlem, which was land within which the army was con-
not more than three leagues distant. fined, rendered it impossible to remain
69. The action commenced at seven there for any length of time. In these
in the morning, and was obstinately circumstances, the Duke of York, with
contested during the whole day. In the unanimous concurrence of a coun-
the centre the Allies were, in the first cil of war, resolved to fall back to the
instance, successful; Essen bore down all intrenchments at Zype, there to await
opposition, and Pacthod, who command-reinforcements or further commands
ed the Republicans, was on the point from the British cabinet; a resolution
of succumbing, when Brune strenghten-which was strengthened by the intell
!
!
L
290
[CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
gence which arrived, at the same time, of sailed from the British harbours dur-
the disasters which had befallen the Rus-ing the war, and the only one at all
sians at Zurich. On the day after the commensurate to the power or the cha-
battle, therefore, the Allies retired to racter of England. Coming, as it did,
the position they had occupied before after the hopes of the nation had been
the battle of Bergen.
highly excited by its early successes,
and when the vast conquests of the
Allies in the first part of the campaign
had led to a very general expectation
of the fall of the Jacobin power in
France, it produced the most bitter
disappointment, and contributed, in a
signal degree, both on the Continent
and at home, to confirm the general
impression that the English soldiers
had irrecoverably declined from their
former renown; that the victors of
Cressy and Azincour were never des-
tined to revive; and that it was at sea
alone that any hope of successful re-
sistance against the power of the Re-
public remained to Great Britain. The
Opposition, as usual, magnified the pub-
lic disasters, and ascribed them all to
the rashness and imbecility of the Ad-
ministration; while the credulous pub-
71. Brune lost no time in following
the retreating army. On the 8th the
Republicans resumed their position in
front of Alkmaar, and several sharp
skirmishes ensued between the British
rearguard and the advanced posts of
their pursuers. The situation of the
Duke of York was now daily becoming
more desperate: his forces were re-
duced by sickness and the sword to
twenty thousand men; the number of
those in hospital was daily increasing;
there remained but eleven days' provi-
sions for the troops, and no supplies
or assistance could be looked for from
the inhabitants for a retreating army.
In these circumstances, he rightly judg-
ed that it was necessary to lose no time
in embarking the sick, wounded, and
stores, with such of the Dutch as had
compromised themselves by their avow-lic, incapable of just discrimination,
al of Orange principles, and proposed and ever governed by the event, over-
a suspension of arms to General Brune, looked the important facts that the
preparatory to the evacuation of Hol- naval power of republican Holland had
land by the allied troops. Some diffi- been completely destroyed by the ex-
culty was at first experienced from the pedition; and that in every encounter
French insisting, as a sine quâ non, that the English soldiers had asserted their
the fleet captured at the Texel should ancient superiority over those of France.
be restored; but this the British com- Instead, therefore, of ascribing the fail-
mander firmly resisted, and at length ure of the expedition to its real causes,
the conditions of the evacuation were inadequacy of the means employed,
agreed on. The principal articles were, want of vigour in the commanders,
that the Allies should, without moles- and the jealousies incident to an allied
tation, effect the total evacuation of force unaccustomed to act together,
Holland by the end of November; they joined the general chorus, and
that eight thousand prisoners, whether loudly proclaimed the utter madness
French or Dutch, should be restored; of any attempts, by land at least, to re-
and that the works of the Helder should sist the overwhelming power of France.
be given up entire, with all their artil- The time was not yet arrived when a
lery. A separate article stipulated for greater commander, wielding the re-
the surrender of the brave de Winter, sources of a more determined and ex-
made prisoner in the battle of Camper- cited nation, was to wash out these
down. Before the 1st of December all stains on the British arms, and show
these conditions were fulfilled on both to the astonished world that England
sides the British troops had regained was yet destined to take the lead, even
the shores of England, and the Russians on the Continent, in the deliverance
were quartered in Jersey and Guern- of Europe, and that the blood of the
victors of Poictiers and Blenheim yet
flowed in the veins of their descen-
:
sey.
72. Such was the disastrous issue of
the greatest expedition which had yet | dants.
1799.]
291
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
73. While the campaign was thus | with the centre, twenty thousand strong,
chequered with disaster to the north defeated Grenier at Savigliano, while
of the Alps, the successes of the Allies Kray threw back their left through the
led to more durable consequences on valley of Suza to the foot of Mont Cenis.
the Italian plains. The Directory, over- At the same time the Republicans were
whelmed by the calamitous result of equally unsuccessful in the valley of
the battle of Novi, gave the command Aosta, where the united forces of Kray
of both the armies of Italy and Savoy and Haddick expelled them successive-
to General Championnet, who could ly from Ivrea and Aosta, and forced
only assemble fifty-four thousand men them to retire over the Great St Ber-
under his banners, exclusive of six nard to Martigny in Switzerland. Re-
thousand conscripts, who guarded the lieved by these successes from all dis-
summits of the Alps. On the other quietude for his right flank, Melas gra-
hand, General Melas, who, after the dually drew nearer to Coni, and began
departure of Suwarroff, had assumed his preparations for the siege of that
the chief command, had sixty-eight place.
thousand men under his orders, inde-
pendent of fifteen thousand in garri-
sons in his rear, and seven thousand
who marched towards the Arno and
the Tiber. In despair at the unpro-able force for this enterprise, even in-
mising condition of his troops, occupy- cluding the troops in the Alps under
ing the circular ridge of mountains from Grenier, did not exceed forty-five thou-
the sources of the Trebbia to the Great sand men ; but by a vigorous and con-
St Bernard, the French general at first centric effort there was some reason to
proposed to repass the Alps, and, after hope that the object might be effect-
leaving such a force in the Maritime ed. St Cyr in vain represented to
Alps as might secure the south of France the Directory that it was the height
from insult, proceed, with the bulk of of temerity to endeavour to maintain
his forces, to join General Thurreau in themselves in a mountainous region,
the Valais. But the Directory refused already exhausted of its resources, and
to accede to this wise proposition, and, that the wiser course was to fall back,
instead, prescribed to the French gen- with the army yet entire, to the other
eral to maintain his position, and exert side of the Alps, and there assemble it
his utmost efforts for the preservation in a central position. How clear soever
of Coni, which was evidently threaten- may have been the justice of this opin-
ed by the Imperialists.
ion, they had not strength of mind
sufficient to admit the loss of Italy in
a single campaign
a single campaign; and the French
general, finding his council overruled,
bravely set about the difficult task of
keeping his ground, with an inferior
and dispirited army, on the Italian side
of the mountains. With this view, the
divisions of Victor and Lemoine, form-
|
74. The cautious and minute direc-
tions of the Aulic Council having com-
pletely fettered the Austrian general,
his operations were confined to the re-
duction of this fortress, the last bul-
wark in the plain of Italy still held by
the Republicans, and justly regarded
as an indispensable preliminary to the
conquest of Genoa, from its command-ing the centre of the army, sixteen
ing the chief communication of that thousand strong, were directed to move
city with the plain of Piedmont. With upon Mondovi; while St Cyr, with the
this view, both generals drew their right, received orders to descend from
troops towards Coni, the Austrians en- the Bochetta, and effect a diversion on
circling its walls with a chain of posts the side of Novi. The movement com-
in the plain, and the French accumu- menced in the end of September. Vico
lating their forces in the mountains was taken by a brigade of the Republi-
which overlook it. In the desultory cans; but, finding the Imperialists too
warfare which followed, the Imperial- strongly posted at Mondovi to be as-
ists were ultimately successful. Melas, sailed with success, Championnet con-
75. Pressed by the reiterated orders of
the Directory, Championnet now re-
solved to make an effort for the relief
of the menaced fortress. His dispos-

292
[CHAP. XXVIIL
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
:
tented himself with placing his troops | sembled thirty-five thousand men for
in observation on the adjacent heights; that purpose; but the central position
while St Cyr gained a trifling advan- of Melas long prevented them from
tage in the neighbourhood of Novi. obtaining any advantage; and in an at-
tack of Grenier on the Austrian centre,
he was repulsed with the loss of a
thousand men. Having at length re-
solved on a decisive action, Champion-
net made his dispositions. One column
was to descend from Mont Cenis by
the valley of Perouse; another to ad-
vance by the left of the Stura; and a
third to assail the enemy in front. By
this means the French general hoped
that, while he engaged the attention of
the Austrians in front, he would, at
the same time, turn both their flanks;
forgetting that, in such an attempt,
with columns converging from such
remote and divided quarters, the
chances were that the Imperialists,
from their central position, would be
able to defeat one column before an-
other could arrive to its assistance.
76. But intelligence having at this
time been received of the decisive vic-
tory of Massena in Switzerland, more
vigorous operations were undertaken.
St Cyr, abandoning the route of Novi,
threw himself towards Bosco on the
rear of the Austrians, and attacked
them with such celerity that he made
twelve hundred prisoners, and spread
consternation through their whole line.
Melas, thus threatened, concentrated
the forces under his immediate com-
mand, consisting of thirty thousand
men, in the finest condition, on the
Stura; upon which a variety of affairs
of posts took place around Coni, with
checkered success, which gradually con-
sumed the strength of the Republican
forces. There was an essential error
in these measures on the part of Cham-
pionnet; for the Imperialists, grouped 78. Perceiving that the plan of his
around the fortress where they occu- adversary was to attack him on all
pied a central position, could at plea- sides, Melas wisely resolved to antici-
sure accumulate masses sufficient to pate his movement, and with his con-
overwhelm any attack made by the centrated masses assail one of the
Republicans, whose detached columns, French divisions before the others could
issuing from the mountains, and sepa- come up. By a rapid accumulation of
rated by a wide distance, were unable force, he could in this way bring above
to render any effectual assistance to thirty thousand men, of whom six
each other. Nevertheless, the great thousand were cavalry, to bear on the
abilities of St Cyr on the right wing French centre, under Victor, who could
obtained some brilliant advantages. On not assemble above sixteen thousand
the 23d of October he put himself in to resist them. His dispositions were
motion, at the head of twelve thousand rapidly and ably made, and on the
men, with only a few pieces of cannon morning of the 4th November, the
and no cavalry, defeated the Austrians Republicans were attacked at all points.
at Pozzolo-Formigaro, and occupied Championnet was so far from antici-
Marengo, taking a thousand prisoners pating any such event, that his troops
and three pieces of cannon. Alarmed were already in march to effect a junc-
at these repeated checks on his left, tion with the right wing under St Cyr,
Melas withdrew the division of Had- when they were compelled, by the sud-
dick from the valley of Aosta, where den appearance of the Imperialists in
the possession of the fort of Bard and battle array, to halt and look to their
the fall of snow in the Great St Ber- own defence. Assailed by greatly supe-
nard, relieved him from all disquietude, rior forces, Victor, notwithstanding,
and with that reinforcement strength- made a gallant resistance; and such
ened his left wing on the Bormida. was the intrepidity of the French in-
77. Meanwhile both parties gradu-fantry, that for long the advantage
ally accumulated their forces for the seemed to lie on their side, until at
important object which the one strove noon, Melas, by bringing up fresh
to effect, the other to prevent-the troops, succeeded in throwing them
relief of Coni, The French had as-into confusion, and drove them back
1799.]
293
HISTORY OF EUROPE
towards Valdigi. Hardly was this suc- | than counterbalanced by fresh disasters
cess gained when news arrived that in the centre and on the left. On the
General Duhesme, with the Republican 10th, the division Ott attacked Riche-
left, had carried the village of Savigli- panse at Borgo San-Dalmazzo, and, after
ano in his rear; but, wisely judging a gallant resistance, drove him into the
that this was of little importance, pro- mountains; while the other division
vided he followed up the advantage of the Republicans was assailed at Mon-
he had gained, the Austrian general | dovi, and after an obstinate combat,
merely detached a brigade to check which lasted the whole day, forced to
their advance, and continued to press take refuge in the recesses of the
on the retiring centre of the enemy. Apennines. The French were now
Having continued the pursuit till it driven back, on the one side, to the
was dark, he resumed it at daybreak foot of the Col de Tende, and in the
on the following morning. The enemy, valley of the Stura to their own fron-
discouraged by the check on the pre- tiers; while, on the other, Victor's di-
ceding day, did not make a very vigor- vision was perched on the summits of
ous opposition. Grenier and Victor, the Apennines at San Giacomo and
driven from a post they had taken up San Bernardo. Nothing remained to
near Murazzo, were forced to seek interrupt the siege of Coni. The in-
safety in flight; a large part of their vestment of this fortress was completed
rearguard were made prisoners, and on the 18th November, and the trenches
great numbers drowned in endeavour opened on the 27th. The governor
ing to cross the Stura and regain their made a brave defence; but the igno-
intrenched camp.
In this decisiverance and inexperience of the garrison
battle the loss of the Republicans was were soon conspicuous; and a tremen-
seven thousand men in killed, wound- dous fire on the 2d of December hav-
ed, and prisoners, while that of the ing destroyed great part of the town,
Imperialists did not exceed two thou- and seriously injured the works, he at
sand; and Championnet, with his army length yielded to the solicitations of
cut into two divisions—one of which the miserable inhabitants, and, to
pre-
retired towards Genoa and the other serve the city from total destruction,
to the Col de Tende-was obliged to agreed to a surrender. The garrison,
seek safety in the mountains, leaving 3000 strong, with 500 sick and wound-
Coni to its fate.
ed, who had been left in the place, were
marched into the interior of Austria.
80. Meanwhile St Cyr maintained
himself with extreme difficulty in the
Apennines in front of Genoa. The city
was in the utmost state of agitation:
the supplies of provisions from the
country were all intercepted by the
Austrian posts; the British fleet block-
aded them by sea; famine began to be
felt within its walls; and the French
army, encamped on the higher ridges
of the mountains which encircled it on
the north, already suffered extremely
from cold, want, and the tempests of
autumn. For long their rations had
been reduced to a fourth part of their
usual amount; but even this miserable
pittance, it was foreseen, could not last
many days longer. Encouraged by
their pitiable condition, Kray made an
attack on their advanced posts at Novi
and Acqui, expelled them from these
79. While Championnet was thus de-
feated in the centre by the superior
skill and combinations of his opponent,
the talents of St Cyr again gave him
an advantage on the Bormida. The
Imperialists being there restored to an
equality with the Republicans, Kray
attacked St Cyr near Novi, and drove
him back to the plateau in the rear of
that city, so lately the theatre of a
bloody and desperate conflict; but all
the efforts of the Austrians were shatter-
ed against the invincible resistance of
the French infantry in that strong
position, and, after a bloody conflict,
they were forced to retire, leaving five
pieces of artillery in the hands of the
enemy. St Cyr upon this resumed his
position in front of Novi, and Kray
fell back towards Alessandria, to be
nearer assistance from the centre of
the army. But this success was more
+++
,
[CHAP. XXVIII
294
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
!
+
···
stations, formed the blockade of Gavi, | ed the Imperialists from crossing the
and forced back the Republicans to pass when it was deserted by the
their old position on the inhospitable French, the rebellious troops resumed
summits of the mountains at the Bo- their position, and re-occupied the in-
chetta and Campo-Fredde. Such was trenchments; and St Cyr, now secure
the panic which then seized the sol- on that side, having turned all his
diers, that they could not be retained forces against Klenau, the Austrians,
by their officers in that important pass, assailed at once in front and flank, with
but, abandoning the intrenchments on difficulty cut their way through by
its summit, rushed down in tumultuous Torriglia, and regained the banks of
crowds to Genoa, exclaiming, "What the Taro, leaving twelve hundred pri-
can we do here ?-we shall soon perish soners in the hands of the enemy, and
of cold and famine on these desert they soon after went into winter quar-
mountains; we are abandoned, sacri- ters. Returned to Genoa, St Cyr had
ficed. To France! to France!" In still a difficult task to perform in quiet-
this extremity St Cyr presented him-ing the discontents of the troops, whom
self at the gates of the city alone before long-continued privation had almost
the mutinous soldiery. "Whither do driven to desperation; but at length
you fly, soldiers?"" To France! to the long-wished-for sails whitened its
France!" exclaimed a thousand voices. splendid bay, and the Republicans, as
"Be it so," exclaimed he, with a calm the reward of their heroic exertions,
voice and serene air; "if a sense of tasted the enjoyments of plenty and
duty no longer retains you, if you are repose.
deaf to the voice of honour, listen at
least to that of reason, and attend to
what your own interest requires. Your
ruin is certain if you persist in your
present course; the enemy who pur-
sues you will destroy you during the
confusion of a tumultuous retreat.
Have you forgotten that you have
made a desert between your present
position and France? No: your sole
safety is in your bayonets; and if you
indeed desire to regain your country,
unite with me in repelling far from the
gates of this harbour the enemy, who
would take advantage of your disorder
to drive you from the walls where alone
the necessary convoys or security can
be found." Roused by these words to
a sense of their duty, the soldiers fell
back into their ranks and loudly de-
manded to be led against the enemy.
82. While these great events were
passing in the basin of Piedmont, ope-
rations of minor importance, but still
conducive, upon the whole, to the ex-
pulsion of the French from the penin-
sula, took place in the south of Italy.
The castle of St Angelo surrendered,
in the end of October, to the Neapolitan
forces, whom the retreat of Macdonald
left at liberty to advance to the Eternal
City; and the garrison of Ancona, after
a gallant defence of six weeks, four of
which were with open trenches, capi-
tulated on the 13th November to the
Russians, on condition of being sent to
France, and not serving till regularly
exchanged. By this success the Allies
were made masters of 585 pieces of can-
non, 7000 muskets, three ships of the
line, and seven smaller vessels. The
whole peninsula of Italy, with the ex-
ception of the intrenched camp at Ge-
noa, and the mountain roads leading to
it from France, was now wrested from
the Republican arms.
81. It was high time that some steps
should be taken to arrest the progress
of the Imperialists, for they were now
at the gates of Genoa, and threatened
the Republicans with immediate de-
struction. The Austrians, under Klenau,
had penetrated by the route of the Cor-
niche as far as St Martin d'Albaro and
Nervi, within sight of that city, while
from the Bochetta another column
threatened to descend upon it. A heavy
fall of snow, however, having prevent-
83. The fall of Ancona terminated
this campaign in Italy, the most dis-
astrous ever experienced by the French
in that country. In the respective po-
sitions which they occupied might be
seen the immense advantages gained by
the allied arms during its continuance.
The Imperialists, whose headquarters
1799.]
295
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
plain of Lombardy and Piedmont,
from the stream of the Trebbia to the
torrent of the Tessino: the left, under
Kray, being so cantoned as to cover
the valleys of the Bormida and Scrivia;
the right, under Haddick and Rohan,
occupying the valleys of Duomo d'Os-
sola and Aosta; and the centre, under
Kaim, guarding the passes over the
Alps and the important position of
Mondovi. The Republicans, on the
other hand, on the exterior of this im-
mense circle, were perched on the
snowy and inhospitable summits of
the mountains, which stood the native
guardians of the plains. The left, con-
sisting of the divisions Grenier and
Duhesme, occupying the Little St Ber-
nard, the Mont Cenis, and the passes
of the higher Alps; the centre, under
Lemoine and Victor, the Col de Fen-
estrelles, and Col de Tende, and the
passes of the Maritime Alps; while on
the right, Laboissière and Watrin held
the Bochetta and other passes leading
into the Genoese states.
were at Turin, occupied the whole | tumultuously broke up their canton-
ments; crowds of deserters left their
colours and covered the roads to France;
and it was only by one of those nervous
flights of eloquence which touch, even in
the greatest calamities, every generous
heart, that St Cyr succeeded in stopping
the return of a large body which had left
Genoa, and was proceeding on the road
to Provence. Alarmed at the repre-
sentations which he drew of the dis-
astrous state of the army, the govern-
ment, which had now passed from the
feeble hands of the Directory into the
firm grasp of Napoleon, took the most
active steps to administer relief; seve-
ral convoys reached the troops, and
Massena, sent to assume the supreme
command, succeeded in some degree in
stopping the torrent of desertion, and
restoring the confidence of the army.
84. Wider still was the difference
between the comforts and resources of
the two armies. Cantoned in the rich
plains of Italy, on the banks of the Po,
the Imperialists were amply supplied
with all the comforts and luxuries of
life; while its navigable waters inces-
santly brought up to the army the
stores and supplies necessary to restore
the losses of so active a campaign. On
the side of the Republicans, again,
thirty-eight thousand men, without
magazines or stores of provisions, were
stationed on the desolate summits of
the Alps and the Apennines, shivering
with cold, exhausted with fatigue, and
almost destitute of clothing. For five
months they had received hardly any
pay; the soldiers were without cloaks;
their shoes were worn out, and even
wood was wanting to warm their frigid
bivouacs. Overwhelmed with the hor-
rors of his situation, Championnet re-
85. At the same time, the campaign
on the Rhine was drawing to a close,
and the most ruinous divisions had
arisen between the allied commanders.
Notwithstanding the brilliant successes
of the Republicans at Zurich, their
forces in that quarter were not so nu-
merous as to enable them, in the first
instance, to derive any considerable
fruit from their victory. But no sooner
were they relieved, by the failure of
the allied expedition to North Holland,
from all apprehension in that quarter,
than they resolved to concentrate all
their disposable force on the lower
Rhine, of which the command was
given to General Lecourbe, who had
so distinguished himself in the moun-
tain warfare of Switzerland. But that
which the strength of the Republicans
could not effect, the dissensions of their
enemies were not long in producing.
The Russians and Austrians mutually
threw upon each other the blame of
the late disasters; the latter alleging
that the catastrophe at Zurich was all
owing to the want of vigilance and
skill in Korsakoff; and the former re-
tired to Nice, where he died of an epi-plying, that if Suwarroff had been sup-
demic disorder, which soon broke out ported by Hotze, as he had a right to
among the troops, and swept off great expect, when he descended from the St
multitudes. His death dissolved the Gothard, all the misfortunes of the
small traces of discipline which re- centre would have been repaired, and
mained in the army. The soldiers a brilliant victory over his right wing
;
296
¡
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVIII.
Frise
have dispossessed Massena from his de- |lowing day, however, he changed his
fensive position on the line of the Lim-resolution; for, declaring that his troops
mat. In this temper of mind on absolutely required repose, and that
both sides, and with the jealousy un- they could find it only at a distance
avoidable between cabinets of equal from the theatre of war, he directed
power and rival pretensions, little was them to winter-quarters in Bavaria, be-
wanting to fan the discontent into a tween the Lech and the Iller, where
flame.
they were soon after joined by the ar-
tillery, which had come round by Ve-
rona and the Tyrol.
87. This secession of the Russian
force was not produced merely by
jealousy of the Austrians, or irritation
at the ill success of the allied arms in
Switzerland. It had its origin also in
motives of state policy, and as such was
rapidly communicated from the field-
marshal's headquarters to the cabinet
of St Petersburg. The alliance between
Russia and Austria, even if it had not
been dissolved by the mutual exaspera-
tion of their generals, must have speed-
ily yielded to the inherent jealousy of
two monarchies, equal in power and
discordant in interest. The war was
undertaken for objects which, at that
time at least, appeared to be foreign to
the immediate interests of Russia; the
danger to the balance of power by the
preponderance of France seemed to be
removed by the conquest of Italy; and
any further successes of Austria, it
was said, were only likely to weaken a
power too far removed to be of any
serious detriment to the influence of
Russia, in order to enrich one much
nearer, and from whom serious resist-
86. A trivial incident soon produced
this effect. Suwarroff, after he had
rested and reorganised his army, pro-
posed to the Archduke that they should
resume offensive operations against the
enemy, who had shown no disposition
to follow up his successes at Zurich.
His plan was to abandon the Grisons,
blow up the works of Fort St Lucie,
and advance with all his forces to Win-
terthur, where he was to form a junc-
tion with Korsakoff, and attack the
enemy in concert with the Imperialists.
The Archduke apprehended with too
much reason that the assembling of
all the Russian troops on the banks of
the Thur, in the centre of the enemy's
line, which extended from Sargans to
the junction of the Aar and Rhine,
would be both difficult and perilous;
and therefore he proposed instead, that
the corps of Korsakoff should march
by Stockach to join the marshal behind
the lake of Constance, and that he
himself should detach a strong Aus-
trian column to second the operations
of the Russians in Switzerland. Irri-
tated at any alteration of his plans by
a younger officer, the old marshal, al-
ready soured by the disastrous termi-ance to its ambitious projects might
nation of the campaign in Switzerland, be expected. The efforts for the pre-
replied in angry terms, on the follow- ceding campaign, moreover, had been
ing day, that his troops were not adapt- extremely costly, and in a great degree,
ed for any further operations in the notwithstanding the English subsidies,
mountains, and that he himself would had exhausted the Imperial treasury.
march to join Korsakoff,* and concert In these circumstances, the exaspera-
measures with him for the projected tion of the generals speedily led to a
operations in Switzerland. On the fol- rupture between the cabinets, and the
Russian troops took no further share
in the war.
D
* This letter Suwarroff terminated with
the following expressions: "I am field-mar-
shal as well as you; commander, as well as
you, of an Imperial army; old, while you are
young; it is for you to come and seek me.
He was so profoundly mortified by the de-
feat of the Russians at Zurich, that when he
reached his winter-quarters, he took to bed,
and became seriously ill; while the Emperor
Paul gave vent to his indignation against the
Austrians in an angry article published in the
Gazette of St Petersburg.-HARD. vii. 297,298.
88. Left to its own resources, how-
ever, the Austrian cabinet was far
from being discouraged. The Archduke
Charles had collected eighty thousand
men between Offenburg and Feldkirch;
but great as this force was, it hardly
appeared adequate, after the departure
of the Russians, to a renewal of active
+

1799.]
297
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
operations in the Alps, and therefore | publicans had leisure to defile without
he kept his troops on the defensive. molestation over the Rhine.
Massena, on his side in Switzerland,
was too much exhausted by his pre-
ceding exertions to make any offensive
movement. On the other hand, Le-
courbe, whose forces on the Lower
Rhine had been raised by the efforts
of the Directory to twenty thousand
men, passed that river in three col-
umns, at Worms,
Oppenheim, and May-
ence, and moved forward against Prince
Schwartzenberg, who commanded the
advanced-guard of the right wing of
the Austrians, which occupied the line
of the Bergstrass from Frankfort to
Darmstadt. As the French forces were
greatly superior, the Austrian general
was compelled to retire, and, after eva-
cuating Heidelberg and Mannheim, to
concentrate his troops to cover Phi-
lippsburg, which, however, he was soon
obliged to abandon to its own resources.
The Archduke, though grievously em-
barrassed at the moment by the rup-
ture with the Russians, turned his eyes
to the menaced point, and, by rapidly
causing reinforcements to defile in that
direction, soon acquired a superiority
over his assailants. The Republican ad-
vanced-guard was attacked and worst-
ed at Erligheim, in consequence of
which the blockade of Philippsburg was
raised; but, the French having been
reinforced, it was again invested. The
Archduke, however, having at length
terminated his correspondence with
Suwarroff, turned his undivided atten-
tion to the menaced quarter, and di-
rected a large part of the Imperial
army to reinforce his right. These
columns soon overthrew the Republi-
cans, and Lecourbe was placed in a
situation of such danger, that he had
no means of extricating himself from
it but by proposing an armistice to
Starray, who commanded the Imperial-
ists, on the ground of negotiations
being on foot between the two powers
for peace. Starray accepted it, under
a reservation of the approbation of the
Archduke. But his refusal to ratify
it was of no avail; in the interval the
stratagem had succeeded; three days
had been gained, during which the Re-
89. Thus closed the campaign of 1799,
one of the most memorable of the whole
revolutionary war. Notwithstanding
the disasters by which its latter part
had been checkered, it was evident that
the Allies had gained immensely by the
results of their operations. Italy had
been regained as rapidly as it had been
lost; Germany, freed from the Republi-
can forces, had rolled back to the Rhine
the tide of foreign invasion, and the
blood of two hundred thousand French
soldiers had expiated the ambition and
weakness of the Republican govern-
ment. Not even in the glorious efforts
of 1796, had the French achieved suc-
cesses so important, or chained victory
to their standards in such an unbroken
succession of combats as the Allies had
done during this campaign. The con-
quest of all Lombardy and Piedmont; the
reduction of the great fortresses which
they contained; the liberation of Naples,
Rome, and Tuscany, were the fruits of
a single campaign. Instead of a cau-
tious defensive on the Adige, the Impe-
rialists now assumed a menacing offen-
sive on the Maritime Alps; instead of
trembling for the Tyrol and the Here-
ditary States, they threatened Switzer-
land and Alsace. The Republicans,
weakened and disheartened, were every-
where thrown back upon their own fron-
tiers; the oppressive system of making
war maintain war could no longer be
carried on; and a revolutionary state,
exhausted by the sacrifices of nine years,
seemed about to feel in its own terri-
tory a portion of the evils which it had
so long inflicted upon others.
|
VOL. IV.
·
90. The internal situation of France
was even more discouraging than might
have been inferred from the external
aspect of its affairs. In truth, it was
there that the true secret of its re-
verses was to be found; the bravery
and skill of the armies on the frontier
had long concealed, but could no longer
singly sustain, the internal weakness of
the state. The prostration of strength
which invariably succeeds the first
burst of revolutionary enthusiasm, had
now fallen upon France; and if an ex-
U
:
:

r
..
I
298
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXVIIL
E
•
traordinary combination of circum | France, and bring upon her guilty peo-
stances had not intervened to extricate ple a weight of moral retribution, which
her from the abyss, there can be no could never have been inflicted till the
doubt she would have permanently latent energies of Europe had been
sunk. The ardour of the Revolution called forth by his ambition.
had totally subsided. Distrust and
despondency had succeeded to the en-
thusiasm of victory; instead of the pa-
triotism of generous, had arisen the
cupidity of selfish minds. "The radi-
cal vice," says General Mathieu Dumas,
"of a government without a chief was
now apparent. The courage and talents
of the generals, the valour and intelli-
gence of the soldiers, who, during this
dreadful campaign, had sustained this
monstrous species of authority, sapped
by every species of abuse and the ex-
haustion arising from the excess of
every passion, could no longer repair
or conceal the faults of those at the
head of affairs. Public spirit was ex-
tinguished; the resources of the inte-
rior were exhausted; the forced requi-
sitions could no longer furnish supplies
to assuage the misery of the soldiers;
the veteran ranks had long since perish-
ed, and the young conscripts, destined
to supply their place, deserted their
standards in crowds, or concealed them-
selves to avoid being drawn; more
than half the cavalry was dismounted:
the state was in greater danger than it
had ever been since the commence-
ment of the war. "The losses sustained
by the French during the campaign
had been prodigious; they amounted
to above a hundred and seventy thou-
sand men, exclusive of those who had
been cut off by sickness and fatigue,
who were a hundred thousand more.
In these circumstances, nothing was
wanting to have enabled the coalition
to triumph over the exhausted and
discordant population of France, but
union, decision, and a leader of para-
mount authority. Nothing could have
saved the Republicans from the grasp
of the Allies but their own divisions.
These were not slow, however, in break-
ing out; and, amidst the ruinous jealous-
ies of the Allies, that mighty conqueror
arose who was destined to stifle the de-
mocracy and tame the passions of
*
* See "Etat des Pertes de l'Armée Fran-
çaise en 1799.”—HARD. vii, 473.
91. "The alliance between Austria
and Russia," says the Archduke Charles,
"blew up, like most coalitions formed
between powers of equal pretensions.
The idea of a common interest, the il-
lusion of confidence based on the same
general views, prepares the first ad-
vances; difference of opinion as to the
means of attaining the desired objects,
soon sows the seeds of misunderstand-
ing; and that envenomed feeling in-
creases in proportion as the events of
the war alter the views of the coalesced
powers, derange their plans, and unde-
ceive their hopes. It seldom fails to
break out openly when the armies are
destined to undertake any operation in
concert. The natural desire to obtain
the lead in command, as in glory, ex-
cites the rival passions both of chiefs
and nations. Pride and jealousy, ten-
acity and presumption, spring from
the conflict of opinion and ambition;
continual contradictions daily inflame
the mutual exasperation, and nothing
but a fortunate accident can prevent
such a coalition from being dissolved
before one of the parties is inclined to
turn his arms against the other. In all
the varieties of human events, there
are but two in which the co-operation
of such unwieldy and heterogeneous
masses can produce great effects: the
one is, when an imperious necessity,
and an insupportable state of oppres-
sion, induces both sovereigns and their
subjects to take up arms to emancipate
themselves, and the struggle is not of
sufficient duration to allow the ardour
of their first enthusiasm to cool; the
other, when a state, by an extraordi-
nary increase of power, can arrogate to
itself and sustain the right to rule the
opinion of its allies, and make their
jealousies bend to its determination.
Experience has proved that these dif-
ferent kinds of coalitions produce dif-
ferent results: almost all oppressive
conquerors have been overthrown by
the first; the second has been the chief
instrument in the enthralling of na-

1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
299
tions."
In these profound remarks is
to be found the secret both of the long
disasters attending the coalition against
France, of the steady rise and irresist-
ible power of the alliance headed by
Napoleon, and of his rapid and irre-
trievable overthrow. They should never
be absent from the contemplation of
the statesman in future times, either
in estimating the probable result of
coalitions in which his own country
takes a part, or in calculating on the
chances of its resisting those which
may be formed for its subjugation.
haps, a more profound or fanciful ob-
server may trace in the German chief
the fairest specimens of the great and
good qualities which, in every age,
have been the characteristic of the blue-
eyed children of the Gothic race; in
the French, the most brilliant assem-
blage that ever occurred of the mental
powers of the dark-haired Celtic family
of mankind.
93. "Prince Charles," said Napoleon,
"is a man whose conduct will ever be
irreproachable. His soul belongs to the
heroic age, but his heart to that of gold.
92. With regret the author must now More than all, he is a good man, and
bid adieu to the Memoirs of the Arch- that includes everything when said of
duke Charles, so long the faithful guide a prince." The whole career of the
in the German campaigns, as his inva- Archduke, from first to last, justifies
luable annals do not come further down this beautiful eulogium. More, per-
than the close of the campaign of 1799. haps, than any commander of the age,
Military history has few more remark- he was "without fear and without re-
able works of which to boast. Lumin- proach." Uniting the courtesy and
ous, sagacious, disinterested; severe in dignified manners of the days of chiv-
judging of himself, indulgent in criti- alry to the patriotic spirit of ancient
cising others; liberal of praise to all Rome, and the upright heart of the
but his own great achievements, pro- Gothic blood, he was the general of all
foundly skilled in the military art, and others, in those days of glory, who ap-
gifted with no common powers of nar-proached nearest to the standard of
rative and description, his work is a ideal perfection. Inferior to Napoleon
model of candid and able military dis- in genius, to Suwarroff in daring, he
quisition. Less vehement and forcible was superior to either in cautious com-
than Napoleon, he is more circumspect bination, scientific foresight, and the
and consistent; with inferior genius, power of repairing disaster. His de-
he is distinguished by infinitely greater liverance of Germany in 1796 was
candour, generosity, and trustworthi- achieved by ability in strategy equal
ness. On a fact stated by the Arch- to that which gave Napoleon in the
duke, whether favourable or adverse to same year the empire of Italy: his able
his reputation, or a criticism made by retreat through the Alps in 1797 pro-
him on others, the most perfect reliance cured for his defeated country an ad-
may be placed. To a similar state- vantageous peace; but for the errors
ment in the St Helena Memoirs im- of the Aulic Council he would in 1799
plicit credit cannot be given, unless its have accomplished the subversion of
veracity is supported by other testi- the Republic. When opposed to Na-
mony, or it is borne out, as is often the poleon himself, at the head of a colossal
case, by its own self-evident justice army in 1809, he retrieved the over-
and truth. In the military writings of throw on the Bavarian plains; defeated
these two great antagonists may be seen, the French Emperor in a pitched battle
as in a mirror, the opposite principles under the walls of Vienna; and, but
and talents brought into collision dur- for the neglect of his orders by the
ing the revolutionary war. On the one Archduke John, would have crushed
side, judgment, candour, and honesty, him by an overthrow as decisive as that
without the energy requisite to com- of Waterloo, on the field of Wagram.
mand early advantage in the struggle;
on the other, genius, vigour, invention,
but none of the moral qualities essen-
tial to confer lasting success. Or, per-
94. Four commanders, and four only,
in the age of the French Revolution,
have risen to the highest eminence :
Napoleon, Wellington, Suwarroff, and
+3
1-
དྷྭཎྷཱ་
300
[CHAP. XXVIII
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
many in stemming the torrent of revo-
lutionary invasion, and preserving un-
scathed for happier times the strength
and fortitude of his country.
the Archduke Charles. The two last
offered a striking contrast to each other,
and, like the two first, were types of
the nations at the head of whose armies
they respectively combated. The Arch-
95. The passage of the St Bernard
duke had more science, Suwarroff by Napoleon has been the subject of
greater daring; the former was supe- unmeasured eulogium by almost all
rior in combination, the latter in exe- the French historians; but neverthe-
cution. Fearless, vehement, and im-less, in the firmness with which it was
conducted, the difficulties with which
it had to contend, and the resolution
displayed in its execution, it must
yield to the Alpine campaign of the
Russian hero. In crossing from Mar-
tigny to Ivrea, the First Consul had
no enemies to overcome, no lakes to
pass, no hostile army to vanquish, after
the obstacles of nature had been sur-
mounted; the difficulty of the ascent
and the roughness of the road consti-
tuted the only serious impediments to
the march. But in passing from Bel-
linzona to Altdorf by the St Gothard,
Suwarroff had to encounter not merely
a road of greater length and equal diffi-
culty, but to force his way, sword in
hand, through columns of the enemy,
long trained to mountain warfare, inti-
mately acquainted with the country,
under a leader of pre-eminent skill in
that species of tactics; and to do this
with troops as ignorant of Alpine geo-
graphy as those of France would have
been of the passes of the Caucasus.
When he descended, like a mountain
torrent, to the lake of Uri, overthrow-
ing everything in his course, he found
his progress stopped by a deep expanse
of water, shut in by precipices on either
side, without roads on its shores, or a
bark on its bosom, and received the
intelligence of the total defeat of the
army with which he came to co-oper-
ate under the walls of Zurich. Obliged
to defile by the rugged paths of the
Schächenthal to the canton of Glarus,
he was ere long enveloped by the vic-
torious columns of the enemy, and his
front and rear assailed at the same
time by superior forces, flushed by re-
cent conquest. It was no ordinary
resolution which in such circumstances
could disdain to submit, and, after
fiercely turning on his pursuers, and
routing their bravest troops, prepare
to surmount the difficulties of a fresh
passioned, the strokes of the Russian
conqueror fell like the burning thunder-
bolt; but he frequently relaxed his
efforts when victory was gained, and
did not always reap that fruit from
his victories which might have been
anticipated from their brilliancy. Pro-
found, cautious, unwearied, the con-
queror of Aspern rose with the diffi-
culties with which he was surrounded,
and extracted from them the means of
again recalling victory to his stand-
ards; but by carrying too far the prin-
ciple of avoiding risk, he not unfre-
quently lost the opportunity of achiev-
ing decisive success. Suwarroff, by
the vehemence of his onset, reft in a
few weeks from the Republicans the
whole fruit of Napoleon's victories in
Italy, while, by an undue delay of
eight days at Milan, he missed the op-
portunity of destroying their army in
its retreat. The Archduke reduced
the conqueror of Echmuhl to the last
straits on the shores of the Danube, but,
by afterwards suspending his attack
on the island of Lobau, lost the chance
of finishing the war at a blow. The
former was greater on the field, the
latter in the council. In tactics the
Muscovite commander was unrivalled,
the Austrian in strategy. Both were
subject to the grievous bondage from
which Napoleon and Frederick were
happily exempt, of a council, com-
posed of men inferior in ability to
themselves, far removed from the scene
of action, and who not unfrequently
marred their best-laid enterprises. Yet
did each, notwithstanding this disad-
vantage, worthily discharge the im-
portant duty he was called to by Pro-
vidence and intrusted with by his
country: the conqueror of Ismael, in
bearing the Russian standards, con-
quering and to conquer, through every
adjoining state; the saviour of Ger-
1799.]
301
HISTORY OF EUROPE
mountain passage, and, amidst the hor-
rors of the Alps of Glarus, brave alike
the storms of winter and the pursuit
of the enemy.
The bulk of men in
all ages are governed by the event;
and to such persons the passage of the
St Bernard, followed as it was by the
triumph of Marengo, will always be
the highest object of interest. But with-
out detracting from the well-earned
fame of the French general, it may
safely be affirmed that those who know
how to separate just combination from
casual disaster, and can appreciate the
heroism of valour when struggling with
misfortune, will award a still higher
place to the Russian hero, and follow
the footsteps of Suwarroff over the
snows of the St Gothard and the val-
ley of Sernft with more interest than
either the eagles of Napoleon over the
St Bernard, or the standards of Han-
nibal from the shores of the Rhone to
the banks of the Po.
96. Suwarroff did not long survive
his final ill success against the arms of
the Republicans. Accustomed to a
long train of victory, undefeated in a
single battle during his long career
when acting unfettered, he became the
prey of unbounded vexation, at seeing
his deserved reputation for invincibility
reft from him in the close of his career,
by the absurd combinations or selfish
jealousy of the Aulic Council. Shortly
after he arrived in St Petersburg, he
fell under the displeasure of the Empe-
ror Paul, whose head, never very strong,
was now exhibiting unequivocal proofs
of aberration. His great ground of
complaint against Suwarroff was not
the ill success of his later operations,
but his not having informed him of
the astute and selfish policy of the
cabinet of Vienna, in time to have pre-
vented the disasters from which the
Muscovite arms had suffered so severely;
as if it was the duty of a general to sow
discord between his master and the
allied sovereigns with whom he was
acting. Grief for this estrangement so
preyed upon the mind of the illustri-
ous general, that his complaint resisted
all the efforts of art, and he was soon
on the verge of death. He awaited its
approach with calm composure, but
sent a message to the Emperor to say he
had a last favour to request at his hands.
97. The Emperor declined to visit
him, but sent his grandsons, Alexan-
der, afterwards Emperor, and Constan-
tine, to console the last moments of
the dying hero, accompanied by an
assurance that his last request should
be granted. When the message was
delivered, he spoke long and warmly
on the past lustre and present decline
of his country's glory, and broke out
in passionate exclamation on his eter-
nal attachment to the great Catherine.
"I was only a soldier," said he, with
his last breath, "and she felt the in-
clination I had to serve her. I owe
her more than life; she has given me
the means of making it illustrious.
Tell her son that I receive with grati-
tude his Imperial word. Here is the
portrait of Catherine; it has never since
I received it left my bosom: the favour
I ask is, that it should be buried with
me in my tomb, and remain for ever
attached to my heart." With these
words he expired. His last favour
was granted; he was laid in the tomb
with the portrait of Catherine placed
on his bosom. The enmity of Paul,
however, continued beyond the grave;
not a Russian attended him to his
place of sepulture, and the whole Con-
tinental corps diplomatique, influenced
by his known hostility, kept aloof from
the mournful ceremony. The English
ambassador* alone, with a spirit worthy
of the representative of a free people,
braved the wrath of the Czar in the
plenitude of his power, and followed
the remains of the immortal hero to
his grave.
98. The expedition to Holland was
ably conceived, and failed only from
the inadequacy of the force employed,
and the inherent weakness incident to
an enterprise conducted by allied forces.
It was the greatest armament which
had been sent from Great Britain dur-
ing the war, but was yet obviously in-
adequate both to the magnitude of the
enterprise and the resources of the state
mainly interested in its success. In
truth, the annals of the earlier years of
the war incessantly suggest regret at
* Lord Whitworth.
..
302
{CHAP. XXVIII.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
H
2
..
**
CC
""
the parsimonious expenditure of Brit- pursuance of a descent on the sea-
ish force, and the great results which, coast; and that the difficulties of the
to all appearance, would have attended passage, and the uncertainty of the ele-
a more vigorous effort at the decisive ments, present the most formidable ob-
moment. Any person, says Mr stacles in the way of the employment
Burke, "who was of age to take a part of considerable forces in such an enter-
in public affairs forty years ago, if the prise. But experience in all ages has
intermediate space were expunged from demonstrated that they are not insur-
his memory, would hardly credit his mountable, and that from a military
senses when he should hear, from the force, thus supported, the greatest re-
highest authority, that an army of two sults may reasonably be expected, if
hundred thousand men was kept up in sufficient energy is infused into the
this island, and that in Ireland there undertaking. The examples of the
were at least eighty thousand more. overthrow of Hannibal at Zama, of the
But how much greater would be his English at Hastings, of the French at
surprise, if he were told again that this Cressy and Azincour, and of Napoleon
mighty force was retained for the mere in Spain and at Waterloo, prove what
purpose of an inert and passive defence, can be effected, even by a maritime
and that, by its very constitution, the expedition, if followed up with the
greater part was disabled from defend-requisite vigour. And, unquestionably,
ing us against the enemy by one pre- there never was an occasion when
ventive stroke or one operation of active greater results might have been anti-
hostility! What must his reflections cipated from such an exertion than in
be on learning further, that a fleet of this campaign. Had sixty thousand
five hundred men-of-war, the best ap-native British, constantly fed by fresh
pointed that this country ever had supplies from the parent state, been
upon the sea, was for the greater part sent to Holland, they would have borne
employed in the same system of un- down all opposition, hoisted the Orange
enterprising defence? What must be flag on all the fortresses of the United
the feelings of any one who remembers Provinces, liberated Flanders, prevent-
the former energy of England, when ed the accumulation of force which en-
he is given to understand that these abled Massena to strike his redoubted
two islands, with their extensive sea- blows at Zurich, hindered the forma-
coast, should be considered as a garri- tion of the army of reserve, and inter-
soned sea-town; that its garrison was cepted the thunder-strokes of Marengo
so feebly commanded as never to make and Hohenlinden.
a sally; and that, contrary to all that
has been hitherto seen in war, an in-
ferior army, with the shattered relics
of an almost annihilated navy, may with
safety besiege this superior garrison,
and, without hazarding the life of a
man, ruin the place merely by the
menaces and false appearances of an
attack?"
99. If this was true in 1797, when
the indignant statesman wrote these
cutting remarks, how much more was
it applicable in 1799, when France was
reduced to extremities by the forces of
Austria and Russia, and the extraor-
dinary energy of the Revolution had ex-
hausted itself? The Archduke Charles,
indeed, has justly observed, that mo-
dern history presents few examples of
great military operations executed in
100. The rapid fall of the French
military power in 1799 was the natural
result of the sudden extension of the
frontiers of the Republic beyond its
strength, and affords another example
of the truth of the maxim, that the
more the ambition of a nation in a state
of fermentation leads to its extension,
the more does it become difficult for
it to preserve its conquests. Such a
state as France then was, with a mili-
tary power extending from the mouth
of the Ems to the shores of Calabria,
and no solid foundation for govern-
ment but the gratification of ambition,
has no chance of safety but in con-
stantly advancing to fresh conquests.
The least reverse, by destroying the
charm of its invincibility, and compell-
ing the separation of its armies to gar-
1799.]
►
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
303
rison its numerous fortresses, leaves it
weak and powerless in the field, and
speedily dissolves the splendid fabric.
This truth was experienced by the
Directory in 1799; it was evinced on a
still greater scale, and after still more
splendid triumphs, by Napoleon in
1813. It is power slowly acquired and
wisely consolidated, authority which
brings the blessings of civilisation and
protection with its growth, victories
which array the forces of the vanquish-
ed states in willing and organised mul-end obtains the mastery of nations but
titudes under the standards of the vic- the power which protects and blesses
tor, which alone are durable.
were the conquests of Rome in the an-
cient world, such are the conquests of
Russia in Europe, and Britain in India,
in modern times. The whirlwinds of
an Alexander, a Timour, or a Napoleon,
are in general as short-lived as the genius
which creates them. The triumphs flow-
ing from the transient ebullition of popu
larenthusiasm sink with the decay of the
passion from which they spring. No-
thing is durable in nature but what has
arisen by slow degrees; nothing in the
Such
them.
CHAPTER XXIX.
CIVIL HISTORY OF FRANCE, FROM THE REVOLUTION OF THE 18TH FRUCTIDOR TO
THE SEIZURE OF SUPREME POWER BY NAPOLEON. SEPT. 1797-NOV. 1799.
1. THE Revolution of France had
now run through the usual course of
universal enthusiasm, general suffering,
plebeian revolt, bloody anarchy, demo-
cratic cruelty, and military despotism.
There remained a last stage to which
it had not yet arrived, but which, never-
theless, was necessary to tame the pas-
sions of the people, and reconstruct the
fabric of society out of the ruined frag-
ments of former civilisation. This stage
was that of a SINGLE DESPOT, and to
this final result the weakness conse-
quent on exhausted passion was rapidly
bringing the country. To the fervour
of democratic license there invariably
succeeds in a few years a period of lan-
guor and listlessness, of blighted hope
and disappointed ambition, of despair
at the calamitous results of previous
changes, and heedlessness to every-
thing but the gratification of selfish
passion. The energetic, the ardent,
the enthusiastic, have for the most part
sunk under the contests of former fac-
tions. Few remain but the base and
calculating, who, by stooping before
the storms under which their more
elevated rivals perished, have contrived
to survive their fall. This era is that
of public degradation, of external dis-
aster and internal suffering, and, in the
despair of all classes, it prepares the
way for the return to a more stable
order of things.
2. The external disasters which had
rapidly accumulated upon the Republic
since the commencement of hostilities,
the loss of Italy, and refluence of the
war to the frontiers of France, could
hardly have failed to overturn a govern-
ment so dependent on the fleeting gales
of popular favour as that of the Direc-
tory, even if it had not been tainted by
the inherent vice of having been estab-
lished by the force of military power,
in opposition to the wishes of the na-
tion and the forms of the constitution.
But this cause had for long been pre-
paring its downfall; and the removal
of the armies to the frontier, upon the
resumption of hostilities, rendered it
impossible any longer to stifle the
public voice. That inevitable scourge
of all revolutionary states, embarrass
ment of finance, had, since the revolu-
-
I

304
[CHAP. XXIX,
HISTORY OF EUROPE
|
tion of the 18th Fructidor, impeded all subjects of vehement and impassioned
the operations of the government. Not- invective. The old battalions, it was
withstanding the confiscation of two-said, had been left in the interior to
thirds of the public debt, it was found overawe the elections; the best gen-
impossible, in the succeeding season, erals were in irons; Championnet, the
to pay the interest on the third which conqueror of Naples, had been dismiss-
remained, without having recourse to ed for striving to repress the rapacity
fresh expedients. The deficit on the of the inferior agents of the Directory;
year was announced by the minister Moreau, the commander in so glorious
of finance as amounting to at least a retreat, was reduced to the rank of
63,000,000 francs, or £2,520,000; it was a general of division, and Scherer, un-
known to amount to nearly 100,000,000; known to fame, had been invested with
and the taxes were levied slowly, and the command of the Army of Italy.
with extreme difficulty. To meet the Even measures which had formerly
deficiency, the duty on doors and win- been the object of general praise, were
dows was doubled; that on carriages now condemned in no measured terms.
raised tenfold, and the effects of the The expedition to Egypt, it was dis-
Protestant clergy were, as already no- covered, had given an eccentric direc-
ticed, confiscated, putting them, like tion to the best general and bravest
the Catholics, on the footing of pay- army of the Republic, and provoked
ment from government. Thus the Re- the hostility at once of the Sublime
volution, as it advanced, was succes- Porte and the Emperor of Russia;
sively swallowing up the property even while the attack on Switzerland was
of the humblest in the community. an unjustifiable invasion of neutral
rights, which necessarily aroused the
indignation of all the European powers,
and brought on a war which the gov-
ernment had made no preparations to
meet. These complaints were, in a
great degree, well founded; but they
would never have been heard if the
fortune of war had proved favourable,
and the Republican armies, instead of
being thrown back on their own fron-
tier, had been following the career of
victory into the Imperial states. But
the Directory now experienced the
truth of the saying of Tacitus:-"Hæc
est bellorum pessima conditio: pros-
pera omnes sibi vindicant, adversa uni
solo imputantur."
3. The new elections of a third of
the legislature, in March 1799, were
conducted with greater order and free-
dom than any which had preceded
them; because the army, the great
support of the Directory, was for the
most part removed, and the violence
used on previous occasions to secure
the return could not so easily be put
in force. A large proportion of repre-
sentatives, accordingly, were returned
adverse to the government established
by the bayonets of Augereau, and wait-
ed only for an opportunity to displace
it from the helm. It fell to Rewbell's
lot to retire from the Directory, and
Sièyes was chosen by the two councils
in his stead. The people were already
dissatisfied with the administration of
affairs, when the disasters at the com-
mencement of the campaign came to
fan the flame into a conflagration.
After these events, the public indigna-
tion could no longer be restrained.
Complaints broke out on all sides; the
conduct of the war, the management
of the finances, the tyranny exercised
over the elections, the arbitrary disper-
sion of the Chambers, the iniquitous
removal of nearly one-half of the depu-
ties, the choice of the generals, the
direction of the armies, all were made

"*
4. In the midst of this general effer-
vescence, the restraints imposed on the
liberty of the press after the revolution
of the 18th Fructidor, could no longer
be maintained. The armed force which
had imposed and kept them on was
awanting; the soldiers were almost all
combating on the frontiers. These re-
straints were, accordingly, no longer
enforced against the daily journals, and
the universal indignation speedily spoke
out in the periodical press. In every
claim credit for prosperous-adverse events
*"This is the worst condition of wars : all
are imputed to one alone."
1799.]
305
HISTORY OF EUROPE.

""
quarter, in the newspapers, the tribune, | immediate possession of the reins of
the pamphlets, the clubs, nothing was power, in order to extricate the country
to be read or heard but declamations from the perilous situation in which it
against the government. The parties was placed. For this purpose they re-
who had alternately felt the weight of fused all accommodation or consulta-
their vengeance, the Royalists and the tion with the three devoted Directors,
Jacobins, vied with each other in in- while the most vehement attacks were
veighing against their imbecility and made on them in both Councils. The
want of foresight; while the soldiers, disastrous state of the finances afforded
hitherto their firmest support, gave too fair an opportunity for invective.
open vent to their indignation at the Out of 400,000,000 francs already con-
Advocates who had brought back sumed in the public service for the year
the Republican standards to the Alps 1799, not more than 210,000,000 francs
and the Rhine.
had been received by the treasury, and
the arrears were coming in very slowly.
Various new taxes were voted by the
Councils; but it was apparent to every
one that their collection, under the
present system, was impossible. A
still more engrossing topic was afforded
by the dicussions on the proposed al-
teration of the law on the liberty of the
press and the popular societies, in or-
der to take away from the Directory
the arbitrary power with which they
had been invested by the law of the
19th Fructidor. The democrats ex-
claimed that it was indispensable to
electrify the public mind; that the
country was in the same danger as in
1793, and that the same means must
be taken to meet it; that every species
of patriotism would speedily expire if
the clubs were not reopened, and un-
limited freedom allowed to the press.
Without joining in this democratic fer-
vour, the royalists and Constitutional-
ists concurred with them in holding
that the Directory had made a bad use
of the dictatorial power given to them
by the revolution of 18th Fructidor,
and that the restoration of the popular
clubs had become indispensable. So
general a concord among men of such
dissimilar opinions on all other sub-
jects, announced the speedy fall of the
government.

5. A league was speedily formed
against the government, at the head of
which were Generals Joubert and Au-
gereau. Barras, though a Director, en-
tered into the plan, and gave it the
weight of his reputation, or rather his
revolutionary audacity and vigour. It
was agreed that no questions should
be brought forward, until the obnox-
ious Directors were removed, as to the
form of government which should suc-
ceed them; and the three Directors,
La Révellière-Lépaux, Treilhard, and
Merlin de Douai, were marked out for
destruction. The conspiracy was far
advanced, when the misfortunes in Italy
and on the Rhine gave tenfold force to
the public discontent, and deprived the
government of all means of resistance.
The departments in the south, now
threatened with invasion from the allied
army, were in a state of extreme fer-
mentation, and sent deputations to the
Councils, who painted in the most lively
colours the destitute state of the troops,
the consternation of the provinces, the
vexations of the people, the injustice
done to the generals, and the indigna-
tion of the soldiers. The nomination
of Sièyes to the Directory was the most
convincing proof of the temper of the
Councils, as he had always and openly
expressed his dislike at the constitution
and the Directorial government. To
elect him was to proclaim, as it were,
that they desired a revolution.
6. Sièyes soon became the head of
the conspirators, who thus numbered
among their ranks two Directors, and
a great majority of both Councils. It
was no longer their first object to re-
model the constitution, but to gain
7. The first measures of the conspi-
rators were opened by a message
from
the different committees of the Coun-
cils, presented by Boulay de la Meurthe,
in which they insisted upon being in-
formed of the causes of the exterior
and interior dangers which threatened
the state, and the means of averting
them which existed. The Directory,
306
[CHAP. XXIX,
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
A
upon receiving this message, endeav-|erals Moulins and Roger Ducos were
oured to gain time, by promising to appointed as successors to the expelled
give an answer in detail, which requir- Directors. Thus, the government of
ed several days to prepare. But this the Directory was overturned in less
was by no means what the revolution- than four years after its first establish-
ists intended. After waiting a fort-
After waiting a fort-ment, and in twenty months after it
night without receiving any answer, had, by a violent stretch of illegal force,
the Councils, on the recommendation usurped dictatorial powers. The peo-
of their committees of war, expenditure, ple of Paris took no part in this sub-
and finance, agreed to declare their sit- version of their rulers, which was effect-
tings permanent, till an answer to the ed by the force of the national assem-
message was obtained, and the three blies illegally directed. Revolutionary
committees were constituted into a fervour had exhausted itself; and an
single commission of eleven members, event which, six years before, would
-in other words, a provisional govern- have convulsed France from one ex-
ment. The Directory on their part tremity to the other, passed over with
also declared their sittings permanent, hardly more agitation than a change
and everything seemed to presage a of ministers causes in a constitutional
fierce conflict. The commission dex- monarchy.
terously availed themselves of the cir-
cumstance that Treilhard, who for thir-
teen months had been in the Directory,
had been appointed four days before the
legal period, and instantly proposed
that his nomination should be annull-
ed. La Révellière-Lépaux, who was
gifted with great political firmness, in
vain strove to induce Treilhard to re-
sist; he saw his danger, and resolved
to yield to the storm. He accordingly
sent in his resignation, and Gohier, a
vehement republican, but a man of little
political capacity, though an able writer,
was named by the Councils in his stead.
8. The victory was gained, because
this change gave the Councils a ma-
jority in the Directory, but La Rével-
lière-Lépaux was still firm in his re-
fusal to resign. After exhausting every
engine of flattery, threats, entreaties,
and promises, Barras at length broke
up the conference by declaring, "Well,
then, it is all over; sabres must be
drawn.". (6 Wretch !" exclaimed La
Révellière,
"do
you speak of sabres?
There is nothing here but knives, and
they are all directed against those vir-
tuous citizens whom you wish to mur-
der, because you cannot induce them
to degrade themselves." But a single
individual could not withstand the
gislature; he yielded at length to the
entreaty of a deputation from the Coun-
cils, and sent in his resignation during
the night. His example was imme-
diately followed by Merlin; and Gen- |
9. The violent measures, however,
which had dispossessed the govern-
ment, were far from bringing to the
helm of affairs any accession either of
vigour or ability. The new Directory,
composed, like the Councils, of men of
opposite principles, was even less qua-
lified than that which had preceded it
to make head against the tempest, both
without and within, which assailed the'
state. Sièyes, the only man among
them of superior intellect, dreamed of
nothing but a new political organisation
of society, and had none of the quali-
ties fitted to struggle with the misfor-
tunes of a sinking state. Roger Ducos,
an old Girondist, was merely his crea-
ture, and unfit to direct any depart-
ment of the Republic. Moulins, an
obscure general, but a vehement re-
publican, had been nominated by the
Jacobin party to uphold their interests
in the government, and, being unknown
to the armies, possessed none of the in-
fluence with the military so necessary
to revive their former spirit. Barras
was the only man capable of giving any
effectual assistance to the administra-
tion; but he was so much under the
influence of his passions and his vices,
and had taken so many and such con-
le-tradictory parts in the course of the
Revolution, that no reliance could be
placed on his assistance. After having
been a violent Jacobin after the revo-
lution of 31st May, a leading Thermi-
dorian after the fall of Robespierre, a

1799.]
307
HISTORY OF EUROPE,
10. The first and most pressing ne-
cessity was to stem the torrent of dis-
aster which had overwhelmed the armies
of the Republic. Immediately after
the change in the government, news ar-
rived of the forcing of the lines of
Zurich; and, before the consternation
which this occasioned had subsided, it
was followed by intelligence of the
battle of the Trebbia, and the evacu-
ation of the ridge of the Apennines.
These misfortunes rendered it abso-
lutely necessary to take some steps to
restore the public confidence; and, for
this purpose, a great change was made
in the military commanders of the Re-
public. Championnet, who had been
thrown into prison for evading the or-
ders of the Directory regarding the
pillage of the Neapolitan dominions,
was liberated from his fetters, and re-
ceived the command of an army which
it was proposed to establish along the
line of the higher Alps; Bernadotte,
from whose activity great results were
justly expected, was appointed minister
at war; and Joubert, whose exploits in
revolutionary Director on the 18th | hall, where the debates of the Consti-
Fructidor, and a vehement enemy of tuent Assembly had been held, and be-
his ancient colleagues on the 30th gan again to pour forth those impas-
Prairial, he now became a royalist Di- sioned declamations in consequence of
rector, elected to withstand the prin- which such streams of blood had already
ciples of democracy which had so often flowed. Taught by former disasters,
elevated him to power. Gohier was however, they abstained from demand-
sincere and honest in his intentions, ing any sanguinary proceedings, and
but he was an infatuated republican, confined themselves to a strenuous sup-
who, amidst the general wreck of the port of an agrarian law, and those
institutions of the country, was dream- measures for the division of property,
ing only of the social compact, and the to the advocacy of which Babœuf had
means of averting a counter-revolution. fallen a victim. The leading members
From the moment of their installation, of the Councils attended their meet-
their sentiments on most subjects were ings, and swelled the ardent multitudes
found to be so much at variance, that who already crowded their assemblies,
it was evident no cordial co-operation flattering themselves, even in the de-
could be expected amongst them. crepitude of the revolutionary fervour,
with the hopeless idea that they would
succeed in directing the torrent. But
the times were no longer the same, and
it was impossible in 1799 to revive the
general enthusiasm which ten years
before had intoxicated every head in
France. The people had not forgotten
the Reign of Terror, and the dreadful
calamities which had followed the
ascendant of the Jacobins; they re-
ceived their promises without joy,
without illusion, and listened with un-
disguised anxiety to the menaces which
they dealt out to all who opposed their
designs. Their apathy threw the Jaco-
bins into despair, as they were well
aware that, without the aid of the po-
pulace, they would be unable to over-
turn what yet remained of the fabric
of society. "We cannot twice," said
the citizens, "go through the same
fiery ordeal: the Jacobins have no
longer the power of the assignats at
their command; the illusion of the
people has been dispelled by their suf-
ferings; the army regards their rule
with horror." The respectable citi-
the Tyrol had gained for him a bril-zens, worn out with convulsions, and
liant reputation, nominated to the com-
mand of the shattered Army of Italy.
11. The overthrow of the govern-
ment was the signal for the issuing of
the Jacobins from their retreats, and
the recommencement of revolutionary
agitation, with all the perilous schemes
of democratic ambition. Everywhere 12. To supply the enormous and
the clubs were reopened; the Jacobins daily increasing deficit in the public
took possession of the Riding-school | treasury, the revolutionists maintained
apprehensive beyond everything of a
return to the yoke of the multitude,
sighed for the restoration of a stable
government, and were prepared to rally
round any leader who would subject
the passions of the Revolution to the
yoke of despotic power.

4
1

308
[CHAP. XXIX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
BALE
that it was indispensable to recur to
the energy and patriotic measures of
1793; to call into active service all
classes of the state, and levy a forced
loan of 120,000,000 of francs, or
£4,800,000, upon the opulent classes,
increasing in severity with the for-
tunes of those from whom it was to be
exacted. After long debates, this ar-
bitrary measure was adopted, and at
the same time a conscription of two
hundred thousand men ordered to re-
cruit the armies. These vigorous mea-
sures promised, in the course of time,
to procure a great supply for the pub-
lic necessities: but in the meanwhile
the danger was imminent; and it was
much to be feared that the frontiers
would be invaded before any efficient
support could be afforded to the armies
intrusted with their defence.
13. What rendered every measure
for the supply either of the army or
the treasury difficult of execution, was
the complete state of anarchy into
which the provinces had fallen, and
the total absence of all authority from
the time that the troops had been re-
moved to the frontier. The Vendeans
and Chouans had, in the west, broken
into fearful activity; the Companies of
the Sun renewed their excesses in the
south; and everywhere the refractory
conscripts, forming themselves into
bands of robbers, occupied the forests,
and pillaged travellers and merchan-
dise of every description along the
highways. To such a height had these
disorders, the natural and inevitable
consequence of a revolution, arisen,
that in most of the departments there
was no longer any authority obeyed, or
order maintained, but the strong pil-
laged the weak with impunity, as in
the rudest ages. In these circumstances
a law, named the law of the hostages,
was proposed and carried in the Coun-
cils, and remains a singular and in-
structive monument of the desperate
tyranny to which those are in the end
reduced, who adventure on the peril-
ous course of democratic innovation.
Proceeding on the supposition, at once
arbitrary and unfounded, that the re-
lations of the emigrants were the sole
cause of the disorders, they enacted,
+
that whenever a commune fell into a
notorious state of anarchy, the rela-
tions of emigrants, and all those known
to have been at all connected with the
ancient regime, should be seized as
hostages, and that four of them should
be transported for every assassination
that was committed in that district,
and their property be rendered liable
for all acts of robbery which there oc-
curred. But this law, inhuman as it
was, proved wholly inadequate to re-
store order in this distracted country;
and France was menaced with an an-
archy, so much the more terrible than
that of 1793, as the Committee of Pub-
lic Salvation was awanting, whose iron
arm, supported by victory, had then
crushed it in its grasp.
14. The disturbances in the western
provinces, during this paralysis of the
authority of government, had again
risen to the most formidable height.
That unconquerable band, the Ven-
deans and Chouans, whom the utmost
disasters could never completely sub-
due, had yielded only a temporary sub-
mission to the energetic and able mea-
sures of General Hoche; and with the
arrival of less skilful leaders of the
republican forces, and the increasing
weakness of government, their activity
again led them to insurrection. This
fresh outbreak of the insurrection was
chiefly owing to the cruel and unne-
cessary persecutions which the Director
La Révellière-Lépaux kept up against
the priests; and it soon rose to the
most formidable height. In March
1799, the spirit of Chouanism, besides
its native departments in Brittany, had
spread to La Vendée, and the Republic
beheld with dismay the fresh breaking
out of that terrible volcano. Chollet,
Mortagne, Herbiers, names immortal-
ised in those wonderful wars, were
again signalised by the successes of the
royalists; and the flame, spreading fur-
ther than the early victories of the Ven-
deans, menaced Touraine. BOURMONT,
afterwards conqueror of Algiers, a chief
of great ability, revenged in Mans the
bloody catastrophe of the royalist army;
and Godet de Châtillon, after a bril-
liant victory, entered in triumph into
Nantes, which had six years before de-
嘿
​1799.]
309
HISTORY OF EUROPE
feated the utmost efforts of the grand | where they rendered essential service
army under Cathelineau.
to the cause of national independence.
It was the reinforcements thus ob-
tained which enabled Massena to ex-
tricate the Republic from extreme
peril at the battle of Zurich; and it
was in their ranks that Napoleon, in
the following year, found the greater
part of those dauntless followers who
scaled the barrier of the Great St Ber-
nard, and descended like a thunderbolt
on the plain of Marengo.
15. Nor did the financial measures
of government inspire less dread than
the external disasters and internal dis-
orders which overwhelmed the country.
The forced loan was levied with the
utmost severity; and as all the for-
tunes of the royalists had been ex-
tinguished in the former convulsions,
it now fell on those classes who had
been enriched by the Revolution, and
thus spread a universal panic through 16. While the Republic, after ten
its most opulent supporters. They years of convulsions, was fast relapsing
now felt the severity of the confisca into that state of disorder and weak-
tion which they had inflicted on others. ness which is at once the consequence
The ascending scale, according to which and punishment of revolutionary vio-
it was levied, rendered it especially lence, the hall of the Jacobins re-
obnoxious. No fixed rule was adopted sounded with furious declamations
for the increase according to the for- against all the members of the Direc-
tune of the individual, but everything tory, and the whole system which in
was left to the tax-gatherers, who pro- every country has been considered as
ceeded on secret and frequently false the basis of social union. The distri-
information. In these circumstances, bution of property was in an especial
the opulent found their whole income manner the object of invective; and
disappearing under a single exaction. the agrarian law, which Babœuf had
The tax voted was 120,000,000 francs, bequeathed to the last democrats of
or £4,800,000; but in the exhausted the Revolution, was universally ex-
state of the country, it was impossible tolled as the perfection of society.
to raise this sum; and specie, under Felix Lepelletier, Arena, Drouet, and
the dread of arbitrary exactions, en- all the furious revolutionists of the age,
tirely disappeared from circulation. were there assembled, and the whole
Its collection took three years, and atrocities of 1793 were soon held up
then only realised three-fourths of that for applause and imitation. They cele-
amount. The three-per-cents consoli- brated the manes of the victims shot
dated, that melancholy relic of former on the plain of Grenelle; demanded in
bankruptcy, had fallen to six per cent loud terms the instant punishment of
on the remnant of a third, which the all "the leeches who lived on the
great confiscation of 1797 had left- blood of the people," the general dis-
a little more than a sixtieth part of the arming of the royalists, a levy en masse,
former value of the stock at the com- the establishment of manufactures of
mencement of the Revolution. The arms in the public places, and the re-
executive were more successful in their storation of their cannon and pikes
endeavours to recruit the military to the inhabitants of the faubourgs.
forces of the Republic. Soldiers are These ardent feelings were roused into
as easily obtained during public suf- a perfect fury, when the news arrived
fering as money is hard to find. Un- of the battle of Novi, and the retreat
der the able and vigorous management of of the Army of Italy to the Alps.
Bernadotte, the conscription proceeded Talleyrand became in an especial man-
with great activity; and soon a hun-ner the object of attack. He was ac-
dred thousand young men were enroll- cused of having projected the expedi
ed and disciplined at the depôts in the tion to Egypt, the cause of all the pub-
interior of the country. These con- lic disasters; Moreau was overwhelmed
scripts were no sooner instructed in with invectives, and Sièyes, the presi-
the rudiments of the military art, than|dent of the Council of Ancients, stig-
they were marched off to the frontier, matised as a perfidious priest, who was
!
310
[CHAP. XXIX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
I
about to belie in power all the patri- | speedily put to the test. He at once
otic resolutions of his earlier years. closed the Riding-school hall, where
17. In these perilous circumstances, their meetings were held; and, sup-
the Directory named FOUCHE minister ported by the Council of the Ancients,
of police. This celebrated man, who within whose precincts it was placed,
under Napoleon came to play so im- prohibited any further assemblies in
portant a part in the government of that situation. The democrats, expelled
the Empire, early gave indication of from their old den, reassembled in a
the great abilities and versatile charac- new place of meeting in the Rue du
ter which enabled him so long to main- Bac, where their declamations were
tain his influence, not only with many renewed with as much vehemence as
different administrations, but under ever. But public opinion had changed;
so many different governments. An the people were no longer disposed to
old member of the Jacobin Club, and rise in insurrection to support their
thoroughly acquainted with all their ambitious projects. Fouché resolved
designs; steeped in the atrocities of to follow up his first blow by closing
Lyons; a regicide and atheist; bound their meetings altogether. The Direc-
neither by affection nor principle to tory were legally invested with the
their cause, and seeking only in the power of taking this decisive step, as
shipwreck of parties to make his own the organisation of the society was con-
fortune, he was eminently qualified to trary to law; but there was a division
act as a spy upon his former friends, of opinion among its members as to
and to secure the Directory against the expediency of adopting it-Moulins
their efforts. He perceived at this cri- and Gohier insisting that it was only
tical period that the ascendant of the by favouring the clubs, and reviving
revolutionists was on the wane; and the revolutionary spirit of 1793, that
having raised himself to eminence by the Republic could make head against
their passions, he now resolved to at- its enemies. However, the majority,
tach himself to that conservative party consisting of Sièyes, Barras, and Roger
who were striving to reconstruct the Ducos, persuaded by the arguments of
elements of society, and establish re- Fouché, resolved upon the decisive step.
gular authority by their subversion. The execution of the measure was post-
The people beheld with dismay the poned till after the anniversary of the
associate of Collot d'Herbois, and a 10th August; but it was then carried
regicide member of the Convention, into effect without opposition, and the
raised to the important station of head Jacobin Club, which had spread such
of the police: but they soon found havoc through the world, at last and
that the massacres of Lyons were not for ever closed.
to be renewed; and that the Jacobin
enthusiast, intrusted with the direction
of affairs, was to exhibit, in combating
the forces of anarchy, the spirit he had
imbibed in gaining its victories, and a
vigour and resolution on the side of
order, unknown in the former stages
of the Revolution. His accession to
the administration at this juncture was
of great importance; for he soon suc-
ceeded in confirming the wavering ideas
of Barras, and inducing him to exert
all his strength in combating those
principles of democracy which were
again beginning to dissolve the social
body.
•
18. Under the auspices of so vigorous
a leader, the power of the Jacobins was
|
19. Deprived of their point of ren-
dezvous, the democrats had recourse to
their usual engine—the press: and the
journals were immediately filled with
the most furious invectives against
Sièyes, who was stigmatised as the
author of the measure. This able, but
speculative man, the author of the
celebrated pamphlet, "What is the Tiers
Etat ?" which had so powerful an ef-
fect in promoting the Revolution in
1789, was now held up to public exe-
cration as a perfidious priest who had
sold the Republic to Prussia. In truth,
he had long ago seen the pernicious
tendency of the democratic dogmas
with which he commenced political
life, and never hesitated to declare

1799.]
311
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
openly that a strong government was | ary zeal; but not a sword was drawn.
indispensable to France, and that li- The three resolute Directors, continu-
berty was utterly incompatible with the ing their advantage, succeeded in throw-
successive tyranny of different parties, ing out, by a majority of 245 to 171, a
which had so long desolated the Re- proposal of Jourdan to declare the
public. These opinions were sufficient country in danger, which was support-
to point him out as the object of re-ed by the whole force of the Jacobin
party; and they soon after successfully
ventured on the bold step of dismissing
Bernadotte, the minister at war, whose
attachment to democratical principles
was well known. All thoughts were
already turned towards a military chief
capable of putting an end to the dis-
tractions of the Republic, and extricat-
publican fury; and, aware of his dan-
ger, he was already beginning to look
round for some military leader who
might execute the coup d'état, which he
foresaw was the only remaining chance
of salvation to the country. In the
meanwhile, the state of the press re-
quired immediate attention; its license
and excesses were utterly inconsistent ing it from the perilous situation in
with any stable or regular government. which it was placed, from the continued
The only law by which it could be re-successes of the Allies. "We must have
strained, was one which declared that done with declaimers," said Sièyes;
all attempts to subvert the Republic "what we want is a head and a sword."
should be punished with death: a san- But where to find thatsword was the dif-
guinary regulation, the offspring of de- ficulty. Joubert had recently been kill-
mocratic apprehensions, the severity of ed at Novi; Moreau, notwithstanding
which prevented it, in the present state his consummate military talents, was
of public feeling, from being carried known not to possess the energy and
into execution. In this extremity, the moral resolution requisite for the task;
three Directors declared that they Massena was famed only as a skilful
could no longer carry on the govern- soldier; while Augereau and Berna-
ment; and France was on the point of dotte, both violent democrats, had open-
being delivered over to utter anarchy, ly thrown themselves into the arms of
when the Directory thought of the ex- the opposite party. In this emergency,
pedient of applying to the press the all eyes were already turned towards
article of the constitution which gave that youthful hero who had hitherto
the executive power the right to arrest chained victory to his standards, and
all persons suspected of carrying on whose early campaigns, splendid as they
plots against the Republic. Nothing were, had been almost thrown into the
could be more forced than such an in- shade by the romantic marvels of his
terpretation of this clause, which was Egyptian expedition. The Directory
obviously intended for a totally differ- had, in the preceding spring, assembled
ent purpose; but the necessity and the an immense fleet in the Mediterranean,
well-known principle, salus populi su to bring back the army from the shores
prema lex, seemed to justify, on the of the Nile; but it had been broken up
ground afterwards taken by Charles X., without achieving anything. But Lucien
a stretch indispensable for the exist and Joseph Buonaparte had coveyed to
ence of regular government, and an Napoleon full intelligence of the disas-
arrêt was at length resolved on, which trous state of the Republic, and it was
authorised the apprehension of the edi- by their advice that he resolved to
tors of eleven journals, and the immedi- brave the English cruisers and return
ate suppression of their publications. to France. The public mind was al-
20. This bold step produced an im-ready in that uncertain and agitated
mediate ebullition among the demo-state which is the general precursor of
crats; but it was confined to declama- some great political event; and the
tions and threats, without any hostile journals, a faithful mirror of its fleet-
measures. The tribune resounded with ing changes, were filled with conjec-
66 dictators,"
," "the fall of liberty," and tures as to the future revolutions he
all the other overflowings of revolution was to achieve in the world.,
***
,
312
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIX.
21. In truth, it was high time that | English cruisers? were the questions
some military leader of commanding universally asked. Such was the anx-
talents should seize the helm, to save iety of the public mind on the subject,
the sinking fortunes of the Republic. that rumour had twice outstripped the
Never since the commencement of the hopes of his friends, and announced
war had its prospects been so gloomy, his return; and when at length the
both from external disaster and inter- telegraph gave the official intelligence
nal oppression. A. contemporary re- that he had arrived on the coast of
publican writer, of no common talent, Provence, the public transports knew
has drawn the following graphic pic-no bounds. When the people at Fré-
ture of the internal state of France at jus heard that the conqueror of Egypt
this period "Merit was generally was on the coast, their enthusiasm
persecuted; all men of honour were broke through all the restraints of go-
chased from public situations; robbers vernment. The quarantine laws were
were everywhere assembled in their in a moment forgotten. A multitude,
infernal caverns; the wicked were in intoxicated with joy and hope, seized
power; the apologists of the system of the first boats, and rushed on board
terror thundering in the tribune; spo- the vessels. Napoleon, amidst universal
liation re-established under the name acclamations, landed, and immediately
of forced loans; assassinations pre- set out for Paris. The telegraph, with
pared; thousands of victims already the rapidity of the winds, announced
marked out, under the name of hos- his arrival, and the important intelli-
tages; the signal for pillage, murder, gence speedily spread over the capital.
and conflagration, anxiously looked for, The entrancement was universal, the
couched in the words, the 'country is joy unanimous. All wishes had been
in danger;' the same cries, the same turned towards a hero who could re-
shouts, were heard in the clubs as in store peace to desolated France-and
1793; the same executioners, the same here he was, dropt from the clouds:
victims; liberty, property, could no a fortunate soldier presented himself,
longer be said to exist; the citizens who had caused the French standards
had no security for their lives-the to float on the summit of the Capitol
state for its finances. All Europe was and at the foot of the Pyramids; in
in arms against us; America even whom all the world recognised both
had declared against our tyranny; our civil and military talents of the very
armies were routed, our conquests lost, highest order. His proclamations, his
the territory of the Republic menaced negotiations, his treaties, bore testi-
with invasion. Such was the situation mony to the first; his astonishing vic-
of France before the revolution of the tories afforded irrefragable evidence of
18th Brumaire." And such is the the second. So rare a combination
picture of the ultimate effect of demo- might suggest alarm to the friends of
cratic convulsions, drawn by those who liberty, were it not that his well-known
had urged them on; such the miseries principles and disinterestedness pre-
which compelled the nation, instead of cluded the idea that he would employ
the mild sceptre of Louis, to receive the dictatorship to any other end than
the dreaded sword of Napoleon! the public good, and the termination
of the misfortunes of the country. Dis-
courses of this sort, in every mouth,
threw the public into transports-so
much the more entrancing as they suc-
ceeded a long period of disaster. The
joyful intelligence was announced,
amidst thunders of applause, at all the
theatres; patriotic songs again sent
forth their heart-stirring strains from
the orchestra; and more than one en-
thusiast expired of joy at the advent
22. The despatches, containing the
account of the expedition into Syria,
and of the marvellous victories of Mont
Thabor and Aboukir, arrived at this
time, and spread far and wide the im-
pression that the conqueror of Rivoli
was the destined saviour of the state,
for whom all classes were so anxiously
looking. His name was in every mouth.
Where is he? What will he do? What
chance is there that he will escape the
M
1
1799.]
313
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
|
of the hero who was to terminate the | pressive government which was now
difficulties of the Republic.
desolating France, the firm hand of a
vigorous and able military leader. Even
so far back as the revolt of the sections,
on the 13th Vendémiaire, he had testi-
fied his opinion of the weakness of his
colleagues to Napoleon. At the most
critical moment of the day, when the
Committees of Government had lost
their heads, Sièyes approached Napo-
leon, and, taking him into the embra-
sure of a window, said "You see how
it is, general: they are haranguing when
the moment for action has arrived.
Large bodies are unfit for the lead of
armies: they never know the value of
time. You can be of no use here. Go,
general, take counsel only of your own
genius, and the dangers of the country
the sole hope of the Republic is in you.'
These words were notlost on Napoleon;
they pointed out the speaker as the fit
associate in his designs; and to these
was soon added M. Talleyrand, who
was too clear-sighted not to perceive
that the only chance of safety was in
the authority of a dictator, and who
had also private grievances of his own
to induce him to desire the overthrow
of the government.
""
|
24. Though convinced that the mo-
ment he had so long looked for had ar-
rived, and resolved to seize the supreme
authority, Napoleon landed in France
without any fixed project for carrying
his design into execution. The enthu-
siasm, however, with which he had been
received in the course of his journey to
Paris, and the intelligence which he
there obtained of the state of the coun-
try, made him at once determine on
the attempt. The circumstances of
the time were singularly favourable to
such a design. None of the Directory
were possessed of any personal consi-
deration, except Sièyes; and he had
long revolved in his mind the project
of substituting, for the weak and op-
25. Indeed, so general was the im-
pression, at that period, of the impos-
sibility of continuing the government
of France under the republican form,
that, previous to Napoleon's arrival,
various projects not only had been set
on foot, but were far advanced, for the
restoration of monarchical authority.
The brothers of Napoleon, Joseph and
Lucien, were deeply implicated in these
intrigues. The Abbé Sièyes at one
time thought of placing the Duke of
Brunswick on the throne; Barras was
not averse to the restoration of the
Bourbons, and was engaged in negotia-
tions with Louis XVIII. for that pur-
pose. These had even gone so far that
the terms of the Director were fixed
for playing the part of General Monk ;
twelve millions of livres were to have
been his reward, besides two millions
to divide among his associates. But,
in the midst of these intrigues, Joseph
and Lucien Buonaparte were in a more
effectual way advancing their brother's
|
VOL. IV.
X
At
23. The conqueror was greeted with
the most enthusiastic reception the
whole way from Fréjus to Paris.
Aix, Avignon, Vienne, and Lyons, the
people came forth in crowds to meet
him; his journey resembled a con-
tinual triumph. The few bells which
the Revolution had left in the churches
were rung on his approach; his course
at night was marked by bonfires on all
the eminences. On the 16th of Octo-
ber he arrived unexpectedly at Paris;
his wife and brothers, mistaking his
route, had gone out to meet him by
another road. Two hours after his
arrival he waited on the Directory; the
soldiers at the gate of the palace, who
had served under him at Arcola, recog-
nised his figure, and loud cries of "Vive
Buonaparte!" announced to the gov-
ernment that the dreaded commander
had arrived. He was received by Go-
hier, and it was arranged that he should
be presented in public on the following
day. His reception then was, to ex-
ternal appearance, flattering; and splen-
did encomiums were pronounced on the
victories of the Pyramids, Mount Tha-
bor, and Aboukir: but mutual distrust
prevailed on both sides, and a vague
disquietude already pervaded the Di-
rectory at the appearance of the re-
nowned conqueror, who at so critical a
moment had presented himself in the
capital.

į
314
[CHAP. XXIX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
interests, by inducing the leaders of ment of the Seine-an active and in-
the army to co-operate in his elevation. triguing partisan-were assiduous in
They had already engaged Macdonald, their attendance. Eight days had hardly
Leclerc, Lefebvre, Augereau, and Jour- elapsed, and already the direction of
dan, to favour his enterprise; but Mo- government seemed to be insensibly
reau hung back, and all their efforts had gliding into his hands. The ideas of
failed in engaging Bernadotte, whose these different persons, however, were
republican principles were proof against far from being unanimous as to the
their seductions.
course which should be adopted. The
republican generals offered Napoleon
a military dictatorship, and agreed to
support him with all their power, pro-
vided he would maintain the principles
of the Riding-school Club, where their
meetings were now held. Sièyes, Tal-
leyrand, Roger Ducos, and Regnier,
proposed simply to place him at the
head of affairs, and change the consti-
tution, which experience had proved
to be so miserably defective; while the
Directors Barras and Gohier vainly en-
deavoured to rid themselves of so dan-
gerous a rival, by offering and anxious-
ly pressing upon him the command of
the armies.
27. In the midst of this flattering
adulation, the conduct of Napoleon was
influenced by that profound knowledge
of human nature, and thorough dis-
simulation, which formed such striking
features of his character. Affecting to
withdraw from the eager gaze of the
multitude, he seldom showed himself
in public; and then only in the cos-
tume of the National Institute, or in a
gray surtout, with a Turkish sabre sus-
pended by a silk ribbon-a dress which,
under seeming simplicity, revealed the
secret pride of the conqueror of the
Pyramids. He postponed from day to
day the numerous visits of distinguish-
ed individuals who sought the honour
of being presented to him; and when
he went to the theatre, frequented only
a concealed box, as if to avoid the thun-
ders of applause which always attended
his being recognised.* When obliged
26. No sooner had Napoleon arrived
at his unassuming dwelling in the Rue
Chantereine, than the whole generals
who had been sounded hastened to pay
their court to him, and with them all
who had been dismissed or conceived
themselves ill used by the Directory.
His saloon soon resembled rather the
court of a monarch than the rendez-
vous of the friends of any private in-
dividual, how eminent soever. Besides
Lannes, Murat, and Berthier, who had
shared his fortunes in Egypt, and were
warmly attached to him, there were
now assembled Jourdan, Augereau,
Macdonald, Beurnonville, Leclerc, Le-
febvre, and Marbot, who, notwithstand-
ing their many differences of opinion
on other subjects, had been induced,
by the desperate state of the Republic,
to concur in offering the military dic-
tatorship to Napoleon. Although Mo-
reau at first appeared undecided, he
was at length won by the address of his
great rival, who made the first advances,
and affected to consult him on his fu-
ture designs. In addition to this illus-
trious band of military chiefs, many of
the most influential members of the
legislature were also disposed to favour
the enterprise. Roederer, the old leader
in the municipality; Regnault St-Jean-
d'Angely, long known and respected
for his indomitable firmness in the most
trying scenes of the Revolution, and a
great number of the leading deputies
in both Chambers, had paid their court
to him on his arrival. Nor were official
functionaries, and even members of the
administration, wanting. Sièyes and
Roger Ducos, the two Directors who
chiefly superintended the civil con-
cerns; and Moulins, who was at the
head of the military department of the
Republic; Cambacérès, the minister of
justice; Fouché, the head of the police,
and Réal, a commissary in the depart-
* "The moderation with which he[Agricola]
enjoyed his victory was remarkable. He had
reduced the vanquished to obedience, and
the act, he said, did not deserve the name
his despatches to Rome he assumed no merit,
of victory, nor even of an expedition. In
nor were his letters, according to custom,
decorated with sprigs of laurel. But this
From the modesty of a commander who
self-denial served only to enhance his fame.
could undervalue such important services,
1799.]
r
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
315
repast, given in his honour by the min-
ister of justice, he requested that the
leading lawyers might be invited: and
selecting M. Tronchet, the eloquent
defender of Louis XVI., conversed long
with him and Treilhard on the want of
to accept an invitation to a sumptuous has no share in these observations;
they are dictated alone by the fears
which so dangerous an election could
not fail to inspire in all the friends of
real freedom." Gohier and Moulins,
however, agreed in thinking that the
Republic had more to fear from the
a simple code of criminal and civil juris-young general than the old metaphysi-
prudence, which might be adapted to cian; and therefore replied, that though,
the intelligence of the age. To private if of the legal age, he would doubtless
dinners in his own house, he invited have secured all suffrages, yet nothing
only the learned men of the Institute, in their estimation could counterbal-
and conversed with them entirely on ance a violation of the constitution,
scientific subjects; if he spoke on po- and that the true career which lay
litics at all, it was only to express his before him was the command of the
profound regret at the misfortunes of armies.*
France. In vain the Directors exag-
gerated to him the successes of Massena
in Switzerland, and Brune in Holland;
he appeared inconsolable for the loss
of Italy, and seemed to consider every
success of no moment till that gem
was restored to the coronet of the Re-
public.
C
29. Meanwhile all Europe was re-
sounding with the return of Napoleon,
and speculation, with its thousand
tongues, was everywhere busied in an-
ticipating the changes which he was to
effect in the fate of France and of the
world. "What will Buonaparte do ?
Is he to follow the footsteps of Crom-
well, or Monk, or Washington? What
28. Napoleon's first attempt was to
engage in his interest Gohier, the pre-change is he likely to make in the fate
sident of the Directory, and Moulins, of the war?" were the questions asked
who were both strongly attached to the from one end of Europe to the other.
republican side; and, with this view, But the general himself was for a short
he not only paid them in private the time undecided as to the course which
greatest attention, but actually propos- he should pursue. To avail himself
ed to them that he should be taken of the support of the Jacobins and the
into the government instead of Sièyes, Riding-school Club seemed the plan
though below the age of forty, which most likely to disarm all opposition,
the constitution required for that ele- because they were the only efficient or
vated function, “Take care,” said he, energetic body in the state; but he
"of that cunning priest Sièyes; it is well knew that the Jacobins were jeal-
his connection with Prussia, the very ous of every leader, and were at once
thing which should have excluded him exclusive and violent in their passions:
from it, which has raised him to the To make use of them for his own
Directory; unless you take care, he will elevation, and immediately break the
sell you to the coalesced powers. It is alliance and persecute them, would be
absolutely necessary to get quit of him. a dangerous course. Sièyes, on the
It is true, I am below the legal age re- other hand, was at the head of a nu-
quired by the constitution; but, in the merous body of leading men in the
pursuit of forms, we must not forget Chambers. His character precluded
realities. Those who framed the con- him from becoming an object of jea-
stitution did not recollect that the ma- lousy to the dictator; and although
turity of judgment produced by the
Revolution is often far more essential
than the maturity of age, which in
many is much less material. Ambition
|
men inferred that projects of vast extent
were even then in his contemplation.”-
Tacitus, Agricola, 18. How identical is hu-
man nature in all ages!
* At this period, Sièyes's indignation at
Napoleon knew no bounds. "Instead,” said
he, "of lamenting his inactivity, let us rather
congratulate ourselves upon it. Far from
putting arms into the hands of a man whose
intentions are so suspicious-far from giving
him a fresh theatre of glory-let us cease to
occupy ourselves more about his concerns,
and endeavour, if possible, to cause him to
be forgot."-GOHIER, i. 216.
|
2
316
[CHAP. XXIX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE..
I
:
1
!
many of his party were firm republi- | his name had been used merely as a
cans, they were not of such an impe- cover to the searching question. The
tuous and energetic kind as to be in- conversation here dropped; but Napo-
capable of employment under a regu- leon saw that the time for action had
lar government, after the struggle was arrived, and a few minutes after he
over; and, besides, their strife with called on Sièyes, and agreed to make
the Riding-school Club was too recent the change between the 15th and 20th
to leave room for apprehension as to Brumaire (6th to 11th November). On
any coalition between such opposite returning home, he recounted to Tal-
bodies. Influenced by these considera- leyrand, Fouché, and others, what had
tions, Napoleon resolved to attach him- passed; they communicated it during
self to Sièyes and his party, and to the night to Barras, and at eight the
enter into none of the projects of the following morning the Director was at
Jacobins. Though political considera- his bedside, protesting his devotion,
tions, however, led to this alliance, and that he alone could save the Re-
there were no two men in France who public. But Napoleon declined his
hated each other more cordially than open assistance, and turned the con-
Napoleon and Sièyes. They had lately versation to the difference between the
met at dinner at the Director Gohier's: humid climate of Paris and the burn-
the former, though he had made the ing sands of Arabia.
first advances to Moreau, thought it
unworthy of him to do the same to
the veteran of the Revolution, and the
day passed over without their address-
ing each other. They separated mu-
tually exasperated. "Did you see that
little insolent fellow?" said Sièyes:
"he would not even condescend to
notice a member of the government,
who, if they had done right, would
have caused him to be shot.". "What
on earth," said Napoleon, "could have
made them put that priest into the
Directory? He is sold to Prussia, and
unless you take care, he will deliver
you up to that power." Yet these
men, stimulated by ambition, acted
cordially together in the revolution
which so soon approached. Such is
the friendship of politicians !
30. On the 30th October, Napoleon
dined with Barras. "The Republic is
perishing," said the Director; "nothing
can be in a more miserable state; the
government is destitute of all force.
We must have a change, and name
Hédouville President of the Republic.
Your intention, you know, is to put
yourself at the head of the army. As
for me, I am ill, my popularity is gone,
and I am fit only for private life."
Napoleon looked at him steadily, with-
out making any answer. Barras cast
down his eyes, and remained silent;
they had divined each other. Hédou-
ville was a man of no sort of celebrity;
31. Notwithstanding his utmost ef-
forts, however, Napoleon was unable
to make any impression on Bernadotte.
That general, partly from republican
principles, partly from jealousy, re-
sisted all his advances. "You have
seen," said he to Bourrienne, "the en-
thusiasm with which I was received in
France, and how evidently it springs
from the general desire to escape out
of a disastrous predicament. Well! I
have just seen Bernadotte, who boasts,
with a ridiculous exaggeration, of the
great success of the Republic: he spoke
of the Russians beat, and Genoa saved;
of the innumerable armies which were
about to be raised. He even reproached
me with not having brought back my
soldiers from Egypt. 'What!' I an-
swered, 'you tell me that you are over-
flowing with troops-that two hundred
thousand infantry, and forty thousand
cavalry, will soon be on foot. If that
is so, to what purpose should I have
brought back the remains of my army?'
He then changed his tone: he con-
fessed that he thought us all lost. He
spoke of external enemies, of internal
enemies-and at that word he looked
steadily in my face. I also gave him
a glance. But patience; the pear will
soon be ripe." Soon after, Napoleon
expressed himself with his wonted
vehemence against the agitation which
reigned among the Jacobins, and of
which the Riding-school hall had so
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
317
"
were
recently been the centre. "Your own
brothers," replied Bernadotte,
its principal founders, and yet you ac-
cuse me of having favoured that club:
it is to the instructions of some one, I
know not who, that we are to ascribe the
agitation that now prevails." At these
words Napoleon could no longer con-
tain himself. True, general," he re-
plied with the utmost vehemence, "and
I would rather live in the woods than
in a society which presents no security
against violence.” Their conversation
only augmented the breach, and soon
after they separated in sullen discon-
tent.
<<
32. Though a few of the military,
however, held out, the great propor-
tion of them were gained. Berthier,
Lannes, and Murat, were daily making
converts of such as were backward in
sending in their adhesion. The officers
of the garrison, headed by Moreau, de-
manded that they should be presented
to Napoleon. The forty adjutants of
the national guard of Paris made the
same request; his brothers, Lucien
and Joseph, daily augmented his party
in the Councils; the 8th and 9th regi-
ments of dragoons, who had served
under him in Italy, with the 21st chas-
seurs, who had been organised by him,
were devoted to his service. Moreau
said, "He did not wish to be engaged
in any intrigues, but that, when the
moment for action arrived, he would
be found at his post." The people of
Paris, who awaited in anxious expecta-
tion the unfolding of the plot, could no
longer conceal their impatience. "Fif-
"'*
teen days have elapsed," said they,
“and nothing has been done. Is he to
leave us, as he did on his return from
Italy, and let the Republic perish, tor-
mented by the factions who dispute its
remains?" Everything announced the
approach of the decisive moment.
33. By the able and indefatigable
efforts of Lucien Buonaparte, a ban-
quet, at which he himself was presi-
dent, was given at the Council of the
Ancients, in honour of Napoleon. It
passed off with sombre tranquillity.
Every one spoke in a whisper, anxiety
was depicted on every face, a suppressed
agitation was visible even in the midst
of apparent quiet. Napoleon's own
countenance was disturbed; his absent
and preoccupied air sufficiently indi-
cated that some great project was at
hand. He rose soon from table and left
the party, which, although gloomy, had
answered the object in view, which
was to bring together six hundred
persons of various political principles,
and thus engage them to act in unison
in any common enterprise. It was on
that night that the arrangements for
the conspiracy were finally made be-
tween Sièyes and Napoleon. It was
agreed that the government should be
overturned; that, instead of the five
directors, three consuls should be ap-
pointed, charged with a dictatorial
power which was to last for three
months; that Napoleon, Sièyes, and
Roger Ducos, should fill these exalted
stations; and that the Council of the
Ancients should pass a decree on the
18th Brumaire (9th Nov.), at seven in

* An interesting conversation took place
between Napoleon and Moreau, when they
met, for the first time in their lives, at a
dinner party at Gohier's. When first intro-
duced, they looked at each other a moment
without speaking. Napoleon was the first
to break silence, and testify to Moreau the
desire which he had long felt to make his
acquaintance. "You have returned victori- |
ous from Egypt," replied Moreau, "and I
from Italy after a great defeat. It was the
month which his marriage induced Joubert
to spend at Paris which caused our disasters,
by giving the Allies time to reduce Mantua,
and bring up the force which besieged it to
take a part in the action. It is always the
greater number which defeats the less.”—
"True,” replied Napoleon, "it is always thereau a present of a dagger set with diamonds,
greater number which beats the less."- worth 10,000 francs.-Moniteur, 1799, p. 178.
"And yet," said Gohier, "with small armies
you have frequently defeated large ones."-
"Even then," rejoined he, "it was always
the inferior force which was defeated by the
superior. When with a small body of men
I was in presence of a large one, collecting my
little band, I fell like lightning on one of the
wings of the enemy and defeated it; profiting
by the disorder which such an event never
failed to occasion in their whole line, I re-
peated the attack with similar success in
another quarter, still with my whole force.
I thus beat it in detail; and the general vic-
tory, which was the result, was still an ex-
ample of the truth of the principle, that the
greater force defeats the lesser."-GoHIER, 1.
203, 204. Two days after, Napoleon made Mo-
318
[CHAP. XXIX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
ཕ་ཏྭཱ
the morning, transferring the legisla- | he spoke of the extinction of liberty,
tive body to St Cloud, and appointing the tyranny of the Directory, and used
Napoleon commander of the guard of terms which sufficiently recalled his
the legislature, of the garrison of Paris, famous proclamation which had given
and the national guard. On the 19th, the first impulse to the Revolution of
the decisive event was to take place. the 18th Fructidor.* In public he an-
nounced a review of the troops on the
morning of the 18th Brumaire, after
which he was to set off to take the
command of the army on the frontier.
34. During the three critical days
which followed, the secret, though
known to a great number of persons,
was faithfully kept. The preparations,
both civil and military, went on with-
out interruption. Orders were given
to the regiments, both infantry and
cavalry, which could be relied on, to
parade in the streets of Chantereine
and Mont Blanc, at seven o'clock in the
morning of the 18th. Moreau, Le-
febvre, and all the generals, were sum-
moned to attend at the same hour,
with the forty adjutants of the national
guard. Meanwhile the secret council
of the Ancients laboured, with shut
doors and closed windows, to prepare
the decree which was to pass at seven
in the morning; and as it forbade all
discussion, and the Council of Five
Hundred were only summoned to meet
at eleven, it was hoped the decree
would pass at once-not only without
any opposition, but before its oppon-
ents could be aware of its existence.
35. Meanwhile Napoleon, in his se-
cret intercourse with the different lead-
ers, was indefatigable in his endeavours
to disarm all opposition. Master of
the most profound dissimulation, he
declared himself, to the chiefs of the
different parties, penetrated with the
ideas which he was aware would be
most acceptable to their minds. To
one he protested that he certainly did
desire to play the part of Washington,
but only in conjunction with Sièyes—
the proudest day of his life would be
that when he retired from power; to
another, that the part of Cromwell ap-
peared to him ignoble, because it was
that of an impostor. To the friends of
Sièyes, he professed himself impressed
with the most profound respect for that
mighty intellect, before which the ge-
nius of Mirabeau had prostrated itself;
that, for his own part, he could only
head the armies, and leave to others
the formation of the constitution. To
all the Jacobins who approached him,
36. All the proposed arrangements
were made with the utmost precision.
By daybreak on the 18th Brumaire
(9th Nov.) the boulevards were filled
with a numerous and splendid body of
cavalry, and all the officers in and
around Paris repaired, in full dress, to
the Rue Chantereine. The Deputies
of the Ancients who were not in the
secret assembled, with surprise at the
unwonted hour, in their place of meet-
ing, and already the conspirators were
there in sufficient strength to give them
the majority. The president of the
commission charged with watching
over the safety of the legislative body,
opened the proceedings: he drew, in
energetic and gloomy colours, a picture
of the dangers of the Republic, and
especially of the perils which menaced
their own body, from the efforts of the
anarchists. "The Republic," said he,
"is menaced at once by the anarchists
and the enemy; we must instantly take
measures for the public safety. We
may reckon on the support of General
Buonaparte; it is under the shadow of
his protecting arm that the Councils
must deliberate on the measures re-
quired by the interests of the Repub-
lic." The uninitiated members were
"It is
* At a small dinner-party, given by Napo-
leon at this time, where the Director Gohier
was present, the conversation turned on the
turquois used by the Orientals to clasp their
turbans. Rising from his chair, Napoleon
took out of a private drawer two brooches,
richly set with those jewels, one of which he
gave to Gohier, the other to Desaix.
a little toy," said he, "which we republicans
may give and receive without any impro-
priety."-Soon after, the conversation turned
on the prospect of an approaching pacifica-
tion. "Do you really," said Napoleon, “ad-
vocate a general peace? You are wrong, pre-
sident. A republic should never make any
contrive to have some war on hand to keep alive
but partial accommodations; it should always
the military spirit."-GOHIER, i. 214, 215.
1799.]
319
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
startled, and considerable agitation pre- | into the river." Joseph Buonaparte
vailed in the Assembly; but the ma- had brought Bernadotte; but, upon
jority were instant and pressing, and seeing what was in agitation, he quickly
at eight o'clock the decree was passed, retired to warn the Jacobins of their
after a warm opposition, transferring danger. Fouché, at the first intelli-
the seat of the legislative body to St gence of what was going forward, had
Cloud, appointing them to meet there ordered the barriers to be closed, and
on the following day at noon, charging all the usual precautions taken which
Napoleon with the execution of the mark a period of public alarm, and
decree, authorising him to take all the hastened to the Rue Chantereine to re-
measures necessary for its due per- ceive his orders; but Napoleon ordered
formance, and appointing him to the them to be opened, and the usual
command of the garrison of Paris, the course of things to continue, as he
national guard, the troops of the line marched with the nation and relied on
in the military divisions in which it its support. A quarter of an hour
stood, and the guard of the two Coun- afterwards he mounted on horseback,
cils.
This extraordinary decree was and, putting himself at the head of
ordered to be instantly placarded on his brilliant suite and fifteen hundred
the walls of Paris, despatched to all the horsemen, rode to the Tuileries. Names
authorities, and obeyed by all the citi- since immortalised in the rolls of fame
zens. To lull the suspicions of Gohier, were there assembled: Moreau and
Napoleon invited himself to dine with Macdonald, Berthier and Murat, Lannes,
him on that very day (the 18th Bru- Marmont, and Lefebvre. The dragoons,
maire), and sent that director a press- assembled as they imagined for a re-
ing invitation, carried by Eugene view, joyfully followed in the rear of
Beauharnais, to breakfast with him in so splendid a cortège; while the peo-
the Rue Chantereine on the succeed-ple, rejoicing at the termination of the
ing morning.
disastrous government of the Direc-
tory, saw in it the commencement of
the vigour of military, instead of the
feebleness of legal ascendant, and rent
the air with their acclamations.
|
37. Napoleon was in his own house
in the Rue Chantereine when the mes-
senger of state arrived: his levee re-
sembled rather the court of a powerful
sovereign than the dwelling of a gen-
eral about to undertake a perilous en-
terprise. No sooner was the decree
received than he opened the doors,
and, advancing to the portico, read it
aloud to the brilliant assemblage, and
asked if he might rely on their sup-
port? They all answered with enthu-
siasm in the affirmative, putting their
hands on their swords. He then ad-
dressed himself to Lefebvre, the gover-
nor of Paris, who had arrived in
humour at seeing the troops put in
motion without his orders, and said,
Well, Lefebvre, are you, one of the
supporters of the Republic, willing to
let it perish in the hands of lawyers?
Unite with me to save it. Here is the
sabre which I bore at the battle of the
Pyramids : I give it you as a pledge of
my esteem and confidence." The ap-nothing in the eighteenth century re-
peal was irresistible to a soldier's feel- sembles this moment. We are resolved
ings. "Yes," replied Lebfevre, strongly to have a Republic; we are resolved to
moved, "let us throw the advocates have it founded on true liberty and a
38. The military chief presented him-
self at the bar of the Ancients, at-
tended by that splendid staff.
"Citi-
zen representatives," said he,
said he, "the
Republic was about to perish when
you saved it. Woe to those who shall
attempt to oppose your decree! Aided
by my brave companions in arms, I
will speedily crush them to the earth.
You are the collected wisdom of the
nation; it is for you to point out the
ill-measures which may save it. I come
surrounded by all the generals, to offer
you the support of their arms. I name
Lefebvre my lieutenant: I will faith-
fully discharge the duty you have in-
trusted to me. Let none seek in the
past examples to regulate the present;
nothing in history has any resemblance
to the close of the eighteenth century;

320
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. 'XXIX.
i
:
representative system. I swear it in favourably at the Tuileries, the Coun-
my own name, and in that of my com- cil of Five Hundred, having received
"We swear it,” re-
panions in arms."
a confused account of the revolution
plied the generals. A deputy attempted which was in progress, tumultuously
to speak: the president stopped him, assembled in their hall. They were
upon the ground that all deliberation hardly met, when the message arrived
was interdicted till the Council met at from the Ancients, containing the de-
St Cloud. The assembly immediately cree removing them to St Cloud. No
broke up; and Napoleon proceeded to sooner was it read than a host of voices
the gardens of the Tuileries, where he burst forth at once; but the president,
passed in review the regiments of the Lucien Buonaparte, succeeded in re-
garrison, addressing to each a few ener- ducing them to silence, by appealing
getic words, in which he declared that to the decree which interdicted all de-
he was about to introduce changes liberation till they were assembled at
which would bring with them abun- that place. At the same moment an
dance of glory. The weather was aide-de-camp arrived from Napoleon to
beautiful; the confluence of spectators the guard of the Directory, communi-
immense; their acclamations rent the cating the decree, and enjoining them
skies everything announced the tran- to take no orders but from him. They
sition from anarchy to despotic power. were in deliberation on the subject,
39. During these events, the anxiety when an order of an opposite descrip-
of all classes in Paris regarding the tion arrived from the Directory. The
approaching revolution had risen to soldiers, however, declared for their
the highest pitch. A pamphlet, eagerly comrades in arms, and ranged them-
circulated at the doors of the Councils, selves round the standard of Napoleon.
contains a curious picture of the ideas Soon after, a part of the Directory
of the moment, and the manner in sent in their resignation. Sièyes and
which the most obvious approaching Roger Ducos were already in the plot,
events are glossed over to those en- and did so in concert with Napoleon.
gaged in them. The dialogue ran as Barras was easily disposed of. Boutot,
follows:-" One of the Five Hundred. his secretary, waited on Napoleon.
Between ourselves, my friend, I am He bitterly reproached him with the
seriously alarmed at the part assigned public disasters. "What have you
to Buonaparte in this affair. His re- made of that France," exclaimed he,
nown, his consideration, the just con- "which I left so brilliant? I left you
fidence of the soldiers in his talents, in peace, I find you at war: I left you
his talents themselves, may give him victorious, I find only disasters: I left
the most formidable ascendant over you the millions of Italy, and in their
the destinies of the Republic. Should stead I find only acts of spoliation!
he prove a Cæsar, a Cromwell!-The What have you made of the hundred
Ancient. A Cæsar, a Cromwell! Bad thousand men, my companions in glory?
parts; stale parts; unworthy of a man They are dead! This state of things
of sense, not to say a man of honesty. cannot continue; in less than three
Buonaparte has declared so himself, years it would lead to despotism."
on several occasions. 'It would be a The Director yielded; and, accom-
sacrilegious measure,' said he, on one panied by a guard of honour, set out
occasion, 'to make any attempt on a for his villa of Gros Bois.
representative government in this age
of intelligence and liberty.' On another
-There is no one except a fool who
would attempt to make the Republic
lose the gauntlet it has thrown down
to the royalty of Europe, after having
gone through so many perils to
hold it." "
40. While all was thus proceeding
S
•
41. The two Directors who remain-
ed, however, were not disposed of with-
out considerable difficulty. These were
Gohier and Moulins, brave republi-
cans; but their powers of acting ac-
cording to the constitution, which re-
up-quired a majority of the Directory for
every legal act, were paralysed by the
resignation or desertion of their breth-
1799.]
321
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
66
ren. Napoleon waited upon them, and | and that he had no fear of such con-
said that he believed they were too temptible enemies. At the same time
good citizens to attempt to oppose a a provisional government was formed.
revolution which appeared inevitable; Napoleon, Sieyes, and Roger Ducos
and that he therefore expected they were named First Consuls, and it was
would quietly send in their resigna- agreed that the Councils should be ad-
tions. Gohier replied with vehemence, journed for three months. Murat was
that, with the aid of his colleague appointed to the command of the
Moulins, he did not despair of saving armed force of St Cloud-Pensard to
the Republic. "With what?" said that of the guard of the legislative
Napoleon: "By means of the consti- body-Serrurier, of a strong_reserve
tution which is falling to pieces?" At stationed at Point-du-Jour. The gal-
this instant a messenger arrived with lery of Mars was prepared for the
the intelligence that Santerre was striv- Council of the Ancients, the Orangery
ing to raise the faubourgs. "General for the Five Hundred.
Moulins," said Napoleon, "you are the
friend of Santerre. I understand he
is rousing the faubourgs ; tell him, that,
at the first movement, I will cause him
to be shot." Moulins replied with
equal firmness. The Republic is in
danger," said Napoleon, "and we must
save it; it is my will. Sièyes and
Roger Ducos have sent in their resig-
nations; you are two individuals insu-
lated and without power. I recom-
mend you not to resist." The Direc-
tors replied, that they would not desert
their post. Upon that they were sent
back to the Luxembourg, separated
from each other, and put under arrest,
by orders of Napoleon transmitted to
Moreau. Meanwhile Fouché, minister
of police, Cambacérès, minister of jus-ed of the Council of the Ancients what
they really proposed to themselves as
the result of the proceedings of the day.
"The government," said they,
"C 18
dissolved." Admitted," replied the
others; "but what then? Do you
propose, instead of weak men, desti-
tute of renown, to place there Buo-
naparte ?" Those of the Ancients
who were in the secret ventured to
insinuate something about the neces
sity of a military leader; but the
suggestion was ill received, and the
opposition in the Five Hundred was
every moment becoming stronger, from
the rumours which were spread of the
approaching dictatorship. The Ancients
were violently shaken at the unexpect-
ed resistance they had experienced, and
numbers in the majority were already
anxious to escape from the perilous
enterprise on which they had adven-
tured. The opinions of the Five Hun-
((
tice, and all the public authorities,
hastened to the Tuileries to make their
submission. Fouché, in the name of
the Directory, provisionally dissolved
the twelve municipalities of Paris, so
as to leave no rallying-point to the
Jacobins. Before night the govern-
ment was annihilated, and there re-
mained no authority in Paris but what
emanated from Napoleon.
42. A council was held in the even-
ing at the Tuileries, to deliberate on
the course to be pursued on the follow-
ing day. Sièyes strongly urged the
necessity of arresting forty leaders of
the Jacobins, who were already foment
ing opposition in the Council of Five
Hundred, and by whom the faubourgs
were beginning to be agitated; but
Napoleon declared that he would not
violate the oath which he had taken
to protect the national representatives,
•
43. On the morning of the 19th Bru-
maire (10th November) a formidable
military force, five thousand strong,
surrounded St Cloud: the legislature
were not to deliberate, as on 2d June,
under the daggers of the populace, but
the bayonets of the soldiery. The Five
Hundred, however, mustered strong in
the gardens of the palace. Formed
into groups, while the last preparations
were going on in the hall which they
were to occupy, they discussed with
warmth the extraordinary position of
public affairs, mutually sounded and
encouraged each other, and succeeded,
even during that brief space, in organis-
ing a very formidable opposition. The
members of the Five Hundred demand-
"
322
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIX.
mode
dred were already unequivocally de-
clared; everything seemed to indicate
that there, at least, the legislature
would triumph over the conspirators.
44. It was in the midst of this un-
certainty and disquietude that the
Councils opened. Lucien Buonaparte
was in the chair of the Five Hundred.
Gaudin ascended the tribune, and com-
menced a set speech, in which he dwelt
in emphatic terms on the dangers which
threatened the country, and concluded
by proposing a vote of thanks to the
Ancients for having transferred their
deliberations to St Cloud, and the for-
mation of a committee of seven persons
to prepare a report upon the state of
the Republic. Had this been carried,
it was to have been immediately fol-
lowed up by the appointment of the
consuls and an adjournment. But no
sooner had Gaudin concluded, than the
most violent opposition arose. "The
winds," says Napoleon, "suddenly es-
caping from the caverns of Æolus, can
give but a faint idea of that tempest."
The speaker was violently dragged from
the tribune, and a frightful agitation
rendered any further proceedings im-
possible. "Down with the dictators!
long live the constitution!" resounded
on all sides. "The constitution or
death!" exclaimed Delbrel; "bayonets
shall not deter us: we are still free
here." In the midst of the tumult,
Lucien in vain endeavoured to exert
his authority. After a long scene of
confusion, one of the deputies proposed
that the assembly should swear fidelity
to the constitution; this proposal was
instantly adopted, and the roll called
for that purpose. This measure an-
swered the double purpose of binding
the Council to support its authority,
and giving time for the Jacobin leaders
to be sent for from the capital. In
fact, during the two hours that the
calling of the roll lasted, intelligence
of the resistance of the Five Hundred
circulated in Paris with the rapidity
of lightning; and Jourdan, Augereau,
and other leaders of the Jacobin party,
believing that the enterprise had mis-
carried, hastened to the scene of action.
The Five Hundred, during this delay,
hoped they would have time to com-
municate with the Directory; but be-
fore it terminated, the intelligence ar-
rived that the government was dis-
solved, and no executive authority
remaining but in the person of Napo-
leon.
45. The danger was now immi-
nent to that audacious general. The
Five Hundred were so vehement in
their opposition to him, that the whole
members, including Lucien, were com-
pelled to take the oath to the consti-
tution; and in the Ancients, although
his adherents had the majority, the
contest raged with the utmost violence,
and the strength of the minority was
every instant increasing. The influen-
tial Jacobins were rapidly arriving
from Paris; they looked on the matter
as already decided. Everything de-
pended on the troops, and although
their attachment to Napoleon was well
known, it was extremely doubtful
whether they would not be overawed
by the majesty of the legislature.
"Here you are," said Augereau to him
the moment he had arrived, "in a
happy position!". Augereau," re-
plied Naopleon, "recollect Arcola ;
things then appeared much more des-
perate. Take my word for it; remain
tranquil, if you would not become a
victim. Half an hour hence you will
thank me for my advice." Notwith-
standing this seeming confidence, how-
ever, Napoleon fully felt the danger of
his situation. The influence of the legis-
lature was sensibly felt on the troops;
the boldest were beginning to hesitate;
the zealous had already become timid;
the timid had changed their colours.
He saw that there was not a moment
to lose; and he resolved to present him-
self, at the head of his staff, at the bar
of the Ancients.
"At that moment,"
said Napoleon, "I would have given
two hundred millions to have had Ney
by my side.”
"C
46. In this crisis, Napoleon was
strongly agitated. He never possess-
ed the faculty of powerful extempore
elocution a peculiarity not unfre-
quently the accompaniment of the most
profound and original thought; and on
this occasion, from the vital interests
at stake, and the vehement opposition

1799.]
323
HISTORY OF EUROPE.

with which he was assailed, he could
hardly utter anything intelligible. So
far as his meaning could be gathered,
amidst the frightful tumult which pre-
vailed when he made his appearance
accompanied by his armed followers in
the Hall of the Ancients, his speech
was to the following purpose:-"You
are on the edge of a volcano. Allow
me to explain myself: you have called
me and my companions in arms to
your aid * * * but you must now take
a decided part. I know they talk of
Cæsar and Cromwell, as if anything in
antiquity resembled the present mo-
ment. And you, grenadiers, whose
feathers I perceive already waving in
the hall, say, have I ever failed in per-
forming the promises I made to you in
the camps?" The soldiers replied by
waving their hats and loud acclama-
tions; but this appeal to the military,
in the bosom of the legislature, wrought |
up to a perfect fury the rage of the
Opposition. One of their number,
Linglet, rose, and said, in a loud voice,
"General, we applaud your words;
swear, then, obedience and fidelity to
the constitution, which can alone save
the Republic.' Napoleon hesitated,
then replied with energy,- "The con-
stitution does not exist; you yourselves
violated it on the 10th Fructidor, when
the government assailed the indepen-
dence of the legislature; you violated
it on the 30th Prairial, when the legis-
lative body overthrew the independence
of the executive; you violated it on the
22d Florial, when, by a sacrilegious
decree, the government and legislature
sacrificed the sovereignty of the people
by annulling the elections which they
had made. Having subverted the con-
stitution, new guarantees, a fresh com-
pact, are required. I declare, that as
soon as the dangers which have in-
vested me with these extraordinary
powers have passed away, I will lay
them down. I desire only to be the
arm which executes your commands.
If you call on me to explain what are
the perils which threaten our country,
I have no hesitation in answering, that
Barras and Moulins have proposed to
me to place myself at the head of a
faction, the object of which is to effect
""
the overthrow of all the friends of free-
dom." The energy of this speech, the
undoubted truths and audacious false-
hoods which it contained, produced a
great impression: three-fourths of the
assembly rose and loudly testified their
applause. His party, recovering their
courage, spoke in his behalf, and he
concluded with these significant words,
-“ Surrounded by my brave com-
panions in arms, I will second you. I
call you to witness, brave grenadiers,
whose bayonets I perceive, whom I
have so often led to victory; I can
bear witness to your courage: we will
unite our efforts to save our country.
And if any orator," added he, with a
menacing voice, " paid by the enemy,
shall venture to propose to put me hors
la loi, I shall instantly appeal to my
companions in arms to exterminate
him on the spot. Recollect that I
march accompanied by the god of for-
tune and the god of war.
""
47. Hardly was this harangue con-
cluded when intelligence arrived that,
in the Council of Five Hundred, the
calling of the roll had ceased; that Lu-
cien could hardly maintain his ground
against the vehemence of the Assembly;
and that they were about to force him
to put to the vote a proposal to declare
his brother hors la loi. It was a simi-
lar proposal which had proved fatal to
Robespierre; the cause of Napoleon
seemed well-nigh desperate, for if it
had been passed, there could be little
doubt it would be obeyed by the sol-
diers. In truth, the Council had gone
so far as to declare, that the oath of
18th Brumaire should receive a place
as distinguished in history as that of
the Jeu de Paume, "the first of which
created liberty, while the second con-
solidated it," and had decreed a mes-
sage to the Directory to make them
acquainted with their resolution. This
decree was hardly passed, when a mes-
senger arrived with a letter from Bar-
ras, containing his resignation of the
office of Director, upon the ground,
"that now the dangers of liberty were
all surmounted, and the interests of the
This unlooked-for
armies secured."
communication renewed their perplex-
ity; for now it was evident that the
824
[CHAP. XXIX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
•
:
executive itself was dissolved. Napo-
leon, who clearly saw his danger, in-
stantly took his resolution. Boldly ad-
vancing to the Hall of the Five Hun-
dred, whose shouts and cries already
resounded to a distance, he entered
alone, uncovered, and ordered the sol-
diers and officers of his suite to halt at
the entrance. In his passage to the bar
he had to pass one half of the benches.
No sooner did he make his appearance,
than half of the assembly rose up, ex-
claiming, "Death to the tyrant ! down
with the dictator!" The scene which
ensued baffles all description. Hun-
dreds of deputies rushed down from
the benches, and surrounded the gen-
eral, exclaiming, "Your laurels are
all withered; your glory is turned into
infamy; is it for this you have con-
quered? Respect the sanctuary of the
laws; retire, retire." Two grenadiers
left at the door, alarmed by the danger
of their general, rushed forward, sword
in hand, seized him by the middle, and
bore him, almost stupified, out of the
hall: in the tumult, one of them had
his clothes torn. Nothing was to be
heard but the cries, "No Cromwell!
down with the dictator! death to the
dictator!"
48. His removal increased rather
than diminished the tumult of the as-
sembly. Lucien, alone, and unsup-
ported in the president's chair, was
left to make head against the tempest.
All his efforts to justify his brother
were in vain. "You would not hear
him," he exclaimed. "Down with the
tyrant! hors la loi with the tyrant!"
resounded on all sides. With rare
firmness he for long resisted the pro-
posal. At length, finding further op-
position fruitless, he exclaimed, "You
dare to condemn a hero without hear-
ing him in his defence. His brother
has but one duty left, and that is to
defend him. I renounce the chair,
and hasten to the bar to defend the il-
lustrious accused." With these words,
laying down his insignia of president,
he mounted the tribune. At that in-
stant an officer, despatched by Napo-
leon, with ten grenadiers, presented
himself at the door. It was at first
supposed that the troops had declared
.
for the Council, and loud applause
greeted their entrance. Taking advan-
tage of the mistake, the leader ap-
proached the tribune and laid hold of
Lucien, whispering at the same time in
his ear, "By your brother's orders;".
while the grenadiers exclaimed, "Down
with the assassins!" At these words
a mournful silence succeeded to the
cries of acclamation, and he was con-
ducted without opposition out of the
hall.
49. Meanwhile Napoleon had de-
scended to the court, mounted on
horseback, ordered the drums to beat
the order to form circle, and thus ad-
dressed the soldiers :-"I was about
to point out the means of saving the
country, and they answered me with
strokes of the poniard. They desire to
fulfil the wishes of the allied Sove-
reigns-what more could England do?
Soldiers, can I rely on you?" Unani-
mous applause answered the appeal;
and soon after the officer arrived,
bringing out Lucien from the Coun-
cil. He instantly mounted on horse-
back, and with Napoleon rode along
the ranks; then halting in the centre,
said, with a voice of thunder which was
heard along the whole line, "Citizen-
soldiers! the President of the Council
of Five Hundred declares to you, that
the immense majority of that body is
er thralled by a factious band, armed
with stilettoes, who besiege the tri-
bune, and interdict all freedom of de-
liberation. General, and you soldiers,
and you citizens, you can no longer re-
cognise any as legislators but those who
are around me. Let force expel those
who remain in the Orangery; they are
not the representatives of the people,
but the representatives of the poniard.
Let that name for ever attach to them,
and if they dare to show themselves to
the people, let all fingers point to them
as the representatives of the poniard."
"Soldiers," added Napoleon,
(6 can I
rely on you?" The soldiers, however,
appeared still to hesitate, when Lucien,
as a last resource, turned to his brother,
and raising his sword in his hand,
swore to plunge it in his breast if ever
he belied the hopes of the republicans,
or made an attempt on the liberty of
:
1799.]
325
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
France. This final appeal was decisive. | where we are now assembled, attests
that power is nothing, and that glory is
everything." At eleven at night, a few
members of the two Councils, not
amounting in all to sixty persons, as-
sembled, and unanimously passed a de-
cree abolishing the Directory, expelling
sixty one members from the Councils
(C
"Vive Buonaparte !" was the answer.
He then ordered Murat and Leclerc to
march a battalion into the Council, and
dissolve the assembly. Charge bay-
onets," was the word given. They
entered slowly in, and the officer in
command notified to the Council the
order to dissolve. Jourdan and seve-demagogues, adjourning the legisla-
ture for three months, and vesting the
executive power in the mean time in
Napoleon, Sièyes, and Roger Ducos,
under the title of Provisional Consuls.
Two commissions, of twenty-five mem-
bers each, were appointed, one from
each Council, to combine with the Con-
suls in the formation of a new consti-
tution.
ral other deputies resisted, and began
to address the soldiers on the enor-
mity of their conduct. Hesitation was
already visible in their ranks, when
Leclerc entering with a fresh body, in
close column, instantly ordered the
drums to beat and the charge to sound.
He exclaimed, "Grenadiers, forward!"
and the soldiers, slowly advancing with
fixed bayonets, speedily cleared the
hall, the dismayed deputies throwing
themselves from the windows, and
rushing out at every aperture, to avoid
the shock.
50. Intelligence of the violent disso-
lution of the Five Hundred was con-
veyed by the fugitives to the Ancients,
who were thrown by this event into
the utmost consternation. They had
expected that that body would have
yielded without violence, and were
thunderstruck by the open use of
bayonets on the occasion. Lucien im-
mediately appeared at their bar, and
made the same apology he had done to
the troops for the coup d'état which
had been employed,-viz. that a fac-
tious minority had put an end to all
freedom of deliberation by the use of
poniards, which rendered the applica-
tion of force indispensable; that no-
thing had been done contrary to forms;
that he had himself authorised the em-
ployment of the military. The Coun-
cil were satisfied, or feigned to be so,
with this explanation; and at nine at
night the remnant of the Five Hundred
who were in the interests of Napoleon
-five-and-thirty only in number-un-
der the direction of Lucien, assembled
in the Orangery, and voted a resolu-
tion, declaring that Buonaparte and the
troops under his orders had deserved
well of their country. "Representa-
tives of the people," said that audacious
partisan, in his opening speech, "this
ancient palace of the Kings of France,
51. During these two eventful days,
the people of Paris, though deeply in-
terested in the issue of the struggle,
and trembling with anxiety lest the
horrors of the Revolution should be
renewed, remained perfectly tranquil.
In the evening of the 19th, reports of
the failure of the enterprise were gen-
erally spread, and diffused the most
mortal disquietude; for all ranks, worn
out with the agitation and sufferings
of past convulsions, passionately longed
for repose, and it was generally felt
that it could be obtained only under
the shadow of military authority. But
at length the result was communicated
by the fugitive members of the Five
Hundred, who arrived from St Cloud,
loudly exclaiming against the military
violence of which they had been the
victims; and at nine at night the in-
telligence was officially announced by
a proclamation of Napoleon, which was
read by torch-light to the agitated
groups.
* This proclamation is chiefly remarkable
for the unblushing effrontery with which it set
forth a statement of facts, utterly at variance
with what above a thousand witnesses, only
five miles from the capital, had themselves
beheld, and which Napoleon himself has sub-
sequently recorded in his own Memoirs,
from which the preceding narrative has in
part been taken. He there said, “At my
return to Paris I found division among all
the authorities, and none agreed except on
this single point, that the constitution was
half destroyed, and could no longer save the
public liberty. All parties came to me, and
unfolded their designs; but I refused to be-
long to any of them. The Council of the
326
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIX.
$
52. With the exception of the legis-
lature, however, all parties declared
for the revolution of 18th Brumaire.
Violations of the laws and coups d'état
had been so common during the Revolu-
tion, that the people had ceased to regard
them as illegal; and they were judged
of entirely by their consequences, and
above all by their success. To such a
height had the anarchy and distresses
of the country arisen, in the latter years
of the Revolution, that repose and a
regular government had become the
object of universal desire at any price,
even that of the extinction of the very
liberty, to attain which all these mis-
fortunes had been undergone.
feeling, accordingly, not only of Paris,
but of France, was universal in favour
of the new government. All parties
hoped to see their peculiar terets for-
warded by the change. The Constitu-
tionalists trusted that rational freedom
The
would at length be established; the
Royalists rejoiced that the first step to-
wards a regular government had been
made, and secretly indulged the hope
that Buonaparte would play the part
of General Monk, and restore the
throne. The great body of the people,
weary of strife, and exhausted by suf-
fering, passionately rejoiced at the com-
mencement of repose; the numerous
exiles and proscribed families exulted
in the prospect of revisiting their coun-
try, and drawing their last breath in
that France which was so dear to them.
Ten years had wrought a century of
experience: the nation was as unani-
mous in 1799 to terminate the era of
Revolution, as in 1789 it had been to
commence it.
53. Napoleon rivalled Cæsar in the
clemency with which he used his vic-
tory. No proscriptions or massacres,
few arrests or imprisonments, followed
the triumph of Order over Revolution.
On the contrary, numerous acts of
mercy, as wise as they were magnani-
mous, made illustrious the rise of the
Consular throne. The law of hostages
and the forced loans were abolished;
the priests and persons proscribed by
the revolution of 18th Fructidor were
permitted to return; the emigrants
who had been shipwrecked on the coast.
of France, and thrown into prison,
where they had been confined for four
years, were set at liberty. Measures
of severity were at first put in force
against the violent republicans; but
they were gradually relaxed, and finally
given up. Thirty-seven of this ob-
noxious party were ordered to be trans-
Ancients then summoned me; I answered
their appeal. A plan for a general restoration
had been concerted among the men in whom
the nation had been accustomed to see the
defenders of its liberty, its equality, and pro-
perty; but that plan demanded a calm and
deliberate investigation, exempt from all
agitation or control, and therefore the legis-
lative body was transferred by the Council
of the Ancients to St Cloud." After narrating
the events of the morning of the 18th, it pro-
ceeded thus—“I presented myself to the
Council of the Five Hundred, alone and un-
armed, in the same manner as I had been
received with transport by the Ancients. I
was desirous of rousing the majority to an
exertion of its authority, when twenty assas-
sins precipitated themselves on me, and I was
only saved from their hands by the brave
grenadiers, who rushed to me from the door.
The savage cry of 'Hors la loi!' arose; the
howl of violence against the force destined
to repress it. The assassins instantly surported to Guiana, and twenty-one to
rounded the president: I heard of it, and
sent ten grenadiers, who extricated him
from their hands. The factious, intimi-
dated, left the hall and dispersed. The ma-
jority, relieved from their strokes, re-entered
peaceably into its hall, deliberated on the
propositions submitted to it in the name of
be put under the observation of the
police; but the sentence of transporta-
tion was soon changed into one of sur-
veillance, and even that was shortly
abandoned. Nine thousand state pri-
the public weal, and passed a salutary reso-soners, who at the fall of the Directory
languished in the prisons of France,
received their liberty. Their numbers,
two years before, had been sixty thou-
sand. The elevation of Napoleon was
not only unstained by blood, but not
even a single captive long lamented the
progress of the victor: a signal triumph
of the principles of humanity over those
lution, which will become the basis of the
provisional constitution of the Republic."
Under such colours did Napoleon veil one of
the most violent usurpations against a legis-
lature recorded in history. When such false-
hood was employed in matters occurring at
St Cloud, it renders probable all that Bour-
rienne has said of the falsehood of the bulle-
tins in regard to more distant transactions.
-NAPOLEON, i. 98, 101.
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
327
of cruelty, glorious alike to the actors
and the age in which it occurred; and
a memorable proof how much more
durable the victories gained by mo-
deration and wisdom are, than those
achieved by violence and stained by
blood.
d
was to have a council of state, to dis-
cuss with the Tribunate all public mea-
sures. He was to be irresponsible, but
liable to removal at the pleasure of the
senate.-It was easy to perceive that,
though he imagined he was acting on
general principles, Sièyes in this pro-
54. The revolution of the 18th Bru-ject was governed by his own interests;
maire had established a provisional that the situation of grand elector he
government, and overturned the Di- destined for himself, and the military
rectory; but it still remained to form consulship for the conqueror of Arcola
a permanent constitution. In the for- and Rivoli.
mation of it a rupture took place be-
tween Sièyes and Napoleon. The views
of the former, long based on specula-
tive opinions, and strongly tinged with
republican ideas, were little likely to
accord with those of the young con-
queror, accustomed to rule everything
by his single determination, and whose
sagacity had already discovered the
impossibility of forming a stable gov-
ernment out of the institutions of the
Revolution. He allowed Sièyes to
mould, according to his pleasure, the
legislature, which was to consist of a
Senate or Upper Chamber; a Legisla-
tive body, without the power of de-
bate; and a Tribunate, which was to
discuss the legislative measures with
the Council of State; but opposed the
most vigorous resistance to the plan
which he brought forward for the exe-
cutive, which was so absurd that it is
hardly possible to imagine how it could
have been seriously proposed by a man
of ability. The plan of this veteran
constitution-maker, who had boasted
to Talleyrand ten years before, that
"politics was a science which he flat-
tered himself he had brought to per-
fection," was to have vested the exe-
cutive in a single Grand Elector, who
was to inhabit Versailles, with a salary
of 600,000 francs a-year, and a guard
of six thousand men, and represent
the state to foreign powers. This sin-
gular magistrate was to be vested with
no immediate authority; but his func-
tions were to consist in the power of
naming two consuls, who were to exer-sighted not to perceive that time, and
cise all the powers of government, the a concession, in form at least, to public
one being charged with the interior, opinion, were necessary ere he could
the finances, police, and public justice; bring them into practice. “I was con-
the other with the exterior, including vinced," says he, "that France could
war, marine, and foreign affairs. He not exist but under a monarchical form
55. Napoleon, who saw at once that
this senseless project, besides present-
ing insurmountable difficulties in prac-
tice, would reduce him to a secondary
part, exerted all his talents to combat
the plan of Sièyes.
"Can you sup
pose," said he, "that
"that any man of talent
or consideration will submit to the de-
grading situation assigned to the grand
elector? What man, disposing of the
national force, would be base enough
to submit to the discretion of a senate
which, by a simple vote, could send
him from Versailles to a second flat in
Paris? Were I grand elector, I would
name as my consul of the exterior Ber-
thier, and for the interior some other
person of the same stamp. I would
prescribe to them their nominations of
ministers; and the instant that they
ceased to be my staff-officers, I would
overturn them." Sièyes replied, "that
in that case the grand elector would be
absorbed by the senate." This phrase
got wind, and threw such ridicule over
the plan in the minds of the Parisians,
that even its author was compelled to
abandon it. He soon found that his
enterprising colleague would listen to
no project which interfered with the
supreme power, which he had already
resolved to obtain for himself, and
which, in truth, was the only form of
government capable at that period of
arresting the disorders, or terminating
the miseries, of France.
56. The ideas of Napoleon were un-
alterably fixed; but he was too clear-
ک
**
1
!
*
·
328
[CHAP. XXIX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
÷
1
of government; but the circumstances | the electors, again chose out of the list
of the times were such, that it was of eligible persons for the department
thought, and perhaps was, necessary a tenth, who were to form the depart-
to disguise the supreme power of the mental electors, and they again a tenth
president. All opinions were recon- of their body, who formed the list out
ciled by the nomination of a FIRST of which the legislature was to be chosen.
CONSUL, who alone should possess the The Senate, in the close of all, select-
authority of government, since he singly ed such as it chose out of the last list,
disposed of all situations, and possessed thus trebly purified, to form the Legis-
a deliberative voice, while the two others lative Body. The senators being nomi-
were merely his advisers. That su-nated by the First Consul, and, holding
preme officer gave the government the their situations for life, the whole legis-
advantage of unity of direction: the lature was subjected to the control of
two others, whose names appeared to the executive. Its duty was strictly
every public act, would soothe the re- conservative, to watch over the main-
publican jealousy. The circumstances tenance of the fundamental laws, and
of the times would not permit a better the purification of the other branches
form of government." After long dis- of the legislature. All public function-
cussion, this project was adopted. The aries, civil and military, including the
government was in fact exclusively whole judges, instead of being chosen,
placed in the hands of the First Consul; as heretofore, by the people, were ap-
the two other Consuls had a right to pointed by the First Consul, who thus
enlighten him by their counsels, but became the sole depositary of influence.
not to restrain him by their vote. The The lowest species of judges, called juges
Senate, itself nominated by the Consuls, de paix, were alone left to the choice of
selected out of the list of candidates the people. By means of the Senate,
who had been chosen by the nation chosen from his creatures, he regulated
those who were to be the members of the legislature, and possessed the sole
the Tribunate and Legislative. Gov- initiative of laws; by the appointment
ernment alone was invested with the to every office, he wielded the whole
right of proposing laws. The Legisla- civil force of the state; by the com-
tive Body was interdicted the right of mand of the military, he overawed the
speaking; it was merely to deliberate discontented, and governed its external
and decide upon the questions discuss- relations.
ed before it by the Tribunate and the
Council of State nominated by the Con-
suls: the first being understood to re-
present the interests of the people, the
second that of the government. The
Legislative Body was thus transformed
from its essential character in a free
state, that of a deliberative assembly,
into a supreme court, which heard the
state pleadings, and by its decision
formed the law.
57. The people no longer were per-
mitted to choose deputies for them-
selves, either in their primary assem-
blies or electoral colleges. They were
allowed only to choose the persons eli-
gible to these offices, and from the lists
thus furnished, government made its
election. The whole citizens first chose
a tenth of their number in each arron-
dissement, who formed the electors of
the commune. This body, composed of
58. The departmental lists were the
most singular part of the new constitu-
tion. Every person born and residing
in France, above twenty-one, was a citi-
zen; but the rights of citizenship were
lost by bankruptcy, domestic service,
crime, or foreign naturalisation. But
the electors were a much more limited
body. "The citizens of each arron-
dissement chose by their suffrages those
whom they deemed fit to conduct pub-
lic affairs, amounting to not more than
a tenth of the electors. The persons
contained in this first list were alone
eligible to official situations in the
arrondissement from which they were
chosen. The citizens embraced in this
list chose a tenth of their number for
each department, which formed the body
alone eligible for departmental situa-
tions. The citizens chosen by the de-
partmental electors again selected a
1799.].
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
329
tenth of their number, which formed
the body alone capable of being elected
for national situations." The persons
on the first list were only eligible to
the inferior situations, such as juges de
paix, a species of arbiters to reconcile
differences and prevent lawsuits; those
on the second were the class from whom
might be selected the prefects, the de-
partmental judges, tax-gatherers and
collectors; those on the third, who
amounted only to six thousand persons,
were alone eligible to public offices,
as the Legislature, any of the Ministries
of State, the Senate, the Council of
State, the Tribunal of Cassation, the
ambassadors at foreign courts. Thus,
the whole offices of state were centred
in six thousand persons, chosen by a
triple election from the citizens. The
lists were to be revised, and all the
vacancies filled up every three years.
These lists of eligibility, as Napoleon
justly observed, formed a limited and
exclusive nobility, differing from the
old noblesse only in this, that it was
elective, not hereditary; and it was,
from the very first, subject to the objec-
tion, that it excluded from the field of
competition many of the most appro-
priate persons to hold public situations.
The influence of the people in the legis-
lature was, by these successive elec-
tions, completely destroyed, and the
whole power of the state, it was early
foreseen, would centre in the First Con-
sul. The changes introduced, however,
diffused general satisfaction. All the
members of the legislature received
pensions from government: that of the
senators was 25,000 francs, or £1000
a-year; that of the Tribunate, 15,000
francs, or £650 yearly; that of the
Legislative Body, 10,000 francs, or £400
a-year. The Senate was composed of
persons above forty years of age; the
Legislative Body, above thirty. A sena-
tor remained in that high station for
life, and was ineligible to any other
situation.
C
59. On the 24th December 1799, the
new constitution was proclaimed; and
the whole appointments were forthwith
filled up, without waiting for the lists
of the eligible, who were, according to
VOL. IV.
its theory, to be chosen by the people.
Two consuls, eighty senators, à hun-
dred tribunes, three hundred legisla-
tors, were forthwith nominated and
proceeded to the exercise of all the
functions of government. In the choice
of persons to fill such a multitude of
offices, ample means existed to reward
the moderate, and seduce the republi-
can party; and the consuls made a ju-
dicious and circumspect use of the im-
mense influence put into their hands.
Sièyes, discontented with the rejection
of his favourite ideas, retired from the
government; received as a reward for
his services 600,000 francs and the
estate of Crosne, afterwards changed
for the more valuable domain of La
Faisanderie in the park of Versailles ;
and the democratic fervour of the author
of the pamphlet-" What is the Tiers
Etat ?" sank into the interested apathy
of the proprietor of fifty thousand
pounds. Roger Ducos also withdrew,
perceiving the despotic turn which
things were taking; and Napoleon ap-
pointed in their stead Cambacérès and
Lebrun, men of moderation and pro-
bity, who worthily discharged the sub-
ordinate functions assigned to them in
the administration.
"In the end,”
said Napoleon, "you must come to the
government of boots and spurs; and
neither Sièyes nor Roger Ducos were
fit for that." Talleyrand was made
minister of foreign affairs, and Fouché
retained in the ministry of the police;
the illustrious La Place received the
portfolio of the interior. By the latter
appointments Napoleon hoped to calm
the fears and satisfy the ambition of
the republican party. Sièyes was very
averse to the continuance of Fouché in
office; but Napoleon was resolute. "We
have arrived," said he, "at a new era;
we must recollect in the past only the
good, and forget the bad. Age, the
habits of business, and experience, have
formed or modified many characters."
High salaries were given to all the pub-
lic functionaries, on condition only
that they should live in a style of splen-
dour suitable to their station; a wise
measure, which both secured the at-
tachment of that powerful body of
Y
330
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXIX.
1
!
"
men, and precluded them from acquir-
ing such an independence as might en-
able them to dispense with employ-
ment under government.
gratitude, would be a fit recompense
to one who has co-operated with you
in your great designs?"-"Oh! I un-
derstand you now," said Napoleon; "I
will speak with Ducos on the subject."
Two days afterwards appeared a decree
of the commission of the Councils,
awarding to Sièyes the national domain
of Crosne, in "name of national re-
compense." But Sièyes soon found out
that the nation had not the right to
dispose of the estate of Crosne; and it
was exchanged for the superb Hotel
del Infantado in Paris, and the rich
lands of La Faisanderie in the park of
Versailles.
|
61. Such was the exhaustion of the
French people, occasioned by revolu-
tionary convulsions, that this consti-
tution, destroying, as it did, all the
objects for which the people had com-
bated for ten years, was gladly adopted
by an immense majority of the electors.
It was approved of by 3,011,007 citi-
zens; while that of 1793 had obtained
60. A curious incident occurred on
occasion of the resignation of Sièyes,
highly characteristic of the disposition
of that veteran of the Revolution, as
well as of the preceding governments.
At the first meeting which Napoleon
had with him in the apartments of
the Directory, Sièyes, after cautiously
shutting the doors, and looking round
to see that he was not overheard, said,
in a low voice to Napoleon, pointing to
a bureau, "Do you see that piece of
furniture? You will not easily guess
what it is worth. It contains 800,000
francs. During our magisterial duties,
we came to perceive that it would be
unseemly for a Director to leave office
without being worth a farthing; and
we therefore fell upon the expedient of
getting this depot, from whence every
one who retired might take a suitable
sum. But now the Directory is dis-only 1,801,918 suffrages, and that in
solved, what shall we do with it?"- 1795, which established the Directory,
"If I had been officially informed of 1,057,390. These numbers are highly
it," said Napoleon, "it must have been instructive. They demonstrate, what
restored to the public treasury; but as so many other considerations conspire
that is not the case, I am not supposed to indicate, that even the most vehe-
to know anything of the matter. Take ment changes are brought about by a
it, and divide it with Ducos; but make factious and energetic minority, and
haste, for to-morrow it may be too that it is often more the supineness
late." Sièyes did not require a second than the numerical inferiority of the
bidding; that very day he took out the better class of citizens which subjects
treasure, "but appropriated," says Na- them to the tyranny of the lowest. In
poleon, " 600,000 francs to himself, and 1789, indeed, the great majority of all
gave only 200,000 to poor Ducos." In classes were carried away by the fever
truth Ducos got only 100,000; the of innovation; but these transports
Grand Elector absorbed all the rest. were of short duration; and from the
This treasure, however, was far from time that the sombre days of the Revo-
satisfying Sièyes. One day, soon after, lution began, their numerical supe-
he said to Napoleon, "How fortunate riority was at an end. It was the ter-
you are! all the glory of the 18th rors and disunion of the class of pro-
Brumaire has fallen to your lot, while prietors, which, by leaving no power
I shall probably incur only blame for in the state but the populace and their
my share in the attempt.' "What!" demagogues, delivered the nation over
exclaimed Napoleon, have not the to the horrors of Jacobin slavery.
consular commissaries passed a resolu-
tion that you have deserved well of
your country? Tell me honestly, what
do you want?" Sièyes, with a ridicul-
ous grimace, replied, "Do you not
think, citizen-consul, that some national
domain, a monument of the national
""
C
62. Such was the termination of the
changes of the French Revolution; and
such the government which the people
brought upon themselves by their sins
and their extravagance. On the 23d
June 1789, before one drop of blood
1799.]
331
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
had been shed or one estate confiscated, | have found some consolation in the re
Louis offered the states-general a con- flection, that the elements at least of
stitution containing all the elements of ultimate liberty were laid, and that the
real freedom, with all the guarantees passing storm had renovated, not de-
which experience has proved to be ne-stroyed, the face of society. But the
cessary for its continuance the se- evil went a great deal deeper. In their
curity of property, the liberty of the democratic fervour, the people had
press, personal freedom, equality of pulled down the bulwarks not only of
taxation, provincial assemblies, the vot- order, but of liberty; and when France
ing of taxes by the states-general, and emerged from the tempest, the classes
the vesting of the legislative power in were extinct whose combined and coun-
the representatives of the three estates teracting influence are necessary for its
in their separate chambers. The po- existence. "The principle of the French
pular representatives, seduced by the Revolution," says Napoleon, "being
phantom of democratic ambition, re- the absolute equality of all classes, there
fused the offer, usurped for themselves resulted from it a total want of aristo-
the whole powers of sovereignty, and cracy. If a republic is difficult to con-
with relentless rigour pursued their struct on any durable basis without an
victory, till they had destroyed the order of nobles, much more so is a
clergy, the nobles, and the throne. monarchy. To form a constitution in
France waded through an ocean of a country destitute of any species of
blood: calamities unheard of assailed aristocracy, is like attempting to nari-
every class, from the throne to the cot- gate in a single element. The French
tage; for ten long years the struggle Revolution has attempted a problem
continued, and at length it terminated as insoluble as the direction of bal-
in the establishment, by universal con- loons." "A monarchy," says Lord
sent, of a government which swept Bacon, "where there is no nobility at
away every remnant of freedom, and all, is ever a pure and absolute tyranny,
consigned the state to the tranquillity as that of the Turks; for nobility at-
of military despotism. So evidently tempers sovereignty, and draws the
was this result the punishment of the eyes of the people somewhat aside from
crimes of the Revolution, that it ap- the line royal." In these profound ob-
peared in that light even to some of servations is to be found the secret of
the principal actors in that convulsion. the subsequent experienced impossibi-
In a letter written by Sièyes to Riouffe lity of constructing a durable free gov-
at that period, he said, "It is then for ernment in France, or preserving any-
such a result that the French nation thing like a balance between the differ-
has gone through its Revolution! The ent classes of society. The Revolution
ambitious villain ! He marches suc- had left only the government, the army,
cessfully through all the ways of for- and the people; no intermediate rank
tune and crime-all is vanity, distrust, existed to counteract the influence of
and terror. There is here neither ele- the former, or give durability to the
vation nor liberality. Providence wishes exertions of the latter. Left to them-
to punish us by the Revolution itself. selves, the people were no match in
Our chains are too humiliating; on all the long run for an executive wielding
sides nothing is to be seen but powers the whole military force of the king-
prostrated, leaden oppression : military dom, and disposing in offices and ap-
despotism is alone triumphant. If any pointments, ere long even in pacific
thing could make us retain some esteem periods, of above £40,000,000 a-year.
for the nation, it is the luxury of per-
fidy of which it has been the victim.
But the right of the sabre is the weak-
est of all; for it is the one which is
soonest worn out.”
64. In moments of excitement, the
democratic spirit may become power-
ful, and, by infecting the military, give
a momentary triumph to the populace;
but, with the cessation of the efferves-
cence, the influence of government
must return with redoubled force, and
63. Had this been merely a tempor-
ary result, the friends of freedom might
1

:
F
332
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
the people be again subjected to the
yoke of servitude, either under the
old government or the new one which
they have installed in its stead. In
such a state of society all convulsions,
though effected by the physical force
of the people, must be revolutions of
the palace only. Casual bursts of de-
mocratic passion cannot maintain a
long contest in a corrupted age with
the steady efforts of a regular govern-
ment; and if they could, they would
lead only to the transference of despo-
tic power from one set of rulers to
another. It is hard to say whether
liberty has most to dread, in such cir-
cumstances, from its friends or its ene-
mies. Durable freedom is to be se-
cured only by the steady, persevering
efforts of an aristocracy, supported,
when necessary, by the enthusiasm of
the people, and hindered from running
into excess by the vigour of the execu-
tive. In all ages of the world, and
under all forms of government, it is
in the equipoise of these powers that
freedom has been formed, and from
the fall of one of them that the com-
mencement of servitude is to be dated.
The French Revolution, by totally de-
stroying the whole class of the aristo-
cracy, and preventing, by the abolition
of primogeniture, its reconstruction,
has rendered this balance impossible,
and, instead of the elements of Euro-
pean freedom, left in society only the
instruments and the victims of Asiatic
despotism. It is as impossible to con-
struct a durable free government with
such materials, as it would be to form
glass or gunpowder with two only of
the three elements of which they are
composed. And the result has com-
pletely established the truth of these
principles. The despotism of Napo-
leon was, till his fall, the most rigorous
of any in Europe: and although France
enjoyed fifteen years of liberty under
the Restoration, when the swords of
Alexander and Wellington had righted
the balance, and the recollection of
subjugation had tamed for a time the
aspirations of democracy; yet, with
the rise of a new generation and the
oblivion of former disaster, the scales
were anew subverted, the constitutional | vimus."-CICERO.
|
[CHAP. XXIX.
monarchy was overturned, and from
amidst the smoke of the Barricades,
the awful figure of military power again
emerged.
65. Grievous as has been the injury,
however, to the cause of freedom, which
the ruin of the French aristocracy has
occasioned, it is not so great or so irre-
parable as has resulted from the de-
struction of the Church, and the con-
sequent irreligion of the most energetic
part of the population. This evil has
spread to an unparalleled extent, and
produced mischiefs of incalculable mag-
nitude. If it be true, as the greatest
of their philosophers has declared, that
it was neither their numbers, nor their
talent, nor their military spirit, which
gave the Romans the empire of the
world, but the religious feeling which
animated their people,* it may be con-
ceived what consequences must have
resulted from the extinction of public
worship over a whole country, and the
rising up of a generation ignorant of
the very elements of religious belief.
It is the painful duty of the moralist
to trace the consequences of so shock-
ing an act of national impiety, in the
progressive profligacy of manners, the
growth of selfishness, and the unre-
strained career of passion, by which
so large a portion of the French people
have since been distinguished; but its
effects upon public freedom are, in a po-
litical point of view, equally important.
66. Liberty is essentially based on
the generous feelings of our nature.
It requires often the sacrifice of private
gratification for the public good; it
can never subsist for any length of
time without that heroic self-denial,
which can only be founded on the
promises and the belief of religion.
We must not confound with this gene-
rous and elevated spirit the desire for
licentiousness, which chafes against
every control, whether human or di-
* "Nec numero Hispanos, nec robore Gal-
los, nec calliditate Poenos, nec artibus Græ-
cos, nec denique hoc ipso hujus gentis et
terræ domestico nativoque sensu, Italos ipsos
et Latinos; sed pietate ac religione, atque
hac unâ sapientiâ, quod Deorum immor-
talium numine omnia regi gubernarique per-
speximus, omnes gentes nationesque supera-
I
1799.]
333
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
vine: the one is the burst of vegeta- | to general corruption, which debased
tion in its infancy, and gives promise the nation at the Restoration. Mr
of the glories of summer and the Hume has observed, that religious fa-
riches of harvest; the other, the fer-naticism during the Civil Wars dis-
mentation which precedes corruption. graced the spirit of liberty in England;
By destroying the Church, and edu- but, in truth, it was the only safeguard
cating a whole generation without any of public virtue during those critical
religious principles, France has given times; and but for the unbending
a blow to her freedom and her pros- austerity of the Puritans, public free-
perity, from which she can never re- dom would have irrecoverably perished
cover. The fervour of democracy, the in the flood of licentiousness which
extension of knowledge, will give but overwhelmed the country on the ac-
a transient support to liberty, when cession of Charles II. "Knowledge,"
deprived of that perennial supply which says Lord Bacon, "is power;" he has
is derived from the sense of duty that not said it is either wisdom or virtue.
devotion inspires. "As Atheism," It augments the influence of opinion
says Lord Bacon, "is in all respects upon mankind; but whether it aug-
hateful, so in this, that it depriveth ments it to good or evil purpose, de-
human nature of the means of exalt-pends upon the character of the infor-
ing itself above human frailty; and as mation which is communicated, and
it is in particular persons, so it is in the precautions against corruption
nations.' Passion will find as many which are simultaneously taken. As
objects of gratification under a despo- much as it enlarges the foundations of
tism as under a republic; seduction is prosperity in a virtuous, does it extend
as easy from private as from public the sources of corruption in a degene-
desires; pleasure is as alluring in the rate age. Unless the moral and reli-
palace of opulence as in the forum of gious improvement of the people ex-
democracy. The transition is in gen- tends in proportion to their intellec-
eral slow from patriotic principle or tual cultivation, the increase of know-
public spirit to private gratification, ledge is but an addition to the lever
because they spring from the opposite by which vice dissolves the fabric of
motives to human conduct; but it is society.
rapid from rebellion against the re-
straints of virtue, to thraldom under
the chains of vice, for the former is but
the commencement of the latter.
68. The revolutionary party have
frequently said, that it was Napoleon
who constructed with so much ability
the fabric of despotism in France; but,
in truth, it was not he that did it, nor
was his power, great as it was, ever
equal to the task. It was the Consti-
tuent Assembly who broke up the
fabric of society in that great country,
and left only a disjointed, misshapen
mass, an easy prey to the first despo-
tism which should succeed it. By de-
'stroying the parliaments, provincial as-
semblies, and courts of law; by anni-
hilating the old divisions and rights
of the provinces; by extinguishing all
corporations and provincial establish-
67. "The character of democracy
and despotism," says Aristotle, "is
the same.
Both exercise a despotic
authority over the better class of citi-
zens; decrees are in the one what ordi-
nances and arbitrary violence are in
the other. In different ages, the de-
mocrat and court-favourite are not
unfrequently the same men, and always
bear a close analogy to each other;
they have the principal power in their
respective forms of government; fa-
vourites with the absolute monarch
demagogues with the sovereign multi-ments, at the same time that they
tude. "Charles II.," says Chateau- confiscated the property of the Church,
briand, "threw republican England drove the nobles into exile, and soon
into the arms of women;" but, in after seized upon their estates, they
truth, it was not the amorous monarch took away for the future all elements
who effected the change; it was the of resistance to the power of the me-
easy transition from democratic license tropolis. Everything was immediately
""
334
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
(CHAP. XXIX,
;
i
government are brought for a time to
draw in the same direction.
centralised in its public offices; the
lead in all public matters taken by its
citizens; and the direction of every 69. To all human appearance, there-
detail, however minute, assumed by fore, the establishment of permanent
its ministers. France, ever since, has freedom is hopeless in France; the bul-
fallen into a state of subjection to Paris, warks of European liberty have disap-
to which there is nothing comparable peared in the land, and over the whole
even in the annals of Oriental servitude. expanse is seen only the level surface
The ruling power in the East is fre- of Asiatic despotism. This grievous
quently shaken, sometimes overturned, result is the consequence and the
by tumults originating in the pro- punishment of the great and crying
vinces; but there has been no example, sins of the Revolution; of the irreligi-
since the new regime was fully estab- ous spirit in which it was conceived;
lished by the suppression of the La the atheistical measures which it in-
Vendée rebellion, of the central autho- troduced; the shedding of noble blood
rity in France being shaken except by which characterised it; the overthrow
movements originating in the capital. of private rights which it accomplish-
The authority of Robespierre, Napo-ed; the boundless confiscations which
leon, Louis, Louis Philippe, and the it perpetrated. But for these offences,
Republic of 1848, were successively a constitutional monarchy, like that
acknowledged by thirty millions over which for a century and a half has
the country, as soon as a faction in given glory and happiness to England,
Paris had obtained the ascendancy; might have been established in its
and the obedient departments waited great rival; because, but for these of-
for the announcement of the telegraph, fences, the march of the Revolution
or the arrival of the mail, to know would have been unstained by crime.
whether they should salute an empe- In nations, as in individuals, a harvest
ror, a king, a consul, or a decemvir. of prosperity never yet was reaped
This total prostration of the strength from seed sown in injustice. But na-
of a great nation before the ruling tions have no immortality; and that
power in the metropolis could never final retribution which in private life
have taken place under the old govern- is often postponed, to outward appear-
ment; and, accordingly, nothing of the ance at least, to another world, is
kind was experienced under the mon- brought with swift and unerring wings
archy. It was the great deeds of de- upon the third and fourth generation in
mocratic despotism perpetrated by the the political delinquencies of mankind.
Constituent Assembly which destroyed
all the elements of resistance in the
provinces, and left France a helpless
multitude, necessarily subject to the
power which had gained possession of
the machinery of government. Des-
potic as the old government of France
was, it could never have attempted
such an arbitrary system; even the
power of the Czar Peter, or the Sultaun
Mahmoud, would have been shattered,
on attempting such an invasion of es-
stablished rights and settled interests.
A memorable instance of the extreme
danger to which the interests of free-
dom are exposed from the blind
sions of democracy; and of the fatal
effect of the spring-flood which drowns
the institutions of a state, when the
opposing powers of the people and the
70. Does, then, the march of freedom
necessarily terminate in disaster? Is
improvement inevitably allied to in-
novation, innovation to revolution?
And must the philosopher, who beholds
the infant struggles of liberty, ever
foresee in their termination the blood
of Robespierre, or the carnage of Na-
poleon? No! The distinction be-
tween the two is as wide as between day
and night-between virtue and vice.
The simplest and rudest of mankind
may distinguish with as much cer-
tainty as belongs to erring mortals,
whether the ultimate tendency of in-
pas-novations is beneficial or ruinous—
whether they are destined to bring
blessings or curses on their wings.
This test is to be found in the charac-
ter of those who support them, and
1799.]
335
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
the moral justice or injustice of their | scepticism which they had produced;
measures. If those who forward the when a nation was seen abjuring every
work of reform are the most pure and species of devotion, and a generation
upright in their private conduct; if rising in the heart of Europe ignorant
they are the foremost in every moral of the very elements of religious belief,
and religious duty; most unblemished the triumph of infidelity appeared com-
in their intercourse with men, and most plete, and the faithful trembled and
undeviating in their duty to God; if mourned in silence at the melancholy
they are the best fathers, the best hus- prospects which were opening upon the
bands, the best landlords, the most world. Yet in this very spirit were pre-
charitable and humane of society, who paring, by an unseen hand, the means
take the lead; if their proceedings are of the ultimate triumph of civilised over
characterised by moderation, and they barbaric belief, and of a greater spread
are scrupulously attentive to justice of the Christian faith than had taken
and humanity in all their actions; then place since it was embraced by the
the people may safely follow in their tribes who overthrew the Roman em-
steps, and anticipate blessings to them- pire. In the deadly strife of European
selves and their children from the mea-ambition, the arms of civilisation ac-
quired an irresistible preponderance;
with its last convulsions, the strength
of Russia was immensely augmented;
and that mighty power, which had been
sures they promote. But if the re-
verse of all this is the case; if the lead-
ers who seek to rouse their passions are
worthless or suspicious in private life;
if they are tyrannical landlords, faith-organised by the genius of Peter and
less husbands, negligent fathers; if matured by the ambition of Catherine,
they are sceptical or indifferent in re-received its final development through
ligion, reckless or improvident in con- the invasion of Napoleon. The Crescent,
duct, ruined or tottering in fortune; if long triumphant over the Cross, has
they are selfish in their enjoyments, now yielded to its ascendant; the bar-
and indifferent to the poor; if they riers of the Caucasus and the Balkan
care not for their sufferings, provided have been burst by its champions;
they serve as a scaffolding to their own the ancient war-cry of Constantinople,
elevation; if their liberty is a cloak for "Victory to the Cross !" has, after an
licentiousness, and their patriotism an interval of four centuries, been heard
excuse for ambition; if their actions on the Ægean Sea; and that lasting
are hasty and inconsiderate, and their triumph, which all the enthusiasm of
measures calculated to do injustice or the Crusaders could not effect, has
create suffering to individuals, on the arisen from the energy infused into
plea of state necessity; then the people what was then an unknown tribe, by
may rest assured that they are leading the infidel arms of their descendants.
them to perdition; that the fabric of In such marvellous and unforeseen con-
liberty never yet was reared by such sequences, the historian finds ample
hands, or on such a basis; that, what- grounds for consolation at the tem-
ever temporary triumph may attend porary triumph of wickedness: from
their steps, the day of reckoning will the corruption of decaying, he turns to
come, and that an awful retribution the energy of infant civilisation; while
awaits them or their children.
he laments the decline of the principles
of prosperity in their present seats, he
anticipates their resurrection in those
where they were first cradled; and
traces, through all the vicissitudes of
nations, the incessant operation of
those general laws which provide, even
amidst the decline of present greatness,
for the final improvement and elevation
of the species.
71. The final result of the irreligious
efforts of the French people is singu-
larly illustrative of the moral govern-
ment to which human affairs are sub-
ject, and of the vanity of all attempts
to check that spread of religion which
has been decreed by Almighty power.
When the Parisian philosophers beheld |
the universal diffusion of the spirit of

+
:
-
+
:
;
.
►
·
.
+
¿
336
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
CHAPTER XXX.
7
[CHAP. XXX.
FROM THE ACCESSION OF NAPOLEON TO THE CONSULATE TO THE OPENING
OF THE CAMPAIGN OF MARENGO.
1. THE first step of Napoleon upon and England may, by the abuse of
arriving at the consular throne was to their strength, continue for a time, to
make proposals of peace to the British the misfortune of nations, to retard the
government. The debate on that sub-period of their being exhausted; but
ject in Parliament is the most import- I will venture to say, the fate of all
ant that occurred during the war, and civilised nations is attached to the ter-
forms the true introduction to the po- mination of a war which involves the
litical history of Europe during the whole world.”
nineteenth century. The letter of Na-
poleon, which, contrary to all diploma-
tic usage, was addressed directly to the
King of England, couched in his usual
characteristic language, was in these
terms: "Called by the wishes of the
French nation to occupy the first sta-
tion in the Republic, I think it proper
on entering into office to make a direct
communication to your Majesty. The
war which for eight years has ravaged
the four quarters of the globe, must it
be eternal? Are there no means of
coming to an understanding? How
can the two most enlightened nations
of Europe, powerful and strong beyond
what their independence and safety re-
quire, sacrifice to ideas of vain great-
ness the benefits of commerce, internal
prosperity, and domestic happiness?
How has it happened that they do not
feel that peace is of the first necessity
as well as the truest glory? These sen-
timents cannot be foreign to the heart
of your Majesty, who reign over a free
nation with the sole view of rendering
it happy. You will see in this over-
ture only the effect of a sincere desire
to contribute efficaciously, for the se-
cond time, to a general pacification, by
a step speedy, implying confidence, and
disengaged from those forms which,
however necessary to disguise the de-
pendence of feeble states, prove only in
those which are strong the mutual de-
sire of deceiving each other. France
2. To this letter the following answer
was returned by Lord Grenville, the
English minister of foreign affairs:-
"The King has given frequent proofs
of his sincere desire for the re-estab-
lishment of secure and permanent tran-
quillity in Europe. He neither is, nor
has been, engaged in any contest for a
vain and false glory. He has had no
other view than that of maintaining
against all aggression the rights and
happiness of his subjects. For these
he has contended against an unprovoked
attack; and for the same objects he is
still obliged to contend. Nor can he
hope that this necessity could be re-
moved by entering, at the present mo-
ment, into negotiation with those whom
afresh revolution has so recently placed
in the exercise of power in France;
since no real advantage can arise from
such negotiation to the great and de-
sirable object of a general peace, until
it shall distinctly appear that those
causes have ceased to operate which
originally produced the war, and by
which it has been since protracted, and
in more than one instance renewed.
The same system, to the prevalence of
which France justly ascribes all her
present miseries, is that which has also
involved the rest of Europe in a long
and destructive warfare, of a nature
long since unknown to the practice of
civilised nations. For the extension of
this system, and for the extermination
1799.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
337
of all established governments, the re- |
sources of France have, from year to
year, and in the midst of the most un-
paralleled distress, been lavished and ex-
hausted. To this indiscriminate spirit
of destruction, the Netherlands, the
United Provinces, the Swiss Cantons,
his Majesty's ancient allies, have suc-
cessively been sacrificed. Germany has
been ravaged; Italy, though now rescued
from its invaders, has been made the
scene of unbounded rapine and anarchy.
His Majesty has himself been compelled
to maintain an arduous and burden-
some contest for the independence and
existence of his kingdom.
3. "While such a system continues
to prevail, and while the blood and
treasure of a numerous and powerful
nation can be lavished in its support,
experience has shown that no defence,
but that of open and steady hostility,
can be availing. The most solemn
treaties have only prepared the way
for fresh aggression; and it is to a de-
termined resistence alone that is now
due whatever remains in Europe of
security for property, personal liberty,
social order, or religious freedom. For
the security, therefore, of these essen-
tial objects, his Majesty cannot place
his reliance on the mere renewal of
general professions of pacific disposi-
tions. Such dispositions have been re-
peatedly held out by all those who have
successively directed the resources of
France to the destruction of Europe,
and whom the present rulers have de-
clared to have been, from the begin-
ning, and uniformly, incapable of main-
taining the relations of peace and amity.
Greatly, indeed, will his Majesty rejoice
whenever it shall appear that the dan-
gers to which his own dominions and
those of his allies have so long been
exposed have really ceased: whenever
he shall be satisfied that the necessity
for resistance is at an end; that, after
the experience of so many years of
crimes and miseries, better principles
have ultimately prevailed in France;
and that all the gigantic projects of
ambition, and all the restless schemes
of destruction, which have endangered
the very existence of civil society, have
at length been finally relinquished: but
the conviction of such a change, how-
ever agreeable to his Majesty's wishes,
can result only from experience and
the evidence of facts.
4. "The best and most natural pledge
of its reality and permanence would be
the restoration of that line of princes,
which for so many centuries maintain-
ed the French nation in prosperity at
home and consideration and respect
abroad. Such an event would at once
have removed, and will at any time re-
move, all obstacles in the way of nego-
tiation or peace. It would confirm to
France the unmolested enjoyment of
its ancient territory; and it would give
to all the other nations in Europe, in
tranquillity and peace, that security
which they are now compelled to seek
by other means. But, desirable as such
an event must be, both to France and
the world, it is not to this mode ex-
clusively that his Majesty limits the
possibility of secure and solid pacifica-
tion. His Majesty makes no claim to
prescribe to France what shall be the
form of her government, or in whose
hands she shall vest the authority ne-
cessary for conducting the affairs of a
great and powerful nation. He looks
only to the security of his own do-
minions and those of his allies, and to
the general safety of Europe. When-
ever he shall judge that such security
can in any manner be attained, as re-
sulting either from the internal situa-
tion of that country, from whose in-
ternal situation the danger has arisen,
or from such other circumstances, of
whatever nature, as may produce the
same end, his Majesty will eagerly em-
brace the opportunity to concert with
his allies the means of a general pacifi-
cation. Unhappily, no such security
hitherto exists; no sufficient evidence
of the principles by which the new
government will be directed; no rea-
sonable ground by which to judge of
its stability."

5. To this it was replied by M. Talley-
rand, the French minister for foreign
affairs:-"Very far from France having
provoked the war, she had, it must be
recollected, from the very commence-
ment of her Revolution, solemnly pro-
claimed her love of peace and her dis-
·
*338
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
ī
I
inclination for conquests, her respect | power in France have not always shown
for the independence of all govern- as much moderation as the nation itself
ments; and it is not to be doubted has shown courage-it must, above all,
that, occupied at that time entirely be imputed to the fatal and persevering
with her own internal affairs, she animosity with which the resources of
would have avoided taking any part England have been lavished to accom-
in those of Europe, and would have plish the ruin of France. But if the
remained faithful to her declarations. wishes of his Britannic Majesty, in con-
But from an opposite disposition, as formity with his assurances, are in uni-
soon as the French Revolution had son with those of the French Republic
broken out, almost all Europe entered for the re-establishment of peace, why,
into a league for its destruction. The instead of attempting the apology of
aggression was real, long before it was the war, should not attention be rather
public; internal resistance was excited, paid to the means of terminating it?
its opponents were favourably received, The First Consul of the French Re-
their extravagant declamations were public cannot doubt that his Britannic
supported, the French nation was in- Majesty must recognise the right of
sulted in the person of its agents, and nations to choose the form of their go-
England particularly set this example, vernment, since it is from the exercise
by the dismissal of the minister ac- of this right that he holds his crown;
credited to her; finally, France was in but he cannot comprehend how, after
fact attacked in her independence, in admitting this fundamental principle,
her honour, and in her safety, long upon which rests the existence of po-
before war was declared. Thus it is to litical societies, he could annex insinu-
the projects of dismemberment, sub- ations which tend to an interference in
jection, and dissolution, which were the internal affairs of the Republic, and
prepared against her, and the execu- which are not less injurious to the
tion of which was several times at French nation and its government,
tempted and pursued, that France has than it would be to England and his
a right to impute the evils which she Majesty, if a sort of, invitation were
has suffered, and those which have held out in favour of that republican
afflicted Europe. Such projects, for a form of government of which England
long time without example with re-adopted the forms about the middle of
spect to so powerful a nation, could the last century, or an exhortation to
not fail to bring on the most fatal con- recall to the throne that family whom
sequences. Assailed on all sides, the their birth had placed there, and whom
Republic could not but extend univer- a Revolution compelled to descend from
sally the efforts of her defence, and it it."
is only for the maintenance of her own
independence that she has made use of
those means which she possessed in her
own strength and the courage of her
citizens.
}
6. "As long as she saw that her
enemies obstinately refused to recog-
nise her rights, she counted only upon
the energy of her resistance, but as soon
as they were obliged to abandon the
hope of invasion, she sought for means
of conciliation, and manifested pacific
intentions; and if these have not always
been efficacious-if, in the midst of the
critical circumstances of her internal
situation, which the Revolution and
the war have successively brought on,
the former depositaries of the executive
7. These able state papers are not
only valuable as exhibiting the argu-
ments advanced by the opposite parties
in this memorable contest, but as con-
taining an explicit and important de-
claration of the object uniformly pur-
sued by Great Britain throughout its
continuance. The English ministry
never claimed a right to interfere in
the internal affairs of France, or dictate
to her inhabitants the form of govern-
ment or race of sovereigns they were
to choose; the object of the war is there
expressly declared to have been, what
it always was, defensive. It was under-
taken, not to impose a government upon
France, but to prevent its imposing one
upon other nations; not to partition
1799.]
!
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
339
9. "The French Revolution was un-
doubtedly, in its beginning, a great and
awful event, which could not but ex-
tend its influence more or less to other
nations. So mighty a fabric of des-
or circumscribe its territory, but to being mistaken, pronounce that the
oppose a barrier to the inundation of answer given was odiously and absurd-
infidel and democratical principles, byly wrong. As a vindication of the war,
which the Republic first shook the it was loose, and in some parts un-
opinions of the multitude in all the ad- founded; but as an answer to a specific
joining states, and then, having divided proposition, it was dangerous as a pre-
their inhabitants, overthrew their inde- cedent to the best interests of mankind.
pendence. The restoration of the Bour- It rejected the very idea of peace, as if
bons was held forth as the mode most it were a curse, and held fast to war,
likely to remove these dangers; but by as an inseparable adjunct to the pros-
no means as an indispensable prelim- perity of nations.
inary to a general pacification, if ade-
quate security against them could in
any other way be obtained. Of the
reality of the peril, the existence of the
Batavian, Ligurian, Cisalpine, Helve-
tian, Roman, and Parthenopeian repub-potism and superstition, after having
lics, most of whom had been revolu- endured for ages, could not fall to the
tionised in a state of profound peace, ground without a concussion which the
afforded ample evidence; and it was one whole earth should feel; but the evil
which increased rapidly during any in- of such a revolution was only to be
terval of hostilities, because it was then averted by cautious internal policy, and
that the point of the wedge was most not by external war, unless it became
readily inserted by the revolutionary impossible, from actual and not specu-
propagandists among an unsuspecting lative aggression, to maintain the re-
people.
lations of peace. The question was
not, whether the tendency of the Re-
volution was beneficial or injurious, but
what was our own policy and duty as
connected with its existence? In Mr
Burke's words, applied to the American
Revolution, the question is not, whether
this condition of human affairs deserves
praise or blame, but what, in God's
name, are you to do with it?
8. The debates, however, which fol-
lowed in both Houses of Parliament
on this momentous subject were still
more important, as unfolding the real
views of the contending parties, and
forming the true key to the grounds
on which it was thereafter rested on
both sides. On the part of the Oppo-
sition, it was urged by Mr Fox and Mr
Erskine: "Now is the first time when
the House are assembled in a new epoch
of the war.
Without annexing any
epithet to it, or adverting to its unpa-
ralleled calamities, it cannot be denied
that a new era in any possible war, or
one which leads to a nearer prospect
of peace, is a most critical and auspi-
cious period. The real question is,
whether the House of Commons can
say, in the face of a suffering nation
and a desolated world, that a lofty,
imperious, declamatory, insulting
swer to a proposition professing peace
and conciliation, is the answer which
should have been sent to France, or
to any human government? Though
they might not be able to determine
what answer, in the circumstances of
the country, should have been sent,
they could, without the possibility of
10. "When war was first proclaimed
by this country, after the death of Louis,
it was rested on the 'late atrocious act
perpetrated at Paris.' Then, as now,
it was provoked, and peace rejected
upon general and unjustifiable objec-
tions-speculative dangers to religion
and government, which, supposing
them to have existed, with all their
possible consequences, were more likely
to be increased than diminished by the
bitterness of war. At that time, min-
an-isters were implored not to invite war
upon principles which made peace de-
pendent upon systems and forms of
government, instead of the conduct of
nations-upon theories which could
not be changed, instead of aggressions
which might be adjusted. France had
then, and for a long time after, a strong
interest in peace; she had not then-ex-
340
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
*
tended her conquests: but Europe com-
bined to extinguish France, and place
her without the pale of the social com-
munity; and France, in her turn, acted
towards Europe on the same principles.
She desolated and ravaged whatever
countries she occupied, and spread her
conquests with unexampled rapidity.
Could it be expected that so powerful
a nation, so assailed, should act merely
on the defensive, or that, in the midst
of a revolution which the confederacy
of surrounding nations had rendered
terrible, the rights of nations would be
respected? Ambitious projects, not
perhaps originally contemplated, fol-
lowed their steps; and the world was
changed with portentous violence, be-
cause the government of Great Britain
had resolved that, if changed at all, it
should revert to establishments which
had reached their period and expired.
11. "In 1795, without any pacific
proposition from France, when the gov-
ernment of France was not a month
old, at a time when the alarm was at
its height in England, and the probable
contagion of French principles, by the
intercourse of peace, was not only the
favourite theme of ministers, but made
the foundation of a system by which
some of our most essential liberties
were abridged-even these ministers
invited the infant, democratic, Jacobin,
regicide Republic of France to propose
a peace. On what principle, then, can
peace now be refused when the danger
was so much diminished, because the
resistless fury of that popular spirit
which had been the uniform topic of
declamation had not only subsided,
from time and expansion, but was curb-
ed, or rather extinguished, by the forms
of the new government which invited
us to peace? If Buonaparte found that
his interests were served by an arrange-
ment with England, the same interests
would lead him to continue it. Sur-
rounded with perils, at the head of an
untried government, menaced by a
great confederacy, of which England
was the head, compelled to press heavily
upon the resources of an exhausted
people, it was not less his interest to
propose than it was ours to accept
peace.
•
{
**
1
12. "It is impossible to look without
the most bitter regret on the enormi-
ties which France has committed. In
some of the worst of them, however,
the Allies have joined her. Did not
Austria receive Venice from Buona-
parte? and is not the receiver as bad
as the thief? Has not Russia attacked
France? Did not the Emperor and
the King of Prussia subscribe a declara-
tion at Pilnitz which amounted to a
hostile aggression? Did they not make
a public declaration, that they were to
employ their forces, in conjunction with
the other kings of Europe, 'to put the
King of France in a situation to estab-
lish, in perfect liberty, the foundations
of a monarchical government equally
agreeable to the rights of sovereigns
and the welfare of the French?' and,
whenever the other princes should co-
operate with them, did they not 'then,
and in that case, declare their deter-
mination to act promptly, and, by mu-
tual consent, to obtain the end propos-
ed by all of them?' Can gentlemen
lay their hands on their hearts, and
not admit that the fair construction of
this is, that whenever the other powers
should concur, they would attack France,
then at peace with them, and occupied
only in domestic and internal regula-
tions?
•
13. "The decree of 19th November
1792, is alleged as a clear act of ag-
gression, not only against England, but
against all the sovereigns of Europe.
Much weight should not be attached
to that silly document, and it has been
sufficiently explained by M. Chauvelin,
when he declared that it never was
meant to proclaim the favour of France
for insurrection, but that it applied to
those people only who, after having
acquired their liberty by conquest,
should demand the assistance of the
Republic. Should not a magnanimous
nation have been satisfied with this ex-
planation? and where will be the end
of wars, if idle and intemperate expres-
sions are to be made the groundwork
of bitter and never-ending hostilities?
Where is the war, pregnant with so
many horrors, next to be carried?
Where is it to stop? Not till you estab-
lish the House of Bourbon !-and this
1799.]
341
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
you cherish the hope of doing, because | conquest; but has she followed up that
you have had a successful campaign. declaration by any acts indicating a
But is the situation of the Allies, with corresponding disposition? Have we
all they have gained, to be compared not seen her armies march to the Rhine,
with what it was after Valenciennes seize the Netherlands, and annex them
was taken? One campaign is success- to her dominions? Have we not wit-
ful to you; another may be so to them: nessed her progress in Italy? Are not
and in this way, animated by the vin- the wrongs of Switzerland recent and
dictive passions of revenge, hatred, ran- marked? Even into Asia she has car-
cour, which are infinitely more flagi- ried her lust for dominion; severed
tious than those of ambition and the from the Porte, during a period of pro-
thirst of power, you may go on for ever, found peace, a vast portion of its em-
as, with such black incentives, no end pire; and stimulated Citizen Tippoo'
can be foreseen to human misery. And to engage in that contest which ulti-
all this without an intelligible motive, mately proved his ruin.
merely that you may gain a better peace
a year or two hence. Is then peace so
dangerous a state, war so enviable, that
the latter is to be chosen as a state of
probation, the former shunned as a
positive evil?"
14. On the other hand it was con-
tended by Mr Pitt and Lord Grenville:
"The same necessity which originally
existed for the commencement and pro-
secution, still calls for perseverance in
the war.
The same proneness to ag-
gression, the same disregard to justice,
still actuate the conduct of the men who
rule in France. Peace with a nation
by whom war was made against all
order, religion, and morality, would ra-
ther be a cessation of resistance to
wrong than a suspension of arms in the
nature of an ordinary warfare. To ne-
gotiate with established governments
was formerly not merely easy, but in
most circumstances safe; but to nego-
tiate with the government of France
now would be to incur all the risks of
an uncertain truce, without attaining
the benefits even of a temporary peace.
France still retains the sentiments, and
is constant to the views which cha-
racterised the dawn of her Revolution.
She was innovating, she is so still; she
was Jacobin, she is Jacobin still; she
declared war against all kings, and she
continues to this hour to seek their de-
struction. Even the distant common-zerland concluded a truce with the Re-
wealth of America could not escape that
ravaging power, and bordering on a state
of active and inveterate war were the
relations of those two states for a long
time. The Republic, indeed, has fre-
quently asserted her disinclination to
15." The Republic has proclaimed
her respect for the independence of all
governments. How have her actions
corresponded with this profession?
Did not Jacobin France attempt the
overthrow of every government? Did
she not, whenever it suited her purpose,
arm the governers against the governed,
or the governed against the governors?
How completely has she succeeded, dur-
ing a period of profound peace which
had been unbroken for centuries, in
convulsing the population, and so sub-
verting the independence of Switzer-
land! In Italy, the whole fabric of
civil society has been changed, and the
independence of every government vio-
lated. The Netherlands, too, exhibit
to mankind monuments of the venera-
tion with which the Republic has re-
garded the independence of other states.
The memorable decree of November
1792 has not slept a dead letter in their
statute-book. No: it has ever since
been the active energetic principle of
their whole conduct, and every nation
is interested in the extinction of that
principle for ever.
16. "Every power with whom the
Republic has treated, whether for the
purpose of armistice or peace, could fur-
nish melancholy instances of the per-
fidy of France, and of the ambition, in-
justice, and cruelty of her rulers. Swit-

public; her rulers immediately excited
insurrections among her cantons, over-
threw her institutions, seized her for-
tresses, robbed her treasures, the accu-
mulation of ages, and, to give perma-
nence to her usurpations, imposed on
F
!
i
342
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
•
her a government new alike in form | by himself. If a treaty was concluded
and substance. The Grand-duke of and broken with Sardinia, it was con-
Tuscany was among the earliest suffer- cluded and broken by Buonaparte. If
ers by a treaty of peace with the Re- peace was entered into and violated
public. In everything he strove to with Tuscany, it was entered into and
conform to the views of France; her violated by Buonaparte. If Venice
rulers repeated to him their assurances was first seduced into revolutionary
of attachment and disinclination to revolt, and then betrayed and sold to
conquest; but at the very time that Austria, it was by Buonaparte that the
the honour of the Republic was pledged treachery was consummated. If the
for the security of his states, he saw Papal government was first terrified
the troops of his ally enter his capital, into submission, and then overturned
and he himself was deposed and a de- by rebellion, it was Buonaparte who
mocracy given to the Florentines. The accomplished the work. If Genoa was
King of Sardinia opened the gates of convulsed in a state of profound peace,
his capital to the Republican arms, and, and then sacrificed, it was by Buona-
confiding in the integrity of the French parte that the perfidious invasion was
government, expected to be secured in committed. If Switzerland was first
his dominions by the treaty which gua- seduced into revolution, and then in-
ranteed his title and his rights, and vaded and plundered, it was by the
communicated to France equal advan- deceitful promises and arts of Buona-
tages. He was, however, in a state of parte that the train was laid. Even
peace, invaded in his dominions, forced the affiliated republics and his own
to fly to his insular possessions, and country have not escaped the same
Turin treacherously taken possession perfidious ability. The constitution
of by the Republican troops. The which he forced on his countrymen, at
change in the Papal government was the cannon's mouth, on the 13th Ven-
another part of the same system. It demiaire, he delivered up to the bayo-
was planned by Joseph Buonaparte in nets of Augereau on the 18th Fructi-
his palace. He excited the populace to dor, and overturned with his grena-
an insurrection, and effected a revolu- diers on the 18th Brumaire. The con-
tion in the capital at the head of the stitution of the Cisalpine republic,
Roman mob. To Venice their conduct which he himself had established, was
was still more atrocious. After con- overthrown by his lieutenant, Berthier.
cluding an armistice with the Arch- He gained possession of Malta by deceit-
duke Charles, Buonaparte declared that ful promises, and immediately handed
he took the Venetians under his pro- it over to the Republic. He declared
tection, and overturned the old govern- to the Porte that he had no intention
ment by the movements excited among to take possession of Egypt, and yet
the people; but no sooner was the na- he avowed to his army that he con-
tional independence in this way de- quered it for France, and instantly
stroyed, than he sold them to the very roused the Copts into rebellion against
Imperial government against whose al- the Mamelukes. He declared to the
leged oppression he had prompted them Mussulmans that he was a believer in
to take up arms. Genoa received the Mahomet,* thus demonstrating that,
French as friends; and the debt of gra- even on the most sacred subjects, truth
titude was repaid by the government was set at naught when any object was
being revolutionised; and, under the to be gained by its violation. Nay, he
authority of a mock constitution, the has, in his official instructions, openly
people plundered, and the public inde-
pendence subverted.
17. "It is vain to allege that these
atrocities are the work of former go-
vernments, and that Buonaparte had
no hand in them. The worst of these
acts of perfidy have been perpetrated
[CHAP. XXX.
<<
* This was strictly true. They will say
such thing. I was a Mahometan in Egypt.
I am a papist," said Napoleon; "I am no
I would become a Catholic here for the good
of the people. I am no believer in any par-
ticular religion; but as to the idea of a God,
look up to the heavens, and say who made
that."-THIBAUDEAU, Sur le Consulat, 153.
,
17.99.]
343
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
19. "It is in vain to pretend that
either the allied powers or Great Bri-
tain were the aggressors in the terrible
contest which has so long desolated
Europe. In investigating this subject,
the most scrupulous attention to dates
is requisite. The attack upon the
Papal States by the seizure of Avignon
in August 1791, was attended by a series
of the most sanguinary excesses which
disgraced the Revolution; and this
was followed, in the same year, by an
avowed this system; for in his instruc- | commenced by Brissot and continued by
tions to Kleber, he declares,-"You Robespierre, and it is not likely to be
may sign a treaty to evacuate Egypt, forgotten by the military chief who has
but do not execute the articles; and now succeeded to the helm of affairs.
you may find a plausible excuse for
the delay in the observation, that they
must be sent home to be submitted to
the Directory.' What reliance can be
placed on a power which thus uni-
formly makes peace or truce a step-
ping-stone to further aggressions, and
systematically uses perfidy as an allow-
able weapon for circumventing its ene-
mies? And, what is especially worthy
of observation, this system is not that
of any one man; it has been the prin-
ciple of all the statesmen, without ex-aggression against the whole Germanic
ception, who have governed France empire, by the seizure of Porentrui,
during the Revolution:-a clear proof part of the dominions of the Bishop of
that it arises from the force of the cir- Bâle. In April 1792, the French gov-
cumstances in which they are placed, ernment declared war against Austria;
and the ruinous ascendancy of irreli- and in September of the same year,
gious principles in the people; and without any declaration of their inten-
that the intentions of the present ruler tion, or any cause of hostility, and in
of the country, even if they were widely direct violation of their promises to
different from what they are, could abstain from conquest, they seized
afford no sort of security against its Savoy and Nice, upon the pretence
continuance.
that nature had destined them to form
a part of France. The assertion that
this war was rendered necessary by the
threatening alliance formed at Pilnitz,
is equally devoid of foundation. That
celebrated declaration referred only to
the state of imprisonment in which
Louis XVI. was kept, and its immedi-
ate object was to effect his deliverance,
if a concert among the European powers
could be brought about for that pur-
pose, leaving the internal state of France
to be decided by the king when re-
stored to his liberty, with the free
consent of the states of the kingdom,
without one word relative to its dis-
memberment. This was fully admitted
in the official correspondence which
took place between this country and
Austria; and as long as M. Delessart
was minister of foreign affairs in France,
there was a great probability that the
differences would be terminated ami-
cably; but the war party excited a
tumult in order to dispossess him-as
they considered, in Brissot's words,
that'
war was necessary to consolidate
the Revolution.' Upon the King of
was on that principle that the war was | France's acceptance of the constitution,
18. "France would now derive great
advantages from a general peace. Her
commerce would revive; her seamen
be renewed, her sailors acquire experi-
ence; and the power which hitherto
has been so victorious at land, would
speedily become formidable on another
element. What benefit could it bring
to Great Britain? Are our harbours
blockaded, our commerce interrupted,
our dockyards empty? Have we not,
on the contrary, acquired an irresist
ible preponderance on the seas during
the war, and is not the trade of the
world rapidly passing into the hands
of our merchants? Buonaparte would
acquire immense popularity by being
the means of bringing about an ac-
commodation with this country; if we
wish to establish his power, and per-
manently enlist the energy of the Re-
volution under the banners of a mili-
tary chieftain, we have only to fall into
the snare which he has so artfully pre-
pared. In turbulent republics, it has
ever been an axiom to maintain inter-
nal tranquillity by external action; it
i
L

344
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
│
the Emperor notified to all the courts | ciple of justice, the whole property of
of Europe that he considered it as his the country. The practical application
proper act, and thereby the convention of this principle has been to devote the
of Pilnitz fell to the ground; and the whole of that property to indiscrimi-
event soon proved the sincerity of that nate plunder, and make it the foun-
declaration, for when war was declared dation of a revolutionary system of
by the French in 1792, the Austrian finance, productive in proportion to
Netherlands were almost destitute of the misery and desolation which it
troops, and soon fell a prey to the created. It has been accompanied by
Republicans.
an unwearied spirit of proselytism, dif-
fusing itself over all the nations of the
earth; a spirit which can apply itself
to all circumstances and all situations;
hold out a promise of redress equally
to all nations; which enables the teach-
ers of French liberty to recommend
themselves to those who live under the
feudal code of the German empire, the
various states of Italy, the old repub-
licans of Holland, the new republicans
of America, the Protestants of Switzer-
land, the Catholics of Ireland, the Mus-
sulmans of Turkey, and the Hindoos of
India; the natives of England, enjoy-
ing the perfection of practical freedom,
and the Copts of Egypt, groaning un-
der the last severity of Asiatic bondage.
The last and distinguishing feature is a
perfidy which nothing can bind; which
no ties of treaty, no sense of the prin-
ciples generally received among nations,
no obligation, human or divine, can re-
strain. Thus qualified, thus armed for
destruction, the genius of the French Re-
volution marched forth, the terror and
dismay of the world. Every nation has in
its turn been the witness, many have
been the victims, of its principles; and it
is left now for us to decide whether we
will enter into compromise with such
a danger, while we have yet resources
to supply the sinews of war, while the
heart and spirit of the country is yet
unbroken, and while we have the means
of calling forth and supporting a power-
ful co-operation in Europe. "Cur igitur
pacem nolo ?-quia infida est, quia peri-
culosa, quia esse non potest.
The
20. "Great Britain at this time, and
for long after, entertained no hostile
designs towards France. So far from
it, on 29th December 1792, only a
month before the commencement of
hostilities, a note was sent by Lord
Grenville to the British ambassador at
St Petersburg, imparting to Russia the
principles on which we acted, and the
terms on which we were willing to
mediate for peace-which were, the
withdrawing the French armies within
the limits of their territory, the aban-
doning their conquests, the rescinding
any acts injurious to the sovereignty
or rights of other nations, and the giv-
ing, in some unequivocal manner, a
pledge of their intention no longer to
foment troubles or excite disturbances
against other governments. In return
for these stipulations, the different
powers of Europe might engage to
abandon all measures or views of hos-
tility against France, or interference
in its internal affairs.' Such were the
principles on which we acted; and
what, then, brought on the war with
this country? The insane decrees of
19th November and 15th December
1792, which amounted to a declaration
of war against all governments, and the
attack on our Allies the Dutch, and
the opening of the Scheldt, in open
prosecution of the new code of public
law then promulgated by the Republic.
21. "The fundamental principle of
the revolutionary party in France
always has been an insatiable love of
aggrandisement, an implacable spirit
of destruction against all the civil and
religious institutions of every other
country. Its uniform mode of proceed-
ing has been to bribe the poor against
the rich, by proposing to transfer into
new hands, on the delusive notion of
equality, and in breach of every prin-
***
* "Why, then, do I deprecate peace? Be-
cause it is faithless, because it is perilous,
because it cannot be." It is impossible, in
this abstract, to give any idea of the splendid
and luminous speeches made on this memor-
able occasion in the British parliament. They
more light on the motives and objects of the
are at in and throw
war than any other documents in existence.
1800.]
345
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
house, upon a division, supported the
measures of administration by a ma-
jority of two hundred and sixty-five to
sixty-four.
22. In judging of this decision of the
British government, which formed the
true commencement of the second
period of the war (that in which it
was waged with Napoleon), it is of im-
portance to recollect the circumstances
in which he was placed, and the nature
of the government which he had as-
sumed. France had not ceased to be re-
volutionary; but its energies were now,
under a skilful and enterprising chief,
turned to military objects. He was still,
however, borne forward upon the move
ment, and the moment he attempted to
stop he would have been crushed by
its wheels. No one was more aware
of this than the First Consul himself.
"The French government," said Napo-
leon in 1800," has no resemblance to
those which surround it. Hated by all
its neighbours, obliged to restrain many
different classes of malcontents within
its bosom, it stands in need of action,
of éclat, and, by consequence of war, to
to
maintain an imposing attitude against
so many enemies." "Your govern-
ment," replied Thibaudeau, "has no
resemblance to one newly established.
It assumed the toga virilis at Marengo;
and, sustained by a powerful head and
the arms of thirty millions of inhabi-
tants, its place is already sufficiently pro-
minent among the European powers.'
"Do you really think that sufficient!"
replied Napoleon: "it must be first of all,
or it will perish.” "And to obtain such
a result, you see no other method than
war?"-" None other, citizen.' "His
fixed opinion from the commencement,'
says Bourrienne, "was, that if station-
ary he would fall; that he was sustain-
ed only by continually advancing, and
that it was not sufficient to advance, but
he must advance rapidly and irresist-
ibly. 'My power,' said he, 'depends
on my glory, and my glory on the vic-
tories which I gain. My power would
instantly fall, if it were not constantly
based on fresh glory and victories.
Conquest made me what I am: con-
quest alone can maintain me in that
""
VOL. IV.
""
position. A government newly esta-
blished has need to dazzle and astonish;
when its éclat ceases, it perishes. It is in
vain to expect repose from a man who
is the concentration of movement.'
193
23. Such were Napoleon's views;
and that they were perfectly just, with
reference to his own situation, is evi-
dent from the consideration that a re-
volutionary power, whether in civil or
military affairs, has never yet main-
tained its ascendancy in any other way.
But, these being his principles, and the
independence of England forming the
great stumblingblock in his way, it is
evident that no permanent peace with
him was practicable; that every ac-
commodation could have been only a
truce; and that it never would be pro-
posed, unless in circumstances when
it was for his interest to gain a short
breathing-time for fresh projects of am-
bition.* The event completely proved
the justice of these views, and forms
the best commentary on the prophetic
wisdom of Mr Pitt. Every successive
peace on the Continent only paved the
way for fresh aggressions; and at length
he was precipitated upon the snows of
Russia, by the same invincible necessity
of dazzling his subjects by the lustre of
additional victories which was felt in
the commencement of his career.
“
24. "His power, without and within,”
says Marshal St Cyr, was founded
solely on the éclat of his victories. By
intrusting himself without reserve to
fortune, he imposed upon himself the
* This accordingly was openly avowed by
Napoleon himself. "England," said he in
January 1800,"must be overturned. As long
as my voice has any influence, it will never
enjoy any respite. Yes! yes! war to the
death with England for ever-ay, till its de-
struction." He admits, in his own Memoirs,
that when he made these proposals to Mr
Pitt, he had no serious intention of conclud-
ing peace. "I had then," said he, “need of
war; a treaty of peace which would have de-
rogated from that of Campo Formio and an-
nulled the creations of Italy,—would have
withered every imagination. Mr Pitt's an-
swer accordingly was impatiently expected.
when it arrived, it filled me with a secret satis-
faction. His answer could not have been more
favourable. From that moment I foresaw
would have no difficulty in reaching the high-
that, with such impassioned antagonists, I
est destinies."-NAP. in MONTHOLON, i. 33. 34.
Z
!
3
•
+
:
346
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
:
:
G
¿
;
necessity of following it to the utmost | arisen from the convulsions which the
verge whither it would lead him. Un- Revolution had produced.
heard-of success had attended enter-
prises, the temerity of which was conti-
nually increasing; but thence arose a ne-
cessity to keep for ever awake the terror
and admiration of Europe, by new en-
terprises and more dazzling triumphs.
The more colossal his power became,
the more immeasurable his projects re-
quired to be, in order that their unex-
pected success should keep up the same
stupor in the minds of the vulgar. Ad-
miration, enthusiasm, ambition, the
emotions on which his dominion was
founded, are not durable in their nature;
they must be incessantly fed with fresh
stimulants; and to effect that, extra-
ordinary efforts are requisite. These
principles were well known to Napo-
leon; and thence it is that he so often
did evil, albeit knowing better than any
one that it was evil, overruled by a su-
perior power, from which he felt it was
impossible to escape. The rapid move-
ment which he impressed on the affairs
of Europe was of a kind which could
not be arrested; a single retrograde
step, a policy which indicated a sta-
tionary condition, would have been the
signal of his fall. Far, therefore, from
making it subject of reproach to Napo-
leon, that he conceived an enterprise so
gigantic as the Russian expedition, he
is rather to be pitied for being placed
in a situation where he was overruled
by necessity; and this furnishes the
true answer to those who would ascribe
to chance, the rigour of the elements,
or an excess of temerity, what was in
truth but the inevitable consequence
of the false position in which for fifteen
years France had been placed." It is
this law of the moral world which ren-
dered durable peace with that country,
when headed by a revolutionary power,
impossible; and which was ultimately
destined to inflict an awful retribution
on its guilt and its ambition. Experi-
ence, therefore, has now proved that
Mr Pitt's view of the character of the
revolutionary war was well founded;
and that the seizure of the consular
throne by Napoleon, only gave a new
and more dangerous direction to that
restless and insatiable spirit which had
25. Justice requires that it should
be declared, that, in espousing the
cause of the enemy on this occasion,
and uniformly palliating the crimes of
the popular party in that country, the
English Opposition were led, by the
spirit of party, to forget equally the
duties of patriotism and the dictates
of reason. No hesitation need be felt
by a British writer in expressing this
opinion, because the ablest of the liberal
party in France themselves admit that
their partisans in this country fell into
this enormous error.
'Nothing," says
Madame de Staël, "was more contrary
to Buonaparte's nature, or his interest,
than to have made peace in 1800. He
could only live in agitation; and if
anything could plead his apology with
those who reflect on the influence of
external circumstances on the human
mind, it is, that he could only breathe
freely in a volcanic atmosphere. It
was absolutely necessary for him to
present, every three months, a new
object of ambition to the French, in
order to supply, by the grandeur and
variety of external events, the vacuum
occasioned by the removal of all ob-
jects of domestic interest. At that
epoch, unhappily for the spirit of free-
dom in England, the English Opposi-
tion, with Mr Fox at their head, took
an entirely false view of Napoleon ;
and hence it was that that party, pre-
viously so estimable, lost its ascendant
in the nation. It was already too much
to have defended France under the
Reign of Terror; but it was, if pos-
sible, a still greater fault to have con-
sidered Buonaparte as identified with
the principles of freedom, when in truth
he was their deadliest enemy."
"The
eloquent declamations of Mr Fox," says
General Mathieu Dumas, "cannot in-
validate the facts brought forward by
Mr Pitt and Lord Grenville as to the
origin of the war. The Girondists alone
were the cause of its commencement.
The names of those impostors who, to
overturn the monarchical throne of
France, prevailed on the King to de-
clare that fatal war, should be consigned
to an execrable celebrity; they alone
((
I
1800.]
347
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
brought down on Europe and their | ed, and thrown into the scale when it
country a deluge of calamities."
26. War being thus resolved on, the
most vigorous measures were taken,
both by parliament and the executive,
to meet the dangers with which it
might be attended. Parliament voted
the sum of £500,000 to the crown, for
the purpose of immediately aiding Aus-
tria, in the armaments which she had
in contemplation; and Mr Pitt stated
that a loan of £2,500,000 to the Em-
peror would be advanced. The budget
brought forward by the chancellor of
the exchequer exhibited a most flatter-
ing picture of the public credit, and
proved that, notwithstanding the im-
mense expenditure of the eight preced-
ing campaigns, the national resources
were still unimpaired.* The extraor-
dinary fact which he mentioned, that,
in the eighth year of the war, a loan of
eighteen millions and a half had been
obtained at the rate of four and three-
fourths per cent, proved the enduring
credit of the government, and the al-
most boundless extent of the wealth of
England, sustained as it now was by
an adequate and yet safe paper cur-
rency. But both that great financier
and the British public, misled by the
fallacious brilliancy of present appear
ances, overlooked the grievous burden
which the contraction of debt in the
three-per-cents,-in other words, the
imposition of a burden of £100 for
every £60 advanced,-was ultimately
to produce upon the national resources.
27. The land forces of Great Britain
in this year amounted to 168,000 men,
exclusive of 80,000 militia; and for the
service of the fleet, 120,000 seamen and
marines were voted. The ships in com-
mission were no less than 510, includ-
ing 124 of the line. From a table laid
before Parliament in this year, it ap-
peared that the whole troops, exclusive
of militia, which had been raised for
was nearly balanced between France
and Austria, would unquestionably have
terminated the war at the latest in two
campaigns.+
•
28. Several domestic measures of
great importance took place during
this session of parliament. The bank
charter was renewed for twenty-one
years, there being twelve of the old
charter still to run; in consideration
of the advantages of which, the direc-
tors agreed to give the public a loan of
£3,000,000 for six years without inte-
rest; the suspension of the Habeas
Corpus act was continued by a great
majority in both houses of parliament;
and Mr Dundas brought forward a full
and satisfactory account of the affairs
of India.‡
The extraor- of India. The union of Ireland with
Great Britain was, after great resist-
ance from a numerous party in Ireland,
and a stormy debate in both houses of
parliament in Dublin, carried by a large
majority, chiefly through the powerful
abilities, cool courage, and vigorous
efforts of Lord CASTLEREAGH, who then
gave the first specimen of that indomi-
table firmness and steady perseverance
which were afterwards destined, on a
greater stage, to lead the coalition
against France to a glorious issue in
the campaign of 1814. The burgher
and mercantile class throughout the
country were in general lukewarm on
the subject; the citizens of Dublin
|
+ The number of troops raised yearly from
the commencement of the war, for the regu-
of the ignorance which then prevailed as
lar army, was as follows a woeful picture
to the means of combating a revolutionary
power:
1793
1794
1795
1796
•
•
•
•
17,038 1797
38,561 1798
1799
1800
40,460
16,336
•
208,388
Total in eight years,
Lost in same time, 1350 officers, 60,000 men.
the service of the state during the eight-Whereas the French, with a population of
years from 1792 to 1800, had been only 25,000,000, raised, in 1792, 700,000, and in
208,000; a force not greater than might 1793, 1,500,000 soldiers. Prussia, with a po-
have been easily levied in a single year, 200,000 men.-Ann. Reg. 1800, 144, App. to
pulation of 4,000,000, raised in 1813 nearly
out of a population then amounting to Chronicle; PELLEW's Life of Lord Sidmouth,
nearly sixteen millions, in the three i. 126. The population of Great Britain, ac-
kingdoms; and which, if ably conduct- cording to the census of 1800, was 10,642,000
that of Ireland probably 5,000,000.
* See Appendix A, chap. xxx.
‡ Appendix B, chap. XXX.
16,096
21,457
41,316
17,124
•
2
.
·
•
[
·
.
350
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
-
32. One class only, that of annuitants, ed without any of those convulsions
and all others depending on a fixed in- which might have been anticipated
come, underwent, during those years, from so severe a calamity during a
a progressive decline of comfort, which period of almost universal war; and in
was increased in many cases to the the latter part of the year, England, so
most poignant distress by the high far from being overwhelmed by its re-
prices and severe scarcity which fol- verses, was enabled to present an un-
Ïowed the disastrous harvest of 1799. daunted front to the hostility of com-
The attention of parliament was early bined Europe.
directed to the means of alleviating the
famine of that year. Six reports were 34. Deprived, by the secession of
made by the Commons and two by the Russia, of the power from whom they
Lords on the dearth of provisions; but had derived such efficacious assistance
the government, although severely in the preceding campaign, Austria and
pressed by the public suffering, steadily Great Britain made the utmost efforts
resisted all those harsh or violent mea- to prosecute the war with vigour. By
sures which procure a present relief at their united influence, the German em-
the expense of future confidence in the pire was prevailed upon to signa treaty,
cultivators. An act was passed to lower binding the states who composed it to
the quality of all the bread baked in furnish a contingent of three hundred
the kingdom; the importation of rice thousand men for the common cause;
and maize encouraged by liberal boun- but very few of the electors obeyed the
ties; distillation from grain stopped: requisition, and the troops of the em-
and by these and other means an addi-pire were of hardly any service in the
tional supply, to the enormous amount succeeding campaign. To stimulate
of two million five hundred thousand their languid dispositions, a vigorous *
quarters,* nearly a tenth part of the circular was, in the beginning of De-
annual consumption of the people at cember, sent by the Archduke Charles
that period, was procured for the use to the anterior circles of the empire, in
of the inhabitants. By these generous which he strenuously urged the forma-
and patriotic efforts, joined to the ad- tion of new levies, and pointed out, in
mirable patience and forbearance of the energetic terms, the futility of the idea
people, this trying crisis was surmount- that any durable peace was practicable
Year ending 5th Jan. 1796,
Do.
do.
1797,
Do.
do.
do.
do.
Do.
Do.
1797,
1798,
1798,
1799,
1800,
1799,
1800,
-Parl. Hist. xxxiv. 1563.
•
•
Gross receipts from taxes.
Importation of wheat from Jan. 1 to Oct. 1,
of flour from America,
Do.
Do.
of flour from Canada,
Do. of rice, equal to
Stoppage of starch, equal to
Do. of distilleries,
Use of coarse meal,
Retrenchment,
•
•
•
* The resources obtained in this way are thus detailed in the Sixth Report of the Com-
mons:-
£13,557,000
14,292,000
13,332,000
14,275,000
15,743,000
£23,076,000
30,175,000
34,750,000
33,535,000
Quarters.
170,000
580,000
30,000
630,000
40,000
360,000
400,000
300,000
2,510,000
Large as these importations were considered at that period, and unprecedented as they
unquestionably were, they have been greatly exceeded in subsequent times. The grain im-
ported, in twelve months subsequent to the Irish famine of 1846, exceeded 12,000,000 quar-
ters.-PORTER'S Parl. Tables, 1847.
..
1800.]
351
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
?
|
with a country in such a state of revo- | ever, could not be organised in suffi-
lutionary excitement as France, and the | cient time to take a part in the early
vanity of supposing that, by concen- operations of the campaign, and they
trating all the powers of government in formed at best but a poor substitute
the hands of a victorious chieftain, it for the sturdy Russian veterans, who
was likely to be either less formidable were retiring towards the northern ex-
or more pacific. But although that tremity of Germany, equally exasper-
great general was indefatigable in his ated at their allies and their enemies.
endeavours to put the Imperialists on By another and more important treaty,
a respectable footing, and rouse them signed at Vienna on the 20th June, the
to make the most active preparations Emperor agreed to raise his forces,
for war, he was far from feeling any both in Germany and Italy, to the
confidence in the issue of the approach- greatest possible amount, and the two
ing contest, now that Russia was with- powers bound themselves each not to
drawn on the one side, and Napoleon make a separate peace without the con-
was added on the other; and he ear- sent of the other; in consideration of
nestly counselled the Austrian cabinet which England engaged not only to ad-
to take advantage of the successes of vance a subsidy of £2,000,000 sterling
the late campaign, and the recent to the Imperial treasury, but to aug-
change of government in France, by ment as much as practicable the Ger-
concluding peace with the Republic. man and Swiss troops in the British
The cabinet of Vienna, however, deemed pay in the German campaign.
it inadvisable to stop short in the career
of success; and not only refused to
treat with Napoleon, who had proposed
peace on the basis of the treaty of Cam-
po Formio, but deprived the Archduke,
who had so candidly stated his opinion,
of the command of the army in Ger-
many, and conferred it on General
Kray. Notwithstanding the great abi-
lities of the latter general, this change
proved extremely prejudicial to the
Imperial fortunes: the Archduke was
adored by the soldiers, and his retire-
ment not only shook their confidence
in themselves, but cooled the ardour
of the circles in the south of Germany,
to whom his great achievements in the
campaign of 1796 were still the subject
of grateful recollection. He retired to
his government of Bohemia, from
when he had the melancholy prospect
of a series of reverses, which possibly
his talents might have prevented, and
certainly his wisdom had foreseen.
36. Justly proud of the glorious suc-
cesses of the preceding campaign, which,
in so far as its troops were concerned,
had been almost unchequered, and re-
lying with confidence on its superb
armies, two hundred thousand strong,
in Germany and Italy, the cabinet of
Vienna resolved on continuing the con-
test. But the military preparations
which they made were not commensu-
rate to the magnitude of the danger
which was to be apprehended, since
the First Consul was placed at the head
of the French government. Theirforces
in Germany were raised to ninety-two
thousand men, exclusive of the Bava-
rian and Würtemberg contingents; but
this vast body was scattered over an
immense line, from the source of the
Rhine to the banks of the Maine, while
the centre in the valley of the Danube,
where the decisive blows were to be
struck, was so weakened that no re-
spectable force could be collected to
make head against the French invasion.
The army under Melas in Italy, was by
great exertions augmented to ninety-
six thousand men; the Aulic Council,
seduced by the recent conquest of that
country, having fallen into the great
mistake of supposing that the vital
35. By a treaty signed on the 16th
March, the Elector of Bavaria agreed to
put twelve thousand men in the pay of
Great Britain, to be employed in the
common cause; and by another treaty
with the Elector of Mayence and the
Duke of Würtemberg, each of these
petty states agreed to furnish six thou-point of the contest was to be found
sand men, paid by the same power, for in the Maritime Alps or on the banks
the same purpose. These troops, how of the Var, whereas it lay nearer home,
Hel
.1
352
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXX.
r
resisted this act of oppression, an in-
trigue was got up by the democratic
party, and the councils were attempted
to be dissolved by military force. The
conspiracy failed, and Colonel Clavel,
who had been appointed to execute it,
was compelled to take refuge in France;
but the violent party-spirit which these
proceedings left in Switzerland, deprived
it of any weight in the approaching
contest, and prepared the way for its
total subjugation by Napoleon.
38. To make head with such feeble
auxiliaries against the united force of
Austria and England, with a defeated
army, an exhausted treasury, and a dis-
united people, was the difficult task
which awaited the First Consul; but
he soon showed that he was equal to
the attempt. The first step which he
took to accomplish the gigantic under-
taking, was to introduce some degree
of order into the finances, which the
cupidity and profligacy of the preced-
ing administrations had reduced to the
most deplorable state. A deficit of
600,000,000 francs, or £24,000,000 ster-
ling, existed in the revenue of the pre-
ceding year; and recovery of arrears
had become impossible from the uni-
|
37. The republics with which France
had encircled her frontier had either
been conquered by the Allies, or were
in such a state of exhaustion and suf-
fering, as to be incapable of rendering
any effectual aid to the parent state.
The Dutch groaned in silence under a
yoke which was every day becoming
more oppressive. The democratic party
looked back with unavailing regret upon
the infatuation with which they had
thrown themselves into the arms of a
power which used them only as the in-versal penury and misery which pre-
struments of its ambition; while the vailed. The remnant of the public funds,
commercial aristocracy, finding the though deprived of two-thirds of their
trade of the United Provinces destroy- amount, was still selling at eight per
ed, abandoned every species of enter- cent,-not more than a thirty-eighth
prise, lived in the most economical part of their value in 1789, at the com-
way on the interest of their realised mencement of the Revolution. The.
capital, and quietly awaited in retire- abolition of the indirect taxes, conced-
ment the return of more prosperous ed by the Directory to the clamours of
days. By a treaty, concluded on the the populace, had deprived the state
5th January 1800, Holland agreed to of a third of the public revenue. The
pay six millions of francs to France, public treasury was empty; sufficient
and obtained in return only the resti- funds were not to be found in it to fit
tution of the effects of the clergy and out a courier. Payments of every de-
emigrants who had possessions in the scription were made in bills or paper.
United Provinces. So violent was the securities of some sort, which had
hatred at France among its inhabitants, already largely anticipated all the legal
that a loan of a million sterling, which receipts of government. The armies
Napoleon endeavoured to negotiate were supported only by cruel requisi-
among the capitalists of Amsterdam, tions of horses, food, and clothing,
totally failed. Switzerland was in a which had become as oppressive as dur-
still more discontented state. Without ing the Reign of Terror. To avoid the
any regard to the rights of the allied forced loans and arbitrary taxation of
republic, Massena had imposed a forced the wealthier classes, expenditure of
loan on Berne, Bâle, and Zurich; and every sort had altogether ceased among
as the Swiss magistrates courageously the better description of citizens; and
on the shores of the Danube and the
plains of Bavaria. No levies in the
interior were made; few points were
fortified, the government sharing in
the common delusion that the strength
of France was exhausted, that a war
of invasion alone awaited their armies,
and that the Republic would without
difficulty be brought to reasonable terms
of accommodation in the ensuing cam
paign. The foresight of the Archduke
Charles, however, had surrounded Ulm
with a formidable intrenched camp,
which proved of the most essential ser-
vice after the first disasters of the cam-
paign, and retarded for six weeks the
tide of Republican conquest in the
heart of Germany.
i
1
+
1800.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
353
in France, after ten years of revolu- | five per cent on real property, though
tion, the concealment of treasure had a burden that would be deemed intole-
become as common as in the Pashalics rable in any state which had tasted of
of Turkey. Amidst the universal dis- the sweets of real fredom, gave general
may, extortion, pillage, and corruption satisfaction, and soon produced a large
were general among the servants of increase to the revenue. At the same
government. Places, clothing, provi- time the foundations of a sinking fund
sions, stores,—everything, in short, was and a national bank were laid, the pub-
sold to satisfy their cupidity; and while lic forests put under a new and rigor-
every office was openly put up to sale, ous direction, monthly remittances
enormous fortunes were amassed by from the collectors of taxes established,
both the elevated and the inferior agents and the measures commenced, which
of corruption.
were calculated to revive public credit
39. The injustice committed by these after a prostration of ten years. Such
forced loans is one of the most striking was the effect of these measures, that
instances of the monstrous effects of in September 1800 the remaining third
the democratic ascendancy which, by of the national debt had risen from eight
the Revolution of 18th Fructidor, had to forty per cent. The public creditors
obtained in France. They were laid received a half of their payments in
indiscriminately on all property, mov- silver-a change which, from the uni-
able, and immovable, and were found-versal discredit to which paper had
ed-1. On the amount of the direct fallen, was looked upon as the first
contribution; and 2. On an arbitrary great step towards a return to a just
base. Every one who paid 500 francs system of administration.
was taxed at four-tenths of his income;
all who paid 4000 francs and upwards,
at its whole amount. The arbitrary
base was founded on the opinion of a
jury, selected from the lowest classes,
who were entitled to tax the relations
of emigrants or any persons of noble
birth at any sum they chose. The
effects of so iniquitous a system may
be conceived. Property disappeared,
or was concealed as studiously as in the
dynasties of the East. Every branch
of the public revenue was drying up
from the extinction of credit.
40. The establishment of a firm and
powerful government in a great degree
arrested these disorders, and restored
the finances as if by enchantment. The
capitalists of Paris, long inaccessible to
the demands for loans by the revolu-
tionary government, came forward with
12,000,000 of francs; the sale of the
estates of the house of Orange produc-
ed 24,000,000 more; national domains
to a great extent found purchasers from
the increasing confidence in govern-
ment; and, instead of the forced loans
from the opulent classes, which had
utterly annihilated credit, and, by the
flagrant injustice with which they were
levied, recalled the worst days of the
Reign of Terror, a new tax of twenty-
41. The pacification of La Vendée
was the next object of the First Con-
sul. The law of hostages and the
forced requisitions had revived the
civil war in that country, and sixty
thousand men were in the field; but
it was a different contest from the ter-
rible burst which, seven years before,
had proved so disastrous to the Repub-
lican arms. The devastation of the
country, and destruction of the popu-
lation by that bloody strife, had anni-
hilated the elements of resistance on
any considerable scale; and mere gue-
rilla bands, seldom amounting to two
thousand men, traversed the fields in
different directions, levying contribu-
tions, and held together as much by
the love of pillage as by indignation
at oppression. Through the interven-
tion of Hyde Neuville, an able young
man of an ardent disposition, who
nevertheless was not misled by the
dictates of passion, a negotiation was
opened with the leaders of the insur-
gents; and although they paid but
little attention to the first proclama-
tions of Napoleon, yet, being soon con-
vinced by the tenor of his administra-
tion, that a more equitable system than
that of the Revolution was about to
commence, they gradually listened to
TREAT

354
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
}
approach of formidable forces from all
quarters convinced them that they had
now a more difficult antagonist to deal
with than the weak though tyrannical
Directory. Châtillon and d'Autichamp
were the first to give the example of
submission; and soon after Suzanet
and the Abbé Bernier concluded, at
Mont-Luçon, a treaty highly honour-
able to themselves for the termination
of hostilities.
his proposals. At the same time, the | his secretary Bourrienne, he had actu-
ally made out an order for his pardon,
which, from some delay in the trans-
mission, unfortunately arrived too late
to save the hero's life. About the
same time he generously pardoned M.
Defeu, a brave emigrant officer taken
in arms against the state, and doomed
by the cruel laws of the Republic to
instant death.
42. The able and heroic Count Louis
de Frotté was not equally fortunate.
He had written a letter to the Repub-
lican chief, proposing a general pacifi-
cation of the Chouans, and was at the
place of conference, when the negotia-
tion was protracted beyond the time
assigned for the acceptance of terms of
peace by the Royalists. He was then
perfidiously seized, along with all his
followers, on the ground of a letter he
had written to an aide-de-camp during
the negotiation, and brought before a
military tribunal, by which they were
immediately lered to be executed.
They underwent the sentence next day,
and met death with the most heroic
courage, standing erect, with their eyes
unbandaged. One of the aides-de-camp
was only wounded by the first dis-
charge; he calmly ordered the men to
fire again, and fell pierced to the earth.
The unhappy aide-de-camp whose un-
fortunate discovery of the letter had
occasioned this catastrophe, was seized
with such despair that he blew out his
brains. This murder is a lasting stain
on Napoleon's administration. Frotté
was not taken in arms, but perfidiously
seized by a company of Republicans,
when under an escort of the national
troops, and engaged in a negotiation
for a final pacification. But he was
deemed too able to be permitted to
survive, even in that age of returning
clemency. There were no just grounds
for this piece of cruelty, for the inter-
cepted letter, though imprudent, con-
tained nothing which could warrant
the captive's execution. It must be
added, however, in justice to Napo-
leon, that it contained expressions ex-
tremely hostile to the First Consul;
and that, at the earnest solicitation of
43. Georges, Bourmont, and some
others, maintained for a few weeks
longer in Brittany a gallant resistance;
but, finding that the inhabitants were
weary of civil war, and gladly em-
braced the opportunity of resuming
their pacific occupations, they at length
came into the measures of government,
and were treated with equal clemency
and good faith by the First Consul, to
whom most of them ever after yielded
a willing and useful obedience. In the
end of January, General Brune an-
nounced by proclamation that the paci-
fication of La Vendée was complete,
and on the 23d of the following month
a general and unqualified amnesty was
published. The Vendean chiefs were
received with great distinction by Na-
poleon at Malmaison, and generally
promoted to important situations. The
curé Bernier was made Bishop of
Orleans, and intrusted afterwards with
the delicate task of conducting the
negotiation concerning the concordat
with the Papal government. The rapid
and complete pacification of this dis-
tracted province by Napoleon, proves
how much the long duration of its
bloody and disastrous war had been
owing to the cruelty and oppression of
the Republican authorities.
44. The next important step of Na-
poleon was to detach Russia com-
pletely from the alliance of Great Bri-
tain,-an attempt which was much
facilitated by the angry feelings excited
in the mind of the Emperor Paul and
his generals by the disastrous issue of
the preceding campaign, and the rising
jealousy of the maritime power of Great
Britain, which had sprung up from
fortuitous events, in the minds of the
Northern powers, and which in the
following year led to the most import-
ant results. Aware of the favourable
1800.]
355
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
$
·
turn which affairs in the Baltic had in requisition, without any exemption
recently taken, the First Consul lost either in favour of rank or fortune:
no opportunity of cultivating a good this supply put at the disposal of go-
understanding with the Russian Em-vernment one hundred and twenty
peror; and, by a series of adroit acts thousand men. Besides this, a still
of courtesy, succeeded at length, not more efficient force for immediate ser-
only in obliterating all feelings of hos- vice was formed by a summons to all
tility, but in establishing the most per- the veterans who had obtained fur-
fect understanding between the two lough or leave of absence for the eight
cabinets. Napoleon sent back all the preceding years, and who, unless fur-
Russian prisoners in France, seven nished with a valid excuse, were re-
thousand in number, who had been quired again to serve. They joyfully
taken at Zurich and in Holland, not rejoined their colours to serve under
only without exchange, but equipped the conqueror of Rivoli, and this mea-
anew in the Russian uniform. This sure procured a supply of thirty thou-
politic proceeding was not lost on the sand experienced soldiers. At the same
Czar, who had been already dazzled time, the gendarmerie were put on a
by the lustre of Napoleon's victories better footing; and various improve-
in Italy and Egypt. An interchangements effected, particularly in the ar-
of civilities and courtesies ensued, tillery department, which greatly aug-
which ere long terminated in the dis-mented the efficiency of that import-
missal of Lord Whitworth from St ant arm of the public service. Twenty-
Petersburg, and the arrival of Baron five thousand horses, bought in the in-
Springborton, as Russian ambassador, terior, were distributed among the ar-
at Paris. The British vessels were tillery and cavalry on the frontier;
soon after laid under embargo in the and all the stores and equipments of
Russian harbours, and that angry cor- the armies were repaired with a celerity
respondence began, which terminated so extraordinary, that it would have
in the array of all the powers of the appeared incredible, if long experience
North in open hostility against Great had not proved, that confidence in the
Britain.
vigour and stability of government
operates as rapidly in increasing, as
the vacillation and insecurity of demo-
cracy, not obviated by extraordinary
public excitement, or despotic powers

45. The military measures of Napo-
leon were equally energetic. Upon the
refusal of Great Britain to treat, he
issued one of his heart-stirring pro-
clamations, which were so well calcu-in
lated to rouse the ardent spirit of the
French people. He told them that the
English minister had rejected his pro-
posals of peace; that, to command it,
he had need of money, of iron, and
soldiers; and that he swore to combat
alone for the happiness of France and
the peace of the world. This animated
address, coupled with the magic that
encircled the name of Napoleon, pro-
duced an amazing effect. Victory
seemed again about to attend the Re-
publican standards, under the auspices
of a leader to whom she had never yet
proved faithless; the patriotic ardour
of 1793 was in part revived, with all the
addition which the national strength
had since received from the experience
of later times. The first class of the
conscription for the year 1800 was put
its leaders, does in withering the
national resources. Far from experi-
encing the difficulty which had been
so severely felt by the Directory in re-
taining the soldiers to their colours,
the consular government was power-
fully seconded by the patriotic efforts
of all classes. Several brilliant corps
of volunteers were formed; and the
ranks rapidly filled up by veterans
hastening to renew their toils under a
leader to whom fortune had hitherto
proved so propitious. In consequence,
the government soon found itself at
the head of two hundred and fifty
thousand men, with whom to com-
mence hostilities in Italy and Ger-
many; while above one hundred thou-
sand conscripts were rapidly learning
the rudiments of war at the depots in
the interior, and before six months
12
356
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
..
might be expected to join the armies | top of all the official letters at the
on the frontier.
commencement of the consulship, was
suppressed. Some doubt existed, in the
first instance, as to which of the con-
suls should take the chair, and Sièyes
openly asserted his pretensions to it, in
virtue as well of his seniority as of his
great services in the cause of freedom;
but Napoleon cut the matter short by
stepping into the chair himself. The
jealousy of the elder consul was soon
removed by the grant of the large pro-
perty out of the park of Versailles,
which has been already mentioned.
At the same time, the habiliments and
ensigns of authority were changed; the
Greek and Roman costumes, which re-
called the ideas of equality lately so
much in vogue, were abolished, and re-
placed by the military dress. The First
Consul appeared on all occasions in
uniform, with boots and spurs; and all
the inferior military functionaries fol-
lowed his example. The levees, which
he held almost daily, were crowded
with officers in full dress; and the
court of the first magistrate of the Re-
public was noways distinguishable from
the headquarters of its greatest general.
At the same time, the institution of sa-
bres and fusils of merit, as a testimony
of reward to military distinction, al-
ready shadowed out to the discerning
eye the Legion of Honour, and the re-
establishment of titles of rank and a
hereditary nobility; while the daily re-
views, with all the pomp and splendour
of war, in the Place Carrousel, accus-
tomed the people to those magnificent
pageants which were destined to con-
ceal from their gaze the chains of the
empire.
3,000
Legislative Body, 2,400,000 fr., or £96,000
Tribunate,
1,312,000
53,000
Archives,
75,000
Three Consuls,
1,800,000
Council of State, 675,000
Their Secretaries,
Six Ministers,
Minister of Foreign
Affairs,
47. These measures were all steps,
and not unimportant ones, toward the
re-establishment of monarchical autho-
rity. But they were the prelude only
to greater changes. In December 1799,
an important arrêt was published, which,
on the preamble-"That a part of the
journals printed at Paris are instru-
ments in the hands of the enemies of
the Republic; and that it is the first
duty of the government to watch over
its security," decreed, "That the min-
6,824,500 fr., or £273,000 ister of police should not suffer to be
printed, during the continuance of the
112,500
4,500
360,000
14,000
90,000
3,500
46. But it was not merely in such
praiseworthy efforts for the security
and pacification of France, that the
energies of the First Consul were em-
ployed. He already meditated the re-
establishment of the monarchy, and
early commenced that system of mis-
leading the people by false epithets,
and dazzling them by splendid page-
ants, which was intended to prepare
them for the lustre of the throne, and
induce them to concur in the recon-
struction of all the parts of the social
edifice, which it had been the object of
the Revolution to destroy. To accom-
plish this object, he applied himself to
what he was well aware is at all times,
but especially during the decline of re-
volutionary fervour, the ruling princi-
ple of human nature,-viz. self-interest.
All the officers of state, all the mem-
bers of the legislature, were endowed
with ample salaries; even the tribunate,
which professed to be the barrier of
the people against the encroachments
of government, received above £50,000
a-year among its eighty members, being
at the rate of nearly £700 a-year to
each individual who composed it; a
very large allowance in a country where
the highest civil functionaries, the heads
of the law and church, received only
from £300 to £600 annually; and the
great body of the parochial clergy only
£40 or £50.* From the very first, he
commenced the demolition of all those
ensigns and expressions which recalled
the idea of the liberty and equality,
from the strife of which his redoubt-
able power had arisen. The image of
the Republic, seated and holding a
spear in her hand, which was at the
* The civil list under the First Consul was
fixed at the following sums :-
-BOURRIENNE, iii. 242.
..
72,000
27,000
St


1800.]
357
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
.A
war, any journals but the following." | adorn the great gallery chosen by Na-
Then followed a list of thirteen news-poleon himself; he selected among the
papers, thus invested with the mono- ancients, Demosthenes and Alexander,
poly of Paris; and from those thus sup- Brutus and Cæsar; among the mo-
pressed were only excepted "those ex- derns, Gustavus Adolphus, Turenne,
clusively devoted to science, the arts, li- Condé, Prince Eugene, Marlborough,
terature, commerce, or advertisements." Marshal Saxe, Frederick, Washington,
It was decreed, by a separate article, Dugommier, Dampierre, and Joubert.
that "any journal among those retain- At length the translation of the Con-
ed, which inserted anything contrary to suls from the Luxembourg to the Tuil-
the sovereignty of the people, should be eries took place; the royal apartments
immediately suppressed." This clause, were destined for Napoleon, those in
inserted to blind the people to the real the pavilion of Flora for the other Con-
tendency of the measure, received in suls. The cortège set out from the Lux-
the sequel, as was foreseen at the time, embourg, surrounded by a splendid
the most liberal interpretation, and was train of officers and three thousand
applied, contrary to its obvious mean- chosen troops, among whom the fa-
ing, to sanction the extinction of all mous regiment of Guides was peculi-
newspapers opposed to the consular go-arly conspicuous. Napoleon, with the
vernment. Thus early commenced the two other Consuls, was drawn in a mag-
system of Napoleon for the coercion of nificent chariot by six white horses, the
the press-a system which received, same which the Emperor of Austria had
during the remainder of his reign, such given him after the treaty of Campo For-
ample development; and which, as Ma-mio; he bore in his hand the splendid
dame de Staël justly remarks, converted sabre presented to him by the same so-
that great engine, generally considered vereign on that occasion. The cabinet
as the palladium of liberty, into the ministers followed in their carriages,
most powerful instrument of bondage, the only ones which were to be seen on
by perpetually exhibiting a series of the occasion; for such was the miser-
false and delusive pictures to the hu- able destitution in which the Revolu-
man mind, and excluding all others tion had left the highest civil function-
from view.
aries of France, that to transport the
council of state they were obliged to
have recourse to hackney-coaches! The
real luxury of that period consisted in
the splendour of the troops, whose bril-
liant uniforms and prancing chargers
formed a painful contrast to the mean-
ness and simplicity of the civil autho-
rities. Last and sad effect of revolu-
tionary convulsions, to cast to the earth
everything but the ensigns of military
prowess!
48. The next step of Napoleon was
to fix his residence in the Tuileries, and
sleep in the ancient apartments of the
kings of France. This great change,
however, required considerable caution
in its accomplishment; it was so palpa-
ble an approach towards royalty, that
it might shock the feeling of the peo-
ple, and endanger the newly established
authority. Slowly, and with profound
dissimulation, therefore, he proceeded
in his advances. A fine statue of Bru-
tus was first placed in one of the gal-
leries of the palace; it was thought the
most ardent republicans could appre-
hend nothing from a change which com-
menced with honour done to the hero
who had slain a tyrant. Orders were
next given to repair and put in order
the royal apartments in the Tuileries,
and under the veil of these words great
changes were effected. The bonnets
rouges and republican emblems were
all effaced; the statues which were to
a
49. From the opening into the Carrou-
sel, from the quay of the Tuileries to the
gate of the palace, the procession passed
through a double line of guards
royal usage, which offered a singular
contrast to the inscription on the guard-
house by which it passed-
66 10th
August 1792-Royalty is abolished in
France, and shall never be re-established.”
On entering the gates, he observed some
clusters of pikes surmounted by bon-
nets rouges and tricolor flags.
"Re-
move all that rubbish," said he, with
·



358
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[CHAP. XXX.
L
1
with as much splendour as the dilapi-
dated state of most fortunes would per-
mit; and a drawing-room, composed
chiefly of the wives of the young gen-
erals who had been the companions of
Napoleon, presided over by the grace
and elegance, and embellished by the
extravagance, of Josephine, already re-
fo
liant staff who surrounded him bore on
their visages the marks of the sun of
Italy or the sands of Egypt. When the
banners of the ninetieth, the forty-
third, and thirtieth demi-brigades,
which exhibited only bare poles riddled
with shot and surmounted by tatters
black with powder, were carried past,
he bowed with respect to the monu-
ments of military valour. Enthusiastic
acclamations rent the skies; and such
was the universal transport, that, when
the review was concluded, and the First
Consul ascended to the audience-cham-
ber, and took his station in the centre
of the room, his colleagues were
duced to the rank of pages following
his train. On that day royalty was in
truth re-established in France, some-
what less than eight years after it had
been abolished by the revolt of the 10th
August. On the night of his entry into
the Tuileries, Napoleon said to his se-
cretary "Bourrienne, it is not enough
to be in the Tuileries; we must take
measures to remain there. Who has
not inhabited this palace? It has been
the abode of robbers, of members of
the Convention. Ah! there is your
brother's house, from which, eight
years ago, we saw the good Louis XVI.
besieged in the Tuileries, and carried
off into captivity. But you need not
fear a repetition of the scene. Let them
attempt it with me if they dare." +
characteristic impatience.* No sooner
had he arrived at the foot of the great
stair than Napoleon, allowing the other
Consuls to ascend to the presence-
chamber, mounted on horseback, and,
amidst incessant cries of "Vive le Pre-
mier Consul!" passed in review above
twenty thousand men. Murat was on
his right, Lannes on his left; the bril-vived to a certain degree the lustre of
a court. Napoleon was indefatigable
in his attention to these matters. He
deemed the colour of a livery, the cut
of a court-dress, not beneath his notice,
endeavouring in every way to dazzle
the eyes of the vulgar, and efface all re-
collection of the Republic before it was
formally abolished by the authority of
government. For the same reason,
he revived the use of silk stockings in
dress, and re-established the balls of
the opera an event which was so
great an innovation on the manners of
the Republic, that it created quite a
sensation at that period. But Napo-
re-leon, in pursuing these measures, knew
well the character of the French.
"While they are discussing these
changes," said he, "they will cease to
talk nonsense about my politics; and
that is what I want. Let them amuse
themselves, let them dance; but let
them not thrust their heads into the
councils of government. Commerce
will revive under the increasing ex-
penditure of the capital. I am not
afraid of the Jacobins; I never was so
much applauded as at the last parade.
It is ridiculous to say that nothing is
right but what is new; we have had
enough of such novelties. I would
rather have the balls of the opera than
the saturnalia of the Goddess of Rea-
son.”
50. No sooner was the First Consul
established at the Tuileries, than the
usages, dress, and ceremonial of a court
were at once resumed. The antecham-
bers were filled with chamberlains,
pages, and esquires; footmen in bril-
liant liveries filled the lobbies and
staircases; the levees were conducted
Madag
* "Otez-moi bien vite toutes ces cochon-of
neries-là."-CAPEFIGUE, Histoire de Louis Phil-
ippe, v. 233.
† Ante, chap. VII. § 73.
to recognise the consular government, and
The King of Prussia was among the first
Napoleon was highly gratified when an aide-
de-camp, whom he despatched to Berlin,
royal table. M. Lucchesini, in October 1800,
was admitted to the honour of dining at the
was charged with a special mission to the
court of the Tuileries from the Prussian go-
vernment. The First Consul received him
at St Cloud, and was at the balcony when he
arrived. He was much struck with the de-
corations which he bore, and the rich livery
the servants who attended him; and he
was heard to exclaim, "That is imposing:
we must have things of that sort to dazzle
the people."-THIBAUDEAU, 14-15.
1800.]
359
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
51. The condition of the emigrants | archies, the resource of despots, incon-
next attracted the attention of the First sistent with anything like freedom, but
Consul. No less than a hundred and the sad legacy bequeathed to succeed-
forty-five thousand persons were on the ing ages by the despotism of the mon-
lists of emigrants, banished either by archy, and the convulsions and devas-
the Convention or the Directory. This tations of the Revolution. The spies
immense and miserable body was gra- and agents of this police and counter-
dually and cautiously restored to France police soon filled every coffee-house and
by his exertions. In the first instance, theatre in Paris; they overheard con-
a decree was published, which took off versations, mingled in groups, encour-
the sentence of banishment against a aged seditious expressions, were to be
great number of those who had been found alike in saloons of palaces and
exiled by the result of the 18th Fruc- in prisons, and rendered every man in-
tidor. It was only provided that they secure, from the monarch on the throne
should be under the surveillance of the to the captive in the dungeon. Lately
police, and reside at the places appoint-appointed governor of Paris, Junot had
ed for each respectively in the decree. a multitude of inferior agents in his
Among the persons thus restored pay to watch the motions of Fouché ;
against an unjust sentence, were many and he, in his turn, carried corruption
of the most eminent citizens of the Re- into the bosom of the consular family,
public: Carnot, Barthélemy, Boissy and, by liberally supplying funds for
d'Anglas, Portalis, Villaret- Joyeuse, her extravagance, obtained secret infor-
and above forty others. The First Con- mation from Josephine herself. This
eul immediately made use of the most miserable system has survived all the
eminent of them in the service of the changes amid which it arose. The for-
state: Carnot was appointed minister midable engine, organised in the heart
at war in the absence of Berthier, and of Paris, with its arms extending over
contributed in a powerful manner to all France, is instantly seized upon by
the glorious issue of the succeeding each successive faction which rises to
campaign. Barère also was recalled, the head of affairs; the herd of in-
and was so desirous to receive employ-formers and spies is perpetuated from
ment, that he wrote a long letter justi-generation to generation, and exercises
fying his conduct to Napoleon. But its prostituted talents for behoof of any
the latter never could be persuaded to government which the armed force of
take into his direct service that harden- the capital has elevated to supreme
ed republican. Those proscribed by power; the people, habituated to this
the Directory were thus early admit- unseen authority, regard it as an indis-
ted into favour; at a subsequent period pensable part of regular government;
he received with equally open arms the and a system, which was the disgrace
Royalists and the victims of the Revo- of Roman servitude in the corrupted
lution. The only faction against which days of the empire, is ingrafted on a
to the last he was inveterate, was the government which boasts of concen-
remnant of the Jacobin party, who re-trating within itself all the lights of
tained throughout all his reign the re-modern civilisation.
solution of their character and the per-
versity of their opinions.
52. At the time when Napoleon was
placed on the consular throne, he or-
ganised his secret police, intended to
act as a check on the public one of
Fouché. Duroc was at first at the
head of this establishment, to which
Junot, as governor of Paris, soon after
succeeded. So early did this great
leader avail himself of this miserable
engine, unknown in constitutional mon-
53. The circumstances of the Roman
empire, as remodelled by Constantine,
afford a striking analogy to those of
France when Napoleon ascended the
throne; and it is curious to observe
how exactly the previous destruction
of the nobility and higher classes in
the two countries paved the way, by
necessary consequence, for the same
despotic institutions.
"The patrician
families," says Gibbon, "whose origi-
nal numbers were never recruited till
i
360
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
E
į
1
the end of the commonwealth, either
failed in the ordinary course of nature,
or were extinguished in so many fo-
reign or domestic wars. Few remained
who could derive their genuine origin
from the foundation of the city, when
Cæsar and Augustus, Claudius and
Vespasian, created a competent num-
ber of new patrician families. But
these artificial supplies, in which the
reigning house was always included,
were rapidly swept away by the rage
of tyrants, by frequent revolutions, the
change of manners, and the intermix-
ture of nations. Little more was left,
when Constantine ascended the throne,
than a vague and imperfect tradition
that the patricians had once been the
first among the Romans. To form a
body of nobles whose influence may
restrain, while it secures, the authority
of the monarch, would have been very
inconsistent with the character and po-
licy of Constantine; but, had he seri-
ously entertained such a design, it
might have exceeded the measure of
his power to ratify, by an arbitrary
edict, an institution which must expect
the sanction of time and opinion. He
revived, indeed, the title of patricians;
but he revived it as a personal, not a
hereditary distinction. They yielded
only to the transient authority of the
annual consuls; but they enjoyed the
pre-eminence over all the great offi-
cers of state. This honourable rank
was bestowed on them for life; and as
they were usually favourites and minis-
ters at the imperial court, the true ety-
mology of the word was perverted by
ignorance and flattery, and the patri-
cians of Constantine were reverenced
as the adopted fathers of the emperor
and the republic.
posts, a rapacious and insolent oppres-
sion. These official spies, who corre-
sponded with the palace, were encour-
aged, with reward and favour, anxi-
ously to watch the progress of every
treasonable design, from the faint and
latent symptoms of disaffection, to the
actual preparation of open revolt. Their
careless or criminal violation of truth
and justice was covered by the conse-
crated mask of zeal; and they might
securely aim their poisoned arrows at
the breast either of the innocent or the
guilty, who had provoked their resent-
ment or refused to purchase their si-
lence. A faithful subject of Syria, per-
haps, or Britain, was exposed to the
danger, or at least to the dread, of
being dragged in chains to the court of
Milan or Constantinople, to defend his
life and fortune against the malicious
charges of these privileged informers."
This might pass for a description of
the Conservative Senate and the police
of Napoleon.
55. "Augustus knew well," says the
same historian, "that mankind are
governed by names; and that they
will in general submit to real slavery,
if they are told that they are in the
enjoyment of freedom."
No man un-
derstood this principle better than Na-
poleon. While he was preparing, by
fixing his residence in the royal palace,
the appointments of the legislature by
the executive, the suppression of the
liberty of the press, and the establish-
ment of a vigilant police, for the over-
throw of all the principles of the Re-
volution, he was careful to publish to
the world proclamations which still
breathed the spirit of democratic free-
dom. Shortly before his installation
in the Tuileries, intelligence arrived of
the death of Washington, the illustri-
ous founder of American independence.
He immediately issued the following
order of the day to the army: "Wash-
ington is dead! That great man has
struggled with tyranny; he consoli-
dated the liberty of his country. His
54. "The police insensibly assumed
the licence of reporting whatever they
could observe of the conduct, either of
magistrates or private citizens, and
were soon considered as the eyes of the
monarch and the scourge of the peo-
ple. Under the warm influence of a
feeble reign, they multiplied to the in-memory will be ever dear to the French
credible number of ten thousand, dis- people, as to all freemen in both hemi-
dained the mild though frequent ad- spheres, who, like him and the American
monitions of the laws, and exercised, soldiers, have fought for liberty and
in the profitable management of the equality. As a mark of respect, the
1800.]
361
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
black crape shall be suspended from
all the standards and banners of the
Republic." Thus, by the skilful use
of high-sounding names and heart-stir-
ring recollections, did this great master
of the art of dissimulation veil his ad-
vances towards absolute power, and
engraft an enthusiastic admiration for
his despotic government on the turbu-
lent passions which had been nourished
by the Revolution.
First Consul orders, that for ten days | Carrousel next suggested the idea of
uniting the Louvre and the Tuileries,
and forming a vast square between
these two sumptuous edifices. At first
it was proposed to construct a building
across the vacant area, in order to con-
ceal the oblique position in which they
stood to each other; but this idea was
soon abandoned, as Napoleon justly
observed, that "no building, how ma-
jestic soever, could compensate for a
vast open space between the Louvre
and Tuileries." The construction of a
fourth side for the great square, oppo-
site to the picture gallery, was there-
fore commenced, and the demolition of
the edifices in the interior soon after
began; a great undertaking, which the
subsequent disasters of his reign pre-
vented him from completing, and which
all the efforts of succeeding sovereigns
have not been able as yet to bring to
a conclusion. The Pont-des-Arts, be-
tween the Louvre and the Palace of
the Institute, was commenced about
the same time, and the demolition of
the convents of the Feuillans and Ca-
pucines made way for the Rue de Ri-
voli, which now forms so noble a bor-
der to the gardens of the Tuileries.
Malmaison at this time was the favour-
ite country residence of the First Con-
sul; but he already meditated the
establishment of his court at St Cloud,
and the apartments of that palace be-
gan to be fitted up in that sumptuous
style which has rendered their furni-
ture unequalled in all the palaces of
France.
57. The First Consul did not as yet
venture openly to break with the Re-
publican party, but he lost no oppor-
tunity of showing in what estimation
he held their principles. On occasion
of the establishment of the Court of
Cassation, the supreme tribunal of
France, he said to Bourrienne,—“I do
not venture as yet to take any decided
step against the regicides; but I will
show what I think of them. To-mor-
row I shall be engaged with Abrial in
the organisation of the Tribunal of Cas-
sation. Target, who is its president,
declined to defend Louis XVI.: whom
do you suppose I am about to name in
2 A
56. Notwithstanding many little-
nesses, which would be inconceivable
in ordinary men, the mind of Napo-
leon was fraught with many elevated
ideas. In nothing did this appear in a
more striking manner, than in the mea-
sures he undertook for the improve-
ment of the metropolis. He had early
conceived an admiration for architec-
tural decoration, which his residence
among the stately monuments of Egypt
had converted into a chastened and
elevated passion. His present situation,
as chief of the French government,
gave him ample room for the indul-
gence of this truly regal disposition,
and he already began to conceive those
great designs for the embellishment of
Paris and the improvement of France,
which have thrown such durable lustre
over his reign. The inconceivable ac-
tivity of his mind seemed to take a
pleasure in discovering new objects for
exertion; and at a time when he was
conducting the diplomacy of Europe,
and regulating all the armies of France,
he was maturing plans for the con-
struction of roads, bridges, and canals,
through all its wide extent, and set-
ting on foot those great works which
have given such splendour to its capi-
tal. He early selected M. Fontaine
and M. Perier as the instruments of
his designs, and, aided by the sugges-
tions of these able architects, the em-
bellishment of the metropolis proceed-
ed at an accelerated pace. The forma
tion of a quay on the banks of the
Seine, opposite to the Tuileries, near
the Quai Voltaire, first removed a de-
formity which had long been felt in
looking from the windows of the pal-
ace; and the clearing out of the Place
VOL. IV.
Say
362
[CHAP. XXX.
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
7
S
"The partisans
".
his place? Tronchet, who so nobly | aid in such an event.
discharged that perilous duty. They of the Bourbons," said he, "are much
may say what they choose; my mind mistaken if they imagine that I am the
is made up."
Tronchet accordingly man to play the part of Monk. I am
received the appointment so richly de- not insensible to the hazard to which
served by his heroic conduct. The fête France may be one day exposed from
commemorating the murder of Louis my decease without issue, as my bro-
XVI. was at the same time suppressed, thers are evidently unfit for such a
and concerts of sacred music were per- throne; but consider the absurdity of
mitted on Sundays at the Opera. Thus, the propositions which they have made
though the Republican calendar was to me. How could we secure so many
still observed, an approach was made new interests and vested rights against
to the ancient mode of measuring time the efforts of a family returning with
in the public amusements.
eighty thousand emigrants, and all the
prejudices of fanaticism? What would
become of the holders of national do-
mains, and all those who had taken an
active part in the Revolution? The
Bourbons would conceive they had con-
quered by force; all their professions
and promises would give way before
the possession of power. My part is
taken; no one but a fool would place
any reliance upon them."
By such
specious arguments did Napoleon veil
the real motives of his conduct in this
particular, which was jealousy of the
legal heir to the throne.t
58. Louis XVIII. at this time wrote
several letters to Napoleon, in which
he expressed the high esteem in which
he held his character, and offered him
any situation which he chose to fix on
under the government, if he would aid
in re-establishing the throne of the
Bourbons. Napoleon replied in firm
but courteous terms, declining to have
any connection with the exiled family.*
He clearly foresaw, with admirable sa-
gacity, all the difficulties which would
attend the restoration of that unfortu-
nate family, and felt no inclination to
* The letter of Louis XVIII, was in these
terms:
"For long, General, you must have known
the esteem in which I hold you. If you
doubt my gratitude, fix upon the place you
desire for yourself; point out the situations
Not disconcerted with this repulse, the
which you wish for your friends. As to my Bourbon family endeavoured to open a nego-
principles, they are those of the French cha-tiation with Napoleon, through the Duchess
racter. Clemency on principle accords with of Guiche, a lady of great beauty and abilities,
the dictates of reason.
who found no difficulty in penetrating to
Josephine, and conveying to her the proposi-
tions of the exiled family, which were, that
he should, on restoring them, be made Con-
stable of France, and receive the principality
of Corsica. Napoleon no sooner heard of it
than he ordered the fascinating duchess to
leave Paris in twenty-four hours-an order
which gave great satisfaction to Josephine,
who already had become somewhat uneasy
at the proximity of so charming a personage.
It had been proposed that a splendid pillar
should be erected on the Place Carrousel,
surmounted by a statue of Napoleon crown-
ing the Bourbons. "Nothing was wanting,"
said Napoleon, "to such a design, except
that the pillar should be founded on the dead
M
"No-the victor of Lodi, Castiglione, and
Arcola, the conqueror of Italy and Egypt,
can never prefer a vain celebrity to true glory.
But you are losing the most precious mo-
ments. We could secure the happiness of
France. I say we, for I require Buonaparte
for such an attempt, and he could not achieve
it without me. General, Europe observes
you-glory awaits you, and I am impatient
to restore peace to my people.”
This answer was not despatched for seven
months after the receipt of the letter from
Louis, and when the Congress of Lunéville
was about to open. -BoURRIENNE, iv. 77-
79.
Napoleon replied:
"I have received, sir, your letter. I thank
you for the obliging expressions which it
contains regarding myself.
"You should renounce all hope of return-
ing to France. You could not do so but over
the bodies of one hundred thousand French-body of the First Consul."-LAS CASES, i.
men. Sacrifice your interest to the repose 289, 290; and CAPEFIGUE, i. 140.
and happiness of France. History will duly
appreciate your conduct in so doing.
"I am not insensible to the misfortunes of
your family, and shall learn with pleasure
that you are surrounded with everything
which can secure the tranquillity of your re-
treat."
t
↑ "Son nom serait suspect à mon autorité:
On sait son droit au trône, et ce droit est
un crime.
Du destin qui fait tout, tel est l'arrêt cruel-
Si j'eusse été vaincu je serais criminel."
VOLTAIRE'S Zaïre, Act i. scene 5.

1800.]
363
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
59. Thus, on all sides, the prospects | tory than the sudden resurrection of
of France rapidly brightened under France under the government of this
the auspices of Napoleon. To the in- great man, or more descriptive of the
security, distrust, and terror which natural tendency of human affairs to
had paralysed all the efforts of patriot-right themselves after a period of dis-
ism under the Directory, succeeded order. It evinces the general dispo-
confidence, energy, and hope; genius sition of all classes, when taught wis-
emerged from obscurity to take an dom by suffering, to resume that place
active part in public affairs; corruption in society for which they were destined
and profligacy ceased to poison every by nature, and in which alone their
branch of administration. There is exertions can add to the sum of the gen-
nothing more striking in European his- eral felicity.

?
,*
APPENDIX.
1

·
APPENDIX.
THE Budget stood thus :-
Navy,
Army,
CHAPTER XXX.
NOTE A, p. 347.
RECEIPTS-WAYS AND MEANS.
Land and Malt Tax,
Lottery,
Duties on Exports and Imports,
Income-Tax,
Surplus of Consolidated Fund,
Loan by Exchequer Bills,
Lent by Bank without interest,
Loan for Great Britain,
EXPENDITURE.
Miscellaneous,
Interest on Exchequer Bills,
Deficiencies of year 1799,
Deficiency of Malt Tax and Land do.,
Exchequer Bills,
Do. for 1798, .
Vote of Credit,
Subsidies to Germans and Russians,
Annual grant for National Debt,
Unforeseen emergencies,
•
•
To provide for the interest of this loan, amounting in all to
£21,500,000, Mr Pitt laid on some trifling taxes on spirits and
tea, amounting in all to £350,000, the interest on the bulk of
the debt being laid as a charge on the income-tax. The inte-
rest paid on the loan was only 4 per cent; a fact which he justly
stated as extraordinary in the eighth year of the war. The inte-
Carry over,
£2,750,000
200,000
1,250,000
5,300,000
5,512,000
3,000,000
3,000,000
18,500,000.
£39,512,000
£12,619,000
11,370,000
750,000
816,000
440,000*
350,000
2,500,000
1,075,000
3,000,000
3,000,000
200,000
1,800,000
£37,920,000
APPENDIX.
365
Brought forward,
rest on the public debt at this time was £19,700,000,
and on Exchequer Bills, &c., £1,983,000; in all, £21,683,000
Civil List,
Civil Expenses,
Charges of Management,
Other charges on Consolidated Fund,
Bengal,
Madras,
Bombay,
Surplus,
25,246,000
£63,166,000
Total National Expenditure in 1800,
-See Parl. Hist. xxxiv. 1515; and Ann. Reg. App. to Chronicle for 1800, pp.
151, 152.
Interest on Debt,
Other Charges,
NOTE B, p. 347.
From Mr Dundas's statement it appeared that the total revenue in 1798-9
was £8,610,000, the local charges £7,807,000, and the interest of debt and other
charges £875,000, leaving a deficiency in territorial revenue of £71,000; to cover
which there were the commercial profits, amounting to £630,000; leaving a
general balance in favour of the company of £558,000 yearly.
The revenue and expenditure were thus divided :-
Revenue.
£6,259,600
2,004,993
346,110
-See Parl. Hist. xxxv. 15.
£8,610,703
7,807,065
£803,638
£758,135
117,160
Deficiency,
Commercial Profits,
Deduct territorial loss,
875,295
£71,657
898,000
647,000
1,779,000
239,000
Annual Surplus,
END OF VOL, IV.
£37,920,000

Charges.
£3,952,847
2,857,519
996,699
£7,807,065
£629,657
71,657
£558,000
i
PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH.

............
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
ܟ ܠ ܐ ܢ
BOUND BY
JOHN GRAY
EDINBURCH
A
3 9015 02308 0198
NATA AN

ゆ
​bitymui.
子
​2
Lafo
UXAM
ひとご
​営​業
​1620
[UMËSHTI