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Ū}} rc：: ĶĪG į) šrų ºr”. № … {{!} * * · ~~~）; -j- ly * 4- S \} f) {} - l, €ſ *º- W 2} 6. Å. ș ſcae * {）}）} {}} tº:！ „…«* Öſ) •~! ~*=~{ wr--| ***) *** → ¿ **~ł · {X} {x'i -·!* Çſ; F-~| a rº-4 „№j C1,…, Œ • F-4 {/0} ? |tv-~~! (}） {1} {ºssº! a r-| };*, ſ°, [...];iſ *** ... » u * * ... （j）.*; ; : : ? *: < . . , （v→ · * . . . .-}،-- * . : * A^::： ~~~ x）}-* * * - * （ ）* … „ , * *}---• … *ș- ¿¿ $ „“ ， ºg§.*?--«»- ， ： ?>-- ~~ «…??！！ !!!,，,§, §§∞ √∞ √°.'， " . . !. * 32d Congress, [SENATE.] Ex. Doc. 1st Session. - No. 76. gº fºs & sº Q. C. sº ºs { v. º --~~~. . . . 27 R. E. P. O. R. T. 32, 3 ºr {} ºf sº, j : - - OF * : - . . . .-- - - - - - -ºs. *-** ****- : * ~x. T H E S E C R. E. T A R Y O F W A R, . . . . CoMMUNICATING, Ha compliance with a resolution of the Senate, a report from the Topo- graphical Bureau, relative to the improvement of the St. Clair flats. JUNE 3, 1852. Ordered to be laid on the table, and be printed. WAR DEPARTMENT, Washington, JMay 31, 1852. SIR. In compliance with the resolution of the Senate, of the 25th inst., directing the Secretary of War to report to that body “the best plan, in his opinion, for the improvement of the St. Clair flats, in Lake St. Clair, and State of Michigan, together with an estimate of the execution of such plan,” I transmit herewith the report of the chief topographical engineer, containing the desired information. . - I have the honor to be, yery respectfully, your obedient servant, - . . . . . . . . C. M. CONRAD, - . . . - Secretary of War. Hon. WM. R. KING, g President of the Senate. BUREAU of ToPogRAPHICAL ENGINEERs, . . . . . . . . . . Washington, JMay 28, 1852. SIR: The resolution of the Senate of the 25th instant, upon which re- port is required, is in the following words: “Resolved, That the Secretary of War report to the Senate the best plan, in his opinion, for the improvement of the St. Clair flats, in Lake St. Clair, and State of Michigan, together with an estimate for the execu- tion of such plans.” . The resolution embodies two ideas: 1st. A plan for the work. 2d. An estimate for the execution of such plan. ". - The first official action of the War Department on this matter was in 1842, when the attention of the late Captain Williams, then on duty in that region, was directed towards this subject. - In his report of December 22, 1842, he says: “Lake St. Clair is suffi- ciently land-locked not (probably) to render any harbors there essential for J-... * [76] 2 the security of shipping; but it nevertheless presents itself under an aspect equally important by reference to the question of a commercial avenue. Maps and estimates will be submitted immediately, relating to the obstruc- tions at the delta of the St. Clair river. By the removal of a very insig- nificant obstruction, an uninterrupted channel will be opened to the great trade between Buffalo and Chicago. Of this I have spoken in preceding reports.” Also, in the same report, he says: “In regard the St. Clair river, as I consider it equally a matter of urgency that the work should be put in progress, I have had the maps promptly completed, and they will accompany this communication in order that time may be allowed for the action of Congress upon it. This part of the survey was entrusted to me by Lieutenant J. N. Macomb, assisted by Lieutenant W. H. Warner, and they have accomplished the work, both in the field and in the comple- tion of the maps, in a manner which I feel assured will give satisfaction to the bureau. The delta of the St. Clair is found to consist of four channels, as shown by the map. The north channel is the one which has been used by vessels, but it is very difficult, owing to its winding character. The south channel is that which I should recommend to be improved. It cuts off a distance of five miles, would require less excavation, and is in every respect more eligible.” - “In projecting a plan for the opening of the channel, I think it advisable at first merely to make the estimate for the cost of dredging. I think it quite possible that the channel will remain open without any lateral work to protect it. The frequent passage of vessels through the channel will favor this tendency ; but should any appearance of a change take place in a transverse direction to the channel by the washing in of sand, a barrier of pile-planking, or a line of crib-work would have to be applied. In this case, likewise, by giving a wider opening to the entrance of the channel, and by placing, if necessary, an obstruction on the wings at the upper end, a greater velocity might be imparted to the current through the channel, and by this ineans it might be kept clear of alluvious, which would be swept into deeper water; and as the tendency to a bar is very slight, I think that this arrangement would be found to answer the object intended. To dredge out the channel five hundred feet in width to a depth of twelve feet below the mean elevation of the lake’s surface, would necessitate a removal of 247,293 cubic yards of earth, which, estimating the cost at twenty-five cents a cubic yard, which is a liberal price for that kind of work, The cost would be - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $61,823 25 And adding for contingencies-------------------- 6,176 75 Making the whole cost of the work----- -- --- 68,000 00 “Should it be thought necessary to place a barrier as above suggested, it would be advisable to restrict the channel in breadth, which by saving in amount of excavation would compensate the additional expense. Under all circumstances the cost of the work would not exceed the amount for which I have estimated.” An extract from the chart of Capt. Williams is hereto annexed. On re- ferring to the chart, the pass recommended for excavation by Capt. Wil- liams is the one marked A. Revising this subject with great care, and infusing into the revision our Extract of a 6 - MAP oftheOELTAoſtles C LAIR 12 - 5 & - 3. Surveyed under the direction. Of Il 4. 4. 6 - - ** • + S. [. - 4. 6 5 - . & . - - # N - —y- * * v- r * | $ 6 5 4. 3 5 Capt. W.G. Williams, U. S. Top! Eng” 1842 ( s 5 5 4. 4. 5 5 6 - - h f § 5 6 . " 5. {} • 3 6 5 with plans for its improvement. § 5 6 6 6 6 6 . - S § § *. 18 18 19 18 - 18 13 17 13 18 18 18 tº 18 l6 17 17 17 T6 l6 17 17 l 18 I3 I7 *3 * - Jhard Sand at B1 . & to depth of 15' 6 6 - Z 6 - 16 6 g 6 5 7 - 6. - – ºr . wº - e 16 * * - O - Section on ab Section on C d . 185 f - 6 6 C water Surface . C - 15 6 - 9 . - 5 5 8, y y water Sur ace f T : y ! t | | . - H ; º y © • - : H : | ! | | i | | ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; •. - 17 6 9 - 5 : s: - - - - e s • = SN' • ce * co o o: e- c e c; c. - c s < 17 16 . & A 6 6 7 6 7 6 5 s - : : ! - * | | - Il 9 g e 6 - 0 ° !. l l I i . | | | | | | | 17 16 8 . 9 a 6 7 ° 9 . i | | ! | | — 36s feet adepth i. -Z 9 6 6 9 7 plaj 3urve of nigel feet in depth. ... --____ i. =========-------------- N +. I6 R : - * - ºr * * * * lane of the guTYe of twelve feet in depth... . . N. . . ºf iX3T ane of *:::::::::::::::::::::::*; ºf-------------------- arid bottom of proposed channel . . arid bottom of proposed Channel. f % - * º - * & 2. t & Jſorizorº foll & Vºrtical Sea (es same as for Section a b Horizontal scale for the plan & section Iºwa or 4 inches to a mile. , . Wertical scale fºr the section = f&##aſ \s. 344,500 cub. y ds Excavation: 256,000 cub. y qs Excavation y A - S CALE OF FOUR IAWCHA.J.S TO OVE MILF, , TTTTTTITL.I.T.T. H | —l — |- | | I i * - ex * 7 8 9 10000 feet 3 [76] ; more recent experience and knowledge of the lake, the point now recom- mended for excavation of a pass is at the place on the chart marked B. From the pass B there is a free, deep and natural opening into the deep water of the lake, across the chief barrier, which induces the belief that the passage of this pass, once made, will be more likely to keep open than an excavated opening at the pass A. Assuming the same dimensions of breadth and depth for each pass, the one at B will require the excavation of about 88,500 cubic yards of material more than the one at A. But considering its more sheltered condition, its coincidence with the natural action of the water, its probability of greater durability, and of requiring less defensive structures, after the dredging shall have been completed, I am clearly of opinion that it is the better position, and will in the end prove to be the most durable and least costly, and there- fore submit the plan for the work at the point B, as in accordance with the resolution of the Senate. The proposed channel at B is also entirely within our own jurisdiction. It would be judicious, before commencing the work, to ascertain by careful examination of the conditions of the bar, as found in 1842, and as represented upon the chart hereto appended, remain the same now as then, and therefore still justify the opinions herein expressed. The estimate of twenty-five cents per cubic yard, for excavation, is con- sidered sufficient to cover the cost of an adequately powerful steam-dredge, with its appendages, and to pay for the dredging; and if the Lake Erie steam dredge be built, the application of these two boats upon the impedi- ment will produce the most rapid and energetic effects, and enable the olace to derive the full benefit of whatever current may be created by each ºut through. & Captain Williams' estimate of 1842 for the pass A, increased by a slight error found in his calculation, is $70,400. The estimate for the pass B, now recommended, is $94,737; of this amount $40,000 will be sufficient for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1853. Respectfully submitted, J. J. ABERT, Col. Corps Topographical Engineers. Honorable C. M. CONRAD, Secretary War Department. :*. : :: 28th Congress, [SENATE.] . I 120 I 1st Session. --- - t (L. - Y/ ... yº-" -" , ºf 2 ** ; , h REpoRT 3. T H E S E C R. ET A R Y O F W A R , COMMUNICATING (In compliance with a resolution of the Senate) Jìn estimate of the cost of constructing a ship canal around the falls of - St. Mary. -Q– JANUARY 8, 1844. Read, referred to the Committee on Roads and Canals, and motion to print referred to the Committee on Printing. FEBRUARY 14, 1844. Ordered to be printed, -Q- WAR DEPARTMENT, January 4, 1844. SIR : In pursuance of the resolution of the Senate passed on the 27th ultimo, I transmit, here with, a report from the bureau of Topographical Engineers, with an estimate of the cost of connecting Lakes Huron and Superior by means of a canal around the falls of St. Mary, adapted to navigation by steam vessels. * - - . As the resolution calls for any estimates of the cost of this work in the possession of the department, the Colonel of the Corps of Topographical Engineers has given the plan and estimate of Mr. Almy, made in 1837, for the description of canal therein contemplated. But, deeming the reso- lution to look to a canal of larger dimensions, he has added his own plan and estimate for a canal “adapted to navigation by steam vessels,” based on the best information which he could obtain in relation to the subject. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, J. M. PORTER. |Hon. W. P. MANGUM, President of the Senate. 3º *s BUREAU of Topograph.IcAL ENGINEERs, Washington, January 3, 1844. SIR : In obedience to your direction, I have the honor to submit an es- timate for a canal, “connecting Lake Huron and Lake Superior, adapted to navigation by steam vessels,” called for by a resolution of the Senate of the 27th instant. - As there has never been a survey of that locality for such a purpose by this office, I am without those elements for an estimate upon which the office usually relies. - * s i [ 120 l - 2 In the absence of such information, resort has been had to a survey made by Mr. J. Almy, in 1837. Mr. Almy was an engineer in the em- ploy of the State of Michigan. Also, in anticipation that information of the kind now called for would probably be required during the present Session, a letter was addressed to Captain Johnston, at Fort Brady, in July last, proposing certain queries having reference to this canal, which he was desired to have investigated and answered. His answer of last Septem- ber is hereto annexed, together with the information asked for, which was ' collected with much care by Lieutenant Handy, of the 5th infantry. This information, together with the survey of Mr. Almy, will enable me to submit an estimate upon which reliance may be placed. Mr. Almy’s survey, report, and estimate, are hereto annexed. His es- timate amounts to $112,544, which would probably be sufficient for the construction of a canal of the kind and dimensions contemplated in his re- port. - But the resolution of the Senate contemplates a canal “adapted to nav- igation by steam vessels.” A canal for such a purpose involves considera- tions that will much enhance the cost beyond the estimate of Mr. Almy. The Government steamer Michigan is 167 feet long, 47 feet wide, draws 8 feet water, and is of 600 tons burden. Freight vessels of these dimensions would draw more water, as they are generally more heavily laden; and, from the best information I have been able to collect, a draught of ten feet is the least which can with safety be adopted for the largest class of lake steamers. Nor can less than two feet of water below the bottom of the boat be adopted for the canal. These dimensions give data for the size of the canal and of the locks, namely: for the canal, 100 feet wide and 12 feet deep ; for the locks, 200 feet long, and 50 feet wide. The difference of level (according to the survey) between Lake Supe- rior and Lake Huron is about 21 feet, which it is proposed to divide into three lifts. The locks should be collected together at the lower end, in steps, without intervening basins, as exhibited in red lines upon the plan, and should be in double sets; one set for the ascending and one for the descend- ing trade. The towing path to be three feet above the water line, and where this path is upon the embankment it should be twelve feet wide; the berm upon the opposite side to be six feet wide; the canal to be without lateral slope, but to have the same width, except as to batter of side walls, at bottom as at the water surface; the sides of the canal to be maintained or revetted with dry stone walls. The dry masonry of these walls to be three feet wide at top, and five feet wide at bottom ; but where the exca- vation exhibits a sufficiently firm rock facing, these dimensions may be reduced. The extension of the work into Lake Superior will have to be about SOO feet, before a sufficient depth is obtained, and there will pro bly have to be some excavation under water at the lower end of the canal, although the profile of Mr. Almy does not exhibit its necessity. The total length of the canal line from water to water, exclusive of the extension of work into the lake, is about 4,400 feet, throughout a part of which an embankment will have to be raised, as exhibited in the profile. A pier to protect the entrace of the canal, supplied with belaying posts, will have to be extended for about 800 feet into Lake Superior, upon the southern side of the canal. - As Lake Superior has, from various causes, a difference in its level of about four feet, it will be necessary to construct a guard lock at the junc- 3 [ 120 J tion of the canal with that lake; and, also, in order that the water may be occasionally shut off for purposes of cleaning and repairing the canal. And, in consequence of variations of level in the water below the falls, the last set of locks in the series at the lower end of the canal may have in their construction to embrace the considerations due to lift and guard locks. . . . The prices for the excavation are taken from Mr. Almy’s estimate; those for the embankment and dry walling from data in this office; those for the locks from a report of Captain Williams for a canal to overcome the falls at Niagara, as it is not supposed that works of this kind can be done for less at St. Mary’s than at Niagara. The difference between the estimates (that of Mr. Almy and that now submitted) arises principally from differences of dimensions in the two plans, and from those considerations which belong to a canal adapted to steam navigation, and to the active trade which the canal will have to ac- commodate. In works of this kind we should avoid the mistake commit- ted at Louisville, which already, in the judgment of so many, renders the construction of a second canal at that locality necessary. The cost of constructing this canal would be very much reduced if the United States troops were employed upon it. A detachment of about five hundred men would accomplish the object by the usual roster details, and the difference of cost would be in the difference between the usual price of labor, and the allowance of 15 cents per day paid to the soldier when so employed. The employment of the army upon such works, in times of peace, is customary with all other nations, and I can see no sound objec- tion to the adoption of the practice in our service. Such occupation is no injury to the discipline, while it preserves the bodily health and mental vigor of the men, and increases their efficiency and usefulness for their ordinary duties. These considerations are, however, not involved in the estimate. EST IMA'I'IE, Guard lock at Lake Superior * sº * es For cutting 18,500 cubic yards of rock under water, at $150 per yard - wº gº. For cutting 89,920 cubic yards of rock, at $1 per yard * For excavating 8,647 cubic yards of Sandy loam and vegeta- ble mould on top of the rock, at 20 cents per yard For excavating 113,607 cubic yards of loam, gravel, vegeta- } ble mould, &c., at 25 cents yer yard †º *. embanking 15,600 cubic yards, at 12 cents per yard * *For 11,555 cubic yards of dry masonry wall, at $2 per yard For three double locks, at $66,715 each cº-º For a pier 800 feet long and 12 feet wide - Contingencies, 10 per cent. - * tºº Total - - wº- * Respectfully submitted by, sir, your obedient servant, J. J. ABERT, Colonel Corps Topographical En Hon. J. M. PokTER, Secretary of JP'ar. $27,897 27,750 89,920 1,729 28,401 1,872 23,110 200, la 5 12,000 41,282 00 O () 00 40 75 00 06) 00 00 51 “sºmºmºmºre 454,107 66 *-*. gineers. [ 120 4. ForT BRADY, September 29, 1843. SIR. I have the honor to enclose, here with, answers to your queries of July 25. - - The necessary examinations have been made by Lieutenant Handy, 5th infantry. - As far as I can judge, having been over part of the ground, and from reports of others, I think he is as correct as he assumes to be ; wanting, as , he mentions, instruments necessary to exactness. Permit me to add, that Lieutenant Handy, besides willingly undertaking this duty, has, I think, shown both diligence and skill in the performance of it. I am, sir, with respect, your obedient servant, A. JOHNSTON, Captain 5th Infantry, Com’g Fort Brady. Colonel ABERT, Chief Topographical Engineer, Washington. ForT BRADY, MICHIGAN, September 8, 1843. SIR : In conformity with instructions contained in your letter of July 25th, requesting information in reference to the practicability of a canal route in the vicinity of the Saut de Ste. Marie, Michigan, I have the hon- or to lay before you the result of my observations, having been detailed for this duty by Captain Johnston, commanding Fort Brady. You desire to know.— 1st. “What kind of soil does the projected canal pass over ?” From the upper or western extremity of the canal line to the mill race, (a distance equal to about half of its length,) the soil consists of vegetable mould, underlaid by a bed of red sandstone rock, of a very soft nature and very thinly stratified—the strata, in many instances, not exceeding an inch in thickness. The adhesion between the strata, in many places along the canal line, is so slight that they can be easily removed with the hand. From the mill race to the lower or eastern extremity of the line, the soil consists generally of Sand and loam, interspersed with boulders of granite, gneiss, &c., varying in size from two to four feet diameter. Most of these boulders are of a very good material for building, and would be servicea- ble in the construction of the locks, &c. In many places along the line,’ the soil is of a very permeable nature, so much so, that, upon breaking ground, the water makes rapidly. 2d. “Is the rock near the surface, or what distance from the surfacey generally, in the extent of the line P’’ - The average depth of the rock below the surface, for the distance above mentioned, is about one foot. In some places, it is only six inches; in others, more than five feet below it—the strata dipping in a direction par- allel to the line of the canal. 3d. “What is the depth of the water near the shore at each end of the canal line, and what distance from the shore before a depth of fifteen feet is attained P’’ The average depth of water at the lower end of the line, for a distance of about sixty feet from the shore, is two feet and a half, when it suddenly deepens to six or eight feet. The shortest distance from the shore at EEEEEË№Ē№ĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒ№=№Ēää=№Ē ----Ē№№----±€ sae¿№==~::~~::~~ ſ. ► § ſºſ ? ?și 2 |-âſſiſſa.# $ $ $È í Ï Ï ï Ï Ë? - QUOÈ ſ ºſ ſãº：É º gy ő£| T 3| || saravºſ gozoo.*---- - -|| Șſººſ-5 d.{/1- }，\ \\ſº jºſ |-|- $ ( H• 2 •Ģī7ī ļº? º ºſº è}}\\3 - || } ºf |«.\!ſºſ%º º3 |- ±,\,\!\\$', );?§§ „Vae, ſºſyºá|? SN<- "ſi" ：S-2-●«^; ºn ºſ ſae^ğ ? || ºffſ \!\， ，ğ # |F# | }}}）（）;= - | (! __ ,º 0 0.\?\! T\|[]N O F Res- SºS’) // \ſ/№ſſae ſaer 20 Nai 18 : : TT 18 E*R OFILE }5 （) ）; Scale 600 feet to an Inch. | √（√) ((\\�QŽÁ% ¿ſºſ §§§§§ }}&}， %& （)}ſ'，8*} |× ý$ }）\\ D{№§§ sººſ}§§øº \，a'i«№oßgº ·|× { N \ Surface of water at the head of Rapids / 5 L 120 J which a depth of fifteen feet is attained, is fifty-two yards. At the upper end of the line, the average depth of water is from two and a half to four feet. To attain a depth of fifteen feet, it is necessary to go about two hundred and twenty-six yards from the shore, in a line forming an angle of about forty degrees with the canal line. Following the direct line of the canal, it would be necessary to proceed up the river several miles before a depth of fifteen feet could be attained, for the water continues at a uniform depth of about one fathom for a very considerable distance along the American side of the river, so that it is necessary to procced out Some distance in a direction at right angles with the line of the shore to strike the channel. Upon reaching the channel, the water suddenly deep- ens to several fathoms; the bed of the river, at this point, sloping off very abruptly, at an angle of about 30 degrees. 5th. “Is the bottom at both ends mud or rock P” The bottom at the lower end of the line consists generally of sand, un- derlaid by a stratum of hard clay, with here and there a bed of sandstone rock of trifling extent. At the upper end the bottom consists of an extended bed of sandstone rock; being a continuation of the bed before described as underlying the canal line for about half of its extent. This rock extends to a distance of several hundred feet from the shore, and is overlaid by a stratum of sand, averaging about one foot and a half in thickness. 6th. “Are there any shoal places below Fort Brady sufficient to obstruct first-class lake steamers, in a passage up to near the lower end of the ca- nal P” About twenty miles below Fort Brady, at a widening of the river known as Lake George, there is a bar of very hard clay, underlaid by a substance resembling quicksand in its properties. As this bar extends completely across the lake, all vessels navigating the river are compelled to pass over it. The depth of water upon it is very variable; sometimes exceeding nine feet, and sometimes, though rarely, not exceding six. The average depth may be laid down at seven feet. It has frequently been crossed by the largest class of steamers at present navigating the lakes. This is the only obstruction of importance between Fort Brady and the mouth of the river, though the channel is very winding, rendering the nav- igation rather intricate. - It would perhaps be as well to state that the water in the St. Mary’s river is much higher at some seasons than at others; and it is at pres- ent higher, by upwards of two feet, than it has been for some years past. In ascertaining the distance to which it is necessary to go from ch end of the canal for a depth of fifteen feet, I have therefore made sºme allowance for this unusual rise of the water. I would also remark, that, owing to a want of proper instruments, my observations respecting distances, &c., are not made with that accuracy with which I should otherwise have been enabled to make them; but I trust they will prove sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, J. O. HANDY, - - Brevet 2d Lieutenant 5th Infºy, Colonel J. J. ABERT, Chief of the Topographical Bureau, [ 120 I - 8 Lock No. 2. 1,322 cubic yards of stone masonry in water cement, at $550 68 feet of quarry stone, at $8 - - - Gates and iron - º " - - - Foundation for locks, mitres, sills, &c. - - 3,000 cubic yards of embankment, at 25 cents - Coping stone, &c. - - • - - Pumping and keeping lock pit free from water tº- Contingencies º “ - -> - • Lock No. 3. 1,322 cubic yards of stone masonry in water cement, at $550 76 feet of quarry stone, at $8 per foot cº- «-» Gates and iron º -> - - º- Foundation for locks, mitres, sills, &c. -> - 200 yards of stone masonry, wing walls, &c., at $5 50 Coping stone, &c. - - — — . - Estimated expense of coffer dam and pumping out pit Contingencies wº º 4- - - RECAPITULATION. Cost of rock and earth excavation Cost of lock No. 1 Cost of lock No. 2 - - • * --> Cost of lock No. 3 - - e- e- tº- Contingencies $7,271 544 1,500 1,200 750 800 1,500 1,350 14,915 $7,271 608 1,500 1,200 1,100 800 1,500 1,397 00 00 00 00 Of). Ó0. 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 OO 00 15,376 13,265 14,915 15,376 9,376 *- 104,044 00 $51,112 80 00 O() 00 OO 80 In order to include every possible item of expense, I have thought prop- er to add a further estimate for a pier and guard gate at the head of the canal, although I do not deem them absolutely necessary, and which are estimated as follows: Laying down and filling 700 feet of pier - - Guard gates - sº- º 4- tº- - $6,500 00 2,000 8,500 ū0 ! 00 This amount, added to the above, will make a sum total of $112,544 80, as the cost of constructing the proposed canal. The above is respectfully submitted, by your obedient servant, His Excellency STEvens T. MASON, , , . . . Governor of the State of Michigan. True copy : A. CAN FIELD, Capt. Top. Engineers. J. ALMY, Civil Engineer. THE LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, ASA PACKER, FOUNDER. The Educational Value of Engineering Studies. AN ADDRESS DELIVERED ON FOUNDER’s DAY, OCTOBER 10, 1895, BY THOMAS MESSINGER DROWN, LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. * - - - --. GENERAL LIBRARY: APR 24 1899. • & ..º. 3. 3 ºf £º v.". .;:. *: t 3. ſ .* 2. ſ: A *:: -. * . " [.. • --- / ; ,- S. f. . f. , . . . . . . / 22:44 ſº (zºſºſ" - He’ * * THE LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, ASA PACKER, FOUNDER. .The Educational Value of Engineering Studies. AN ADDRESS DELIVERED ON FOUNDER’s DAY, OCTOBER Io, 1895, BY THOMAS MESSINGER DROWN, LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. I895. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE ENGINEERING EDUCATION. HUMAN knowledge has increased so greatly in amount in the last century and methods of education have undergone such radical changes in that time that the educated man of to-day is a very different product of civilization from his counterpart of a hundred or even fifty years ago. To the question—What constitutes an educated man 2 must now be given a very different answer from that which would have been given when the gradu- ates of all colleges had pursued substantially the same studies and were all cast in the same intel- lectual mould. The schools which were formerly content with a narrow curriculum of classics, math- ematics, and philosophy have had their gates forced open to admit a flood of new knowledge in the nat- ural and physical sciences, and their methods of study have also been radically changed by the intrusion of these new sciences. The study of the changes which have been made in educational methods in the last two generations is a most interesting one. These changes are the result of the introduction of the elective system of studies into our colleges and of the recognition, on the part of — 4 — educators, that the educational value of a study lies largely in the way it is taught. It is a great gain, every way, to a young man to be able to select, under proper restrictions on the part of his teachers, the stud- ies in which he is most interested, and of which, it may be, he wishes to make immediate practical use, and to derive from these studies the mental training and de- velopment which it is the primary object of college life to give. This is an immense gain in educational methods and a great saving of time and energy. We may now fairly say that one may be ignorant Of the classics on the one hand and of the natural sciences on the other, and yet lay claim to a high education. It would be difficult to name any one branch of knowledge without which one would be thereby excluded from the educated class. Based upon the elementary studies of the grammar and high schools we could build a college course of profitable study which might omit most of the stud- ies considered, within the memory of most of us, absolutely essential to the educated man. Professional or graduate study has likewise been broadened and made more thorough in recent years. Here, too, the natural and physical sciences have made their way and have by their methods of study and re- search inspired all the older faculties with new life and vigor. And now come the so-called technical studies, savoring of handicraft, knocking at the university doors and claiming admittance. Already in Germany, in Switzerland, and in this country there are great techni- cal schools with extensive buildings, magnificent equip- ments, and learned corps of instructors, with thous- ands of students whose courses of study are equal in — f — > variety and thoroughness to those of the universities. The mental training and discipline of these schools are most severe and their graduates take positions in the community of as high importance and responsibility as the graduates of the older professional schools. There seems to be no good reason why they should not ul- timately be absorbed in the university system. But it is important that there should be a clear understanding of our meaning when we speak of “technical” schools, or schools of “technology.” These terms are variously used to include trade and manual training schools on the one hand, and the highest grade of engineering schools on the other. To avoid this confusion I would propose that the higher schools of technology, such as the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology, Columbia School of Mines, and Lehigh University on its technical side, be called Schools of Engineering, including under this name the courses in chemistry, metallurgy, architec- ture, and geology, as well as those in civil, mining, mechanical, and electrical engineering. This will greatly aid us in discussing this subject and will help to give these schools in the mind of the public a professional status. The position of the engineering school in this coun- try is a peculiar one. It is both a graduate and an undergraduate school. It is not unusual to find here the graduates of our best colleges pursuing engi- neering studies beginning with the sophomore or junior year; but, in the main, the engineering school in the United States to-day is an undergraduate school, with young men at the same age as in the Ordinary college course. — 6 — Many of us would be glad to see engineering edu- cation re-organized as a distinctly graduate course, requiring for entrance the equivalent of a college education. It is within the recollection of many of us that medical schools in this country required no examination for entrance and only a very slight one for exit. This day has passed and medical instruc- tion is now, at our best universities, on a strictly pro- fessional and graduate basis. But I fear it is useless to hope that this change will take place for engineer- ing. The standard of admission may be raised, in age and qualification, but the schools will remain es- sentially undergraduate. It is for only a little over a quarter of a century that engineering has been systematically taught with us. Formerly American students, including many col- lege graduates, sought this education—principally mining engineering—in the mining schools of Ger- many and France. About that time the larger Ameri- can colleges, in response to a demand for a course of study which should omit Latin and Greek and substi- tute some of the natural sciences, established the so- called scientific school, to which students were admitted at the same age as to college, but without any knowl- edge of the classics. These scientific schools added, gradually, to their curriculum various engineering studies, including chemistry and architecture, and gave engineering degrees. Schools of technology, without any college affiliations, were also founded in considerable numbers on the same basis as these scientific schools, and thus engineering came to be an undergraduate study. - It is not likely that there will be any decided change — 7 — in our American system, for first, engineers trained in these schools and under these conditions have been successful in their professions. Although the young graduates are far from being engineers, strictly speak- ing, yet they have the foundation and training which enables them to reach, through after experience, the highest places in their professions. The existence of engineering schools as now constituted is, therefore, justified by their results. These young graduates, moreover, seem to be what the engineers of experience need and desire as assist- ants. There was a time when the older engineers looked askance on the young men from the schools, thinking that this school training might unfit them for practical work. And it must be said that they often thought more highly of their knowledge than was war- ranted, and that they brought a certain assurance and conceit with them which had first to be eliminated be- fore they were of any real service. But that day has gone by and the affiliation of the work and the schools, as well as of the engineers and the students, is now complete. Formerly the young man had to seek a place in industrial works, now he is sought after. Teachers know what is desired in their graduates—not the knowledge which can come only by experience, but the training of systematic study and experiment which makes them self-reliant and able to do their own thinking. Again, most parents cannot afford to keep their sons in school after they are 2 I to 23 years of age. If only college graduates entered the engineering schools two or three years would have to be added. And the fact that our great engineering schools are now receiv- — 8 — ing young men at 16 to 18, and that four years later they at once obtain self-supporting positions has con- vinced the parent that any longer time of tuition is unnecessary. While there will always be a few wiser and more favored ones who will add to the liberal train- ing in arts and letters the special training in the engi- neering profession, for the great mass of students the four years' course in the schools of technology, at the college age, will be the rule. The question before us, therefore, in dealing with engineering education is how may this time be most profitably employed; what is our duty as educators to these young men who come under our care for four years 2 I would say, first, that we must free ourselves from the idea that these young men are strictly pro- fessional students on the one hand, or that they are learning a trade or handicraft on the other. Of col- lege age, and pursuing a parallel course to college students, they must be surrounded by all the aids and restraints, the inspiration and the drill which the best thought in modern education has devised. In their great zeal to prepare their students for practical life many teachers drill them laboriously in class room and shop in those subjects and operations which will serve them in good stead when they begin work for themselves. Praiseworthy as is this self- denying zeal, it lacks often the discretion which the true educator of youth would apply to this problem. But it must be admitted that this practical training has produced marvellous results, and that these zealous teachers have builded often better than they knew. The experimental work and original investigation which find a place in our best engineering schools are, — 9 — in reality, the most valuable training which the student receives and are of the highest educational value. In this way our engineering schools have been grand training schools in mental development. The habit of logical, accurate, and precise thinking which a stu- dent acquires in a well-directed research is of more permanent value to him than all his store of facts. In many respects his education has been more thor- ough and more generally useful than the education which our colleges afford, but it lacks the mellowing and beautifying elements which a little of the human- ities would introduce. I should like to see in every engineering course a certain amount of culture stud- ies pursued side by side with the scientific and techni- cal ones. I would even go so far as to say that as educators it is our duty to place these studies there. It is often claimed that four years is not any too long to equip the student for his work in engineering and that no time can be taken out for any purpose without a serious detriment to his course. It would be profit- less to discuss at this time just what may and what may not be omitted in an engineering course of high efficiency; my only contention is, that when the course as a whole is regarded as mainly one of mental develop- ment and training designed to fit a student to adapt himself to new conditions and to be quickly and intel- ligently responsive to the demands of his employers, a little more or less of this or that study or practice is not of such great moment as to justify the barring out of studies which would make him a more per- fectly rounded and permanently useful man. The ideal way to do this, as already said, is to make engineering a graduate study after a college preparation. But as >< ; ; : : we cannot expect that many will take the time to do this, let us see to it that the young men under our charge do not pass away from our influence without having had presented to them the human side of life, that life shall seem to them worth living not only for achievement but also for helpfulness. I do not now propose to prescribe just what culture studies should be introduced into an engineering course or how much time should be devoted to these studies. But in a general way it may be said that English, history, and political science should find a place there. I do not mention the modern languages, since a knowledge of French and German is a neces- sity to the educated engineer and they belong, there- fore, to his professional course. Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of a thorough course in English language and litera- ture. This should begin in the primary school and be continued without interruption to the senior class of our colleges and engineering schools, The study of English in our secondary schools is most deplorably neglected. Twice has the committee on English in- struction of our largest and oldest college called at- tention to the lamentable ignorance of their own lan- guage which a large number of the applicants for admission exhibit. Nor are the colleges themselves free from reproach in this matter. Insufficient in- struction and drill in correct and fluent writing of English is the rule rather than the exception. It is, if possible, more important even that the engineering student should be proficient in the writing of English than the collegian. The ability to express himself clearly and accurately may be said to be a tool of his trade, for he has to write reports and prepare speci- fications the very soul of which is accuracy. But, still, I do not wish to have the demand for thorough instruction in English rest merely on expe- diency. To write one's mother tongue correctly is the hall-mark of the educated man, and it is a grave wrong on the part of the teachers of any school or college to fail to provide suitable instruction to this end. English literature, too, should be taught so as to in- spire in the student a taste for good reading, and thus make available for him for the rest of his life the best thought of the world. If the love of literature and reading is not acquired in the school when the mind is plastic, it is not likely that it will come to one later when life's busy work has begun. My plea, therefore, is for the introduction of a broader curriculum into engineering schools and for the realization on the part of the teachers of these schools of their responsibility for providing a rounded education for their students. While recognizing fully the dominant importance of the particular study which the student is pursuing, his course should be so ar- ranged that it shall include a fairly liberal amount of studies of general culture. And if it should prove On full trial, that this cannot be done as our courses are now planned, without impairing seriously the student’s engineering knowledge and training (a re- sult which seems to me, however, very improbable) then I would advocate a course of five years instead of four, that these humanities which belong in the daily life and thought of the educated man, may not be omitted in preparing engineering students for a useful life. It is often said that the place for non-professional studies is in the preparatory schools and that a stu- dent should come to the engineering schools with his English, history, and political science behind him, and thus not have them as disturbing elements in his tech- nical course. The objection to this scheme is two- fold—first, to the youth of 16 or 17 only elementary instruction can be given in these branches, and it is not probable that he will retain any interest in them after entering the higher school; and second, I believe that so far from these studies being disturbing ele- ments in the midst of scientific studies, they come as a pleasant relief and lead the student to realize that there are more things of value and interest in life than can be expressed in figures and formulae. The mingling of culture studies with professional ones can be done bunglingly to the detriment of both, and these culture studies may be taught in a dull per- functory way which will repel rather than attract the student. There is no doubt that much of the existing prejudice on the part of teachers and students to the humanities in schools of technology has been due to the blundering way in which they have been co-or- dinated with the professional studies and to the lack of skill with which they have been taught. When English, history, and political science shall be taught with the same spirit and enthusiasm and with the same thoroughness as scientific subjects, then we may ex- pect similar results in interesting and uplifting the young minds. The intimate association of students of engineering and of the students of the classics and literature ought to be of great advantage to both. The student of science and technology breathes some of the atmos- phere in which his companion lives who is devoted to ancient and modern literature, and he cannot fail to appreciate in some degree the beauty and advantage of this culture. And, on the other hand, the student of the classics cannot fail to be impressed with the mastery which the student of applied science obtains over nature and over himself. It is my earnest desire to see a large increase in the number of students in the classical and literary courses at this university, both for the sake of their influence on the engineering students, and for the advantage which they themselves would gain in association with fellow-students trained in accurate thought and free from intellectual sophisms. The educational value of scientific and technical studies as conducted in Our great engineering schools has, I think, not been fully understood or appreciated by recent thinkers and writers on pedagogics. Here we have a severe drill in mathematical and mechani- cal subjects, aided by laboratory practice, which per- mits the student to handle apparatus and machines and to observe the results of his experiments. Lab- Oratory methods of instruction are now so familiar to us in all branches of science and seem so obviously necessary to successful instruction that it is hard to realize that they have had their origin and develop- ment in the last two generations. But of far more importance than this great educational method is the training in original research which pervades the en- gineering school and which, if rightly guided, engen- ders in the student a love of truth and empowers him to be a successful seeker for it. And with this love — I4 — and power come self-control, self-reliance, and a true humility. The characteristics of a course in engineering (still using that term to include all studies now grouped under the head of technology) which would satisfy at once the engineer and the educator are:– I. A thorough class-room drill in the fundamental principles of his profession. 2. The broadening and humanizing influence of culture studies throughout his course. 3. The formation of good mental habits. 4. Careful guidance into the realm of original re- search. There is no system of education, however thought- fully and ingeniously devised, which can do away with class-room drill in fundamental mathematical subjects. A workman must have fitting tools for his work and must thoroughly understand their use. The engineer must be firmly grounded in his mathematics, physics, and mechanics, so that his mind works in mathematical channels without effort. This is his necessary equipment as engineer ; but in acquiring this mathematical facility his mind becomes at the same time trained in accurate, logical thinking, and his whole mental and moral fibre becomes strength- ened. Specious reasoning repels him, for the quick- ened intellect detects fallacy. The engineer thus gains in his mathematical training the first qualifi- cation of the educated man. Of the importance of introducing the humanities to aid and relieve this rigid training, I have already spoken at sufficient length, and of their educational value there is no question if rightly taught. Teachers — I 5 — of English and the humanities could have no more receptive and inspiring classes than eager and earn- est students of technology, who are keenly alive to the necessary connection of cause and effect and who maintain a discriminating attitude of mind towards the true and the false. But he must teach his subject with an intelligence, force, and enthusiasm to which the student is accustomed in his engineering subjects. If he does this, I have not the least doubt of his suc- cess or of the future of culture studies in the engi- neering curriculum. Habits, whether of body or mind, whether good or bad, are the great savers of time and energy in life. If it required a nervous effort every time one took a step to maintain his equilibrium, he would make but slow progress, and would very soon become exhausted. It is always a matter of interest and pleasure to watch the co-ordination of nerve and muscle in a supple and healthy body whereby exter- nal impressions find an instantaneous response in com- plicated muscular movements. Of a still higher order is the wonderful unconscious translation of sensual impressions into muscular action as when the trained musician transforms the written page of music into melody. The musician who has arrived at such a state of technical perfection with his instrument that he can read the written notes without mental effort has his soul free for the enjoyment which the music is able to afford and is also capable of creative work. The self-perpetuating tendency in nature makes it of the highest importance not only that good habits should be formed, but bad habits avoided, Owing to the great difficulty in eradicating these automatic ac- — I6— tions. Speaking and writing correctly are, for in- stance, matters of habit and teachers are neglectful of their duty who permit bad habits in this regard to fasten themselves on their pupils. The necessarily severe training which the engineer- ing student undergoes, the strictly logical and invio- lable sequence involved in all his work, cannot fail to exert a favorable influence on his mental attitude toward all phenomena and occurrences about him. His reflexes become trained in such a way that the mind responds in an ever increasing degree, with sharpness and accuracy to the impressions made upon it. The consequence of this, it seems to me, cannot fail to have a moral as well as a purely intel- lectual value, for truth is but accuracy on a moral plane. A learned professor once replied to a student who said he was anxious not to get into an intellect- ual rut: “A good rut is a good thing.” What is it but a path prepared by patient persevering effort to make further progress easier. Only when the rut gets so deep that one cannot see over its sides, and know what is going on around him, is it a bad thing. There is another useful result of the formation of good habits which, though well recognized, is not often acted on as a power in education. It is the stimula- tion of the moral sense by the habitual performance of good and worthy actions. Let a child be taught to do habitually kind and polite acts and speak kind words and the spiritual condition which corresponds to these acts will not be long in coming to him. And equally certain is the evil influence on the moral condition of the young of persistent indulgence in selfish and cruel — 17 — acts. Likewise obedience to law is not merely discip- line, it is an education, opening the mind to the recep- tion of truth and supplying the impulse to right action. This is one of the greatest of all truths and was in the mind of our Lord when he said :— “If any man will do His will he shall know of the doctrine.” The opportunity for original research and the dis- covery of natural laws in scientific and engineering education I regard as the most valuable means for mental development, training, and inspiration which modern education possesses. In the hands of the true teacher who studies carefully the individual char- acter of all his pupils, the careful guiding of the stud- ent into the realm of the unknown, and leaving him to penetrate unaided into nature's mysteries is equiv- alent to giving him a new interest in life. It is, in- deed, for him a new birth, which he would probably never experience if his education comprised merely faithful and laborious study of the investigations of Others. Holmes has somewhere happily said that a man's mind now and then is stretched by a new idea and does not afterward shrink to its former di- mensions. This is the case with the youth when he becomes conscious of the power enabling him to penetrate into the very heart of nature and discover her laws, The higher spiritual enjoyment of discov- ery has no alloy of self seeking in it. It is a mistake, I think, to reserve work in original research to the later years of one's college course. Chemistry lends itself admirably to research work for the beginner. To those who have acquired a fair acquaintance with general chemistry and who have a — I 8 — sufficient knowledge of manipulation, simple prob- lems can be assigned by the skilful teacher which will involve some original thought for solution. At this stage it is not absolutely necessary that the result should be a new one to the world; it is only necessary that the result be new to the student and that he should actually discover it anew. It takes earnest, patient, and often exhausting work on the part of the instruc- tor to teach his pupils in this way. He must know their capacities and peculiarities, their dispositions, their likes and dislikes. The study of the individual student by the teacher is the only road to successful teaching. But the labor thus expended is amply re- paid by the interest which his pupils show in their work and by the rapid progress he sees them make. The average student thinks his work a task and I fear the average teacher looks on his work as a task also. If new life and interest can be thrown into the work of both, teaching and learning may be transformed from dull tasks into keen enjoyment. If we admit, as I think all teachers in engineering schools will do, that training is of more value to the student than the facts he learns, then all methods which give to the student a greater love of his work, a greater self-reliance, and a greaterability for independent thought and workshould be employed in our schools. My experience as a teacher has brought me emphatic proof of the value of this method of teaching, not only for the naturally bright and industrious but also for the dull and indif- ferent, who are not infrequently awakened from their lethargy to a new life and energy by the discovery of their own unsuspected power. Many have the erroneous idea that there is required rare talent, akin to genius, to be a successful investi- gator. This is obviously true of an investigation which requires the master mind, but the method of conducting an investigation in chemistry or physics can be taught. There is nothing mysterious about it; an experiment accurately carried out and accurately observed and recorded must give a fact of some kind, and when facts in sufficient number are appropriately grouped their study may reveal a law. The function of the teacher in such an investigation is to see to it that the student does observe accurately and com- pletely, that the conditions of his experiment are such as he supposes, and to note whether there are disturb- ing influences of which the student has taken no ac- count and whether his deductions from his associated facts are consistent and logical. Could any teaching be more suggestive and valuable 2 I like to think, too, that the result of this training is morally as well as intellectually elevating. To all minds this will not be the case, but to some the con- Sciousness that the hidden laws of nature reveal themselves to him who seeks with patient thought and work, brings with it a sense of oneness with na- ture, and of fellowship with the great minds to whom she tells her secrets. We listened last year to the story of the discovery by an English physicist and an English chemist of a new constituent of our atmosphere. So astounding was the announcement of this discovery that the scien- tific world received it with some incredulity and many thought it easier to believe that two men had blundered than that a host of chemists and physicists had for a hundred years and more overlooked an element which exists in Our common air to the relatively large amount of one per cent. The story of this discovery fills one with admiration for Lord Rayleigh's magnificent con- fidence in the accuracy of his own experimental work. His starting point was a difference of a few milligrams in the weight of a litre of nitrogen obtained from the air and nitrogen obtained from chemical sources. He was sure that his gases were pure and that his balance was true, and he knew that nature does not vary a hair's breadth in the action of her laws. With a sublime confidence in nature and in himself he predicted the new element in the atmosphere with the confidence with which Le Verrier predicted the existence of Neptune. Not only has the new element, argon, been isolated and studied, but other new and startling discoveries, made now possible, have followed quickly in its train. Helium, a gas known only as existing in the Sun has since been found in terrestrial minerals. In contemplating such discoveries we are filled with awe and are moved to say with the Psalmist—“Such knowledge is too wonderful for me; I cannot attain unto it.” And yet in Lord Rayleigh's methods, mate- rials and apparatus there was nothing which is un- known to the student of chemistry and physics in Our engineering schools. His inspiration and prophecy were the direct, one might almost say the inevitable, result of his simple and sublime confidence in the laws of nature and in the integrity of his own work. His laborious experiments on the weight of nitrogen, pursued simply for the love of truth and not for the love of discovery, had so cleared the mystery of the composition of the atmosphere that the new element could no longer remain concealed. To see things in their true relations to each other we must rise sufficiently high above them. There is a plane from which all facts and laws—moral as well as physical—assume equal value since they are all the laws of God. May we not truly say that the scientific and engineering schools in their earnest search for truth are contributing their share, with all colleges and pro- fessional schools, to the increase of knowledge and wisdom on the earth 2 A true seat of learning is known by its life and growth. It cannot remain stationary, for inaction is death. It is a pleasant conception of college life which regards it as an association of scholars who admit young men to their midst for a few years that they may acquire the love of truth in the seeking for it. When all teachers are not only patient and faith- ful, but also lovers of truth and lovers of teaching, then may we expect to see this new era of education ushered in. - It is not my wish to make any comparison of the educational advantages of a collegiate and engineer- ing curriculum. My object is rather to show, if I can, that a course of engineering study liberally planned and faithfully carried out is capable of making not only a broadly educated man but one whose enthu- siasm for truth and truth-seeking has been kindled to a living flame. To admit this does not require one to depreciate the value of the usual collegiate course. There is no finer product of education than the cultured scholar of language, literature, and philosophy, to whom the best thoughts of the best minds of all ages are tribu- tary and whose trained reflective thinking occupies itself with the mystery of the soul of man. The world needs these ripe and cultured natures of gentle fibre, as it needs its engineers, with their rugged strength. When the educational value of an engineering edu- cation is fully appreciated, we may have students seeking these schools for the training they afford without regard to the practice of any of the engi- neering professions. In my opinion, the best prepa- ration to-day for the practice of medicine is a course in chemistry in a technical school before entering the medical school ; not merely for the knowledge of chemistry which would there be obtained, but for the severe scientific training and for acquiring a knowl- edge of methods of research. Medicine, which is to- day so largely empirical in its methods and practice, would have a new era if all its students were trained scientific investigators. If we compare the attitude toward his studies of the student of engineering and of those in academic courses, we cannot fail to observe, on the whole, a greater earnestness, accompanied with more real ef- fort, on the part of the young engineer. He realizes more fully the end and object of his work and he is generally more interested in it than the young colle- gian, who too often regards his course as preparatory to something to come after. There is in modern col- legiate life a steady increase of luxurious dilettanteism, the natural result of the increase of wealth among us and of the greater number of young men who go to college every year. The life which our grandfathers and our great-grandfathers spent in college was one of serious purpose unbroken by the round of pleas- ures and sports which now characterize college life. The athlete and the sybarite were unknown in their day, but so far from complaining of their lot they re- joiced in their great privileges. If one new to our modern college life were to get his first impressions of it from the daily press (which gives the public what they are supposed to be most interested in) he might well conclude that the purpose of the college was to train students for gladiatorial exhibitions and for trav- eling minstrel shows, and he would be wrong only so far as he supposed this to be their dominant purpose. I do not take a pessimistic view of modern college education, nor do I think that the college spirit is in a state of decadence. Modern collegiate life is to-day a wonderful microcosm ;-it represents the endeavor of generations of zealous, earnest educators to make this period of youth increasingly profitable. The number and variety of studies have been increased many fold, the proportion of teachers to students has been increased, improved methods of instruction have been brought into play and the equipment of labora- tories is lavishly generous. Never before has there been such earnest discussion as to educational methods and values; the teacher's art has become a science, and he a great power in the land. With enlightened educational methods goes hand in hand the freedom of the student—freedom to choose his studies and to occupy his time as he will, subject only to the attainment of a certain scholastic standard. It is not surprising that some students should abuse this freedom and run into excesses that are anything but scholarly. Recreations, gymnastics, and athletics are healthy and useful in the college life. The gym- – 24 — nasiums of our modern colleges are witnesses of the importance which is now attached by educators to muscular exercise and a harmonious physical de- velopment during the years of college life. Athletic games may be made a useful adjunct of this physical culture, and supply an element which the gymna- sium must always lack—the stimulus of contest which brings into beautiful co-ordination the keen alert mind and the strong responsive muscles. It is a sorry spectacle when we see the perversion of this physical training in public contests characterized by cunning and brutality and productive of lasting ill-feeling and bitterness. Think of it, the young men who have afforded these spectacles were students in our great- est colleges of learning and presumably pursuing courses of study leading to solid wisdom and refined thought and feeling. Athletics are now running riot in our colleges and taking time and thought which should be devoted to study; it is high time that they be relegated to their proper, subordinate place in the scholastic life. We have thus far considered our colleges and en- gineering schools as institutions for leading young men in the ways of wisdom and understanding and train- ing them in the ways of right and accurate thinking, and thus preparing them for active independent life in various occupations and professions. But it is well to ask, is the whole duty of the college performed when this useful and practical end is attained Ought not this period of youth, with receptive maturing minds, be made use of for still higher ends—the de- velopment of character and preparation for duties of citizenship. The crying need of our country to-day is — 25 — for good citizens—not merely passively good, but ac- tively earnest in maintaining right and justice and in elevating the tone of our politics. The City, the State, and the Nation have the right to the unselfish services of all citizens in the maintenance of law and order and in the promotion of the general welfare and happiness. What do we see in our modern political life 2 City, State, and National poli- tics largely in the hands of self-seeking and corrupt politicians of the lowest order of intelligence. Where do we find the college men who have enjoyed the great privilege of years of study of nature, of history, and of political science, and who should be leaders of all that is best in thought and action in our politi- cal life 2 Do we find them banded together by a common tie of purity of thought and usefulness of action 2 Alas! no ; we find them scattered in the va- rious camps, some, it is true, struggling hopelessly for the right, but the majority indifferent, while the vul- gar, uneducated throng take possession of the reins of government and degrade the seats of honor and justice. Where is the remedy ? The past history of Our municipal governments shows that the usual course is for the best element of society to allow things to run on from bad to worse, and wait until they become insufferably bad and absolutely unendur- able and then by a vigorous effort to overthrow the Corrupt government and substitute a decent one in its stead. This spasmodic virtue exhausts itself generally in one effort, and then the vulgar crowd comes to the surface again for a new term of life. Many right-think- ing persons lazily deplore this miserable condition of affairs but they will not take the time and trouble to — 26 — change it permanently. Can there be a better place than the American college to teach young men the un- selfish duty of citizenship 2 Not merely the duty to vote aright—alas ! how seldom under our present sys- tem has one any chance to perform this duty—but the duty to enter loyally into every political campaign of City, State, and Nation in the service of good honest government. Graduates of our colleges and scientific and engineering schools are increasing in numbers every year. If united on the side of honest govern- ment what a power would they now be in the land I see no better solution of our intricate political prob- lem—a problem made more difficult every year by the influx of an immense ignorant population and by the ingenious and unholy devices of our degraded politi- cians—than that the college men of the country should unite to stem the tide of political corruption and to set up a standard of honesty and purity. Cannot our great schools of learning take active measures to this end by enrolling all their students into classes and so- cieties for the active study and debate of our social and political problems ? It would be a dull student in- deed whose sense of duty could not be aroused, and whose enthusiasm could not be kindled to enter into a crusade of political reform by teachers and leaders whose hearts were in their work. What a grand ser- vice would our higher education thus render our coun- try | Think of the power possessed by the trained educated man in his knowledge, wisdom, self-reliance, and self-control. An army of vulgar place seekers would shrink away before the advance of a handful of such men with public opinion behind them. It may be a Utopian dream, but it is a pleasant one, — 27 — that the college spirit should also be one of active altruism, and that the four years of partial seclusion from the world spent in the study of nature and of man and in the search for truth, should result in the discovery of that sublime truth that “There is that scattereth and yet increaseth.” What a great part petty meannesses play in our every-day life—the greed of possession, the thirst for power. This spirit is not to be eradicated from our natures by discipline or punishment and the better way cannot be taught by precepts or homilies. It is the spirit which giveth life, and when the day comes that the teachers have all attained unto this unselfish life, the pupil will not be long in discovering that the beauty of right living is the crowning glory of his education. It is a beautiful and pious custom of this University to insert in its calendar a memorial day, for all time, to commemorate the virtues of its noble founder and to keep alive the flame of living gratitude for all he did for this great school of learning and for the cause of education in this country. I know of no finer trait of character than the desire of a man to give to others the advantages of which he himself was de- prived. A college is not the only road to education and development of character. Asa Packer attained this end unaided, by laborious self-denying effort. He might, when his days were full of honor and prosper- ity, have said, “Let others tread the road I have trod and win success by their own strength and courage as I have done.” Not so did his benevolent nature speak—but “I will make the rugged road smooth, and level the toilsome hills that the path of youth hereafter to learning and honor shall not only be easy but beau. — 28 — tiful.” The soul that is capable of this thought has been very near to the heart of the Master who went about doing good. Oh, that we could infuse into the minds of young men who come here for an education the meaning of all this, that they might realize that they are enjoying the greatest privilege a young man can have in this world and that they owe it to the grand generosity of one to whose own youth it was denied In the spirit of our noble founder, this school of learning has been conducted by noble men who worked with him and, surviving him, carried out his benevo- lent intentions. Associated with the name of Asa Packer as founder will always be the names of Henry Coppée and Robert A. Lamberton who, by their scholarship, learning, and vigor, made the University what it is to-day. The purpose and design of the University were broadly outlined by its first president, Dr. Coppée, whose scholarly, practical, and far-seeing mind discerned the great possibilities for usefulness of a school of learning in this beautiful valley rich in nature's treasures and man's achievements. The University had happily the presence, example, and counsel of this noble and bril- liant scholar for nearly 30 years and he, happily, lived to see his hopes for the University more than fulfilled. I quote from his own words addressed to the students on the opening of Packer Hall : “Let us work to- gether with ardor to a noble end, you to learn, we to teach, and all determined, with God's help, to make Lehigh University a blessing in this place and a glory in the land.” It was during Dr. Lamberton's wise and vigorous presidency for thirteen years that the University came to be generally known throughout the country. He brought the talent of a great administrator to the ser- vice of the University and under his wise and skilful guidance it found its place among our large institu- tions of learning. This he did while maintaining the high grade of scholarship which Lehigh's learned faculty had originally established. These two great presidents of Lehigh University, whose work is now over, received their mission direct from its founder and embodied his benevolent and gracious thought in the great school of learning where we now meet. Still another name is in all our thoughts to-day, a friend of its founder and a friend of the University, One who rejoiced in its growth and usefulness and whose counsel and purse were ever at her disposal. Eckley Brinton Coxe was the child of gentle and dis- tinguished ancestry, and his youthful life was sur- rounded by all that could contribute to the harmon- ious development of his character. After completing his college course at the University of Pennsylvania he spent many years in Germany and France fitting himself for the profession of mining engineer. On his return to this country he began his life's work in the development of the large mining property of his family. Most men, similarly situated, would have been entirely engrossed with professional and busi- ness cares, but Mr. Coxe found time also for scientific research and beneficent works of practical philan- thropy. As we read the printed record of his scien- tific and technical industry we marvel at his fertile mind and his power of work; but his words and works of kindness and helpfulness are recorded only on the hearts of those to whom they are a precious pos- session. A technically educated man, Mr. Coxe took the liveliest interest in technical education and was one of our foremost thinkers and writers on this subject. He was always eager to help engineering students by giving them the freedom of his great mines and engi- neering works for instruction and study, and he never tired of giving them, likewise, the rich treasures of his knowledge and experience. Lehigh University has reason to be proud of the absorbing interest he took in her affairs and of his personal efforts to in- crease her equipment and efficiency. In Eckley Coxe we have the full realization of the finely and broadly educated man, who drew his inspi- ration both from his liberal and engineering educa- tion. He was at once the scholar, the investigator and inventor, the practical engineer, the man of busi- ness, the statesman, and the philanthropist. And with this remarkable many-sidedness was combined a per- sonality so charming and winning, a character so elevated and an integrity so sublimely simple, that he drew all men to him in unselfish devotion. Placed side by side with his friend, Asa Packer— how unlike were they in their early opportunities and training, yet how alike in the deep springs of their na- tures which broke forth in bountiful streams, enriching, beautifying, and fructifying the world around them. Let the memories of these four noble men—Asa Packer, Henry Coppée, Robert A. Lamberton, and Eckley Brinton Coxe—be enshrined in our hearts to- day and their lives be to us a perpetual inspiration. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. A}-c_e , 4, 24*7 2- Department of Mechanical Engineering. E U L LET IN NO. III. RESULTS OF TESTS — FOR — TENSILE STRENGTH, ETC., OF CRUCIBLE BASIC, AND GALVANIZED BASIC STEEL wiRE ROPES, AND BASIC STEEL WIRE RODs, MANUFACTURED BY THE CALIFORNIA WIRE WORKS, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. j ſ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Department of Mechanical Engineering, E U L LETIN NO. III. RESULTS OF TESTS — FOR — TENSILE STRENGTH, ETC., OF CRUCIBLE BASIC, AND GALVANIZED BASIC STEEL WIRE ROPES, AND BASIC STEEL WIRE RODS, MANU F_ACTURED BY THE CALIFORNIA WIRE WORKS, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. * The mechanical laboratory is in posessson of a horizontal and a vertical testing machine of respectively 4,000 and 50,000 pounds capacity, manufactured by Richie & Brothers, Philadelphia, Pa., which were used in the following tests to our entire Satisfaction. Table 1 contains tests made of wires drawn from a number 6 soft Basic wire rod, gauge after gauge in succession down to and including number 16, and annealed after each drawing. Table 2 contains the tests of wires drawn from the same rod number 6, as before, but which were not annealed after each draw- ing. The annexed diagram gives a graphic representation of the results of 92 tests, made upon rods which were drawn from a number 8 soft Basic wire rod. The wire was successively subjected to an increasing load, and the extension measured. All the samples sent for testing were from the ordering stock as Imanufactured by the company, and pains were taken to send only average pieces, none of which had been especially prepared for test- ing except the number 6 Basic steel wire rods, Thomas-Gilchrist process, which had been drawn, as stated, as far as it was safe to draw one gauge in size at a time. Weights and extensions are marked respectively on vertical and horizontal lines. - - From A to B the elongation was found to be proportionate to the force. At B the rate of elongation was in excess over that of the load, in fact, SO decided was this change, that a careful observer was enabled to locate this point B within very close limits.” Defining, with Fairbairn, the elastic limit as the maximum stress below which the elongation is directly proportional to the force, said point B was designated in the following tests as the limit of elasti- city, with sufficient approximation. This disproportionate elongation beyond B is continued, until at A., the ratio between elongation and load becomes again nearly constant until the point C, corresponding to the maximum load, was reached. From C to D the diameter of the rod suffered a rapid reduction, under decreasing load, until the Section reached a minimum at the place of rupture /D. See Fig. II. The application of the increasing loads followed each other in rapid succession, whereby the influence of the duration of the load was eliminated. *The exactness of these determinations was due to the skill of the Superintendent of t Laboratory, Mr. J. A. Sladky, under whose direction these experiments ... and also º the kind coöperation of Prof. H. Kower, assisted by Messrs. Rixford and Raymond." ! S----T \ C |I) Cl º | - | 1200 lbs. | | C | | \| 1000 t, | | | D | | 800 z, | | | | | | | | 600 , | | | | | | | | - | | 400 / | | - | | | | | | | 200 t, | | | | | | •l | A. C D .0 .2 .3 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.0 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 D' < length of test piece = 10.2”. Scale of extensions 3 times natural size, Fig.2 Tests of Steel Wire Ropes and Æods. 5 The numbers at the head of the following tables indicate as follows : e 1 Birmingham Gauge–B. W. G. 2 Actual diameter of original wire in inches. 3 Diameter of wire at C. 4 Maximum diameter of surface of rupture. 5 Minimum diameter of surface of rupture. The surface at which rupture took place was found to be nearly elliptical. Its area was obtained by the product of these two diam- eters into .78. - Load at point B. Approximate limit of elasticity. Carrying strength in pounds, (breaking strain). Original length of wire. Elongation to limit of elasticity, (B). 10 Elongation to point of rupture, (C). 11 Area of section of wire before test. 12 Area of section at which rupture took place. 13 Per cent. Of reduction of area. - 14 Load at limit of elasticity per square inch in pounds. 15 Carrying strength (ultimate breaking strain) per square inch in pounds. 16 Carrying strength (ultimate breaking strain) per square inch referred to section at which rupture took place. 17 Elongation per foot at limit of elasticity. 18 Elongation per foot at point C (total elongation per foot). The local elongation from C to D being independent of length of wire, it was eliminated. 19 Weight of wire per foot in pounds. The carrying strength (ultimate breaking strain) per square inch referred to that section at which rupture took place, given in column number 17, offers, according to Kirkaldy, the best criterion for com- parison as regards quality of the material in general, since the choice of material in most applications rests not only upon the strength, but also upon its tenacity and ductility. Inferior material may rank first if judged by its carrying strength alone. Compare the tables of v. Kaven, “Zeitschrift d. Hannoverishen Architecten and Ingenieur Vereins,” 1868, pages 443–446. Also “Deutsche Industriezeitung,” 1873, page 185, for tables published by the Department of Public Works in India, in accordance with the propositions and experiments of Kirkaldy in Order to apply the same to the various kinds of iron in contracts and proposals. . 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Flexible Basic Steel Wire Ropes. -- º * * --. gº, sº # r– #, -: ~ E - 3– 9 2 3 £ ă # = : #3 35-5 º º 2 = 3 cº 3 #&# #2 = 3 $2 g Z. Z. †. sº C C : - -: 14 *3 19 17 2% 21; 949 º 237(){} \- 236S0 23000) 15 6 19 1S 2% 2,3 . .846 21250) . - :21000 - 21510 22270) 16 6 19 1S 214 2}} .S1 20000 - 2020) - 19790 19170) 17 6 19 19 2 23's .588 16200 ) ! t 16750 -a, # 17000 17580 J 18 (3 19 20 134 134 .439 11050 4. a łº 1990 i4600) 19 6 19 21 1}; 1, 897 1962%) , . - - - 10550 - 10790 ii.200) IV. Coarse Basic Steel. |------ 20 (5 7 : 15 2 : 2, .642 18500) }} | 1ss20 sº 18710 ſ “”- 19250) 2 6 7 16 1% 1% .505 15000) ... 1 24 tº 15510 15900) i { 22 6 7 17 1}3 1.3 .33 ±00) : 99.10% 10000 - 16:00) OQ * 10 114 .21 6400) 23 6 ( , 24. | 6600 6370 bioo) Tests of Steel Wire Ropes and Rods. V. Flexible Crucible Steel Wi r € Ropes. 3. re 3-5 & § – 3 à # UD 2: 3 = > # # = : 3X £2 : 35 <5. ### ### = { # 2. Z Z. J. £ 5 2 = -: 24 6 19 20 134 1łł 484 #3%) 23700. 23770 23300) 25 6 19 21 113 1% 865 :º) 19900 - . 1S570 ió906) 26 6 19 22 1% 248 lº) - IO300 - 10740 io906) 34 6 19 1S 2% 2; ' ' .70 40050) § 38980 35 6 19 19 2 2, .645 30450 300.50 - 30050 30650) - TVI. Coarse Crucible Steel Wire Ropes. 27 6 7 14 24 25, 832 tº 41300): 40500 . 39ſio) 28 6 7 15 O 2, 648 30600 31300 - 31300 32000). 29 6 7 16 134. 13; 195 #| | 25690 - 25570 2570d) *30 6 6 17 1}; 1% 295 º 10000 - 10570 11200) 31 6 7 1S 1% 184 $100) $3% 8480 s365) 32 6 7 19 1. 160 5650) 5970 - 6000 i | 6396) * Each strand contains a hemp core. 12 Tests of Steel Wire Ropes and Rods. The following tables contain the data necessary for ascertaining what properly may be called the “efficiency” of the rope or strand. The efficiency serves as a relative measure, as a criterion regarding the methods adopted and the character of the work in the manufacture of the rope, etc., and is independent of the quality of the material used. The section of the rope is to the total section of the wires which form it, inversely as their length. The strength of a “perfect” rope is therefore greater, in the above proportion, than the combined strength of the individual wires composing it. - - As a standard of comparison for any particular rope or strand, I have therefore adopted the above defined “ideal" or “perfect rope.” Let B equal the sum of the breaking loads of all the wires composing the rope. B, breaking load of rope. B2 “ ‘‘ breaking 10ad of strand. B3 ‘‘ ‘‘ sum of breaking loads of all the wires composing the strand. B4 “ sum of breaking loads of all the wires composing the rope. L ‘‘ “ length of wire. L1 ‘‘ ‘‘ length of rope. L., “ “ length of strand. S denotes the sum of sections of wires composing either strand or rope, as may be required. - S1 denotes section of rope. S2 denotes section of strand or strands, as may be required. We have the following relations : S 7 S1 li - Sl s = , f k '? 11 S., lº F S1 li S, - l, S lº In the above sense we may speak of the efficiency of a rope or of a strand, with regard to their respective wires; or we may speak of the efficiency of the rope as relating to its strands only. To determine, for instance, the efficiency of a rope with respect to the wires composing it, we have the total breaking load of its wires per unit of area equal to S hence the breaking load of a perfect rope equal to "...” or equal A - f B. l. * - B1 li to 7, Hence the efficiency will be equal to B l these efficiencies were determined for the specimens given in the following table. The other tables contain the data required for computation. Q à | f : *: &- *— 862; à | # |=2 || 2 || 3 || 2 | # * | < | *- :5 +2 --> --> *4 = 2. 2, 2. H H H Q Flexible Basic Steel Wire Rope . . . . . 17 | 6 || 19 12.66 12.84 || 13.16 17060 Flexible Crucible Steel Wire Rope. .. 35 | 6 || 19 || 12.06 | 12.53 | 12.78 30050 Flexible Basic Steel Gal. Wire Rope. 2 || 6 || 19 | 12.06 || 13.16 || 13.44 10250 Coarse Crucible Steel Wire Rope. . . . 28 || 6 || 7 | 12.00 | 12.31 | 12.38 || 31300 Coarse Basic Steel Gal. Wire Rope. . 9 || 6 || 7 | 12.78 || 13.09 || 13.34 || 12180 Coarse Basic Steel Wire Rope. . . . . . . 20 | 6 || 7 || 11.40 12.34 12,47 18910 ICC8 86.18 I 11& I gots 6&g | 6608 ost Ifo leg gro lºst Ifo loot gro lost 9:0 so gro 01. I | GF0 | Zg I fif()' | 89 I 9F0- || 19L | 9:0' | GFI G+0" | g g I | GF(). 891 gro' | 0g 9FO | siz 1+0 | 891 gro | Sol | IFO' | FIL | 9:0 00I Ifo g91 9:0 | 68 || 1:0 go gro 611 910 || 00I #0. 89I Gf°()' | 69L GF0 || gll G+0" || 31|I G#0 || 01I G#0: OSI 9f() 19. I G+0° S g I 9f 0 || 09.I 9F0' | 1.1L 9f()' | #1 I G+0" | 09.I G+0° 91. I | HF0 g 4. I Gf°0' | #1 I gi-0 || 31I G+() § 1 I G+() IgE fif{)' 11 I Gf°() fSI 9+0 | 16I 1+0" | #1 I | #0 || 36|| | If() | ZLI 9F0° f! I gf () 19L | 1.f.0 fl. I 9FO | IGI F#0 | 19L 9+() 01. I Gf°()' 19L | Ifo g! I | OF0 | 891 9+0 | 01I gFO | 16I ºf0 | IQL | OF0. fl. I Qi ()' | 01. I 9+()' | Cº. I G+() 9SI 1+0" | III 9F()' | 89 I gif|O’ 19 I 970 8SI | 1.f.0° GGI | H() | g g I H-0 || G1 I 950' | I]. I fif()' all gro latt to loot cro so gro log | Ho all gro fig I Gi-O" | SGI 9F() Z91 || 9 FO' | #g I G+0" | 31|I 9f()' | 81. I | #0' 88I | 1.f.0 | 01. I 9+0 gll 9FO | OFI | HF0' | 01I G+0" | 09 I fif()' 81 I G#0 | f | I gf () ; 29I 9+0" | SSI 9F() 09.I G+0" | 69E | 9.f.0° 19|| || GF0 | f | I Gł0' | ()! I 9.f.0 I9 I | #0' | 01. I GF0 || Og|I G#0' S9I 9+0° g! I 970° 99.I Gf°0' | 89 I G+0" | G8I 9F0' | 8 FI 9;0° Ill 9+0 *1 I 9f() 8QI 8 f() G9.I Gf°0' | 3GI G#0 || 69 I 950’ E S: E S. t; S. º: E. t; S. º S. 53 :- E Sg - - Sg 5': s'g Ež s'g 5': s'g B's 9 P. as E C 2 3: E 3. E. * * º § E * E ## 35 | #: ##| | #: ##| | # &# £º ##| || #; #ā * E 2 as -: 3 as - -: 3 & ~ 2 as * -; 3 & • =: 2 3 gº * : Jº = -: O3 ; : 03 % 03 - = Oq - -: - - 'SqI Ogó ‘z, ‘SqI 006"z. 'SqL 008% sqL 09.1% 'SqL 003'3 'SqL 007'2, ‘9 “ON publis ‘G ‘ON. pUIt?.I]S | # ‘ON publ]S I ‘g ‘ON pub.1)S ‘G ‘ON pub.I]S | "I ON publjS ‘SOINVXII.S HO CIVO’ I 5) NIXIV'HXI8. *Sedo? I e.IIAA Iee1s opSt:9 eſCIXeſ, H. ‘pue.I]s aun 3DIsoduloo an AA UIoba Jo speoi 3DIXIEa.Iq plie Sienatuelp aul osſe pue “puens Hoea Jo peoi 5upieaiq alſ, uſeluoo pub “Hoea spuens xis Jo pasodiuoo ‘adol all A Jo senſenb huaiagp XIs on Iagel seſqui, 311||AOIIo; eu.L --- - - - - - - - - - - – - –— — —- - - - -------------- - - --- 9. I 'spoy pup S3%02/ 212AM 722/S. ſo -- sº #I spoy pºp sagoy 2.42AM 722/S. Josis.{/ gggg 098g | gigg #ssg | | #69 pºss ogg|Iro |g| gro | Irg sto' |ssa 9:0 fºg | Ifo | Fig | Sto is: gro | Sog | Ifo logg lio |963 || 1ſo | 688 of) | 198 || 0:0 Sgg SF0 || 018 1+0. g62 | 1.f.0 | 883 9f0 | 913 970 |983 || 870 962 110 | g65 9F0 | 188 SFO | 616 || SFO | If? | SFO | #63 | Sf9 I6z 910 | 188 SFO | 663 | IFO' | Org | Ifo 918 970 | 888 || 1ſ0 Org | SHO g63 9+0 || 383 9FO | Igg | If O' | 988 | 1.f.0 | If 8 || 1ſ0' ZIg 150 g[g SFO || OIg | 1.f.0 | #13 gł0 || 613 | 1.f.0 938 lifo' cas || 1:0 | cog | Ifo lagg sto' | Sre SFO | #98 || 1:0 | 678 670 zoº sty |& so lots |sio |ss; gro lice gro lei6 sto 80g | 150 g[g 1+0 || Ogg SFO || 038 Sf O' | 883 grO' | Q83 lift) 962 9F0 || 86a | 1+0 938 Sf) 0& Sf() |983 || 1 f() GL8 lift) ggg SF0 || 063 || 090" | 833 SFO | [08 || Li () 008 || 1 f()' | f |8 || 1 f()' I0g 9F0 || 06a || 9 F0 || Ogg gi-0 || Sig Sf.0 || 063 970 #63 9f 0° 608 9F0 | Cze 110 | S63 9:0' logg | SHO g18 lio |008 || 9:0 g09 1+0 Ogg SFO OSZ, lif{)' | Q08 || 1 f() 688 9.f.0 | 118 8f O’ Of-g SFO fig | Sf() || 003 lif() 9Ig | Sf() S63 Sf-0 || 808 lif() agg li:0' | #63 1+0 || Ogg | If() | gig | SHO | SF8 || 1:0 || 018 970: gzg | 1.f()' | IO3 1+() | gåg 9FO | f Sz, 9f0' 803 || Lí0 || 86% Sf() G1L ZQ0' | 89. I 090" | 61 I IGO' | Sf I | [g()' | 09 I 990’ 61 I | 890 –3 || -- I Lä | L: | Lä = | L: | L: | Lä = | –# | –= 'SqL 031°g sqL OF0“g sqL 08; ‘g sqL 098"f sqI Og|I‘g | sqL OIS'f ‘9 “ON pub.I]S ‘G ‘ON publjS ºf ‘ON publjS ‘g ‘ON publis ‘z, ‘ON publ.)S "I ON. pUI.B.I]S ‘SOINVRI.J.S HO CIVO’ I 5) NIXIV'HXIgE ‘edoï Ieels eſq.[on.IO eſdºxeſ, I 'spoy pup sodoy 2,444 foo/S ſo sysz{Z &06I 00ST = SG6 I 096 I 816. I 96 || Of O' | 16 | 680 || 36 | 680 gg.T | IFO: 9:I | OF0. air Of 0° 18 680 || 96 | OF0 | 16 || IFO' | FS | OF0 IgE | OF0 | F0I | 680: f0I If0' | 86 Gf O' | 90I | If() |z0|| | IFO: 96 || 0F0 | g II | 680: 96 | If O’ GII | If O' | 00I | OFO' | GII Ił0 | 96 | OF0' | 60I | OF0. 96 GTO | 86 CfO' | 90L | OF0 gz I zło" 90I 630 | 66 | OF0. 86 Gf°() 16 || 8+0 || 00I | If() | g II | 0+0 | 16 || 630 || IOI 880. IOI &f0 | 96 || Of O' | 36 I#0' | 06 || IFO' | S6 || 0+0" | 80I | OF0. 60T | If O’ 96 | If 0 || GII | OF0 | S6 ºf 0 || 101 ºf 0 || 36 | If(); 96 | If O' | IOI � | 86 IFO' | 96 || 0+0 | 96 || IFO: | F0I | OF0. 86 I Of0 | S9 g30 || ZOI zf0' | Oz I zi-O' | F6 If() || 03I ºf:0° 80T | Of O’ f6 | 680 g6 | IFO' | 00I | OF0 | 80I | OF0 | S6 aft). 80I | OF0 | SOI | If() 96 || 0+0" | 96 || IFO' | IOI | 0+0" | SOI | If() 801 | OF0 gé zł0 | 96 of0 | 001 | OFO | 101 | Ho | 1s Iro 8II Of O' | 1 II | Of0' | 03T | If() 10I 630 || IOI (H-0 | #0I | If()' 00I 0f 0 || 80I If:0' | 1 II I#0' 91 g30' 96 || 3+0 || 00I Of:0° GIT | If 0 || 06 I#0 g6 (F0 OII �' ZOL | OF0 || 00I If() 81 | Ifo 0II | Ifo 86 Ifo f6 afo 36 Ifo OII afo 36 � || 30I If() | g II | If() 96 | OF0 | ZOI gł0 || 86 | OFO: 16 || OFO f6 | OFO |z0|| || 3:0 | 66 | OF0 |601 | IFO | 00I | 680 E|| | E. E 5 tº 5 E. S. tº 5 t; s: ‘sqI 088'I sqI 061. I sqL 0.98°I sqL 038"I sqL OI8'I sq[ 03S"I ‘9 “ON pub.I]S | "g ‘ON publjS '# ‘ON pub.I]S ‘g "ON pub.I]S ‘G ‘ON pubiqS "I 'ON pub.I]S 'scisvils ào (Ivor oSIXVäää ‘edo? I e.IIAA. Teeq S opStºgi pez [UIgAIE+) eICIXe[:I 1 Tests of Steel Wire Ropes and Rods. 6 Coarse Crucible Steel Wire Rope. BREAKING LOAD OF STRANDS. Strand No. 1. l Strand No. 2. Strand No. 3. Strand No. 4. | Strand No. 5. l Strand No. s - 4,560 1bs. 5,370 lbs. 4,880 1bs. 4,830 1bs. 4,910 lbs. 5,390 1bs. E § 3 à | F. §T | E #" | s= | 3 || 3 ||3- *.071 287|.075 587 |.074 957 || 070 500 || 074 228 .072 212 on issl on 972 || 0:4|1022 on tºol on 975 || 0:2 1050 .071 393 || 073 1034 || 072 880 || 074 992 || 071 798 || 071 880 .071 917 | 071 850 | 070 | 833 || 074 1050 || 071 850 | 070 820 .072 992 | 072 1018 .075 600 | 013 | 895 || 071 850 | 071 960 .071 893 .069 899 || 073 | 897 .071 960 .071 829 | 070 999 .069 949 || 071 si4 || 072 987 | 070 850 | 071 800 | 070 860 sº sº | | grº || |gº 595 | Bºsi. *COre Of Soft Iron. Coarse Basic Steel Galvanized Wire Rope. BREAKING LOAD OF STRANDS. Strand No. 1. 2,220 lbs. .075 | 406 .069 270 .070 || 326 .069 270 .071 |, 320 .070 294 ()70 318 Strand NO. 2. 2,150 1bs. .069 || 280 .071 325 .071 295 ,070 385 .069 335 .070 325 ,071 | 402 Strand NO. 3. Strand NO. 4. Strand No. 5. Strand No. 6. 2,070 lbs. 2,060 lbs. 1,990 lbs. 2,210 lbs. .00 288 . .0% 82, 070 310|| 0 || 310 .073 341 || 070 297 068 277 || 067 275 .070 314 || 070 291 || 067 319 | |008 281 .069 298 || 070 294 | 070 291 | 069 |300 .066 285 || 071 279 || 071 292 | .009 | 896 .069 280 || 071 286 .068 278 .070 298 ,071 328 || 069 264 .070 298 .077 292 225 | | 2036 2005, 2152 Tests of Steel Wire Ropes and Rods. 17 Coarse Basic Steel Wire Rope. BREAKING LOAD OF STRANDS. Strand NO. 1. Strand No. 2. Stralnd NO. 3. Strand NO. 4. Strand No. 5. l Strand No. 6. 3,480 lbs. 2,640 lbs. 3,440 1bs. 3,000 lbs. 3,460 lbs. . 3,150 1bs. ~ ...; bſ, * ... tſ, ~ ... *ſ. ~ 2: $0 - -: $ſ. ~ : *:0 do 33 - . & Z. 2- do ſº - - <> 22 T • c 23 2- o Z; 2- # £º ##| | #: # #3 | ## £3 | # # ##| | #: 2: Sº Tº & 3 9 Tº s 3 & T. 3 2 : Tº & 2: 9 Tº & 3 $2 | "… 3 3 ºr 9 – 3 - || 2 — ; 3 = | 9 — = − $2 – 3 - $2 – || 3 – $2H C. ſº * 2- 2- 23 F. º ſº ſº ſº 23 ()71 479 .071 386 .073 567 || 07 39S .078 540 | .073 || 527 .073 550 .071 462 .072 560 .07() 550 .072 465 70 440 ,073 52.5 .071 426 .07 479 ()7() || 400 71 1 | 545 . 07 2 5 () () .072 611, .072 || 516 .071 .072 550 | .071 || 461 | .073 570 | .071 .072 435 | .074 553 .073 || 506 .071 4 1 Q º 3 5 5 2 O 1 O O 7 0 4 1 () .072 .070 31S | .074 || 450 () 7 2 5 1 6 .07.2 485 .071 538 519 || 07() 480 s 18 Tests of Steel Wire Ropes and Rods. TABLES OF EFFICIENCY, EFFICIENCY OF ROPE As COMPARED TO THE WIRES COMIPRISING IT = m. B1 li 7=E-i .86 1.00 .94 B1 B l li # } Flexible Basic steel Rope. Togo'ſ 1923015.16||1299| sº ſº Flexible crucible steel Rope 29370 35450 | 127s. 12.06 83 |.94 Flex. Basic Steel Gal. Rope. 10250 11400 13.44 | 12.06 90 SS Coarse Crucible Steel Rope. 31300 34700 | 12.38 12.00 | .90 .97 Coarse Basic Steel Gal. Rope 12180 12940 || 13.34 12.78 .94 | .95 Coarse Basic Steel Rope. . . . 18910 | 20420 12.47 | 11.40 | .93 .92 EFFICIENCY OF ROPE AS COMPARED TO STRANDS COMPOSING IT. R1 || B | | la ll #. # D 4 .2 Flexible Wire Rope . . . . . . . . 17060 | 17000 | 12.84 || 12.66 100 .99 • & Steel “ . . . . . . . . 29370 3101 () 12.53 | 12.06 .95 | .96 ‘‘ Galvanized Rope. ... 10250 | 10940 || 13.16 1206 .94 | .92 Coarse Steel Rope . . . . . . . . . . 31300 299.40 12.31 12.00 | 1.04 .98 ‘‘ Galvanized Rope . . 12180 | 12730 13.09 12.78 .96 .98 “ Wire Rope. . . . . . . . . . 18910 | 19170 | 12.34 || 11.40 | .98 | .93 .91 EFFICIENCY OF STRANDS AS COMPARED TO WIRE COMPOSING THEMI. FIexible Basic Steel Wire Rope. º B2 lº B 2 la Aver'ge 3% B., Bs lº l B, - 7–5, 7-Effic's. 1 2400 || 3129 12.84 13.16 .77 .9S .75 2 || 3200 || 3260 | 12.84 13.16 .9S .98 | .96 3 2750 3170 12.84 13.16 .87 * | * | *. 4 2800 3280 12.84 13.16 .86 .98 | .84 5 2900 || 3200 | 12.84 13.16 .91 .98 || 89 6 2950 || 3220 | 12.84 13.16 .92 .98 .90 6I spoy pup sodoy 2 (AM 722/S. ſo sysz/ C6' (56 9:6' S8' 2. I I8 &I ()S19 || 0699 || 9 I6' 6(5' &6' Sg’ &I Ig’ & I 0889 || 0I6+ G is * 66" ('S' S8 &I Ig'º. I Of 09 09Si. # S!" 66" 61." S$ GI I8 &I OSIQ OSS f | 8 +6' (36." G6' S8 &I Igº, I | 0999 || 0199 || 3, SS' 66" 6S' S8 &I Ig’ &I 09:19 || 099 f | I “Sput?.I]S I.333S eLCII2n.I.O 3S-ltº O O. f6' S6' 96.' frºg I 9I’9. I 006 I 09SI 9 #6' S6 96 ++’g I 91.81 | 09SI 0611 . g i-6" S6' 96' ++’ g|I 9I’g I | OF6T 09SI f 86° I6' S(5’ §6' ++’ g|I 9I’8 I 096 I ()ZSI 8 I6' S6' C6' ++’g I 9I’8 I 096 I () ISI & I6' S6' 9:(5’ H-‘g I 9I'8:I 016I 08:SI I 'spuens Ie a JS 3 (Stºgi peziutº.{{{2+9 3 ICHIX2ICI #6' S6' 96 S1’āI gg’ſ, I 09:69 || 08:19 9 #S' S6' 98 stal &al 09sº orog g - | 06' S6' 36 81%I 89 &I OI69 (39F9 f 98’ - IS" S6' 8s stºl gg'al 0886 || 0gs; 8 GS’ S6' is sº 89 &I Of 69 || 09:IG | 3. OS" 86° as 81%I 89 &I 0689 ()I8p || I 1 *g 2. 3. 7. #3 as leav * ºn 74 1 l $1. a |3: - – - "spure.InS Laal S 314ſon.I.O 3LCLIX2IJI *INGIHL QNISOdIVOS) 3 &IAA OJ, (IHXIváINOO SV SCINV XII.S HO AQN'BIOIJHJH3. -3.# r 20 Tests of Steel IVåre Ropes and A’ods. EFFICIENCY OF STRANDS AS COMPARED TO WIRE COMPOSING THEMI. Coarse Basic Steel Galvanized Strands. . ; B, Bs l? l #. | m Averge 1 || 2920 221() 13.09 13.34 1.00 .9S -- 2 2150 2850 | 18.09 | 18.84 .92 .98 .90 3 2070 213() 13.09 13.34 .9S .9S .96 jºr 4 2060 2040 13.09 13.3- 1.01 .9S .99 .97 5 | 1990 2070 13.0%) 13.34 .97 .9S .95 6 221 () 2150 | 18.09 13.34 | 1.03 .9S 1.00 Coarse Iron Basic Steel Strands. 1 || 348() 335() | 12.34 12.47 | 1.04 .98 1.02 2 2640 3190 | 12.34 12.47 .83 .9S .81 3 3440 || 34.70 | 12.34 12.47 .99 .98 .99 <) 4 3000 || 3460 | 12.34 12.47 .87 .98 s, * 5 3460 | 3460 | 12.34 12.47 | 1.00 .98 .98 6 3150 | 3490 12. 34 12.47 .90 .9S .88 F. G. HESSE, Prof. of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering. .º. , ！ " **ā � și º &. §§ · · · ·, , : Jyº * # &. *ų * · · * * * # ！ * * · · · · ·, „.^， 4 ! Æ， &? * , , †! - º *. s * * ·{ » % , ’* „º v . 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SWEET, M. AM. Soc. C. --- E. • - s THE RADICAL ENLARGEMENT OF THE ERIE CANAL, A - ..a 2: ** – * lº C2’ (A^2 y/i/ - - - E. LºcoffhELL. M. Am. Soc. C. E. Read at the Convention of the American Society of d Civil Engineers, June 25th, 1885. - * * "CANALS AND RAILROADS, SHIP CANALS & SHIP RAILWAYs.” 3 z I ol ** { *, *-j •. * u, ºa 3. --- - 4. 3. * * * -- - - ** - - 2 - - * * ~ * * as #, . + + - - - * *-***** -º- Sºlº..... -- - * * * . . fºr sā-º-º: º: - sº º: • * - - 3". . . . - .* - **- . - . . - - - , , " . 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Discussion of the Paper of E, SWEET, M. AM, SOC. C. E. THE RADIGAL ENLARGEMENT OF THE ERIE CANAL, E. L. CORTHELL. M. Am. Soc. C. E. Read at the Convention of the American Society of Civil Engineers, June 25th, 1885. "CANALS AND RAILROADS, SHIP CANALS & SHIP RAILWAYS.” 3 * 1 OI CANALS AND RAILROADS, SHIP CAN ALS AND SHIP RAILWAYS. THE principles underlying the subject of Transportation, and the important conditions affecting, modifying and con- trolling its methods, demand a wider investigation than is embraced in the paper under discussion. We have, therefore, treated the subject in its general application under the above caption. At this epoch in the development of the world's commerce and industry, after less than a century of steam transpor- tation on land and water, it is necessary to contrast the various methods and, in the light of their history, ascertain the best means for the future, especially for international commerce and interoceanic communications. The gradual abandonment of the canals, and the rapid and general introduction of railroads during the last forty years, are facts so patent that no proofs are necessary, but the reasons for this change in the methods of transportation are not so well known. There is a vast difference between transportation on the Open Sea and in the restricted channels of barge and ship canals. - The opposing force that the boat herself creates by her movement through the water, and which increases the cost of transportation, is quite fully described in the following explanation of the controlling conditions given in Vol. 76, page I62, 1883, Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers of Great Britain : “A vessel in its progress is continually displacing a mass of water equal to its own submerged bulk, and proportional 4 to the greatest immersed cross-section of the vessel. In Open Water the vacuum that would otherwise be left in the Wake of the vessel, is filled by the water rushing in from all sides. When the movement of a vessel takes place in a restricted channel, the case is altered. There is no longer an indefinite supply of water all around the vessel to rush into the hollow at the wake. This hollow must be filled by Water which flows &ackwards, as a counter current driven by the head due to the height of the wave caused by the vessel. This backward current will be directly as the speed and the cross-section of the vessel, and inversely as the free water way. Consequently, a boat encounters continually an opposing current, so that her speed will be the difference between her own proper one and that of the opposing current.” The practical results obtained in operating canals confirms the above theory. In a canal near Preston, England, about 3O miles long, all the traffic was turned in one direction for One day. This piled up the water at one end 18 inches, and shallowed it at the other end 18 inches. (See Vol. 76, page 2OI, Trans. Inst. C. E.) A serious resistance is developed if the attempt is made to urge the boat in a contracted channel, like a canal, beyond a speed of from two to three miles per hour. In Vol. 76, page 183, Trans. Inst. C. E., are recorded some useful experiments on the traction power required to move canal boats at different speeds. With a velocity of 2% miles per hour, the power necessary to move One ton was 2% lbs. ; 4 miles per hour, 7 to II lbs. ; 5 miles, 2O to 30 lbs. From these experiments it was established that the proper or economical speed for canals was from 2 to 2% miles per hour. On journeys in a steam launch, in an Indian canal 40 feet wide, near Rangoon, when the depth was slight, the launch could not make over I to 2 miles per hour, but in a greater depth, 5 miles per hour. This statement is made by Mr. Robert Gordon, M. Inst. C. E., Great Britain. The resistance to the movement of a “Carrier "wave, that is, a wave in advance of a boat or vessel passing through a canal, decreases as the depth increases. Experiments in 5 England, showed that at a depth of I foot it ran at the rate of 4 miles per hour ; with a 5 feet depth, 8 miles per hour; with a 15 feet depth, 15 miles ; and with a 20 feet depth, 20 miles. In reference to canal navigation on the Aire and Calder Navigation, England, where steam barges are used, and the boats are about 63 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 6 feet draft, the following statement appears : “The velocity should not be over 4 to 5 miles per hour, as, at higher speeds, the resistance of the water would be so great as to require an unnecessarily large expenditure of power, and the wave created would destroy the bank.” The destructive wave is caused, not by the wheel, or wheels, of the towing boats, but by the force of the boats themselves pushing against the confined volume of water. In the restricted channel on the Belgian canals, steam towing tugs are restricted to 2% miles per hour, in wider rivers to 4% miles. On the canal joining the Tiege and Vistula, steam barges are restricted to 3 miles per hour. Steam tugs on the river Lee, England, tow 50 to 60 ton boats at a rate of from 2 to 2% miles per hour in the narrow cuts; 3 to 3% in the larger sections, and 5 miles in the Thames. On the Erie Canal, freight steamers make 40 miles in 24 hours. From experi- ments made in 1847, by Professor Barlow, on the Irwell and Mersey canal, he derived the conclusion that the power required to overcome the resistance to the passage of boats was as the cuðe of the velocity. In Vol. 68, page 278, 1881, Trans. Inst. C. E., some facts are given relating to the cost of operating canals in Belgium. They show that when maintenance and interest on first cost are included they cannot possibly compete with railroads. These canals cost $57,500 per mile, and for maintenance $465.OO per mile. The cost of the towing alone is nearly % cent per ton per mile. Steam towing on the Willebroeck Canal, with 6 to 7 boats at a time, cost for towing alone, 2 mills per ton mile. Towing by horses on two Belgian canals II V, feet deep cost about 3% mills per ton mile. The net cost of Canal carriage, applying the foregoing statements to an annual traffic of 600,000 ton miles, would be 5% to 6% mills per ton mile for steam and horse towing respectively. 6 In 1857 (see Vol. 17, page 407, Trans. Inst. C. E.), Robert Stevenson, in some remarks on canals and rail- Ways, said, “There could be no doubt that the canals near London are admirable auxiliaries to the railways and especially as a terminus of goods traffic, but when one is compared with the other as regards expense, the experience of the last 20 years is in favor of railways.” Mr. Beardmore, at the same time, urged co-operation between railways and canals, saying, “Inasmuch as water Conveyance could not compete with railways on a large scale or for great distances.” In 1854 (see Vol. 13, page 201, Trans. Inst. C. E.), in a discussion of the subject of canals and railways, Mr. Bidder, Vice Pres. Inst. C. E., stated that he could not make a canal compete with a railway by animal power, and had tried steam but could not gain any advantage Owing to the restricted area of the canal. Sir Robert Raw- linson gave an opinion that canals could not compete with railways, and Sir John Hawkshaw said, that in 1831 an act had been obtained to convert the Manchester and Bolton Canal into a railway, but the project was abandoned and the railway was built alongside of the canal, but gradually absorbed the traffic of the canal. “It was a subject of regret that the original plan had not been been carried out, for canals could not compete with railways.” These were the opinions of leading engineers 30 years ago. Since then it has not been possible to make any improvement in the speed or economy of canal transportation, but the rail- roads have greatly developed in both these respects. - The reasons for the reduced cost in railway transportation of late years are, improvements in the condition of railroads by better construction, better maintenance of track, and in more economical administration ; also, in the increase of the amount of freight hauled on one train, which is made possible by the increase in locomotive power and in the capacity of cars. The train load has increased about 75 per cent. The capacity of cars has increased from 20,000 lbs. in 1855 to 1876; to 40,000 lbs in 1882; and to 50,000 lbs in 1885; and the master car builders have recently decided upon a standard car to carry 60,000 lbs. The weight of cars on the Penna. 7 Railroad increased from 20,500 lbs. to 22,OOO only, from 1870 to 1881, but the load capacity increased from 20,000 lbs. to 4O,OOO lbs. There has also been a great reduction in the cost of repairs on locomotives. In 1865 the cost per One hundred miles run on the Penna. R. R. was $16.48, and in 1881 $6.02. On the Penna. R. R. the locomotive mileage increased from 19,240 in 1870 to 27,644 in 1881, and the average ton mileage increased from 2, IOO,OOO to 5,000,000. These facts are extracted from a paper by Mr. Wm. P. Shinn, before the Am. Soc. of C. E., Vol. II, page 365, 1882. Great advances in the above respects have also been made in foreign countries. In this country the steadily decreasing cost of rail transportation and the increasing capacity for business have increased the volume of freight over three of the main trunk lines, viz.: Penna., New York Central, and Erie, from Io,476,857 tons in 1868 to 46, 177,223 tons in 1883. In remarkable contrast the New York State canals have, in the same period, decreased in volume of freight from 6,442,225 to 5,664,056 tons. The mileage of through freight boats on the Erie canal decreased from about 12,OOO,OOO in 1850 to 6,66O,OOO in 1881. The history of rates on this canal shows that there was no reduction until it was compelled by the reduction on the railroads. The canals have been kept alive by the money of the State. It is now proposed to galvanize them into new life by the application of $3,000,000 to their beds, banks and dilapidated structures. Even this can result in only a spasmodic revival of activity and nothing but bountiful subsidies and generous gifts to the despondent owners of the rotten boats will keep the mules on the tow-path another five years. It is a significant fact that in Canada also, which has spent its millions on a complete system of barge and ship canals, the merchants are demanding an abolition of all tolls. What more positive proof that the canals do not pay as an investment 2 - The last report on transportation issued by the U. S. Census Bureau states that about 2,OOO miles of canals (nearly one-half of all that have been constructed) have been 8 abandoned. The original cost of these abandoned canals was nearly $50,000,000. Railroads now occupy the beds and banks of many of them. Notwithstanding this “handwriting on the wall” the stu- pendous folly of a magnificent ship canal from the Lakes to New York is really proposed, and the State or the Federal Government is to be asked to expend about $240,000,000, more or less, on the construction of a transportation line for which there is no earthly need. It is a retrograde movement in a most progressive age ; the re-introduction of methods that are not, in any sense, in accord with its spirit, tendencies Or necessities. There is really no comparison between this ancient method of transportation and the modern railway. As well might we compare the antiquated Broadway 'bus with the Elevated Railroad. On the Penna. R. R., Main Div., and the Phila. and Erie Div., the average cost is about 4 mills per ton per mile, including all expenses except interest on capital. This expense includes the transportation of local as well as through freights, handling at terminals and local stations, maintenance of permanent way, motive power and all the incidental and general expenses connected with the operation of the railroad. On the same railroad, Susquehanna Div., the actual cost of hauling (average of 5 consolidated locomotives on 816, II 5 car miles) was O.6 of a mill per ton per mile, including repairs to locomotives, fuel, stores and train hands. The cost of towing by Steam canal boat with consort is 1 mill running cost alone, but for all expenses, but not including terminal cost, 3. I 5 mills per ton per mile. (See page IOO, Vol. 14, 1885, Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, by John D. Van Buren, Jr.) This method of towing is the least expensive of any by canal. This cost is based on full loads both ways. The boats cannot be run except at a loss, if they were sent one way empty. Again, the kind of freight transported by canal is cheaply handled, being coal, grain and lumber. The railroads carry more expensively handled freight, and run their cars empty or partially loaded if necessary to accommodate busi- 9 ness. The speed of the steam canal boat, running time is five miles per hour on the Hudson River, and 2. I miles on the Erie canal, while the average running time of the railroads between the west and New York is at least I 5 miles per hour. The basis of comparison—actual cost of hauling, as above made, is the only proper one, since the Erie Canal is owned by the State and maintained and controlled by it at no cost of interest, or tolls, or other expenses to the boats. Without bringing forward further proof, the reasons are evident for the decay of the canals and the rapid growth of railroads as being better adapted to the needs of internal commerce by affording promptness, convenience and econ- omy. If we compare ship canals, for interoceanic communication and for shortening the lines of commerce, with ship railways we shall find a still greater difference in favor of the ship railway. The resistances to be overcome in the restricted channel of an ordinary canal exist to a still greater extent in the ship canal, for while the canal is larger in cross-section, the size of the vessel is also larger and the ratio of immersed section to the available water section is increased. The speed required is also greater and the tractive power consequently increased. It requires for instance, as ascertained by careful calculations, twice as much power to move a lake steamer through the St. Clair Flats Ship Canal, of large dimensions, at 5 miles an hour as it does to propel her on the open lakes at the same speed. In a paper before the Inst. C. E., (Vol. 68, page 278, 1881,) Mr. A. Gobert, calculating from the resistances and other facts gathered from Several barge canals, said that the net cost of s/hip canal transportation would be about one cent per ton per mile including interest, maintenance, insurance, wages and fuel. It is a fact that in the narrow part of the river Clyde large steamers cannot make over 8 to 9 miles per hour while they can make I6 to 18 miles per hour at sea. The resistance to steamers and the increase of tractive power and cost of transportation are plainly seen in the operation of the Suez Canal. The average time Occupied in actual movement 10 through the canal increased from 17 hours in 1876 to 19 hours and 32 minutes in 1884. The speed slackened from 5.88 miles to 5. I 3 miles per hour and, the time passed in the canal by each steamer increased from 39 hours in 1876 to 49 hours and 58 minutes in the first three months of 1884, or an average speed of 2 miles per hour. A steamer forced through the canal at about seven knots per hour produced a retarding current of 6 1–2 knots per hour. The speed through the canal is re- stricted by rules to 5 miles per hour. A practical navigator stated that with a ship drawing 20 feet, a speed of over 4 knots an hour would result in mishaps. (Vol. 76, page 161, 1883, Trans. Inst. C. E.) Sir Charles A. Hartley stated that the speed in the canal proper is considerably less than 4 miles. On the river Clyde, at points where the channel is about 150 feet wide and IO feet deep, vessels whose length is I2O feet, have, at rare intervals, been propelled at speeds of from 8 to 9 miles per hour. “At this speed a surge rises at from 2 to 3 miles ahead, and a wave is produced which measures 8 to 9 feet from crest to trough, producing a theoretic wave speed of 16 miles per hour, which shows a loss of fifty per cent, due to the restriction of the channel.” The immense force generated by the wave was seen in its destructive action upon the slopes of hand-laid stone, 2 to 3 feet thick, along the banks of the Canal. The effect produced by a steamer moving through the South Pass of the Mississippi River, whose width is about 700 feet and depth over 30 feet, is very similar to that described above. The great surge, or wave, moves in advance of the steamer and breaks over the low banks, flooding the adjacent land. Yet this channel has about three times the Sectional area of a ship canal. - Ordinary sea-going steamers transport freight at a cost of about O.5 mill per ton per mile, running expenses alone con- sidered, and not including interest, insurance, depreciation of steamer, and profit, or O.3 mill by the best examples of sea-going steamers. The cost on a ship canal at 2 miles per hour (the economical speed), as against I2 miles per hour on the ocean, and with the same power required, would increase the cost 6 times, or to 3.0 mills per ton per mile. The cost of 11 hauling on a railroad on the same basis would be about O.6 mill—one-fifth as much only. Thus far we have compared barge and ship canals with the ordinary railroad. It is necessary now to take a broader basis, and compare the three methods—the ordinary railroad, the ship canal, and the ship railway, in construction, operation and profits. It may be stated broadly that rail- road transportation in this country has been so far reduced in cost as to make it possible to haul freight at about 4 mills per ton per mile including all expenses, even the terminal and other handlings of local and through freights, also ex- penses of repairs and renewals, general expenses of manage- ment, and the many other charges that go to make up the details of the cost of railroad transportation. The cost of /and/ºng freight is not perhaps appreciated by even railroad managers, for, while immense and continual reductions are being made in the cost of /au/img, but little advance has been made in reducing the cost at terminals and stations. It costs as much to handle a ton of goods at the New York terminal as it does to /au/ it to Albany or Philadelphia. Another important item in the cost of ordinary railroad transportation is the labor. An army of employees is re- quired for all the various duties devolving upon railroads, Hundreds of returns and reports require a large clerical force. The relations and connections with other roads in cars, goods, back charges, &c., make a large amount of work necessary. The assorting of goods for different destina- tions, the handling of cars on sidings, and in terminal and division yards require not only a variety of labor, but expen- sive power also. The expenses of doing all this work is however so sys- tematically performed and recorded on the best railroads of the country, that the cost of the various items is fully known. We need not have further to do with it here, but enter at Once upon the Ship-Railway method, and its great advan- tages Over the Ordinary railroad. 12 The estimate of cost of operating the Ship-Railway is as follows at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, which is used as an illustration on account of our greater familiarity with it. Pirst. The maintenance of the permanent way. The cost of maintenance in this country on a first class double track railroad, including sidings, yards, buildings, &c., in other words, everything but rolling stock, is about $17oo per mile of railroad, sidings being at least 25 per cent. of the whole. The wear on the rails and ties, switches and frogs, is constant and expensive. On the ship-railway, the speed being slower, the rails heavier, and the whole superstructure more nearly perfect, there will be much less wear and none of the expense arising in this country from frost and snow. There is, however, a greater rainfall, probably more deterioration of materials in wooden structures, and an increased cost of labor ; also, 50 per cent. more track to be kept up. It will be fair to estimate the maintenance at $25oo per mile, or a total for the whole distance (134 miles) of e $335,000 Second. The cost of operating the terminals, from a careful detailed estimate of labor, coal, materials and repairs, will be $350 per day, or for 365 days, $127,750 ; and for two terminals, per annum, . . 255,500 Third. The cost of operating the five ship-railway turn-tables, at $300 per day, . e e e e Io9,500 Arourth. The motive power for hauling vessels, per annum, 4,000,ooo tons at o.52 mill per ton per mile, . e e º - - - º g . 278,720 Afifth. Telegraph expenses, o e * º - . 2 O,OOO Sixth. Incidentals, . e e º º e tº . 4O,OOO Seventh. General expenses, . e & º - - . 5 O,OOO Total, & * º - º * g $1,088,720 13 Add for foreign and other expenses and contingencies, IO per cent.; the total then reaching $1,197,592, or in round numbers, $1,200,000, or 30 cents per ton on 4,000,000 tons. The gross income at $2.50 per ton would be $10,000,000, and the profit $8,800,000, which is 12 per cent. On $75,000,000 capital. If the charge is $3.00 per ton, the gross earnings will be $12,000,000 ; the profit, $10,800,000, or 14% per cent. on $75,000,000. If the full estimate of 6,000,000 tons is reached, the cost per ton will be 23.3 cents ; the profit at $2.50 per ton, 1.8 per cent.; and at $3.OO per ton, 22 per cent. The working expenses on 4,000,000 tons will be 12 per cent. of the gross receipts at $2.50 per ton ; and IO per cent. at $3.OO per ton. & The cost of operating the Ship-Railway across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, may be ascertained by another method, as follows : The cost per ton per mile on the best railroads, is 3 mills per ton per mile for through freight. From this should first be deducted the cost of such work as does not pertain to the Ship-Railway. All items of cost appear on page 8 I, Penna. Railroad Report of 1885. - Deducting irrelevant items we can properly reduce the cost 48 per cent., or to I.56 mills; but a still further reduction is proper. Much larger loads are carried, the ratio of paying to non-paying loads is greater, the frictional resistance to the motive power is reduced at least 30 per cent., the rails are straight, the track perfect, the grades light, and greater results are obtained with less fuel and service. The average paying load on the New York Central Railroad in 1883, was 199 tons, the average non-paying load, 350 tons, total 549 tons. The average load on the Ship- Railway may be assumed at I,8OO tons paying load, or 3,OOO tons total load ; or about nine times as much paying load as on the railroads. The above favorable conditions allow us to reduce the cost to 1 mill per ton per mile. Fifty per cent of the cost of operating is labor, which should be doubled for a tropical country, increasing the cost 14 to 1.5 mills, or for 134 miles, 20.1 cents, which it should be remembered is the total cost, not simply the cost of carriage. The cost at the terminals will be so small that the goods may be said to unload and load themselves. If ten ships are handled daily, of 1,500 tons each, the labor at the dock will be per day, . e º . $174.oo The coal, stores, wear and tear of machinery, . - . I 5 O.OO Total, . º e - - º -> . $3.24.oo To cover Contingencies, say, . - . $350.oo Or, per ship, te - • t º - - 35. OO Or, per ton, . - - sº • e - - 2}c. Or, for two terminals, e º - e - 4% c. The cost of operating the five turn-tables in making changes of direction (which, however, will not be more than the cost of operating the sidings on railroads) will be two cents per ton. The total cost per ton will therefore be, 20. I cents plus 4.66 cents plus 2 cents, equal to 26.76 cents. Adding, however, I5 per cent. to cover any unexpected expenses, we have a total cost of about 30 cents per ton. This estimate, though made on an entirely different basis, agrees with Our previous statement. In comparing the Tehuantepec Ship-Railway with the Ship Canal, the cost of construction will be $75,000,000 for the Ship-Railway, and probably $300,000,000 for the Panama Canal, and $2OO,OOO,OOO for the Nicaragua Canal. Major McFarland's estimate for the latter was $140,000,000 with labor at $7.00 per day. The cost of maintenance will also be much less. The road-bed of the Railway is above the water, and is no- where subject to the dangerous floods or engulfing slides from immense cuts. The road-bed is 50 feet in width, whereas the prism of the canal must be at least 200 feet, from which all washed-in material must be removed by very expensive means. The Suez Canal, where the rain-fall is about 2 inches per 15 annum, required in 1883, in the canal proper, the dredging of 781,282 cubic yards. The annual cost for cleaning the canal is about 2,000,000 francs ($400,000). The total expenses of all kinds in 1883 were over $6,000,000. The expenses of working the canal, &c., were about $3,600,000. The ma- terial in this canal can be cheaply thrown out on either side by the dredges, and only 40 per cent. Of the distance is through cuts over IO feet high above the water line. The expense at Panama will be largely in excess of that at Suez, as the prism of the canal will be exposed to a rain- fall of about I2O inches per annum, falling on enormous clay slopes, one of them over 400 feet in height. The dangerous and uncontrollable volume of the Chagres River will be a constant menace to the integrity of the pass- age way. It may be fairly estimated, therefore, that the working expenses of the canal will not be less than $4,000,000 to $5,000,000, and they will be fully as great at Nicaragua. At Nicaragua the length is 186 miles, about 20 miles only of which is open water. The remainder is a dredged, excava- ted, embanked, or walled channel, with several locks to be maintained. The cost of towing sailing vessels through either canal will be considerably more expensive than haul- ing them on the Ship-Railway ; and the cost of propelling a Steamer by her own power, will be, as has been previously shown, 3.0 mills per ton per mile, as against say, O.5 mill per ton per mile by the Ship-Railway. - The development of the plans of the Ship-Railway has been followed so closely by you during the last five years, that it is unnecessary to explain them in detail, or to occupy your time in proving their practicability, particularly as this has already been acknowledged by many members of this Society, who have given the subject special attention. As to the routes, the Tehuantepec will save, on an average, I,OOO miles on the main commercial lines, which, for a three thousand ton steamer, will reduce the cost of steaming $1,000, and the time 4 days; and this distance will be saved over either Panama or Nicaragua, for on account of the longer time required to go through the latter, it has no advantage over the Panama route in point of time. 16 The advantage also to the ship in being docked for eigh- teen or twenty hours, or longer, if her master desires it, should be considered, for it is necessary to take steamers out of the water twice each year to be scraped, cleaned and painted. It will save to the ship owners $1,000 over dock- age in port. The tolls on the Ship-Railway could be increased beyond those of any canal route to the extent of the saving to the Steamer by being hauled instead of propelled by her own ex- pensive power, and to the sailing vessels by being hauled instead of towed. The comparative rate of economical speed will be as 2 miles to ſo, so that while the Railway is longer than the Panama Canal, the crossing from ocean to ocean can be made in the same or less time, and as compared with Nicaragua, in onze-gz/arter of the time. We therefore summarize the preceding statements by saying that a canal cannot compete in speed or economy or facilities with a railroad, and that a ship-canal must also be much more expensive than a ship-railway in first cost, main- tenance and operation, and much inferior to it in despatch, facilities and conveniences ; and that the Tehuantepec Ship- Railway, as compared with any other possible method or route for interoceanic communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, has every advantage, and is entitled to the support of engineers, capitalists and commercial men, as subserving to such a high degree and at such comparatively small expense in first cost and operation, the necessities of the world's varied and growing industries. J OZarrºgºta, AZ — 4/2. - THE STORAGE OF WATER. Reprinted Papers, with Additions. BY J. BAILEY DENTON, M. INST. C.E., F.G.S. L ON DO N : E. & F. N. SPON, 48, CHARING GROSS. NEw York: 446, BROOME STREET. 1874. 303-37 THE STORAGE OF WATER. Reprinted Papers, with Additions. BY J. BAILEY DENTON, M. INST. C.E., F.G.S. LoNDON: E. & F. N. SPON, 48, CHARING CROSS. NEw York: 446, BROOME STREET. 1874. THE STORAGE OF WATER. THE AMOUNT OF RAIN FALLING ON THE SURFACE OF ENGLAND AND WALES. THE area of England and Wales is 37,324,883 acres, and the mean annual quantity of rain falling on an average of years on this surface may be taken at 32 inches. Dalton, fifty years back, estimated the average annual rainfall of these portions of the United Kingdom at 30 inches; and, in the absence of actual records sufficiently numerous and evenly distributed to be relied upon, this estimate was a remarkably sound one. . Since then, great efforts have been made to supply this deficiency, and thanks to Mr. Symons, we are now in a position to speak with some degree of certainty as to the quantity of rain falling on the surfaces of the numerous districts characterising the country, and have been enabled, by the information he has collected, to arrive at the maxima, minima, and means of those several districts, and then to strike the averages of years. Mr. Symons tells me that he considers the average mean rainfall of England and Wales to be 32 inches, and, having carefully examined the returns published by various authorities, I have been enabled to confirm, and therefore adopt, his estimate. It may be interesting to show how this quantity is arrived at. Dividing England and Wales by the outcrop of the Lias forma- tion which runs from Whitby and Redcar in Yorkshire on the north, to Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire on the south, in a tortuous but nearly unbroken line, I find the mean of all recorded averages on the east of that line to be nearly 26 inches, the extreme being 20 inches in parts of Essex, (minimum), and 36 inches in a part of Sussex (maximum). This division contains rather less than 16,000,000 of acres. On the west of the Lias the average rain- fall is 38 inches, the extremes being less than 30 inches in parts of Gloucestershire and Shropshire (minimum), and upwards of 60 inches in parts of Wales, and 80 inches in the Lake district (maxi- B 2 4 THE STORAGE OF WATER. mum). This division contains about 21% millions of acres, and in it are included the Devonian hills of the south-west of England, the Silurian range of hills of Wales, and the carboniferous lime- stone hills of the north, which together form the Alpine range, and rise above the new and old red sandstone formations and the coal measures. The first described division consists of surfaces of which about two-thirds are porous. They form the outcrop of the water-bearing strata known as the chalk, the greensand, and the Oolite; the remaining third being of comparatively impervious clay soils, which resist more or less infiltration of the rainfall. The heights of this division above sea level will vary from 10 ft. in Lincolnshire to upwards of 700 ft. in the Downs of Sussex, Hants, and Wilts, with a large proportion exceeding 200 ft. The other division presents a much smaller proportion of absorbent surface, the principal formation of that character being the new red sandstone, which, though forming in itself a wide area, really presents but a small proportion of the whole. The remainder of the division consists, as already stated, of the Primitive, Transition and Early Secondary Rocks, which for the most part are covered but thinly with detritus of those rocks and vegetable matter. The height varies from a few feet to upwards of 4000 ft., with a considerable proportion more than 400 ft., above sea level. Deferring for a time an explanation of how these physical con- ditions affect the question of water-storage, I should point out that every inch of rain falling on an acre of space supplies 22,622 gallons of water. Now if we first multiply this number of gallons by 32, the number of inches representing the average rainfall, and then the total obtained by the number of acres forming the area of England and Wales, we arrive at the immense total of 27,019,632 millions of gallons as the quantity of water which on an average of years falls on the surface at the feet of the population, exclu- sive of the deposition of dew, which forms no very small nor un- important item in the water economy of the country. Though the figures I have just given are, from their number, difficult to appreciate, it is most desirable we should comprehend their full magnitude at a period in our social condition when we are compelled, by the rapid increase of population, to secure a full supply of water as an essential to the public health, and when we are obliged, by the equally rapid strides of trade and commerce, to look forward to the time when the supply of coal may be exhausted, or its price advanced to a famine rate, in consequence, in a great measure, of our neglect of that element—-water—with which JProvidence has furnished us, and which has ever been at hand as a natural and inexpensive source of motive power. THE STORAGE OF WATER. J THE QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED FOR ALL PURPOSES. The quantity of water required in our sanitary arrangements and for domestic and trade purposes amounts to a very small pro- portion of the large quantity of water which I have just given. The quantity of water actually consumed at present varies from as little as two gallons per head per diem in villages and isolated places where the water used is obtained by personal labour, to from 30 to 50 gallons per head per diem in some of our cities and towns where public supplies and considerable waste exist. The average quantity used throughout England and Wales for all purposes is probably not much more than 15 gallons per head, though it may be well to allow that before the next twenty years have passed the increasing demand for water for all purposes will raise this quantity to a mean of 25 gallons. Now, if the popula- tion of England and Wales, which reaches 25 millions, is multiplied by 25, it will amount to 625 millions of gallons per diem, or 228,125 millions per annum. To this requirement of the popula- tion we must add the water which is wanted by animals and farm stock scattered throughout the country, and which are not pro- vided for in the water supply of towns. The number of horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and dogs does not much, if at all, exceed 50 millions, and if we consider that on an average each animal uses and wastes 5 gallons per diem, the total result will be 250 millions of gallons per diem, or considerably less than half the quantity required by the population. This quantity has to be supplemented by the Water consumed in the production of steam used in manu- facture as well as that which is used at the homestead or in the field, and which, I hope, will be greatly increased. This, however, even if we allow that steam-power to the extent of from 10,000 to 12,000 horse-power per annum is added to the power used in agri- culture alone, cannot bring the whole to more than 1000 millions of gallons per diem, or 365,000 millions per annum, which is only a 74th part of the total rainfall with which Providence blesses us on the average of years. In fact, if it were in the power of man to secure the whole of the water required for all uses before the rain was absorbed by the ground, the quantity would be comparatively so small that it could not possibly injuriously interfere with any of those functions which the rain performs, nor in any way affect our general water economy. To make this more clear it may be stated that if there were allotted to each unit of the population 25 gallons of water daily for all purposes, public and private, he would require 91.25 gallons for the year's supply, while one inch of rain falling on an acre of surface, being equal, as I have stated, to 22,622 gallons, would afford a year's supply to nearly two and a-half persons. I have taken pains to set forth these figures, and I lay stress 6 THE STORAGE OF WATER. upon them, because they cannot fail to shew that, with such a quantity of water at our disposal, it savours of the ridiculous, if not of ingratitude, to complain at one time of scarcity of water for domestic, sanitary, and trade purposes, and, at another, of the extreme wetness of the season. We have only to adopt as a nation the common prudence of household life, of collecting and husbanding our resources to ensure plenty at all times; for, although means and averages do not form with engineers the usual data for water supply, it is quite within the power of man to equalise quantities for his own use by storing excess to com- pensate for scarcity. We have it in our power, in fact, to provide for every possible want connected with human and animal life, and to become independent of dry years; the only thing required being sufficient reservoir-space to provide against a succession of two, or possibly three, dry years, when we may have to deal with minima which may be taken to represent a third less than the quantities we have recorded as averages. Few persons realise, or are prepared to acknowledge, in times of drought when the poor are paying a penny or twopence a pailful for the first necessary of life, and when cattle are dying in our fields of thirst, that they have by their own neglect thrown aside the most plentiful gift of Providence. They are, on the contrary, disposed to imitate the countryman of the fable who, when the wheels of his wagon stuck deep in the clay, called on Hercules for help, instead of putting his shoulder to the work of withdrawal. That which takes place in the water-bearing strata of the earth in the way of storage of the winter's rain for the supply of springs and wells in summer, and that which takes place in the dew-ponds on the high downs of the chalk and oolite in the way of storage of dew as it is de- posited from the atmosphere in the warmest weather of Summer, are examples we ought to copy. Yet it is remarkable how years roll past without an effort in this respect; and it is only now because we are suffering from a severe drought, extending more or less to the whole country, and there is a dread of a want of coal, that there is any chance of gaining attention. It is thirty years since I wrote the following words in an article “On the Drainage of Land and the Distribu- tion of Water,” in the ‘Westminster Review, vol. xxxviii., 1842: “Does not Nature, by the machinery of her rivers, her brooks, her springs, point out to art the means of increasing the general salubrity of our island, by providing an outlet for those floods which are peculiar to Britain from its diversity of surface, the pre- valence of heavy soils in the valleys, and its sea-bound circum- ference 2 The evaporation of water, in the first instance, from the surface of the ocean, and its fall to the land in the form of rain and dew; its re-absorption by the atmosphere; its use by all animal and vegetable bodies; its descent into the porous strata of the earth to be discharged again in the form of springs to the Sea, THE STORAGE OF WATER. 7 exhibit to man a vast system of perpetual circulation which should incite his emulation to become an instrument for the removal of obstacles which it would appear exist only that his energy may be roused into action.” Within the last thirty years agriculture has, perhaps, made greater progress than any other branch of British industry, but nothing, literally nothing, has been done towards the conversion of the evil of excessive wetness into a benefit by pro- vision against Scarcity. T)ISTRIBUTION AND PRESENT DISPOSAL OF THE RAINFALL. Having given the large figures I have stated as representing the quantity of rain which reaches the surface, it may be well to trace shortly how Nature disposes of it as it falls. All rain is either absorbed by permeable surfaces, or it is discharged directly by overflow from impermeable surfaces into the rivers, and by the rivers into the sea. In the One case it may be a mistake to speak of its entire absorption by permeable surfaces, for a small propor- tion is appropriated by vegetation before it is absorbed, and the rest when absorbed descends to the level of the water in the water- bearing strata as soon as supersaturation takes place, to reissue from the surface at the outcrop in the shape of springs, or to raise the subterranean water-bed in the earth. The water upheld in the soil by attraction is gradually given off at the surface by evapora- tion, and is replaced from beneath as long as the supply lasts. The water-level in these water-bearing strata is thus lowered by the outflow of the springs, and by evaporation. In the other case, the rain being wholly resisted where impervious surfaces exist, and partially so where those surfaces are only thinly covered with soil, passes off without much reduction, the only loss being that proportion which is directly seized by surface vegetation and evaporation. In the six months forming the winter half of the year, from October to March inclusive, floods are more frequent in proportion to the rainfall than in summer, in consequence of the absence, or dormant condition, of vegetation, and the reduced extent of evaporation, and owing to the fact that the soil itself is frequently in a wet condition. During this period a considerable proportion of the rain having entered and saturated the per- meable soils descends into the earth to do its work of replenish- ment. In the six months forming the summer half of the year, from April to September inclusive, on the other hand, floods are comparatively few, though they are injurious when they occur, and the quantity of rain penetrating the earth beyond a depth of 3 feet is very small: , lindeed, the water-bearing strata generally receive no appreciable replenishment during summer; they are nearly wholly dependent for their replenishment on the supersaturation of winter. In some of the extremely open beds, it is true, such as the chalk, the new red sandstone, and the Bagshot 8 THE STORAGE OF WATER. sand, the infiltration of the rainfall is rapid, and a heavy rainfall will serve to raise the water-level even in summer, and set the lower springs running, but this is the exception, and not the rule. In fact, the storage of water in the earth does not accumulate until the winter rains have produced supersaturation. In a well that I carefully watched during the wet winter of 1872–73, I found the water stood on the 1st of January, 1873, at exactly the same height as on the 1st of the preceding July; while from the begin- ning of the year 1873 to the 1st of the following May, the water had gradually risen 7 feet 10 inches higher than it was on the 1st January. A wet summer has very little effect in increasing the subterranean supply, but it has the advantage of restoring the water upheld by attraction, and thereby of lessening the demand On the water stored beneath, which would otherwise rise and lower the level of its bed. When great rainfalls occur in summer, that proportion which is not absorbed passes into the rivers to swell and increase their volume without any apparent correspond- ing advantage beyond raising for a short time their perennial flow. It may be stated that the proportion of rain required to maintain the natural flow of our rivers during the summer and dry weather periods of the year is about one-eighth of the average mean rain- fall, or 4 inches over the whole of the river watersheds. Of course, in different rivers this will vary according to the amount of rain- fall, the inclination of the surface, and the character of the soil. The quantity or proportion of rain which finds its way over the surface to be discharged by the rivers to the sea without entering the ground at all, taking the west and east side together, is at least 15 inches, or nearly four times the perennial flow, and nearly half the average mean rainfall. This quantity will necessarily also vary very considerably, according to the depth of rain and the character of the contributing surfaces. In the eastern and midland parts of England the mean depth of water run off in the shape of floods and freshets will barely reach 6 inches, while in the west, including the higher lands of the eastern counties of Wales, the Lake district and the northern counties, the mean may be stated to be 20 inches. Mr. Bateman showed in his evi- dence before the Metropolitan Water Supply Commission that it exceeded 40 out of 60 inches in the high grounds of Wales, while Messrs. Hemans and Hassard considered that it reached 65 out of 80 inches in the Lake district. I may mention, as an illustration of how remarkably quickly the rainfall is discharged, that although 44 inches of rain had fallen in the Lake district between the 1st October, 1872, and the end of January, 1873, I found when at Kendal on the 19th of February (1873) the water of the Kent to be remarkably low, and was informed by the borough surveyor that it was 14 inches below ordinary Summer level, and when crossing Windermere lake the day previous (18th Feb., 1873) the ferryman assured me that the height of the water approxi- THE STORAGE OF WATER. 9 mated ordinary summer level. The present condition of drought (July, 1874), prevalent throughout the whole country, is as much felt in the Lake district as in any other; and I may mention as a contrast to the 44 inches which fell between 1st October, 1872, and 31st January, 1873, that 17% inches of rain only fell in the same period ending January, 1874. It will be remembered that in the winter of 1872–3 the rainfall so far exceeded the average that it was thought wise to offer up prayers in our churches for drier weather. In the winter last past the rainfall has been very considerably below the average, though not so much less as in the previous winter it had been above the average. In the eastern counties—the driest part of the country —for instance, the quantity of rain that fell in the six winter months from October, 1872, to March, 1873, inclusive, was 21% inches, while the amount due to the same period last winter, 1873–4, only reached 9 inches. The mean of many years is somewhat above 13 inches. Comparing this mean with the rainfalls of the last six winters (in the eastern counties) we shall see that, although we have had within that period two singularly dry years, the fall of this last winter was less than any. 1867–8. 1868–9. 1869–70. 1870–1. 1871–2. 1872–3. 1873–4. Rainfall—October to March inclusive .. } 11.90 is:00 1872 is 85 18-25 21:55 9. In order that the quantity of water discharged on an average of years from several different descriptions of gathering grounds may be appreciated, I will give from the late Mr. Beardmore's evidence before the Water Supply Commission, 1867, the outflow of the Lea and of the Thames on the east of the Lias, and from Some other authorities the discharges from river areas on the older geological formations. River Basin. D* Rainfall. * Year. Authority. Sq. Miles. | Inches. Inches. Average England–East of Lias: 1850 Thames . . . . . . . . . . 3,670 26' 08 7. S3 to | Mr. N. Beardmore. 1868 Lea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 25' 60 6' 54 | Ditto Ditto. England–West of Lias: 1850 Water Supply C ; c. Rivington Pike.... 16} 45.70 || 35-50 to aver Supply Uommis- 1867 S10Il. Mersey and Ribble. 2,207 39-00 | 20-00 | Average Rivers Pollution Com- Scotland: - mission. Loch Katrine . . . . 71 103-30 || 81-70 1854 Beardmore's Hydro- logy. Loch Lubnaig .... 70 66.70 || 50.96 | 1847 | Dià. Greenock . . . . . . . . 8 60' 00 41 ° 00 | 1827–8 Ditto. 10 THE STORAGE OF WATER. STORM OR SURPLUS WATERS TO BE STORED. It is the surplus, or waste water, which I compute at a mean of 15 inches, or rather so much of it as is not already appropriated, that may be stored with advantage. The quantity already appro- priated is comparatively small; and though several large towns have been supplied by this means, the quantity so appropriated in those localities is fully compensated by the water of under-drain- age discharged elsewhere, consisting for the most part of rain which, before drainage, had been upheld in the soil until it was evaporated. By many persons it has been supposed that the effect of under-drainage has been to diminish the water supply rather than to increase it—I presume on the supposition that the springs would be weakened by the loss of that proportion of the rain which would be upheld in the 3 or 4 feet of surface soil which alone is affected by drainage. A little reflection will, how- ever, satisfy every one that this cannot be the case, inasmuch as water cannot run out of the drains until the subsoil is filled with water up to the level of the drains, and the soil between the drains and surface is in a state of supersaturation. When, in winter, this condition has been reached, a large proportion of the rainfall is discharged from the underdrains within 24 hours of its reaching the surface, if the surface soil be properly cultivated and rendered absorbent. In the summer there is little or no discharge from the underdrains of clay lands, though in many instances a never- ceasing and copious discharge is obtained from the draining of surcharged free soils. There is no doubt that with extension of under-drainage an improvement of our rivers and watercourses has necessarily been effected, and that the water from the underdrains, when discharged, as well as that which overflows the surface, is carried down into the valleys with greater rapidity than before. The result is a considerable increase in the aggregate, though, for the most part, the quantity obtained is due to the winter's dis- charge and not to that of the summer. Few would suppose that the quantity of land already drained, which is assumed to be three millions of acres, would furnish an effluent water equal in quantity to nearly half the water supply required by the whole popula- tion of England and Wales, for domestic trade and public purposes. It is nevertheless true, inasmuch as the discharged water amounts to a mean of 150,000 millions of gallons on an average of years. The practical value of this fact will be acknowledged when it is understood that even in dry years the under-drainage water from an acre of land will be sufficient to supply four persons all the year round with 25 gallons each per diem. At present we are content to draw the water out of the land, and instead of turning it to account, allow it to increase the THE STORAGE OF WATER. 11 evil of surface floods by its discharge into the valleys at times when they may be under water; and this we are doing when water has an increasing value as a source of motive power in con- sequence of the advancing price of coal. Allowing the new water of under-drainage to compensate for that proportion of the surface water that is already utilised, it may be assumed with certainty that there are at least 20 millions of acres, out of the whole 37,324,883 acres, which in the aggregate do throw off a mean of as much as 25 inches of the rainfall which may be stored for useful application. This area of 20 millions, representing rather more than half the superficial extent of England and Wales, would consist of the higher grounds of both divisions of the country, and would in the aggregate deliver its surplus waters at an available mean height of at least 150 feet. To reduce this to horse-power by the ordinary calculation would be an easy matter, but I am afraid that the result would not be considered tangible. I am therefore content at this moment to assert that a power equal to at least half that obtained from the use of coal might be secured from this Source alone. At present it is estimated that 30 millions of tons of coals are used annually for steam power in locomotion and manufactures, and that the power obtained is 1,905,700 horse- power. To bring the value of the power we possess in the shape of sur- plus waters better home to the mind in a national point of view, it should be remembered that the chief manufacturing towns are located in the western and northern counties, where the prevailing height of surface is the greatest, and where the quantity of rain and the number of wet days both increase proportionately to height; so that the utilisation of the rainfall there becomes a tangible object, and free from those doubts which might appertain to the eastern side of the country. It was owing, no doubt, to the presence and plenitude of water that first led manufacturers to select the western side of England as the best suited for the objects they had in view, and to erect mills in the higher valleys, although the existence of coal on that side of the country has done more than anything else to retain the manufacturing districts where they are. Now that we have had a practical warning of the diminish- ing supply of coal by an increase in its cost, I think it will be conceded that it is not at all improbable that those branches of trade which are dependent on the use of motive power, may, before long, revert to the use of water in the place of steam. It was only a short time back that three several schemes for the supply of water to the metropolis were presented to the public, of which two were to gain their supply from Wales, and the third from the Lake district. Since that time seasons and circumstances have led several of the towns in the north and west of England to con- gratulate themselves on the circumstance that these proposals 12 THE STORAGE OF WATER. were not successful; and when we see what has been done at Greenock and other places in utilising the water derived from the drainage of wide areas of land, it will be acknowledged that the country at large will be the gainer by the retention in the manu- facturing districts of all the water placed at their disposal. GREENOCK, AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PROFITABLE USE OF SURPLUS WATERS. No instance could be more apposite to this remark than that afforded at Greenock. There the contributing area of Shaw's Waterworks, which was estimated by Mr. Thom, the engineer, to supply 553,930,000 cubic feet of water per annum, of which the town was to take 18} millions and two lines of mills the re- mainder, has actually supplied 650,000,000 cubic feet in the year. The Provost of Greenock writes me as follows: “They did not fail us in either 1864, 1868, or 1870; but they did fail to supply all our demands upon them in 1869—the driest year we have had during forty years. They could have supplied even in that year Mr. Thom's estimate of 554,000,000 cubic feet. The drainage area of the Shaw's works is far from being exhausted; but our storage being limited, we have to waste largely in winter. In 1869 we had sufficient water for domestic purposes, but for some weeks we could not maintain the full supply of 11,000,000 gallons per day for the mill power. The Shaw's works cost the original proprietors from first to last about 85,000l. ; and the town is buying them for 170,000l. The total supply they give is as above; but, as I have stated, were we to increase our storage, the works would yield a great deal more water.” THE CONDITION OF THE THAMES IN TIMES OF DROUGHT. Before leaving this view of the subject, let me point out that one of the great advantages of storing the winter waters, beyond that of turning them to profit for the supply of the population for domestic, trade, and sanitary purposes, and as a motive power as coals become dearer, will be their use in maintaining with regularity the summer flow of rivers at a height above the minimum flow of very dry seasons. The advantage of extending the principle of compensation—beyond that of merely returning to rivers the same quantity of water that may be taken out of them — to the supply of such a quantity as will enlarge their flow when reduced below a certain quantity, may be illustrated by the condition of the Thames in extreme droughts. The quan- tity of water flowing just above Kingston, and above the intakes THE STORAGE OF WATER. 13 of the water companies, has on several occasions been reduced to 350 millions of gallons per diem, although engineers generally agree in the opinion that the flow should never be less than 500 millions of gallons. This deficient quantity is again reduced by that abstracted by the Metropolitan water companies. By the evidence given by Mr. J. Thornhill Harrison before the Water Supply Commission in 1867 (which should be studied by all who are interested in the subject), it appears that on 185 days in the years 1858 and 1859, the river flow was less than 500 millions of gallons—that in point of fact there were 34 days when the flow was reduced to 350 millions—and it would be on such occasions that the stored surplus waters of winter might be used with ex- cellent effect. I need not point out how beneficially the same principle would apply to smaller rivers, whose beds are nearly dried up at certain seasons of the year. STORAGE TO BE ADOPTED FOR WILLAGES AND RURAL DISTRICTs. Though the storage of water must commend itself to most people as an object of great importance, the subject would hardly be appropriate if it were limited to generalisms, and were I not to show how it may be usefully applied in rural districts for the village and the farm. I need not recur to that with which we are all familiar—viz., that dry seasons frequently prevail in which the labouring poor of our villages and the stock of our farms have been deprived of their full supply of water, and have had to resort to surface-ponds and other means of supply, the quality of which has been as filthy as it could well be. The present summer affords a telling illustration of the miseries of a drought. What would now have been the condition of the surface springs and wells had not the last winter followed an extremely wet one, which had raised the sources of all supply, it is difficult to say, for the misery among the poor and the difficulty of supplying stock are both being felt in an extreme degree in spite of frequent storms. When farming on the hills. of Hertfordshire I have myself had to cart the whole of the water used by my horses, cattle, and sheep a distance of two miles, while my poorer neigh- bours have had to pay by the pail for the water they consumed. When the poor are paying by the pail on such occasions it should be understood that the inhabitants of towns are supplied at all times and in the upper storeys of their house at from 6d. to 2s. per 1000 gallons, whereas the amount paid by the poor villager when a 1d. is charged for a pailful of 2 gallons, is 42s. per 1000 gallons. Many are the farms and villages with which we are all acquainted where the Want of water is a most serious item, and it is not many years since that the loss in sheep was Very great in 14 THE STORAGE OF WATER. some districts. I remember, when on the Romney Marsh, hearing of a large number being lost entirely for the want of water. Now, with mutton at from 10d. to 18, per lb. this ought not to be, parti- cularly if I am correct in stating that even in the driest winter the excess that exists beyond what is wanted distinctly proves a capa- bility of storage which might easily be brought to bear. The storage of Water in small quantities is necessarily an expensive pro- ceeding, for open shallow ponds and reservoirs, encouraging, as they do, the growth and decay of vegetable matters, are to be avoided if possible, and either deep open reservoirs, or covered tanks should be resorted to. The use of concrete as material for the construction of underground tanks, however, reduces the cost very considerably, and will, I hope, help greatly their introduction in rural places. The commonest lime, properly slacked and mixed in due pro- portions with clean gravel and sand, or with burnt clay ballast, Ör even sifted chalk itself, if faced with Portland cement, will make admirable tanks. Selenitic cement will probably be found on trial to be equally applicable as a water-tight facing, using perhaps twice as much more than Portland cement, which can be done without increase of cost, for it is to be bought at half the price. In using common lime—i.e. the lime of the locality—for the main body of concrete great pains must be taken to have it thoroughly slackened before mixture, for if this is not done the lime will afterwards slack in the wall and cause fracture, and fracture means leakage. It is a great pity that the Government does not institute an inquiry into what has already been done, and authorise actual trials to be made, which would set at rest all doubts as to the capability and cost of making water-tight tanks suitable to different localities and physical conditions. Many valuable details of past experience might be collected if com- petent persons were engaged to visit different parts of the kingdom and see what has been done, with a view to communicate informa- ation to sanitary authorities as to construction and cost. At present they will do nothing for fear of the cost. No money could be better spent, and a few hundred pounds is all that is wanted for the purpose. . In some parts of the chalk districts underground tanks have been made by burrowing into the earth and making a chamber or cavern (with an opening at the top for the removal of the soil), which, being lined inside with a thin covering of cement, is made perfectly water-tight. Thus the most capacious tanks may be provided for comparatively a few pounds, and districts may be supplied with water which are now destitute of it. This mode of constructing tanks might also be adopted in other geological formations besides the chalk, where the water level is low in the earth with a considerable depth of drained subsoil above it within which to make the “cavern tank.” I need hardly say that such a receptacle for Water can only be THE STORAGE OF WATER. 15 adopted where the soil is naturally drained, and where there is no pressure of external subsoil water. No dwelling or set of buildings, of which the roofs are slate or tile, should be without its tank, unless the occupants are otherwise abundantly supplied. There are few places in England, and certainly none in Wales, in which 20 inches of rain may not be collected with certainty, even in the driest year. Taking an ordinary middle- class house in a village, with stabling and outbuildings, the space of ground covered by the roofs will frequently reach 10 poles; while the space covered by a farm labourer's cottage and out- building will be 2% poles. Assuming that the roof is slate, and the water dripping from it is properly caught by eave-troughing and conducted by down-pipes and impervious drain-pipes into a water-tight tank, sufficiently capacious to prevent overflow under any circumstances, and that by this method 20 inches of water from rain and dew are collected in the course of the year, the private houses will have the command of 28,280 gallons, and the cottage 7070 gallons in a year. To make it clear that this quantity of water can generally be obtained, it should be stated that the proportion lost by evaporation, &c., from a slate covering will not exceed one-sixth of the total quantity of rainfall with the deposition of dew added. A tank 16 feet long and 10 feet wide will hold 1000 gallons in every foot of depth, and where the water is not wanted for drinking it need not be covered except with a common boarded floating roof of half-inch boards fastened together. This floating roof keeps the water clean, and reduces loss by evaporation. The supply of water to villages, however, should not be dependent upon individual action altogether, for the occupiers themselves are powerless, and cottage owners as a rule are not very liberally disposed in the provision of this necessary of life. There should be some public supply, to render villagers independent of their landlords. Where there exist rivers or streams of pure water near at hand, or where there is a subterra- mean water-bed easily reached by sinking wells down to it, it is needless to think of storage, but so long as there are large numbers of Small communities with rating values so low as to negative the power to charge any large outlay upon them, it behoves us to consider with the utmost care any plan which will enable us to secure a sufficient supply of pure water at a cheap cost. In villages it is unnecessary to aim at the supply of from 20 to 25 gallons a head. Two gallons of water per head per diem is as much as is at present consumed in the majority of villages, and 10 gallons are quite ample. To supply 10 gallons a head should not be a difficult matter; though in cases where there is no land that has been artificially under-drained near at hand allowing of the under-drainage water being utilised, or where there is no other means of collecting surface water, it may be absolutely necessary 16 THE STORAGE OF WATER. to combine several villages, and by a properly devised system provide for the whole. Much may be done by insisting that cottage owners should provide each cottage with such a tank as I have spoken of, or the share of a tank with other tenants, and by the addition of a common tank to hold a month's supply for the whole village the object might be secured at a fair cost. I have lately contrived a tank-filter, to be placed inside the tank, through which the water passes as it is drawn up by the pump. It is made in earthenware, and sold by Messrs. Doulton and Co. Under pro- pitious circumstances surface waters may be collected in winter for summer use in open reservoirs, but they should never be less than 7; feet deep in the clear. The water may be delivered in the village street from these reservoirs at from 20s. to 25s. per person, including purchase of land for the reservoir, iron pipes, stand pipes, and taps. Assuming that the money required be borrowed and paid off in thirty years by instalments not exceeding in amount 5 per cent. On the outlay, the result would be a charge of about 18. or 18, 3d. per person per annum. I am satisfied, however, that nothing of a tangible character will be done until it can be shown by evidence of actual experience and positive experiments, that reservoirs and tanks can be (compara- tively) cheaply made with reference to local features; and that landowners having life interests in property in the neighbourhood of villages may collect surface water and construct reservoirs upon their estate to hold it by means of borrowed money, which may be charged upon the property and repaid by instalments. The land- owner might then turn water-contractor and supply the neigh- bouring district at an agreed price sufficient to repay him his outlay with some slight profit. But to do this, legal powers are necessary, not only to sanction a tenant for life becoming a water- contractor in the way proposed, but to enable sanitary authorities to enter into such an agreement as will make the recipients of the water pay for it within such a pre-determined term of years as will liquidate the cost of the necessary works without pressing hardly upon anyone. There can be no irreconcilable reason why such an arrangement should not be made and the cost of the work charged upon the estates on which the water is collected, for the reversionary interest would be benefited by the ultimate possession of a water-property from which a considerable income would be forthcoming after the original outlay is liquidated. FIELD STORAGE. I have pointed out on more than one occasion how on clay land farms, where thorough drainage has been adopted or is required, the water of under-drainage may be preserved, some- THE STORAGE OF WATER. 17 times in ponds, but more frequently in underground tanks, for the use of the cattle of the farm and for steam cultivation. The facilities with which such provision can be made have not been sufficiently acknowledged. A 10 horse-power engine requires for the cultivation of an acre of land from 100 to 125 gallons of water, and an underground tank capable of holding 2500 gallons would, therefore, be sufficient for the cultivation of 20 acres. For this quantity the tank should be 8 feet wide, 10 feet long, and 5 feet below the level of the drains, and if concrete were used the cost need not exceed 15l. or 16!. This tank might be placed in any position convenient for the steam-plough or cultivator, and none will deny the great value of such a supply of water wherever steam is employed in the cultivation of land situated on hills where water is now difficult to get. Before concluding I must again revert to the more compre- hensive view of the subject with which I started. I am fully impressed with the fact that each case of water supply, as well as any other local improvement, must be dealt with upon its own merits; but, to secure any action at all, there must be general obligations in the form of a legal code to be enforced by central authority. Permissive laws are more pleasant to British subjects than compulsory ones, but they are absolutely useless in such matters as village water supply. I am quite sure that so long as it is optional with village communities to adopt or reject any proposal for an improved supply in respect of the first essential of life—water—very little will be done. I cannot expect, at a time when the agricultural interest are jealously watching the question of local rating, with a full determination to bring its relations to national taxation to a point, that the opinion I am about to ex- press will be unhesitatingly adopted—viz., that legislative powers are wanted which shall extend the proper distribution of water to the whole country. From what appears to me to be the mis- taken view of the Government, the country has been apportioned into districts for Sanitary purposes which are perfectly incompatible with a right treatment of the objects in view. It may flatter our local prejudices to leave the management of such matters in the hands of boards of guardians as “the rural sanitary authority,” and in those of boards of health as “the urban sanitary authority,” but it will not be until some superior presiding authority having juris- diction over watershed districts, that drainage, sewerage, water supply, and some other kindred objects can be effectually and economically treated. Towns have been sewered without caring what becomes of the sewage; lands have been drained without providing proper outfalls; districts have been improved by trunk drainage without regard to neighbouring districts of the same watersheds; and thus one community, or part of a watershed, has been freed of sewage or water, while another has been injured 18 THE STORAGE OF WATER. by the discharged liquid. In fact, it would almost seem to be the object of our Legislature, in sanitary matters, first to encourage us to do wrong, then to point out the error we have committed, and, finally, to leave us without any power of rectification. It cannot be expected, while this course of action continues, that any general scheme for the storage of water should receive attention, but we may fairly anticipate partial action as the result of recur- ring droughts like the present one. 22, WHITEHALL PLACE, LONDON, July 29, 1874. LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS, y ADDRESS ON THE SCHUYLKILL RIVER SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY FOR THE CITY OF PHILADELPHIA. —º-º-º--------— EY CHARLEs w. DULLEs, M. D. - - - - - - -—-º-º-º: - - - ---—— • *-*. ---, • PHILADELPHIA: DUNLAP & CLARKE, PRINTERS AND BINDERS, 819-21 FILBERT STREET. 1887. ADDRESS ON THE SCHUYLKILL RIVER AS A SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY FOR THE CITY OF PHILADELPHIA. —-º-º- EY CHARLES VV. DULLES, NM. D. —º-Q-4– PHILADELPHIA: DUNLAP & CLARKE, PRINTERS AND BINDERS, 819-21 FILBERT STREET. 1887. ADD F ESS. MR. CHAIRMAN AND GENTLEMEN : The whole argument for going to another source for the water supply of Philadelphia rests upon certain objections to the Schuylkill river. The objections are of two kinds: First, that the quantity of water flowing down the Schuylkill river is now inadequate or will shortly become inadequate; and, second, that the quality of the water is now such as to make it unfit for drinking, or that it will soon become unfit to drink. In order to study these assertions properly they must be considered separately. The first assertion, namely, that the quantity of water in the Schuylkill river is now inadequate, or will shortly become so, has been strongly urged by the representatives of the South Mountain Water Company. For example, I find it stated by Mr. Maris, President of this Company, on page 4 of his Memorial: * “It has been demonstrated that this minimum flow" (the minimum flow of the Schuylkill river past Fairmount) “ has decreased in the course of years from 500,000,000 gallons in 1816 to 250,000,000 gallons in 1874, and 170,000,000 gallons in 1881.”f The first thing that struck me in going over this statement was the astonishing apparent diminution in the flow of the * Memorial. To the Chairman and members of the Water Committee. Signed by John M. Maris, President South Mountain Water Company. 89, pp. 7, J anuary 3, 1887. f This statement is quoted from the report of the Philadelphia Water Department for 1884, made by Colonel Ludlow, page 52. The figures for 1874 are incorrectly quoted, but I give them as Mr. Maris puts them. 4 water, which led me to make a calculation as to how long the water in the Schuylkill would last, if this statement were true: and the calculation shows that, if the statement be true, there will be no water at all in the Schuylkill river in 1897. It will be all gone. The figures in the memorial of Mr. Maris show a falling off of 80,000,000 gallons of water in seven years, or more than 11,000,000 gallons a year. At this rate, if the figures given for 1881 are accurate, in sixteen years from date there would not be a drop of water flowing down the Schuylkill river, but in 1897 it would be absolutely dry In order to ascertain whether or not these figures were correct, as I suspected they could not be, I put myself in communication with Mr. Edwin F. Smith, Superintendent and Engineer of Canals of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company (and undoubtedly the best authority on the amount of water in the Schuylkill river), in order to ascertain exactly what amount of water the Schuylkill could furnish. I asked him in regard to the maximum, the minimum, and the average flow, and, in a letter dated January 13, 1887, he informs me that the maximum flow of the Schuylkill river at Philadelphia amounts to 1,112,348,100,000 cubic feet, or about 8,899,784,800,000 gallons in a year, which equals about 24,383,000,000 gallons a day. The minimum flow of the river at Flat Rock, as made in the report of the Commission of Engineers to Councils, in 1885, is 245,000,000 gallons daily. The average flow of the river at Flat Rock is 570,000,000. gallons in every twenty-four hours. - Mr. Smith further says: “The figures of 170,000,000 gallons per day in 1881, and quoted in the Water Department reports as my measurement of the minimum flow in that year, are incorrect. I never made any such statement, and Mr. , Assistant Engineer of the Water Department at that time, who quoted the figures as my measurement, understood the matter very well, and knew that they were the result of about three min- utes' calculation between us, and that they represented ap- 5 proximately the flow on a certain day, when we, the Schuylkill Navigation Company, were manipulating the river. It was un- fair to make such a statement in the Water Department report.” The present consumption of water in the City of Philadel- phia is 70,000,000 gallons a day, allowing nearly 73 gallons per head daily. The consumption of water in 1910, with an estimated population of 1,615,837 would be 171,000,000 gal- lons a day, allowing 100 gallons per head each day. When we compare these figures with those of Mr. Smith, we see that, at its minimum, the Schuylkill river furnishes more than three times the quantity of water now used by the City of Philadelphia, and at its average eight times as much, while, at its minimum, it furnishes 74,000,000 gallons more than the estimated need for 1910, and at its average it furnishes more than three times as much as will be needed at that day. This conclusion harmonises completely with the opinion ex- pressed in 1883, by a Board of experts appointed by Mayor King in 1882, consisting of Messrs. J. Vaughan Merrick, Frederick Graff, E. S. Chesbrough, and Col. William Ludlow, who declared (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, p. 336): “It is evident that so far as quantity is concerned, an abun- dant supply can be obtained from the Schuylkill for a long time to come.” - - The present pumping capacity of the city station, as fur- nished me in a letter from John L. Ogden, Esq., Chief Engi- neer of the Philadelphia Water Department, dated January 13, 1887, is more than 163,000,000 gallons daily, as follows: PUMPING CAPACITY. Gallons. Gallons. Fairmount, by water...................... ................. 35,500,000 Spring Garden, by steam................................... 70,000,000 Belmont, by steam.............. ............................ 18,000,000 Roxborough, by steam (half in reserve)............... 12,500,000 Frankford, by steam (half in reserve.................. 20,000,000 Kensington, by steam...................................... 6,000,000 - - — 160,000,000 6 Auxiliary or high service stations: Roxborough basin............................. • * * * * * * * * * > * > 1,000,000 Mt. Airy basin............................................... 2,000,000 Chestnut Hill basin........................................ 750,000 3,750,000 From these figures we see that the present pumping capacity of the city stations is more than twice as great as the present need of the city, and that it is almost as great as will be required in 1910, the difference being only 1,000,000 gallons daily. The storage capacity of the various reservoirs (as stated in the Report of the Philadelphia Water Department for 1885, p. 27), is now over 191,000,000 gallons, and with the comple- tion of the East Park and Cambria reservoirs it will be over 1,100,000,000 gallons, as follows: STORAGE CAPACITY. Gallons. Gallons. Fairmount................................................... 26,443,140 Spring Garden............................................. 9,800,000 Corinthian................................................... 37,312,000 Lehigh (or Fairhill).............. ...................... 25,757,720 Belmont...................................................... 40,000,000 Wentz Farm......................................... ...... 35,750,000 Roxborough................................................ 11,771,700 Mount Airy................................................ 4,390,000 *memº- 191,224,560 With the completion of the East Park and Cambria reservoirs the storage capacity will be increased as follows: East Park........................................... “ 700,000,000 Cambria................................. …“ 210,000,000 -**- 910,000,000 Total ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .” -“” 1,101,224,560 It will be seen from this statement that, with half the present pumping capacity, no storage whatever would be 7 needed at present to prevent a water faihine, even if the river fall to its minimum, or even if that minimum were less than one-third as much as it is. With the present storage capacity the whole city could be supplied for 2% days, without drawing a drop from the river, and with the East Park and Cambria reservoirs completed, it could be supplied for 14 days, without taking a drop from the river. As to the future, the consumption in 1910, with a popula- tion estimated at 1,615,837, is estimated at 161,000,000 gallons, at 100 gallons per capita daily,” (Report Philadel- phia Water Department for 1885, p. 69). With the present pumping capacity no reservoirs would be needed to prevent a scarcity of water in 1910, if the river touched its present minimum, which, if the minimum fell to 100,000,000 gallons the present storage capacity would supply the deficiency for 3 days, and, with the East Park and Cambria reservoirs com- pleted, it would supply the deficiency for 18 days. Now, as to the use of the River Schuylkill and the question of the minimum flow, we must not forget that, even were it possible that the river would fall materially below its present minimum flow, f it is the natural right of all those who live on the banks of the river—a common law right as old as the Romans—to drink the river dry, if they can. The City of Philadelphia is entitled to drink all it can out of the river. There are no rights which conflict with the rights of the city to use the river, except those of the Schuylkill Navigation Company; that is, the inhabitants of Philadelphia have a right to drain the Schuylkill to its last drop for ordinary uses, but they have no right to use the water for the purpose of driving machinery, if in so using it they impair its navigability. It will be remembered that when a conflict arose in 1869 be- * At the present time London, with a population of 4,000,000 is supplied with only 37% gallons per capita daily. e f But there is no likelihood that the flow of the Schuylkill river will in the future be much less than it is now. As has been pointed out by Dr. J. Cheston Morris, in an ad- dress to the Water Committee of Councils on January 13, 1887, this is not the usual his- tory of rivers. 8. tween the City of Philadelphia and the Schuylkill Navigation Company, it was not in regard to the right of the city to use the water of the Schuylkill for drinking purposes, but for pumping,” and as the city will probably have no need for using water pumps in the future, such a contingency is not likely to occur again. As I have said, every inhabitant of this city, or of any other city along the banks of the Schuylkill river, has a right to use every drop of the water in that river for drinking purposes, if he can. - - The second assertion, to which I have alluded, namely, that the quality of the water of the Schuylkill river is now such as to make it unfit for drinking, or that it will soon become unfit to drink, must also be divided, in order that it may be properly considered; that is, it must be decided, first, whether or not, the water supply of Philadelphia is now unfit to drink; and second, whether, or not, it is likely to become so soon. - First, then, is the water supply of Philadelphia now unfit to drink : There are many who think it is. Some think this because its appearance is sometimes disagreeable, and because it sometimes has a disagreeable taste or odor. These grounds for the opinion mentioned may be dismissed with the statement that while they may justify an objection to the water on the score of aesthetic preferences, they cannot be considered as evidences that the water is unwholesome, since some of the most wholesome waters in the world have an unfortunate ap- pearance, and unfortunate taste or odor. As illustrations of the former I may cite the waters of the Ganges, of the Nile, of the Amazon, of the Mississippi, and of the Delaware. As illustrations of the latter, I may cite all limestone waters, all chalybeate waters, all alkaline waters, peat waters, and the cedar water so common on the New Jersey coast, as well as most rain water. But the fact that the Schuylkill water has sometimes a disagreeable appearance, and very rarely a disa- greeable taste or odor is due wholly to remediable causes. The * “The Legal Protection of the Present Water Supply for Philadelphia.” By Wm. Wilkins Carr, of the Philadelphia Bar. 89, pp. 46, Phila., 1886. Pages 7 and 8. - 9 . muddiness which marks it at certain seasons depends solely upon the want of sufficient subsiding reservoirs, and will cease to annoy our citizens as soon as this want is supplied. The taste of the water is almost always excellent, and I think it has never been objected to except when the river has been covered with ice. The cure for this is also easy, and consists simply in breaking up the ice in the Fairmount pool as fast as it forms. The same is true in regard to the exceedingly rare occurrence of a disagreeable odor in the water. Möre serious objections have been made to the Schuylkill water, founded upon chemical analysis. These objections are entitled to great respect, because of the character and stand- ing of those who make them. When such gentlemen as Dr. Cresson, of this city, and Professor Leeds, of Hoboken, criti- cise the water supply, their criticisms should receive the most careful consideration, and full inquiry should be made in order to determine whether, or not, as has been charged, the Schuyl- kill water is unwholesome and dangerous to the health of the community. - Dr. Cresson, in his report to the Water Department of March 3, 1875, says (Report of Philadelphia Water Depart- ment for 1884, p. 45): “The pollution of the Schuylkill river has been increased to such an extent as occasionally to class the water as un- wholesome.” - Professor Leeds is more outspoken in his criticism. He says (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, p. 372) in his report of February 27, 1883, to the Board of Experts appointed by Mayor King: - “At present it is more important to note that the water in Fairmount and Spring Garden pools often deteriorates to a point below the maximum limit of admissible impurity.” Two years later he says (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1885, pp. 387, 388): “There is no point on the Schuylkill river, from Phoenix- ville down to Fairmount, where incompletely oxidized sewage, 2 10 that is to say, sewage in a more or less decomposed and noxious condition, is not revealed by analysis to be ordinarily present in the water.” - And in a letter to S. S. Hollingsworth, Esq., one of the attorneys for the South Mountain Water Company, dated De- cember 18, 1886, Professor Leeds says: * “On each day of ordinary flow of the Schuylkill river, there goes past the intake of the Spring Garden Pumping Station nearly one-half ton of sewage. The amount of this sewage which finds its way into the reservoirs depends simply on the amount of water pumped. This is the average amount, the quantity of sewage flowing past the intake sometimes being as high as a ton.” - - These are certainly very alarming statements, and, if they were confirmed, would justify serious concern. But, before making up our minds to condemn the Schuylkill river, it will be proper to investigate the grounds for them. I have not at present access to Dr. Cresson's analyses; but I have to those of Professor Leeds, whose objection to the Schuylkill is much. more strongly stated. I have taken the trouble to go over these analyses of Pro- fessor Leeds with a great deal of care, and with such skill as I could bring to bear on the work, and I have come to con- clusions diametrically opposed to those of Professor Leeds. When I examine these analyses I do not find that the Schuylkill water makes such a bad showing, when judged by two standards which can hardly be objected to by Professor Leeds. One of these is his own “General standard of purity for river water in the United States’’ (Report of Philadelphia. Water Department for 1883, p. 243), and the other is the condition of the Delaware river water at Point Pleasant and at the Delaware Water Gap. In order to demonstrate this, I call attention to a comparison of some of the analyses of the Schuylkill water with both of the standards mentioned. * Pamphlet entitled “The Water Supply of Philadelphia,” dated January, 1887, p. 10- 11 I have prepared a series of tables, five in number, which I will place at the disposition of the Committee, which will illustrate my meaning. Table I. shows a comparison of the Delaware water at Point Pleasant with that of the Schuylkill, and of both with Pro- fessor Leeds' standard of purity, from which it will be seen. that according to analysis made by Professor Leeds in 1883, the Schuylkill river water at Spring Garden forebay was superior (except as to nitric acid) to the Delaware water, and to Professor Leeds' standard of purity without exception, while the Delaware river water was not only inferior to Pro- fessor Leeds' standard of purity as to free ammonia, but also inferior to the Schuylkill water at Spring Garden Basin, except as to nitric acid. TABLE I. - - * Delaware, | *Schuylkill 3. In parts per 100,000. Point Éleas. Spring Garº *::::::::: ant. den Forebay. º Free ammonia............................................ 0.015 0.0005 0.012 Albuminoid ammonia 0.017 0.009 0.028 Nitric acid.................................................. 0.190 0.370 0.500 Oxygen required (permanganate process).... 0.320 0.180 0.500 * Report of the Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, p. 259. Table II. shows a comparison of analyses, made by Pro- fessor Leeds, of the Schuylkill water in January, 1883—at a. time when the river had been for a long time covered with ice, and when it had attracted unfavorable attention by reason of a disagreeable taste and smell—with his standard of purity. 12. * Prof. iSchuylkill, if Schuylkill, IFairmount t Spring e Lecds' Stan- Fairmount Fairmount Basin Sur- gº Ba- Parts in 100,000. dard of Forebay, Forebay, face, sin Surface, Purity. January 9, January 13, January 19, January 19, Maximum. 1883. 1883. 1883. 883. Free ammonia............... 0.012 0.019 0.020 0.016 0.013 Albuminoid ammonia.... 0.028 0.023 0.014 0.012 0.011 Required oxygen (per- manganate process)..... 0.500 0.370 0.300 0.180 0.180 Nitrous acid.................. 0.001 - 0.005 0.006 0.008 - 0.010 Nitric acid..................... 0.500 0.369 0.355 0.364 0.374 Chlorine........................ 1.000 0.650 0.700 0.650 0.650 Total solids................... 20,000 18.500 18.500 18.500 19.000 + Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, page 243. General standard of purity. (For river water in the United States. Highest upper limits.) f Same report, page 351. - f Same report, page 352. From this table it will be seen that the Schuylkill, at this unpropitious time, was superior to Professor Leeds' standard of purity in every respect, except as to free ammonia and nitrous acid, and in respect to these ingredients it was not much in- ferior to the standard. It must be acknowledged that free ammonia and nitrous acid (or nitrites) are important elements in determining the relative purity of drinking water according to the generally- accepted standards for water analysis. But I shall show, at a later period, that the accepted standards are acknowledged by all students of water analysis, and by Dr. Leeds among them, to be unreliable as absolute tests of the fitness or unfitness of a water for drinking purposes; and I now call attention to the remarkable fact that Professor Leeds states (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, p. 367) that “letters addressed to eminent physicians in Philadelphia elicited the uniform response that no connection could be established be- tween the character of the Schuylkill water supply in the * Report of the Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, p. 367. TA B L E III. Constructed from Table 11-4 malyses ºf Philadelphia Water Supply, according to Localities. (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, opposite page 252.) - FREE AM Monia. Parts in 10,000,000. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7, 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 is 19 20 21 22 28 24 25 26 27 28 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville.......................... May 2, 1883 - 2. Roxborough basin, surface..…May 8, 1883 - 3. Roxborough basin, bottom............... May 3, 1883 - 4. Spring Garden forebay, surface........July 21, 1883 - 5. Fairmount forebay, surface.............. May 3, 1883 _ 6. Fairmount forebay, surface.............. Oct. 30, 1883 -- 7. Fairmount forebay, bottom.............. May 3, 1883 - 8. Perkiomen, above Green lane...........................July 20, 1883 |- 9. above Green lane........................... Sept.11, 1883 _- 10. above Green lane...........................Oct. 30, 1883 - 11. Delaware Water Gap 12. Water Gap........................................ 13. Point Pleasant..................................July 21, 1888 - 14. Point Pleasant...................................Sept. 12, 1883 15. Standard of Purity (Prof. Leeds)....................................... - ALBUMINoid A.M.Monia. Parts in 10,000,000. **huylkill, above Phºenixville..........................May 2, 1883 - 2. Roxborough basin, surface.............. May 3, 1883 || -- 3. Roxborough basin, bottom............... May 3, 1883 || -- 4. Spring Garden forebay, surface........ July 21, 1883 || - 5. Fairmount forebay, surface.............. May 3, 1883 - 6. Fairmount forebay, surface.............. Oct. 30, 1883 - 7. Fairmount forebay, bottom..............May 3, 1883 - 8. Perkiomen, above Greenlanc........... ----------------July 20, 1883 || -- 9. above Green lane.............................Sept. 11, 1883 - 10. above Green lane..............................Oct. 30, 1883 |- 11. Delaware Water Gap............. ...........................Sept. 9, 1883 m a - - 12. Water Gap.........................................Oct. 9, 1883 |--|-- 13. Point Pleasant.…July 21, 1883 -º 14. Point Pleasant...................................Sept. 12, 1883 | -- 15 standard of purity (Prof. Leeds).…. - NITRous Acid. Parts in 100,000,000. - - - - - 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville........................... May 2, 1883 2. Roxborough basin, surface..............May 3, 1883 - 3. Roxborough basin, bottom................ May 3, 1883 - 4. Spring Garden forebay, surface.........July 21, 1883 || None. 5. Fairmount forebay, surface............... May 3, 1883 || - 6. Fairmount forebay, surface..............Oct. 30, 1883 - 7. Fairmount forebay, bottom..............May 3, 1883 8. Perkiomen, above Green lane...... ......................July 20, 1883 9. above Green lane...........................Sept. 11, 1883 10. above Green lane.........................oct. 30, 1883 11. Delaware water Gap ...................................... Sept. 9, 1883 12. Water Gap....................................... Oct. 9, 1883 13. Point Pleasant.................................July 21, 1883 14. Point Pleasant................., ................Sept. 12, 1883 15 standard of Purity (Prof. Leeds.…. NITRic Acid. Parts in 1,000,000. 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville 2. Roxborough basin, surface............... May 3, 1883 3. Roxborough basin, bottom............... May 3, 1883 4. Spring Garden forebay, surface......... July 21, 1883 5. Fairmount forebay, surface.............. May 3, 1883 6. Fairmount forebay, surface............... Oct. 30, 1883 7. Fairmount forebay, bottom............... May 3, 1883 8. Perkiomen, above Green lane...... ...............July 20, 1883 9. above Green lane.... ...................... Sept. 11, 1883 10. above Green lane.......................... Oct. 30, 1883 11. Delaware Water Gap.........................................Sept. 9, 1883 12. Wat...r Gay.........................................oet. 9, 1883 13. Point Pleasant...................................July 21, 1883 14. Point Pleasant................................. Sept. 12, 1883 -- 15. Standard of Purity (Prof. Leeds) 0xxºs Required (Permanganate process). Parts in 1,000,000. 1 2 3. 4 5 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville.......................... May 2, 1883 - 2. Roxborough basin, surface............... May 3, 1883 || -- 3. Roxborough basin, bottom................May 3, 1883 … . . . . . . . 4. Spring Garden forebay surface......... July 21, 1883 5. Fairmount forebay, surface...............May 3, 1883 6. Fairmount forebay, surface...............Oct. 30, 1883 7. Fairmount forebay, bottom............... May 3, 1883 8. Perkiomen, above Green lane............................July 20, 1883 9. above Green lane............................Sept. 11, 1883 10. above Green lane........................... Oct. 30, 1883 11. Delaware Water Gap.................................. “Sept. 9, 1888 - 12. Water Gap.........................................Oct. 9, 1888 - 13. Point Pleasant.................................. July 21, 1885 - 14. Point Pleasant...................................Sept. 12, 1888 - 15. Standard of Purity (Prof. Leeds)......................................... -- CHLoRINE. Parts in 1,000,000. 1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 s º 10 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville........................... May 2, 1883 -- 2. Roxborough basin, surface............... May 3, 1883 - 3. Roxborough basin, bottom................May 3, 1883 - 4. Spring Garden forebay, surface.........July 21, 1883 | E- 5. Fairmount forebay, surface..............May 3, 1883 - 6. Fairmount forebay, surface............... Oct. 30, 1883 - 7. Fairmount forebay, bottom...............May 3, 1883 |- 8. Perkiomen, above Green lane.......................... July 20, 1883 - 9. above Grean lane............................Sept. 11, 1883 - 10. above Green lane............................ Oct. 30, 1883 - 11. Delaware Water Gap......................................... Sept. 9, 1883 - 12. Water Gap.........................................Oct. 9, 1883 - 13. Point Pleasant................................... July 21, 1883 - - - 14. Point Pleasant..................................Sept. 12, 1883 - 13 month of January (1883) and any case of disease within their practice.” - - - This is an exceedingly interesting fact, and goes further to vindicate the Schuylkill water, at its worst, from the charge of being unwholesome, than the estimated excess of free am- monia and nitrous acid does to convict it on this charge. Furthermore, whatever apparent impurity there was in the Schuylkill water at this unfortunate time was wholly due to a cause which, as I have already said, is easily remediable, namely, the persistence of a coating of ice on the river, which prevented the escape of free ammonia and the change of nitrites into nitrates, which would take place constantly if the ice were kept broken up by steam tugs or otherwise. Table III. is constructed so as to show in graphic form, by lines drawn to a given scale, the relative proportions of the various constituents, from which the impurity of drinking water is usually calculated, in the water of the Schuylkill at Phoenixville, at Roxborough, at Spring Garden, and at Fair- mount, in the water of the Perkiomen, at Green lane, and in the water of the Delaware at Point Pleasant and at the Water Gap, as compared with each other and with the standard of purity given by Professor Leeds. From Table III it will be seen that in respect to free ammonia, the Schuylkill water at Roxborough and Spring Garden, and (with the exception of one analysis) at Fairmount is better than the Perkiomen or Delaware water at Point Pleasant or the Water Gap, and than Professor Jeeds' standard for pure river water. In regard to Albuminoid Ammonia, the Schuylkill water at these points is also better than the Perkiomen or Delaware water and than the standard for pure river water. In regard to Nitrous Acid, it is as good as the Perkiomen and better than the standard for pure river water. In regard to Nitric Acid, it is as good as the Perkiomen water and better than the standard for pure river water. 14 In regard to required Oxygen, it is better than the Perkio- men or the Delaware and than the standard for pure river Water. In regard to Chlorine, it does now differ materially from the Perkiomen or Delaware water, and is better than the standard for pure river water. Table TV shows a comparison of analyses made by Prof. Leeds, of the Schuylkill water above Phoenixville, at Rox- borough and at Spring Garden, with those of the Delaware water at Point Plesant, and above the Water Gap, and of all with Prof. Leeds' standard of purity. In making up this table I have selected for each locality the date at which the water contained the largest amount of each ingredient. From Table IV it will be seen that in respect to free and Albuminoid Ammonia the Schuylkill water is better than that of the Delaware at Point Pleasant, and than the standard for pure river water. In respect to Nitric Acid, it differs very little from the Delaware water, while one sample (No. 2) falls a little below the standard for pure river water. In respect to oxygen required to oxidize organic matter, the Schuylkill water is better than the Delaware water, and the latter falls much below the standard for pure river water. In respect to chlorine, the Schuylkill water is about as good -as the Delaware water at Point Pleasant, and better than the standard for pure river water; while the Delaware at the Water Gap is a little better than the Schuylkill water anywhere. It will be noticed that no mention of nitrous acid (nitrites) is made in this table. This is due to the fact that they are not found in the diagram from which it has been constructed, but an examination of the table (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1884, opposite page 362) from which Professor Leeds constructed his diagram, discloses the fact that no sample of the Schuylkill water within the city limits contained more TA B L E IV. FREE AMMox1A. Parts in 10,000,000. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 - 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville........................... Sept. 3, 1884 || - 2. Roxborough..................................... Aug. 5, 1884 || - 3. Spring Garden................................. Oct. 1, 1884 º 4. Delaware, Point Pleasant....................... ---------- Aug. 6, 1884 || - - 5. above Water Gap............................. April 30, iss. - 6. Standard of Purity (Prof. Leeds)........................................... -º-º-º-º-º-º-º: ALBUMINoid A.M.Mox1A. Parts in 10,000,000 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville...........................July 9, 1884 - 2. Roxborough........................ ------------- July 9, 1884 3. Spring Garden.................................Oct. 1, 1884 4. Delaware, Point Pleasant.......................... .......June 25, 1884 5. above Water Gap............... ---------- ... June 25, 1884 6. Standard of Purity.............................................. NITR1c Acid, Parts in 1,000,000, 6 7 8 - 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville...........................July 9, 1884 2. Roxborough .......... -------- ------------------ Nov. 26, 1884 3. Spring Garden.................................Nov. 26, 1884 4. Delaware, Point Pleasant.................................April 23, 1884 5. above Water Gap............... ---------- ...April 30, 1884 6. Standard of Purity........…........….......................…......... ------- oxyges REQUIRED (Permaganate process). Parts in 1,000,000. 1. Schuylkill, above Phºenixville..........................Aug. 6, 1884 2. Roxborough.......... ----------- ------------ ...Now, 26, 1884 3. Spring Garden.................................Nov. 26, 1884 4. Delaware, Point Pleasant....….........….....….Now, 26, 1884 5. above Water Gap.…...…...............Dec. 10, 1884 6. Standard of Purity........ ------------------------------------- ------------------ CHLoRINE. Parts in 1,000,000. 1. Z 3. 4 5 g 7 8 9 19 1. Schuylkill, above Phoenixville................... .......Oct. 29, 1884 || -- 2. Roxborough.....................................oet. 29, 1884 E-º- 3. Spring Garden................. ----------------- Nov. 26, 1884 - 4. Delaware, Point Pleasant................. Sept. 10, 1884 - 5. above Water Gap.............................Aug. 20, 1884 - 6. Standard of Purity...............................….…. -------------- ... - 15 than one-fifth of the quantity of nitrites (.001 parts in 100,000) admitted in Professor Leeds' standard for pure water, while the Schuylkill at Phoenixville and the Perkiomen contained at times more than twice as much (.0005 parts in 100,000) as the largest quantity found at any time (included in the analy- sis) in the Schuylkill at Roxborough, Spring Garden, and Fairmount (.0002 parts in 100,000). On looking over the table carefully, it will be observed that the Schuylkill water is better at Spring Garden than at Roxborough or Phoenixville, except as to free ammonia and chlorine; as to chlorine it is just as good at Spring Garden as it is at Phoenixville. This interesting fact seems to flatly contradict the often repeated assertion that the Schuylkill becomes progressively more pol- luted as it approaches and passes through the City of Phila- delphia. - - - Table V is constructed from the analysis of Professor Leeds, as given in the reports of the Philadelphia Water Department for 1883 and 1884, and shows the comparative worth (as far as chemical analysis can show this) of the waters of the Schuylkill and the Delaware, at points from which the supply is now drawn and at points from which it has been proposed to draw it. - - In this table I have simply gone straight down Professor Leeds' tables, taking the figures in their order, as they bore on this subject, and I stopped when I had taken twenty-eight analyses, simply because I did not think it would throw any better light on the subject to go on multiplying analyses, as I think twenty-eight is sufficient for the purpose. A careful examination of all the analyses given by Professor Leeds will show, I think, that those included in Table W. do no injuctice to any of the rivals of the Schuylkill river. 16 I 3 . . $: g: º # | #3 | #3 |33 | # . - 5 * 8 gº to º cº * º QX Parts in 100,000. 5.3 a 3 c +-> & 5 || 5 & .5 - ... a E 5 2'E | E = | 80'E p: Q) .3 F. 5 ; F | > 3. .9 ſt . . . . .0090 3 18 The whole column shows a decided superiority in the Schuylkill water as compared with the Delaware water at Point Pleasant or the Water Gap, while the Delaware water at Kensington wharf, when the sewage of the whole city is sweeping by at the flood tide, is actually very much better in regard to albuminoid ammonia, than it is far up at the Water Gap. In the matter of nitrous acid (or nitrites) we find in one sample from the Schuylkill at Spring Garden (No. 2), taken January 19, when the river was covered with ice, the enor- mous quantity of .01000 parts in 100,000 (or 1 in 10,000- 000). I have found nothing to compare with this in any other analysis except another taken from the bottom of the river at the same time and place which shows .00830 parts in 100,000. All the other analyses show quantities from nothing to a bare trace at Phoenixville, (Nos. 1, 18, and 26), Ken- sington (Nos. 10–14) at flood tide, Schuylkill at Fairmount (average) (No. 15), Perkiomen at Green Lane (No. 21). In order that we may not misunderstand the significance of the quantity of nitrous acid (or nitrites) found in the Schuylkill on January 19, 1883 (and from the possibility of an error in the analysis), we must bear in mind that the river was covered with ice at the time, and that the condition of the water had no evil effect upon the health of the city, as determined by the correspondence of Professor Leeds with eminent physicians in Philadelphia, before referred to (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, page 367). In regard to the nitrates, the highest figures are as fol- lows: No. 18. Schuylkill above Phoenixville.......................................... .920 20. Delaware at Point Pleasant.................. ............... • * * * * * * * * ... .860 19. Schuylkill at Roxborough............................................... .800 10. Delaware, Kensington (flood-tide).................. ................. ,'570 19 The lowest figures are as follows: No. 5. Delaware, Water Gap......... * @ 4 e s ∈ tº e º • * * * * * * * is e & gº & © & 8 º' tº a e ∈ E & # tº dº ſº tº e º ºs º & g º gº .190 8. ( & Point Pleasant.................................................. .190 9. ( & “ .................................................. .190 The whole column shows that the Schuylkill water at Spring Garden was never quite so good or quite so bad as the Del- aware water at the Water Gap, or at Point Pleasant, while it was always better than that of the Perkiomen. It was never quite so good or quite so bad as the Delaware at Point Pleas- ant. Another important matter for chemical analysis is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter. This is one of the means of testing for organic impurity. The figures in regard to that show the worst for the Delaware at Point Pleasant, and next for the Delaware at the Water Gap, and, in detail, those figures are as follows: No. 28. Delaware at Point Pleasant............................................... .45 24. {{ “ Water Gap................. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s e s a s e s tº e s a s a s .35 25. {{ “ Frankford..................................................... .33 8. {{ “ Point Pleasant............................................... .32 16. Perkiomen (average)....................................................... .31 12. Delaware at Kensington (flood tide)................................... .30 20. {{ “ Point Pleasant.............................................. .30 23, {{ & & " … …....................... .30 The lowest figures are as follows: No. 9. Delaware at Point Pleasant............................................... .10 6. {{ “Water Gap................................................... .12 7. & C above Water Gap.............................................. .15 19. Schuylkill at Roxborough.......... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , s , , , , , a .15 26. {{ above Phoenixville........................................... .15 27. {{ at Roxborough................................................ .17 2. {{ at Spring Garden............................................. .18 , 3. {{ {& “ …...................... 18 4. {{ {{ " …" is 18. {{ above Phoenixville........................................... .19 5. Delaware at Water Gap................................................... .19 20 The whole column shows the Schuylkill water to be better at Spring Garden than the Delaware water at Point Pleasant or the Water Gap. In regard to chlorine, the highest figures are as follows: No. 2. Schuylkill at Spring Garden............................................. .65 3. ( & {{ " …................... .60 4. {{ {{ " …............….... .60 13. Delaware at Kensington (flood tide)................................... .60 14. {{ {{ { % • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e º 'º e º ºs e e .60 12. (« {{ " ..........................…..... .57 11, ( & {{ * ....................…........... .55 16. Perkiomen (average)....................................................... .53 15. Schuylkill, Fairmount (average)....................................... .46 1. {{ above Phoenixville...... • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .45 10. Delaware, Kensington (flood tide)...................................... .45 9. {{ Point Pleasant ................................................ .40 27. Schuylkill at Roxborough................................................ .30 The lowest figures are as follows: No. 7. Delaware above Water Gap............................................ .20 19. Schuylkill at Roxborough....................................... ........ .20 20. Delaware at Point Pleasant.............................................. .20 22. {{ {& “ .............................................. .20 23. {{ ( & “ ....................... . • * * * > 0 e º e º e º e e s a e e s e º e .20 24. {{ Water Gap................................................... .20 28. (£ Point Pleasant........................................ .. ... .20 In regard to chlorine it will be seen that the Delaware at Point Pleasant and the Water Gap makes a better showing than the Schuylkill or the Perkiomen. This fact might be seized upon by one who wished to condemn the Schuylkill; but it is offset by two other facts of great importance. The first is the fact that the excess of chlorine in the Schuylkill water is probably due to the large quantity of innocent chlo- rides discharged into the river by manufactories on its banks, and it is not due at all to organic impurity, as may also be inferred from the good showing of the water in other respects. The second fact is that in no case does the Schuylkill contain much more than one-half the proportion of chlorine allowed 21 for good water in Professor Leeds' standard of purity for river water in the United States, namely, one part in one hundred thousand. After studying these analyses, I do not hesitate to ask you to accept with me the opinions of the Citizens' Committee on the future water supply of the City of Philadelphia, who, in a memorial to the Select and Common Councils of Philadel- phia, dated November 30, 1886, says: “We are satisfied * * * that, although objections have been made to the water of the Schuylkill, it is chemically as pure as those which may be brought to the city from other points which are advo- cated as sources of Supply, etc.” I also quote the opinion of Dr. Henry M. Chance, Civil Engineer (who examined the subject at the request of the Citizens' Committee of 1886, on the future water supply of Philadelphia), who, in a private letter to a member of the Citizens' Committee, dated July 27, 1886, says: “In regard to the analyses, etc., I can only say, that as a whole they are quite favorable to the Schuylkill water, and this I think would be the judgment of any unbiased person.* In fact, the oppo- nents of the Schuylkill find it necessary to repeatedly state that the analyses very curiously have failed to show the objec- tionable impurities, or words to that effect.” As an illustration of the way in which these analyses have been used to make the Schuylkill water seem dangerous, let me call your attention to a feature in the argument of one of its most serious opponents. The principal criteria of impurity in chemical analysis of drinking water have been, as stated by Professor Leeds (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1885, page 388), the percentages of albuminoid ammonia, * It is hard to understand how Professor Leeds could say, in a letter dated December 18, 1886, to Mr. Hollingsworth, attorney for the South Mountain Water Company, and which was read before the Water Committee of Councils on January 4, 1887: - “The upper waters of the Delaware do not contain sewage in amount sufficient to be detected by analysis, and in this respect differ entirely from the Spring Garden and Fairmount and Roxborough water.” 22 of nitrous and nitric acid (or nitrites and nitrates), and of chlorine. The Schuylkill water at Phoenixville is admitted to be an exceptionally pure water; the water at the Roxborough and Spring Garden pumping stations is said to be dangerously im- pure. Professor Leeds, in a report dated March 15, 1886 (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1885, page 388), states that the latter are about of the same quality and (same report, page 384) places the increase of albuminoid am- monia at the Roxborough station over that at Phoenixville at forty-four per cent., that of nitrous acid at four hundred per cent., and that of chlorine at seven per cent. This sounds startling at first, but loses some of its effect when we find that these percentages are erroneously calculated upon the last figures of a very small decimal. As a matter of fact the amount of albuminoid ammonia at Phoenixville, according to Professor Leeds' analyses is 0.0097 parts per 100,000, or a little less than one part in ten millions, while at Roxborough it is 0.014 parts per 100,000, or a little less than one and a half parts in ten millions ! The figures at Phoenixville re- present a percentage of one hundred thousandth (rodovo) of one per cent., and those at at Roxborough only one and a half hundred thousandth (rºs) of one per cent., an increase of only one half of a hundred thousandth part (rºws) of one per cent., or a half a part in ten millions. This is a very dif- ferent way of stating the case, a much less alarming way, and, I believe, the fair way. Studying the figures for nitrous acid, we find that, at Phoenixville, the water contains 0.00012 parts per 100,000 or a little more than one part in 100,000,000, while at Roxborough it is 0.0006 per 100,000, or six parts in 100,000,000. This represents a percentage of one millionth part (rºws) of one per cent of nitrous acid at Phoenixville, and six millionth parts (rºws) of one per cent, at Rox- borough; an increase of only five millionth parts Towävow) of one per cent., or five parts in a hundred millions. Of chlo- rine there are found at Phoenixville a little over three-tenth 23 3 *) parts per 100,000, or three ten-thousandths (rºws) of one per cent., while at Roxborough there are a little over five-tenth (#) parts per hundred thousand, or five ten thousandth (Twigo) of one per cent., an increase of only two ten-thonsandth (twäuw) of one per cent. I have gone over all the comparisons of Professor Leeds in his reports, and find similar enormous differences between the way he calculates his percentages and what seems to me the just way to do it. I will give you another illustration in regard to this matter. If we were to suppose that albuminoid ammonia were as deadly a poison as prussic acid, or that the Schuylkill water actually contained as much prussic acid as it does albuminoid ammonia, namely, one part in ten millions at Phoenixville, and one and a half parts in ten millions at Roxborough, the first figures would represent the presence of one grain of prussic acid, or fifty grains of the officinal (two per cent.) dilute prussic acid in 143 gallons of water. As the dose of the latter is two or three minims, it will be seen that, in order to get an ordinary medicinal dose of prussic acid a man would have to drink 8% gallons of Schuylkill water at Phoenixville, and 5.7 gallons at Roxborough, at one time. As this medicinal dose is recommended by Professor Alfred Stillé, in his work on “Therapeutics,” to be taken several times a day, we can see that, if the Schuylkill water contained as much strong prussic acid as it does albuminoid ammonia, a patient would have to drink 25 gallons of it a day at Phoenixville, or 17 gallons a day at Roxborough, before he could expect to get any good from it. - - ~~ I may go further, and state that, if the total amount of albuminoid ammonia, nitrous acid (nitrites), and chlorine found in the Schuylkill water at Roxborough were strong prussic acid, one might with impunity drink a quart of it several times a day. This is putting the matter extremely; for there is no evidence whatever that these substances are in themselves injurious to health. On the contrary, whether 24 found in drinking water or in beef tea, they are in themselves perfectly harmless. - But this suggests an objection which may be raised by those who see danger in Professor Leeds' figures. They will say that it is not the absolute quantity of these ingredients which is dangerous, but the fact that they indicate the presence of other dangerous matters. This is a pure assumption. Take albuminoid ammonia, which is often cited as an evidence of the presence of unoxidized Sewage; it is not reliable at all; for (as has been well shown by Charles Elkin in his book on “Potable Water,” London, 1880), “it has been found in cer- tain selected deep springs of undoubted purity as regards freedom from animal contamination, that at certain seasons, such as late autumn, and then especially when grass is abund- ant, the organic matter accompanied by ammonia has largely increased,” &c. And, again: “The organic matter of sewage is of an albuminoid nature * * * * so, too, is much of the soluble matter of vegetation albuminous, the com- position of both albumens, animal and vegetable, being identi- cal. Ordinary herbage contains a considerable per centage of albuminoids,"—and we must remember the fact that the Schuylkill river is lined by wooded banks for a considerable extensive territory, and that there is annually a deposit of a very large number of leaves which leach, and the result of their chemical changes comes down into the water. And, again, speaking of the figures of Dr. Frankland, Pro- fessor Wanklyn, and Dr. Tidy, Mr. Ekin says: “As giving any indication, however, of the wholesomeness of a water, they are useless, because both vegetable and animal organic matter >k >k >k yield organic carbon and nitrogen and albu- minoid ammonia, and in proportions so nearly alike as to be practically indistinguishable. An excess of organic matter is not necessarily an objectionable feature in a drinking water, for many of what are confessed to be our best and purest Sup- plies frequently contain an excess of organic matter,” etc. 25 To come to this side of the water, Professor William Ripley Nichols,” of Boston, a student of this subject, says: “The amount of nitrogen as nitrites and nitrates does not bear any direct ratio to the amount of organic matter originally present in the water, although their compounds are generally taken as indications of its previous existence,” etc. As to the reliability of chemical analysis, in determining the wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of drinking water, let me quote the opinion of Professor Nichols: “In the majority of cases, chemical examination cannot be relied upon as giving conclusive evidence as to the suitability of a water for drinking. * * * If the water is grossly polluted; or is of excep- tional purity, chemical examination can determine these facts; but, in a vast majority of cases, while chemistry may teach something and aid in the decision, it cannot teach every- thing, and it cannot decide.” (Op. cit., page 303.) “Various students of the matter of water-supply have formulated ‘stand- ards’ which a water may not overpass. They are, however, only of relative value. Moreover, different kinds of water cannot be judged by the same standard—a fact that is often lost sight of.” (Op. cit., pages 303, 304.) And in another place he says: “Chemistry does not give us the means of determining the amount of organic matter in water, or even of determining, in all cases, whether it is of animal or vege- table origin.” (Op. cit., page 299.) Similar conservative opinions have been expressed by Professor Parkes in his Manual of Practical Hygiene.* Professors Mallet, Wormley, and Green says (Report of Water Department of Philadelphia for 1885, page 152): “In the present state of chemical knowledge, it is only possible, and will probably always remain but possible, to say after * A Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health. Edited by Albert H. Buck, M. D. New York, 1879. Vol. I, Art. “On Drinking Water and Public Water Supplies,” page 297. * Parkes, Edmund A., M.D., F. R. S., etc. A Manual of Practical Hygiene. Edited by F. S. B. François de Chaumont, M. D., F. R. S., etc. With an Appendix, etc., by Frederick N. Owen, Civil and Sanitary Engineer. 2 vols. New York, 1884. Vol. I. Chap. I. 4 26 an examination, that it (a water of intermediate character as to purity) is comparatively more or less open to Suspicion, more or less likely to prove wholesome in use than some other water which has been examined in the same way.” And, again, “We cannot at present, on the basis of the most elaborate chemical, microscopical, and biological examination, pronounce absolutely upon the wholesomeness or unwholesome- ness of a sample of such water as is actually used by large city populations.” Again, Dr. Sell, Imperial Councillor in Berlin, in the re- port of the Imperial Board of Health for 1881, presents a masterly study of the methods of analysis of drinking water all over the world, and calls attention to a number of sources of error in them. The first is in regard to the solid residue after evaporation. He gives the results for forty-one different waters at temperatures of 100°, 140°, and 180° (Centigrade), and states, as is apparent, that “the figures differ so much, that a comparison of the residue after evaporation, as obtained at the different temperatures, is utterly worthless.” He rejects also the determination of the quantity of organic substances by the difference in weight beween the evaporated residue be- fore and after incineration, for the good reason that many inorganic substances (as ammonia salts, alkaline chlorides, carbonates, etc.) are driven off or destroyed by incineration. And he plainly says, “at the present day there does not exist a single practicable method for a complete and reliable quanti- tative determination of the organic constituents of water.” (Page 363). And, again, after speaking of the generally-used methods of Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith, for determining the presence of dangerous organic matter, and an improvement upon it by Fleck, Sell says we must hesitate to draw conclu- sions from them, “because our knowledge concerning the nature of those substances which render the use of a water dangerous to health, is still greatly in need of extension and confirmation.” Finally, Professor Leeds himself is perfectly 27 aware of this fact, for he distinctly states (Report of Philadel- phia Water Department for 1883, page 243): “It may be supposed that the chemist should be able to establish a natural and absolute standard of purity for drinking water. But this is not possible.” And, as an indication of his own opinion of the impossi- bility of attributing variation in the chemical analysis of drinking water to recognize sources of pollution, I would quote his statement (Report of Philadelphia Water Department for 1883, p. 241) in regard to the Schuylkill river, that, “While the volume of polluting matter thrown into the river Schuyl- kill does not vary greatly from season to season, the com- ponents of the water vary immensely.” (Report of Philadel- phia Water Department for 1883, page 241). In other words, although the same quantities of polluting. material are thrown in the water from season to season, when the analyses are made, they do not show up, on the contrary the analyses present great discrepancies. Before leaving this part of the subject I would like to refer you again to the able report of Professors Mallet, Wormley, and Greene, contained in the annual report of Colonel Ludlow for the year 1885, as indicating the conclusions to be drawn from a careful chemical analysis of the Schuylkill water. These gentlemen say, that in their analysis, “There has been found no inorganic or mineral substance, which, of itself and in the quantity present, can be considered in any way harmful or seriously objectionable. And, as regards organic matter * * * this examination does not show the presence in any of the samples of Philadelphia water of so large a pro- portion of such matter as to be incompatible with the water being normal and wholesome.” So much in regard to the chemical analysis of the Schuyl- kill water, in regard to which I willingly quote the words of Professor Leeds, in the report already referred to : “Were the character of the Spring Garden water sought to be es- tablished by the favorable analyses, it would rank very high, 28 whilst if the desire were to vilify it, abundant damaging testi- mony would be gathered from the list of maximum figures.” (Page 137.) - I trust I have not labored in vain in the attempt to show how unjust it would be to admit that chemical analysis alone could be used to condemn a given drinking water, but even if we were to grant this unfair assumption to any one who might be tempted to “vilify " the Schuylkill water, we need not fear that the concession would prove disastrous, for a careful study of the various analyses available indicates, as I have shown above, that the Schuylkill river at what is assumed to be its worst point, is in some important respects better than the Delaware river at Point Pleasant, and even at the Water Gap, and that in no respect does it fall below a proper standard of wholesomeness. As bearing upon the comparisons instituted between the waters of the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers, the following letter published in the Public Ledger, in December, 1885, is of interest. Some of the gentlemen of the Committee have probably seen it before: “ UPPER DELAWARE WATER NOT SO VERY PURE. “MR. EDITOR.—It is generally supposed that the water of the Upper Delaware is pure 2nd free from the adulteration of other streams of less magnitude, from which it is pro- posed to draw the future supply for this city. “From personal observations, made between Stroudsburg and Port Jervis, at intervals during the past fifteen years, I find that there is a noticeable change in the condition of the Water, it being less pure than formerly. “There are fifteen towns and villages along the Delaware above the Water Gap, the 3most populous place being the City of Port Jervis, where the drainage from not less than two thousand dwelling-houses and industrial establishments passes into the river The water is unpalatable, and is not used by those having access to it. The route for a rail- road along the river between Port Jervis and Stroudsburg has been surveyed, and in all probability will be built in the near future. With it would come an increase in the number of industrial establishments and other sources of pollution to the river, which the City of Philadelphia could not prevent. During the months of July and August thousands of female shad, which expire after spawning, float down the river, and during the past summer I saw the shores in places lined with their bodies in various stages of -decomposition. Although to the eye the water of the upper Delaware is usually quite clear and trans- parent, it is, perhaps, not much purer than other proposed sources of supply nearer Thome. J. A. F. “PHILADELPHIA, December 9, 1886.” 29 Now, having gone somewhat over the matter of chemical analysis, I want to call your attention to another test of the wholesomeness of the water, which is of much more conse- quence, and which may enable one to decide whether he will join himself to those who have a good opinion of the water of the Schuylkill river, or whether he will join himself to those who will vilify it. And this is the test of experience. This, after all, is the crucial test. When it is applied to the water supply of Philadelphia, we find that, in spite of many obvious defects in regard to sewerage and surface cleansing in Phila- delphia, in spite of great vicissitudes of climate, this city is the healthiest in the whole world. Colonel George E. War- ing, in the eighteenth volume of the United States Census Re- port for 1880, says: “The salubrity of Philadelphia is ex- ceptional, the mortality being one to every thousand persons less than that of London, two to every thousand persons less than that of Paris, and seven to every thousand persons less than that of New York.” And he adds later: “If a proper system for the removal of household wastes could be extended to all parts of the City of Philadelphia, it might reasonably be hoped that there would thereby be secured a lower death rate, even much lower than that of any other city of the world.” The authority on which I make that statement is an edi- torial in the Philadelphia Ledger of November 15, 1886. I have myself made some tables in regard to the health of Philadelphia as compared with other large cities, and the result has been to confirm entirely the opinion of Colonel Waring, and I believe now that he was justified in saying that Phila- delphia is the best in healthfulness of any city in the world that approaches it in size. It is a curious fact that London, that is supposed to be the only city that is any more healthy than Philadelphia, is a city in which the complaints in regard to the water supply are more serious and more frequent than they are in Philadelphia. - 30 I have prepared a table of the death rates in a number of large cities, taking three weeks which happened to be reported in a medical journal which has just come to hand as I am . writing, and not selecting them from a larger number for any reason whatever. - This report (in the British Medical Journal of November 27, 1886) I have had to supplement from the report of the T}oard of Health of Philadelphia, because it contains the death rate for only one of the three weeks. With this completed, we find the following to be the order of healthfulness as deduced from the death rates: Death rates for weeks ending at dates stated: City. Nov. 6. Nov. 13. Nov. 20. Average. London......................................................... 16.7 17.9 17.4 17.3 $3elfast.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .--------------------, 17:4 20.9 19.7 19.3 Philadelphia................................................. 21.2 19.2 18.9 19.8 *Vienna....................................................... 18.9 22.5 !............... 20.7 Liverpool...................................................... 19'8 23.8 20.5 21.4 Edinburg................................................... .. 24.7 21.0 19.4 21.7 *Paris.......................................................... 21.1 22.1 22.3 21.8 *Berlin......................................................... 22.8 22.9 21.2 22.3 *St. Petersburg............................................. 22.9 23.4 22.2 22.8 Dublin ......................................................... 21.4 25.4 22.9 23.2 Glasgow........................................................ 24.0 23.3 23.7 23.7 t Leeds..............................................----------. 23.2 21.7 27.1 24.0 Manchester................................................... 24.5 23.1 24.4 24.0 * New York................................................... 26.1 24.7 * 24.3 25.0 * Dates not exact; said to be “recently” in the report quoted. + Leeds has been put in because Professor Leeds has recently cited it as having a water supply which was up to his standard. From this table it will be seen that the death rate in Phila- delphia is lower than that of any city of its size in the world, except London.* * The Publie Ledger (of Philadelphia), January 8, 1887, contains the following editorial : “MUCH IT IS TO BE REGRETTED that people who might be of service to Philadelphia 3 1. in improving our water system will persist in treating the present supply from the Schuylkill as though it was so polluted by sewage as to be dangerous to health. That is not the fact, as the health reports prove. The case in favor of the healthfulness of the Schuylkill water, as made out by the general returns of mortality and of the diseases which cause death, is strengthened by the special report, which shows that the district where typhoid fever lately prevailed is supplied from the Delaware river. Nobody is likely to object to improvements in our water system, but unwarranted statements at the outset of the argument provoke dispute that retards consideration of the main issue.” Those who argue that the water supplied to Philadelphia is unwholesome ought to be able to demonstrate that its damage to health is more than compensated by Philadelphia's superi- ority over Paris. For example, in the salubrity of its climate, the cleanliness of its streets, the perfectness of its system of sewerage, but I have never seen this attempted. Another interesting point in regard to the health of the city, which I have had in view for some time, is that of the relative ages at which deaths occur in Philadelphia; and as bearing upon the question we are discussing, I find, on investi- gation, that there were: In 1884, deaths over sixty years, 3,852. Total deaths, 19,999. Ratio, 1 : 5. In 1885, “ “ “ “ 4,221. “ “ 21,392. “ 1 : 5. In 1886, “ “ “ “ 4,008. “ “ 20,005. “ 1:5. We find from this table a remarkable evenness in the num- 'ber of deaths in the City of Philadelphia, and that one out of every five, or twenty per cent., is of those who live to the age of sixty and over, which is certainly a most remarkable longevity. d In conclusion, then, I venture to assert that there is no good evidence whatever that the water of the Schuylkill is unfit for drinking purposes, whether we consider the question from a theoretical or from a practical standpoint. The test of chemistry, and the test of experience—the crucial test—both seem to demonstrate that it is perfectly wholesome. There remains, of the questions proposed for discussion in the beginning of this paper, only that of the likelihood that the Schuylkill water will soon become dangerous to the health of the citizens of Philadelphia. We have already seen that there is no good ground for asserting that this water is now 32 unwholesome, and it may be confidently believed that with the completion of the intercepting sewer from Manayunk to below Fairmount dam, and the enforcement of the rights of the city against pollution of the river beyond the city limits, there need be no fear that the Schuylkill water will ever become unfit to drink. The duty of the city to minimize the quantity of objectionable matter which might find its way into the river within the city limits, by the construction of proper sewers, is one which should be, and doubtless will be, speedily per- formed;” and no less should it enforce its rights against all who would wantonly or carelessly pollute the river above the city. The first of these duties, the protection of the river, * The Public Ledger (of PHILADELPHIA), March 3, 1886, contains the following interesting letter from Col. Charles H. Banes: - INTERCEPTING SEWER DISCUSSION. For the Public Ledger. MR. EDITOR:—The controversy about the intercepting sewer leads me to offer for the information of your readers a few thoughts in reference to the origin and purpose of its construction. - When I introduced the ordinance in Couneils to commence the intercepting sewer it was after full consideration of the various recommendations of the ten years preceding by the Park Commission and Board of Experts, and after personal consultation with scientific men and engineers. Action was not based upon the principle that a sewer of moderate size would remedy all the evils of our present water supply, but that it should constitute a vital part of a comprehensive plan, incomplete except upon its adoption as an entirety. 1. Prevent pollution of the Schuylkill from sewage at all times, except during periods of freshet and turbid water, by a moderate sized sewer. 2. Complete storage reservoirs at Cambria and East Park, capable of holding twelve days' supply for the entire city. 3. As in times of freshet no sewer could preserve the River 'Schuylkill from the con- taminations of surface drainage and freshets, stop all pumping and draw from the storage basins. 4. After having prevented the pollution of the stream by our own citizens, the city as the sole owner of the river within its corporate limits, should proceed to enforce its riparian rights in the courts against those offenders in localities above Flat Rock dam. There are a number of precedents for such action, and quite recently by an individual against Rochester. This general plan faithfully carried out will give the city a sufficient supply of good water for fifty years. With reference to other sources of supply, unless from lakes, the same contingencies in reference to pollution may arise. If, after the expenditure of a large sum, the water is brought from the Upper Delaware, what guarantee would the city have that enterprise and population would avoid lining the banks of the river with towns and factories? To-day, with engineering skill, a moderate sum of money and the enforcement of riparian rights, the city would be in a better position for a good supply of pure water than it can attain through any plan thus far presented. CHARLES H. BANES, 33 *- will be, to a great extent, accomplished when the intercepting sewer is finished, and this work ought to be pushed energetic- ally to completion. The second duty is not impossible of performance, as was asserted on January 13, 1887, before the Water Committee of our Council, by Furman Sheppard, Esq., Attorney for the South Mountain Water Company. Nor do I believe that it will be at all difficult whenever the city makes up its mind to it. You will understand that I speak with great deference on this subject. I give a layman's opinion, but I have been at some pains to make up my mind in regard to it, especially after hearing the positive statement that there was no law which the City of Philadelphia could invoke to protect the Schuylkill river from pollution. The City of Philadelphia will find natural allies in the inhabitants of the Schuylkill valley everywhere, because the nearer they are to any source of pollution the greater will be their own danger from it. And, even if the dictates of common sense do not compel them to keep their own part of the stream pure, the dictates of com- mon law will. In spite of assertions to the contrary, I believe that there need be no doubt at all in regard to this matter. I have conferred with some friends of mine versed in the law, and they have assured me that that is a safe statement to make. I have also had the pleasure of going over the very able charge of Judge Thayer to a jury trying the case of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania against Soulas et al. for pol- luting the Schuylkill river (Report of Philadelphia Water De- partment for 1884, pages 59–60). On this occasion Judge Thayer said: “Now, it is very old and well-settled law, that to pollute a public stream is to maintain a common nuisance. It is not only a public injury, but it is a crime, a crime for which those who perpetrate it are answerable in a tribunal of criminal jurisdiction. An Act of Assembly forbids and punishes as crimes all common or public nuisances; and I know of no public nuisance more serious in its evil effects, and o 34 more obnoxious to the denunciation of the law, than to corrupt and poison a public stream from which large numbers of people obtain their drinking water.” - After hearing Judge Thayer's charge in the case referred to, the jury found the defendants guilty without leaving the jury-box. r - The whole subject of legal protection of drinking water against pollution has been elaborately discussed in a pamphlet by Wm. Wilkins Carr, Esq., of the Philadelphia Bar,” who, as Master appointed by the Court to decide in the case of the City of Philadelphia vs. Carmany, et al., ordered the abate- ment of a nuisance, consisting in the emptying of mill refuse in Gorgas Run, a small tributary of the Wissahickon creek. The mill was situated about five miles above the Belmont Pumping Station, six miles above the Spring Garden Pump- ing Station, and about eight miles above the Fairmount Pumping Station. From these documents, it is easy to see that the city has abundant legal protection against pollution of the river within or above the city limits, which will be enforced by the Courts upon proper action being brought by the city. In some cases heretofore the city authorities have shown an unwillingness to prosecute offenders against the rights of the city, but, when- ever they choose, they can obtain the conviction of any or all of them. - The case of the city vs. Carmany, et. al., is a striking illus- tration of the extent to which a mere suspicion of pollution may be used to prevent the admission to the drinking water of anything which could injure its wholesomeness. This comprises, I think, the reasons why the Schuylkill river is a proper source of water supply for the City of Phila- delphia for the present, and for any reasonable time in the future, and if you can recall the points of the argument I think you will agree with me. In the first place, the argument * The Legal Protection of the Present Water Supply for Philadelphia. Philadelphia, 1886. 35 is that there is plenty of water in the river now, and there is every reason to believe there will be plenty of water in the river for a long time to come to supply all the needs of the city, and that there is sufficient pumping capacity to supply the city now and in 1910. I have also shown that, as to the storage capacity of the city, the reservoirs now in use, and those not completed, but which should be and I trust will be shortly completed, will furnish abundant storage capacity for the city at present, and if others are needed before 1910 they can be constructed. - In the second place, with regard to the quality of the water, I have tried to show that the objections founded upon chemical analyses are not well founded, and for two reasons. First, chemical analyses are not reliable, as is, I think, frankly ad- mitted by all students on the subject; and again, if it be conceded that chemical analysis is the true and reliable means of testing drinking water, then, by the very analyses which have been made in this case, I have shown that the Schuylkill river makes a good showing and the Delaware river makes a bad showing, and that the water of the Schuylkill is not ex- ceeded in purity by the water of the Delaware river either at Point Pleasant or at the Delaware Water Gap. So much for the present. As to the future, I say, with great deference to the opinions of the other side, having heard those opinions, and attaching to them all the importance they deserve, that putting them alongside of other opinions of gen- tlemen of equal ability and responsibility, I have come to the conclusion that there is no difficulty in preventing any pollu- lution of the Schuylkill river either within or without the city limits. For all these reasons I think I am justified in saying that the Schuylkill river is the proper source of the Future Water Supply of the City of Philadelphia. 4,-64/.4 g a 4– s yº.” A'eprinted from THE STEvens INDICATOR, October, 1887. YOUR FUTURE PROBLEMS. * ADDRESS GRADUATING CLASS Steyens Institute of Technology, ºw . JUNE 16, 1887. BY CHARLES E. EM ERY, Ph. D. YOUR FUTURE PROBLEMS. Mr. President, and Ladies and Gentlemen : It has not been considered the duty of the speaker, in addressing the graduating class, to dwell on the triumphs of science or the advantages of a liberal education. These subjects have already been discussed in connection with the regular courses of study better, and more at length, than he could do. We propose rather, to try and prepare the minds of the graduates for the practical problems before them. , All young men are impressed with the conscious- mess of higher powers as they increase their stores of knowledge, and this feeling perhaps reaches its maximum with those who have made a specialty of the investi- gation and application of physical laws. Young men who have learned how to har- mess the powers of nature and guide them to do their will, are apt to belittle the diffi- culties they have yet to overcome, and have a false impression of the problems of life. This feeling is shown to a minimum extent by graduates of the Stevens Insti- tute, on account of taleir careful practical training, in connection with the thorough study of principles, but it has been thought best, for one from the outside world to supplement such teaching by calling to mind, instances which may have a useful counteracting effect, and, like parables, serve the purpose of illustrative instruction. Gentlemen of the Class of ’87: It was the pleasure of the speaker to address the Class of ’79, under the title of “How to Succeed,” some words of counsel and warn- ing, which, if they left an impression of severity at the time, were apparently so well received afterward, that he has been tempted to continue the general subject with the title of “Your Future Problems.” The notation of your future problems will not be found at once among the known quantities, but with a, y, and z, at the other end of the alphabet. Often word symbols will be applicable, expressing at times disappoint- ment and pain ; at other times renewed effort, and finally, the active phases of in- dividual thought and exertion. The first serious problem with many of you, will be to secure satisfactory engage- ments. This problem cannot be illustrated by parables. It needs in general, patient, unremitting, and frequently long continued effort. It may be that the fame of some of you that have already acquired the happy faculty of making yourselves immediately useful, has already gone abroad and the coveted positions been already assured. To be frank, we cannot promise you even a bed of roses. We have in mind an instance where a superior authority in a large business enterprise who had great respect, as he should have, for the attainments of young gentlemen who have had the opportunities of a technical education, deliberately ordered out a competent mechanical engineer, fa- miliar with the designs required in a large repair shop, and sent in his place, a young gentleman fresh from School and flushed with hope, but who from the very nature of the case could know little or nothing of his duties at that particular place. He was practically alone in the drawing room and did not know where to find such drawings as were required, and candor requires it to be said that he desired to ask many ques- tions about those he did find. The superintendent unfortunately had nothing to do with his appointment and rather resented it, so he did not trust any of his work, 4 and the new comer was obliged to learn his practical experience at that establish- ment where he was known as the mechanical engineer, by having all his work done over by the pattern maker or others, under the eye of the superintendent or master mechanic, and be subjected all the time to the jealousies and annoyances incident to such a method of introduction. His practical experience was certainly learned under difficulties which I trust none of you may experience. This statement is made that those of you who have not yet obtained positions, may not envy those who have and that each and all of you may be careful not to take a position so far above your ex- perience, if not your capacity, as to become unpleasantly situated in the beginning. The educational facilities you have enjoyed, are of such great value in some excep- tional cases, that the parties thus benefited may do you an injury by leading others to expect that you will be equally valuable, in performing duties which require much more practical experience and knowledge of detail than it is possible that you could have obtained in the time you have been here. The incident is ripe with suggestions. No matter how humble a position you may take in the beginning, you will be embarrassed in much the same way as the young gentleman in question, though it hoped in a less degree. Your course of action should be first to learn to do as you are told, no matter what you think of it; and above everything keep your eyes and ears open to obtain practical knowledge of all that is going on about you. Let nothing escape you of an engineering nature, though it has no connection with the business in hand. It may be your business the next day, and if you have taken advantage of the various opportunities to know all about that particular matter in every detail, you can intelligently act in relation to it, with- out embarrassment to yourself and with satisfaction to your superior. Above all, avoid conflict with the practical force of the establishment into which you are introduced. It is better, as we have at another time advised, to establish friendly relations with the workmen and practical men with whom you have to do. You are to be spared this evening any direct references to the “conceit of learning,” but you are asked and advised to bear with the conceit of ignorance. You will find that practical men will be jealous of you on account of your opportunities, and at the same time jealous of their own practical information and experience, and that they may take some pains to hinder rather than aid you in your attempts to actively learn the practical details of the business. The most disagreeable man about the es- tablishment to persons like you, who perhaps goes out of his way to insult you, and yet should be respected for his age, may be one who can be of greatest use to you. Cultivate his acquaintance. A kind word will generally be the best response to an offensive remark, though gentlemanly words of resentment may be necessary when others are present. Sometimes it will be sufficient to say, “I wish a little talk with you by yourself,” which will put the bystanders at a distance and enable you to ma- ture your plans. Ascertain as soon as possible that man's tastes; what he reads and what he delights in. Approach him as if you had no resentment and talk on his favorite topic. If rebuffed, tell a pleasant story and persist from time to time in the . attempt to please, until his hardened nature relaxes and he begins to feel and per- haps speaks to others favorably of you. St. Paul has said: “For though I be free from all men, yet have I made myself servant of all that I might gain the more.” This is the keynote of policy, and though in humbling yourself you control and hide your true feelings, recollect that all your faculties are given you for proper use. We have referred to some who have acquired the happy faculty of making them- 5 selves immediately useful. This is a much more difficult matter than the words im- ply. If one of you should be so fortunate as to be ordered to make certain tests al- most like those you have already conducted here, or to tabulate the results of tests as you have done it here, or to make inspections akin to those which have been fully ex- plained here, there is every probability the work would be done satisfactorily in the first instance. But let a much simpler case arise, for instance, if a superior hand one of you a letter with the simple instructions, “get me the facts on that,” you may be very much puzzled to know what is to be done and how to do it. It may be that the letter is a request for iuformation in regard to certain work that was carried on in the past, in which case it will be necessary for you to hunt through old records, copy books, engineering notes, drawings and the like, and get a list of all referring to the subject; to make an abstract of the letters and notes if they are at all complicated, and finally to lay the whole before the overworked superior in a business manner, that he largely from recollection, aided by the references and notes, can Write an in- telligent answer in a very brief period. The way not to do it would be to say “Yes sir” very promptly, go off and not more than half read the letter, do something and be back in five minutes with some question or ill-digested answer; then upon receiv- ing a polite hint as to the method to be employed, go off and repeat the operation the next five minutes; then on receiving a short reply, in what appeared to be an un- necessary tone of voice, get a little flurried perhaps, do worse next time and in the end feel very unpleasantly without having accomplished much, and make the gen- tleman seeking assistance lament the difficulty in teaching young men practical work. It is possible on the contrary, for a young man to exceed his instructions and volum- teer advice that has not been asked. If he has unfortunately gone too far for some time and been sharply spoken to, he may fail the next in not fully doing the work intended. Simply putting down a column of figures would not necessarily mean tab- ulating facts. The arrangement and rearrangement of the columns aid in classifying such facts, so that the results shown by them will be readily seen and a great deal of labor saved in examination. A good rule in a case of this kind, is to try and find some work done by other parties of a similar nature, and thereby ascertain what is needed and expected. Reasonable questions to ascertain where records are to be found and the kind of records accessible, are always proper if made at the proper time without interrupting an immediate train of thought, and with such information as a start, if a young man will endeavor to imagine himself in a place like that of the one who has finally to decide, and try to ascertain just what information will prob- ably be required, then patiently go to work to find and present it in condensed shape, he from that moment really begins to be useful and his services will be rapidly appre- -ciated. It is a good rule always to keep the memoranda obtained in accomplishing a result of this kind; so that if further information is required, the whole investigation need not be made Over. This remark suggests another line of thought. Some young men with quick per- ceptions get in the way at school, of trusting their memories and omit making com- plete notes of lectures or of the various tests illustrating their studies. This careless- ness follows them into after life and there are instances where young men, who can make certain kinds of investigations much better than their fellows, and promptly give a statement of the general nature of the results, have, when called on afterwards for the details, forgotten them entirely, and their notes and memoranda if preserved, being of little use the labor is entirely, lost. Such men necessarily have to learn 6 -- ~ ~~~. ... more careful ways in after life. It is a good rule in this, as in the previous case, to make and copy complete records of everything in such shape, that they may be con- venient for reference and criticism afterward. One of the important problems with which you will have to deal in the future is the Labor Question, and it is probable that your very first experience with it may be in direct antagonism with the opinions of many with whom you have heretofore been associated. It is an honor to the feelings of those who stand outside and witness this so-called struggle now in progress between capital and labor, that they believe the Whole question can be settled by kindly treatment and reasonable argument. There are some cases that will yield to such treatment, and one's whole duty is not performed till all possible, reasonable and humanitarian methods are adopted. There has been an excuse for the organization of labor, and it, to some small extent still exists. Time was that the surplus of unskilled labor was used on a mercantile basis to reduce wages to such an extent, that it was almost impossible to rear a well nurtured, much less a well educated and well dressed family, and moreover, the hours of labor in some branches of business were so long as to shorten the lives of operatives and make self-improve- ment impossible. The natural progress of civilizing influences did much to abate many of these evils, but the organization of labor removed sores that had not and perhaps could not have been reached in other ways. Having then an excuse for or- ganization, and supported by the success made in directions where public sympathy was with them, is it to be wondered that they have gone too far in very many cases, and that the leadership of such organization has in many instances been captured by de- signing men who control the masses to accomplish selfish ends. Whatever may have been the method of evolution, it is certain that the manufacturing operations of the present day have to meet with elements entirely antagonistic to their interests, and in very many ways antagonistic to the interests of the working man. The mem- bers of many organizations, even of intelligent men, are blindly led by chiefs of various titles, of which perhaps the Walking Delegate is the most offensive one to reasonable people. This class of men claim the right to intrude themselves into the establish- ments owned by others, and on the most trivial grounds make demands more or less unreasonable, and order strikes ar.d otherwise interfere with the work of manufac- turers, much in the way that we have an idea that the agents of the barbarous chief- tains, feudal lords and semi-civilized rulers collected taxes and laid burdens in earlier historical times. Necessarily these men must use their power so as to insure its permanency. If strikes are popular, strikes must be ordered. If funds run low, excuses for strikes, it is believed, in many cases are sought so as to stir the pulses of those who sympathize with the kabor cause. Co-operation has been suggested as a cure for the evil, and there are cases where it has apparently succeeded, in connection with the earlier forms of labor organiza- tion. The ambition of later labor leaders almost prevent this remedy from being of effect. It may be possible still with very intelligent workman isolated from the large mass of workmen in the country towns, to feel an interest in co-operation, but such inducements, or the higher ones of personal kindness to employees or their families are not of much effect in large manufacturing centres. As soon as dissatisfaction exists in one mill or manufactory, all similar employees are ordered out. The final result will be that combinations of employers must follow the combination of employees, and those who have always been strong in the past will be stronger in the future, as has appeared to be the case in many contests that have already taken place. If there 7 are any real abuses of power by the employers, such as requiring work for unusual hours or at less than living rates, the first thing to do is to correct these abuses so that complaints will not be upon a sound foundation. Some men, when the labor epidemic strikes their places, have sufficient force of character and influence with their men to avert the blow for some time; others find it is policy to compromise with the repre sentatives until a plan of action, conciliatory, offensive or defensive, can be deter- mined upon. The whole matter must be considered one of policy rather than of principles. The class of men to be dealt with, do not talk principles except as an excuse to secure their ends. - In spite of everything, there will be times when no compromise is possible and you will be called upon to take part in defending your employers' interests against what is called a “strike.” You can do so with heart when you know the employees are all well paid, and particularly, as is frequently the case, when the labor organizers and walking delegates claim that some old, tried foreman, shall be dismissed because they do not like him, really because he has not been a tool in carrying out their plans, and they defiantly acknowledge that their war is against non-union labor, and that they have organized your men and forced a strike to require your establishment to become as it is called a “Union Shop.” If your deluded employees were permitted simply to away and let you alone, and you were permitted to employ others at the reasonable wages you were paying, the problem would be a simple one. The prin- ciple labor organization claims that everything they do is by peaceable methods, but this like many things said is simply to deceive, for if you attempt to employ other assistants and carry on your business independently, you will surely find that well known roughs are assembled who never do anything without they are paid for it by somebody, that your men are assaulted by such persons and while the labor organi- zers talk about peaceable methods and urge them aloud in public, in case one of the roughs is arrested, the loud talkers are the first to go bail for the defender, and you will feel morally sure that the sympathizing crowd with the roughs who make the assaults are all part of or tools of the organization. At such times, you will find your old employees standing around the street corners, persuading other men not to come to work and thus interfere with what are called the true interests of labor. Any new employee who has to go in the street, will be first met with inducements of other employment, with offers of money, afterwards with threats, and if oppor- tunity occurs, with direct assault. All the features of persuasion, intimidation and violence will be carried out as demanded, and strangers to everybody in the vicinity, but well known as experienced leaders in this kind of work in other places, be brought in to endeavor to make the strike a success. Then, young men, is the time to show your pluck, and our experience is that educated young men will do so every time. They can be depended upon to go straight ahead with duty through every danger, bearing patiently everything that may be said, defending themselves with nature's weapons as long as possible, and without fear using reserve weapons in case real danger of life is imminent. In carrying through a very important strike against a mere desire to control and not to correct abuses, your speaker desires to pay the high- est tribute to a number of educated young men, mostly from the technical schools, who fearlessly faced every danger, and by their example stimulated others to do their duty, and all participated in the results obtained by a great success. We would not by such references fire your hearts to a desire to participate in such an unpleasant contest. It is the duty of all to study this problem intelligently and 8 earnestly with a view of overcoming the difficulties and permitting the prosperity Of the country to go on. While conciliation may be best at some times, policy at another and resistance at another, we must also be thinking of the best means to prevent further outbreaks. It would seem to be true policy not to interfere with organization but to try and direct it into higher channels. Those of the humanitarians who claim that the disease will be rooted out eventually by a more general and better education are undoubtedly largely in the right, notwithstanding that some fairly educated men have acted against their best interests in affiliating with the labor Organizations. It seems to the speaker that enough instances can be collected to show the utter folly of the present selfish system, based as it is entirely on getting all that is possible independent of right in the matter, and by demanding equal wages for all men, tend- ing to lower all to one common degradation, instead of rewarding industry and ability and advancing the cause of civilization. Labor should not be organized for selfish ends but for its own good so as to secure steady and permanent employment rather than prevent it by impracticable schemes and unwise methods which will Cripple manufacturers and all kinds of industry. The men should organize under the general laws of the State so that their leaders will be responsible to the laws and can be indicted, tried and punished in case they misappropriate funds or commit any breach of trust; and such laws should be amended if necessary so that wise respon- sible leaders of the organizations can contract to furnish labor for a certain time at a fixed price, when manufacturers can make calculations aliead as to the cost of labor the same as for the cost of material, and have such confidence that they will use all their energies to do a larger amount of business and benefit the working man as well as themselves by furnishing steady employment. Such a plan as is here outlined can readily be carried into effect by selecting better men as leaders. It is well known how well the organization known as the Locomotive Brotherhood is conducted and it should be an example to others. It has had its day of dissensions when the best counsels did not prevail, which shows that any organization of the kind, no matter how well conducted, may be diverted by its leaders into improper channels. When organized under the laws of the State and under by-laws designed to secure steady employment rather than an artificial condition of things in regard to pay, hours al.d continuance of labor, the true interests of the workman will be advanced. It may be that some one of you will develop a talent in the direction of organization and be the means of aiding in the solution of this great problem. Please think of the mat- ter seriously, watch the law of evolution while you are advancing your professional knowledge and if the opportunity offers, do all you can to aid in a cause so important and beneficient. - One writer has criticised the technical schools because they do not teach mechani- cal intuition. The schools have enough to do in the time available if they teach principles and sufficient practice to enable the principles to be understood. The aptitude to design which must be what is meant by mechanical intuition requires very considerable practical experience, which you will readily learn if you do not keep yourself above it. If you have used your leisure hours to study why a certain piece of mechanism was made in a certain way rather than in another; if you have wondered why one part is thick in one place rather than in another, apparently in defiance of all rules of the strength of material; if you have endeavored to ascer- tain why a particular device is used rather than another more evident one; if you have thought and studied why a boss is thrown in here and there in designs to 9 receive bolts or to lengthen a journal, and if you have in your mind by repeated observation a fair idea of how work is designed by other people, the so-called mechanical intuition will be learned and found to be the combination of common sense and good practice. You will observe that some details have been copied for years and years, although thoughtful men would say they are not the best, simply because they are adapted to a large amount of work already done. This is particularly true of the rolling stock on railroads. The cost of a change in starting in a new country might be warranted, but it practically cannot be done when the parts must inter- change with so much work done in other parts of the country. You will find in other cases that the direct strain to which a piece of mechanism is subjected is only one of the strains which occur in practice. A piece of metal may have been thickened where it customarily broke, and you may possibly surmise that certain jars took place that caused such breakages, or that particular point was where the abuse of the attendant was customarily applied. - Wherever you go you will find matters of this kind affecting designs staring you in the face, and you will soon see why a man who has learned his trade in the shop, and from there worked into the drawing room with much less technical information than you have, can get along as well as he does. Reserve your strength, however your time will come. Whenever there is a new departure to be taken and matters to be worked out from the solid which require close computation of strains, or the application of any principles, your education will put you far ahead, and if you have, during the period of what may be called your Post-Graduate Course, which occurs during your early introduction into practical life, been careful to keep your eyes and ears open so as to learn all that a man in practical life has done, you will soon stand far ahead. Reference was made to the use of leisure hours. Leisure hours can be spent in various ways: for instance, in studying the composition and resolution of forces and the laws of elasticity in a billiard room; the poetry of motion, etc., in a ball room, and the chemical properties of various malt and vinous extracts in another room, but the plilosophical reason why certain engineering work is done in the way it is, and the proper way in which new work shall be done of a similar character and original work of any kind carried on, can only be learned by cultivating your powers of observation and ruminating on the facts collected in the privacy of one's own room away from the allurements provided for those who have nothing to do. No one would recommend you to so separate yourself from the world as to sacrifice health and strength, or to become a recluse, even if you did learn all about a certain thing. Remember, however, that the men who have accomplished most in this world worked the longest hours, and anyone with a regular occupation must utilize his leisure hours to obtain prestige. The difference between one man and another of the same natural ability lies entirely in the amount of his information and the facility with which he can use it. Life is short, and you must realize that now is your oppor- tunity. If any diversion in the way of pleasure or even certain kinds of congenial Work is offered, consider it in connection with the question, “will this be conducive to my higher aim 7” This implies that you have a higher aim, and if you have it, and weigh everything in this way, you will find that every moment of exertion adds Something to your store-house of information and brings you nearer to the acconi- plishment of that higher aim. In closing, we thank the ladies and gentlemen present for their close attention to details of special interest only to those engaged in technical study or practice. 10 We congratulate you, young gentlemen of the class of ’87, for the success you have thus far obtained and trust that you will persevere in well doing and win greater success in the future. We need hardly state that all that has been said was in a spirit of kindness, and we feel assured that much of it has been seconded by your parents, to whom, no less than to all parents here present off or on the stage, . the speaker not excepted, a serious thoughtful problem has been, still is and will continue to be to many, “what shall we do with our boys.” £- -|- |----… * * · ** **）. --*** -*** * …·’ ,·}··»! · · · * *; ~ ?-- |-· · · · · ·. »-- - -|×→·- > ·· \•+ }|- *|-�|-· * pº .··& |-ſ. 8.ș· |×*--- * ,;* !·*-|- → -|-}！ ، ، ،, , · , * * *, *· |- --**�çº * - »ț. |-· ... *|-|-！|- - · · · ·. . «№ · ， .· -·�^ ·-•*！ ? .*- 3|- --·• w * . .|×}· · ·:, .}|- ！ ?|-· |- , ，1 ' , ，{, ！· ș-;+* !, *.}--|--~w** *·* 3.:‘ ·- +- -|-:*·*|---, wº …~ ~ ,*... .± ' + • § →-• • •· *، ،· , ）,-., !• … *- *... *ſ +*- “, “ º.. · 4 ·, ， · * * * …* *�* { -! » º----· \ ,&·-± •· • × ·ſå �·· º- - *;+ - -ș- ° • .*ș ·Ł.* r+},，-|-- |- ·！ , ! », ！*- ، · , ！!·* * *'~ . ,·- × yº+ -··***********---- »…...….„..-į. +|-|-*>&&- �-� }*l-·•- * , , , , , ' '→*·§- --- « --- * *-· · · · · · ·~ ~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~. - . . . . . . . *�·+،. . . . . . . . ….. . . . . . -- --~~~~ ~~* * * * *s*… i·| *. ..… »…--~~~~ · · , ,··... … ~~！… * · ·a º. … • • • • • • • • ** * * * * * * * * * * •——• • ... … *… • • • • • • • •- -* * |-~ - -… *-ș| -|----„...„… … a.:-********~ ~ ~ ~ . .^ * * * * ~=+-* * • • • • • ~ ~ ~~~~ * * * * * * * * * * **** * · · ►și º *-----*， * →- -, • +-:& ！º-- - - - ----- r~} * , <+·** -*--• • • •—• • • •-*.* Š- $¿?ș*→→*«;- ·--> .*{* · · ,' , -- ... *→* ·* →*ș; ----* ,-* *{ |*;..* - * & - ~~ •-... •< •}�- *· ,~y·- · ,!“ - ~~~~ ~& . . .---- -- ·*- ~ -*... * * * * |---►- .· · ·|-}}+-”. .*→* ,*• -„š , ... …** **~*~ *********** • ** **** … . . . . . .…*… . . . . . . . . . . .-- ·* ;„~~~** **ș........... ~~~~a^***** |-, ！, ！*-…|-{+ -„…….…****************** *~~~~ ….…..… . . , , , … . . . ...…... … . . … ~~~~.~ ~ ** * * *******" ' , .** , '... •· |-_„--~~*~*** ș* , « ; 、* →~|- cº; ¿¿.*¿¿.*.*.*&~~~）; ºśrº ¿?§§§.¿sºſ， ،✉、。$$$$$|- §§§§§§§ ！ • �|- }; *'$š -----*} ·* ... ¿ ș** ！ 3 -· į º x: �% ）， * ！· ！ ?» | * ·} • |-！ * * ·ý“,· ... , ; * • • • •· * * •': '. ,* *ł*-<！--|- * v, , ， ſ ſ• \ ， ··'; ×, *' ● +* , - ! |-·} -*º. | } +\ } · · · * ſ; �+ *` ）; }·* * * ;, ，►* →** … »- *-“）-` _ （ x, º ***... . . . . **, *，*）".*?）&&x<.››‹›;&#*.*. - 44ſae）; ++$%&'）; §$%$&#%$§$$$$******** èº，、、！22 * ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY. R EPO RT () N TIHF: COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, i & º ANI) i RATIO () F ABSO RPTION () F WARIOUS KINDS OF BUILDING-STON E FROM DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, TESTED AT FORT TOMPKINS, STATEN ISLAND, N. Y. 13 Y Q. A. G. I.L. L. M. O.R.E., Ll EUT. COL. COlú's OF ENGINEERS, ISVT. M.A.J. GEN. U. S. A. WASHING T G N: -, GOVE R N M E N T P R INT IN G. O. F. F I C E . 1874. # ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY. R. E PO R. T ON THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ANI) ...” ~ *:- d __----~~º- --~~~~ R ATI () () F ABS () RPTION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF BUILDING-STONE FROM DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, - TESTED AT FORT TOMPKINS, STATEN ISLAND, N. Y. BY f c) º “ l, W$ Q. A. GILL MoRE, LIEUT. COL. CORPS OF ENGINEERS, BVT. MAJ. GEN. U. S. A. WAS H IN G T ON: G O W E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G O FF I C E . 1874. ENGINEER OFFICE, New York, July 30, 1874. GENERAL : I have the honor to submit here with a report On the Com- pressive strength, specific gravity, and ratio of absorption of various kinds of building-stone from different sections of the United States, tested by me in person, or under my directions, at Fort Tompkins, Staten Island, within the last eighteen months. A sheet of drawings accompanies this report, showing the hydrostatic press used for crushing the specimens, and several somewhat peculiar forms of breakage. - Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Q. A. GILLMORE, Lt. Col. of Engineers, But. Maj. Gen. U. S. A. Brig. Gen. A. A. HUMPHREYs, Chief of Engineers, U. S. A. NOTE.-In making the tests, and preparing this report, valuable assistance was ren- dered by Capt. D. P. Heap, Corps of Engineers, and by Messrs. Louis Nickerson, John L. Suess, and James Cocroft. Q. A. G. [Indorsement.] OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERs, Washington, D. C., August 10, 1874. Respectfully submitted to the honorable Secretary of War. This paper contains valuable information for the officers of the Corps of En- gineers, and I respectfully recommend that authority may be granted to have it printed at the Public Printer's; the plates to be prepared in this Office. - / A. A. HUMPHREYs, Brig. Gen. and Chief of Engineers. Approved by the Secretary of War August 12, 1874. R. E. P. O. R. T. OBJECTS USED FOR TESTING. The majority of stones experimented upon were delivered from the quarries in the form of true cubes, measuring two inches each Way ; while some had to be cut to that shape at Fort Tompkins. Generally speaking, the stones were quite true and regular in shape. To distribute the pressure more evenly over the whole surface of the stone, each cube was placed between two cushions of soft pine-wood, measuring 2" × 2" × #!/; one of them on top of the cube, and the other at its bottom. This arrangement also caused the pressure to act more gradually. The wooden cushions, becoming much indented by the effects of the pressure, to some extent took the place of mortar, which would be used in actual building. ^ For iron and wood, Hodgkinson has shown that trial specimens should be at least 14 times as high as the width of bed; but as stone, except when used in columns, is always made of less height than bed, the cubical form of specimens adopted for the experiments affords sufficient security against angular breakage. APPARATUS FOR TESTING... . The apparatus employed for testing is a by drostatic press, known as the Hoe press, and shown in Figs. 1 and 2 of the diagram accompanying this report. The pump, b, stands on a tank, a, filled with water, with a suction-pipe running nearly to its bottom. The plunger, c, is worked by a hand-lever, g, attached to a cross-head, h, and guided by the rod, d, passing through the guide, e, which forms part of the standard, f. The power, or purchase, of the hand-lever can be adjusted by changing its fulcrum to either one of the three pin-holes of the standard. - A connecting-pipe, k, leads from the pump to the lower end of the cylinder, m, of the press. When the pump is worked, the water is forced through this pipe into the cylinder, and gradually lifts the piston, or ram, m, Which in this case had a diameter of 4% inches. A leather disk is fixed to the lower end of the ram, which becomes expanded by the pressure of the fluid, and makes the ram water-tight. The table, or beam, 0, is lifted up together with the ram, as well as the movable piece, p, which had to be used in these experiments merely on account of the Small size of the samples tested. The stone to be tested is placed on top of p, between two pieces of pine Wood, as already mentioned, and gradually raised until it touches the lower face of the beam, or cross-head, q. By continued pumping, 6 the pressure is increased until the stone Crushes, and the amount of pressure noted by means of the gauges. The upper beam, q, is con- nected to the bottom beam by four wrought-iron rods, r, 1% inches thick, which, it will be seen, are subjected to a tensile strain only, after the pressure exceeds the weight of the upper cross-beam. All the other parts Of the press are of cast iron. GAUGES. The press is supplied with two gauges, one indicating the pressure up to 100,000 pounds; the other to only 5,000 pounds, as shown in Fig. 1. Both are connected by pipes with the lower end of the cylinder of the ram. Both gauges may be used simultaneously until the capacity of the 5,000. pound gauge is exhausted, when its connection with the cylinder is shut off by a little valve worked by a hand-wheel. Generally, in test. ing Stones, the lighter gauge is not used. § To check the Working of the 100,000-pound gauge next to the press, another gauge of similar capacity was employed as a test-gauge. It is attached to the connecting-pipe, k, near to the pump. These gauges were manufactured in the city of New York on a modified arrangement of Bourdon's principle. The 100,000-pound gauge attached to the press is shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5, drawn half-size. This gauge, like the two others, has a dial-face, traversed by two hands of unequal length. One of these is moved directly by the power of the press; the other (shorter) hand is simply carried along by means of a little projecting pin on the back of the longer hand, or power-needle. The latter returns to the zero-point as soon as the pressure ceases, leaving the shorter hand at the maximum point reached on the scale. The record can thus easily be read off, after which the record-needle is pushed back to the zero-point in readi- ness for another trial. The mechanism of the gauge consists essentially of the following parts: A curved steel tube, (3), communicates at one end, by means of the pipe (1), with the cylinder of the hydrostatic ram; but it is closed at the other end. The cross-section of this tube is flattened or ellipti- cal; its greater breadth being perpendicular to the plane in which the tube is curved. When power is applied, the water entering the tube tends to straighten it out, causing it to become less curved in propor. tion to the power used. This is explained by the fact that the area of the outer side of the bent tube is larger than the area of the inner side; the surplus of pressure on the outside tends to straighten the tube. The closed end of the tube communicates its motion by means of the link (4) to a lever, (6), pivoted between two little standards (5), which are screwed to the block (2). The lever (6) is made of the shape of an open rectangular frame; its two pivots being nearer one of its ends than the other. Within this lever-frame another smaller frame is fitted, having in its center a pin to which the link (4) is hung. By means of two little 7 set-screws, one at each end of the lever-frame, the link-frame can be adjusted to the proper distance from the pivots of the lever-frame. The lever-frame (6) has a toothed segment, (7), attached to it, which gears into a small pinion, (8,) fixed on the spindle of the power-needle. A delicate spiral spring, (9), is fixed with its central end to that Spindle, while its circumferential end is held in a stud of one of the standards (5) between the spindle and the fulcrum of the lever. When power is applied, the bent tube gradually changes its form to a more straightened curve; the link moves the lever, which, in its turn, by its toothed seg- ment, turns the little pinion, and consequently also the power-needle fixed to the spindle of the pinion. As soon as the pressure ceases, the bent tube assumes its previous form, and the hand, or needle, returns to zero, aided by the reaction of the unwinding spiral spring. The graduations on the dial-plate of the gauge are fixed by comparison with an air-manometer, or with another Bourdon gauge, known to be correctly graduated ; and the correctness of the gauge is guaranteed by the manufacturer. But it is, of course, desirable to be otherwise well assured of the accuracy of the records obtained. For the series of ex- periments herein spoken of, a check was obtained, as already mentioned, by means of another 100,000-pound gauge near the pump, so that, a test between these two gauges once established, either one can be taken off When rough work is to be done, (the most sensitive one always,) and the other used, and then both tested again. By this means there can be no change that would escape the notice of an attentive operator, and the actual power used can at any time be tested in full by the application of either gauge to a hydraulic press having a lever-accom- paniment. WEIGHT OF MOVABLE PART ()F RAAI AND FRECTION. The Weight of the movable part of the press is nearly 780 pounds, Which, With its own friction, amounts to 800 pounds nearly. This is to be subtracted from the “strength of specimen,” or 200 pounds from the strength per Square inch. Much dispute has existed about the friction of the hydrostatic press when performing heavy duty. Rankine made Some rough experiments, which caused him to estimate the friction at 10 per cent. I. Hicks, civil engineer, of Bolton, England, found, by very careful and long-continued trials made regardless of expense, that the friction varies with the diameter of the ram, and that it is very small and Very certain. By his trials the friction of the ram used in the ex- periments herein discussed (the cylinder being of 4% inches diameter) Would amount to ſº, per cent, only, or say 1 per cent. This could and should be tested upon the individual ram; but, without special and costly appliances, it will have to be got at indirectly, and, therefore, slowly. 8 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. The diagram accompanying this report shows sketches of ten samples of Stone. The first one, named homogeneous stone, is imaginary, and represents the general form of breakage of many sandstones and saccha- rine marbles. The separate pieces shown are such as are usually picked up after breakage, although with other varieties of stone they are gen- erally more angular. The other nine sketches of stone represent samples actually tested and broken. The numbers given with each of them cor- respond With those in the tables. The position of the cube when tested is also stated, whether it was placed on “bed” or on “edge.” TEIE IBREAKAGE OF STONE. Considering the infinitely-varied composition and character of all kinds of rock, it may be said that no material is less calculated to per- mit the establishment of special laws by a general form of breakage. It may be safely assumed, however, that more numerous and extended experiments, carefully and patiently conducted, will ultimately lead to the development of certain general laws relating to the behavior of Stones under pressure, a knowledge of which will be most useful to the engineer and builder. Homogeneous stones seem, in most cases, to break in the following manner, (see diagram :) The forms of fragments a and b are approxi- mately either conical or pyramidal, according as the stone is friable and of obviously granular structure, like sandstone and a few kinds of marble and granite, or compact, such as the true limestones and most marbles and granites. The more or less disk-shaped pieces C and d are detached from the sides of the cube with a sort of explosion, flying off in a more or less intact condition. In e and f, the stone is generally found crushed and ground to powder by the attrition of the larger frag- ments. Of course, this general result, or law, is modified by the nature and quality of the “grain” in the stone, and those other causes of irreg- ularity which leave no two cubes of the same strength and condition, although they may have been cut directly apart from each other. This form of breakage occurs also in non-homogeneous stones broken “on bed;” but it must be remembered that here the modification must be taken into account which “grain" produces as against homogeneity, rendering the object liable to split in rectangular fragments. This fre- quently lengthens the cone or pyramid in stones “on bed,” and causes those set “on edge” to actually split in rectangular disks; the style of splitting being, of course, irregularly modified for different specimens. Sand-cracks, &c., in stones, have also their influence in directing the pressure, and even the difficulty of determining the “bed” in some stones, after being cut, may be a source of errors. The two strangest cases of abnormal breakage occurred in the United States Quarry limestone, (Nos. 29 and 30 of table,) the first of Which, 9 “on bed,” threw off a couple of thin fragments, and then exploded ; the balance of the stone being scattered about in minute particles. The second, “on edge,” broke into wedge-shaped disks of moderate size. The Du Luth, dark granite (Nos. 73 and 74) split “on bed” into two disks nearly equal in size, which were forced a half-inch apart, though pressed at right angles to their line of motion by a force of 68,000 pounds. The second specimen, “on edge,” acted in precisely the same manner. A very curious result of this experiment was the fact that the pine cushion-blocks, which usually stand a pressure of 80,000 or 90,000 pounds, and become indented but comparatively not torn or injured, were in this case spread over the pieces a and b as though the Wood had been crushed to fiber in liquid resin and painted over With a brush, part of it coming down in rough festoon between the separated parts of the stone. But notwithstanding the diversity of phenomena attending the break- age of stones by direct compression, the obvious difference between the fragments produced by that operation and those fragments obtained by the stone-cutter's hammer is suggestive of laws, modified but always existing, and capable of being at least roughly classified. SPECIFIC GERAVITY. The stones whose resistance to crushing-pressure had been tested were also experimented upon in relation to their specific gravity. In the course of these investigations, it was sometimes necessary to be content with rather small fragments of stone, of not more than 15 to 18 penny-weight; but generally they weighed from one to two ounces. On commencing this part of the Work, some doubt was felt in regard to the best means of obtaining the correct displacement of porous stones; and all stones are more or less porous. It appeared evident that in weighing the stone first in air and them in Water, an error would be com- mitted by saturation. The first idea, to give the stone a coating of thin var- nish was abandoned, because, although the pellicle would be thin, yet no means could be taken to know precisely what its thickness was, or what it amounted to in its effects. The second idea, to soak the stone in very fluid reisn, the pellicle to be washed from the surface before dry, was given up because it was desirable to preserve the specimens intact for experiments on freezing and other tests. The plan finally adopted was, first, to remove from the stone all loose particles, and round off all sharp corners and edges, bringing it, in fact, practically to that condition commonly known as “water-worn.” It was then carefully weighed in air, immersed in water, and allowed to remain there until all bubbling had ceased, and its weight taken. It was then taken out of the Water, and weighed again, in its saturated condition, With the precaution of previously denuding the stone of superabundant water by being compressed lightly in bibulous paper. The specific gravity 10 is now found by dividing the weight of the stone when perfectly dry by its Weight in the air after having been saturated minus its weight in Water. This may also be expressed by the formula— -> ~...~ --> W Specific gravity W,-W, W representing weight of dry stone in air; W, representing weight of Saturated Stone in air; W, representing weight of stone immersed in Water. In determining the specific gravity of stone, the weight of water was assumed to be 623 pounds per cubic foot. RATIO OF ABSORPTION. The term “ratio of absorption ” simply expresses the weight of water absorbed by the stone as compared with the weight of the dry stone; that is, if the stone when dry weighs 300 units, and the column of “ratio of absorption” shows the fraction ###, it means that, by immer- sion in water, the stone will absorb 1 unit of it, weighing 301 units immediately after its removal from the water. - The method adopted for ascertaining the specific weight of stone fur- nished at the same time the means to determine the “ratio of absorption.” The weight of the saturated stone minus the weight of the dry stone gives, as a result, the amount of water absorbed. This might, perhaps, more correctly be called the “avidity of absorption,” since it was limited to the period of bubbling. Some few stones, having been kept immersed in water for several consecutive days, showed a slight increase in weight. Since the capacity of a stone to absorb water has much influence on its durability even during the warm season, and far more so in cold weather, the addition to the tables of this column was deemed advisable. Crushing-8 trength of gramites in two-imch cubes. <++* ！@Q 3 - | $4 | %3,3 || ? . £{p, ºſ-， ## 33 sº 2: : - UD * † 10 to 20 || 3 | Clear and red; Not over None. - - - -. Much macer. Spongolithis mesogon- #: rounded ; not .16mm. ated. gyla, Ehr. † : Over .06mm in 5- ºr-. diameter. e * - ºf 20 to 30 || 3 | Clear, red, and Brown and Black and Large pieces, Spongolithis acicularis, * . green; Inot over gray. crystal macerated. Ehr. Lithostylidium ° g J mm in diame- lized. denticulatum, Ebr. q) q2 ter. ## 130 to 43 || 3 |....do ...........l... do - - - - - --do -----|- ---do -------- None. *3 43 to 53| 2 | Clear.05mm down.....do . . . . . ---do -----|---. do -------- O. <3 53 to 63 || 2 | Clear, rounded, . . . . do . . . . . . ---do --------- do -------- Lithostylidium sp. un- | . and sharp; .16mm determined, No. 1. Sy- ojº in diameter and nedra acuta, Ehr. 6 & 5 less. Melosina sp. undeter- z. :: mined, No. 1. C and $ 3. - D, undetermined. 5 £2, 63 to 73 || 3 | Clear, rounded; '.... do ..... None. ----- Very little. --| Melosira sp. undeter- ##3 In Ot. Over .08mm mined, No. 1. ### in diameter. C/D } - | 2 73 to 80 || 1 || Clear, rounded; None . . . . . . None. ----- None - - - - - - - - Shell fragments abun- *: not Over .25mm dant. Echinoid spines, ~ 35 in diameter. Mellita sp. Grammo- & B .5 : Stomum sp. undeter- * ... 3 | mined, No. 1. Litho- 2 3 ! stylidium denticula- 5 §3. tum, Elhr. Melosira # ; : p. undetermined, No. ; C Ž & à 80 to 90 1 |.... do ...--------. --do --------. do ------ -- do -------. Do. Stratum No. 4, 90 to 95 feet. Shells mostly very young. Larger organisms.-Stratum No. 4, 72 to 95 feet.—Crab carapace. Balanus eburneus. Oliva mutica. Scalaria angulata. Utriculus biplicatus. Tellina alternata. Donax variabilis. Arca transversa. alis. dora lunulata. L. Costata. dinata. Natica pusilla. Marginella limatula. Teredo n. Sp. Pandora trilineata. T. tenera. Cellepora, n. Sp. (1). Macerated stems of Scirpus lacustris. T. tenta. DOsinia discus. Glottidia pyramidata. Serpula sp. Nassa acuta Say. Turbonilla interrupta. Strongly micaceous sand, with little clay. Anachis avara. T. Speira. Dentalium n. sp. (laeve). Macoma fusca. Mactra later- Telli- Lucina multilineata. Mellita testu- 24 BORING NO. 1–Continued. a; 2 § 3 ; ~ --> -- 28 "> Q - Tº * e º 'º 3. ā; Pºiº Of Tourma Vegetable cº © the grains of Mica * - &V U. Microscopi º - Q - & p1C Organ] Sms. ‘5 r= E Quartz. line. Imatter. sº # = 2 g- • up C o B a 2. *# ** * yº-y • & © v= sº rº es P. 9 gº * & * 2, #3. 95to 100 || 5 || Clear; not over A little | None...... None -------. Fragillaria sp. unde- 55 3 § .1mm in diame- | .1mm down. termined, No. 1. = ## º ter. #### ; P = Stratum No. 1, 95 to 100 feet.—Bluish-drab, rather dark clay; quite sandy. Shell fragments moderately abundant, large. Larger organisms.--Nassa acuta. Utriculus biplicatus. Mactra later- alis. Mellita testudinata. Blackened vegetable fiber. BORING NO. 2. * |É 3 ||3: = |3: sº ;: O2 * | * : Characte e ** * or e e º 3. š . º Mica. Tºa Vºle Microscopic Organisms Ç • *ſ # || 3) c -2 dº 2, Feet. § 2; 5 to 10 || 2 | Clear, rounded A little.... An occa- | None - - - - - - - - None. 3 = - and sharp; not s i o n a 1 e sº Over .08mm in b l a c k : 3 - diameter. crystal. 33 10 to 17 | 2 | Clear brown and More than | Not noted. A 1 i t t lie, Fragillaria sp. undeter- • = yellow; size as above. roun de d, mined, No. 2. ~ : above. abundant, *:::: 17 to 28 || 2 | Very few, small, A little; . . . . do ... --. Macerated & Fragillaria sp. undeter- 15 £ clear, & round- .005mm in rounded. mined, No. 1. Spon- 2. ed; .0016mm in diameter. golithis acicularis, 2 : diameter and Ehr. Spongolithis as- E3 less. pera, Ehr. Lithosty- 2 : lidium quadratum, 4? Ehr. Xanthidium ? | 3 sp. undetermined, No. : ~~ 1. F. º 28 to 38 || 3 ||Few, clear, round- Very little. None - - - - - - Very abun- Spongolithis acicularis, < * * - ed, and sharp; dant in Ehr. Spongoli this 2.3 £ not over .1mm in large pieces, mesogongyla, Eb r. • 2 diameter; chal- macerated. Eunotia sp. undeter- 3 × 3 cedony in small mined, No. 1. Syne- 3 = 3 proportion in dra sp. undetermined, : ; Ś smooth cubic No. 1. Leptocystine- * † grains. ma Kinahani, Archer. 2 - 5 g|38 to 48 || 3 || Clear, sharp; not Abundant, A little; A. good deal, Lithostylidium dentic- ## 5 - over .1mm in di- cle a r , black and | partly mac- ulatum, Ehr. . . £3. ameter; green gray, and crystal- erated and ###". grains not in- ted. lized. partly car- g 3 a $2 frequent. bonized. 3 : ; ; 48 to 58 || 3 |...;-do ----..:----- ----do ----. ----do ----- ----do -------- Do. # , ; 55 to 65 || 3 | Clear, with , a Moderate | Not noted. Not noted.---| Melosiras sp. undeter- 4: #: little smoky in am’t. mined, No. 1. Gram- | “...? § quartz, and mostomum sp. unde- o ā’ā: chalcedony; not termined, No. 1. Ll- 275 : 5 over .1mm in di- thostylidium denticu- * = 5: ameter. latum, Ehr. Lithosty- 33 ºf lidium quadratum, #3; # Ehr. Cyclotella near 37 3 # punctata, S. Synedra 35 acuta, Ehr. 25 Stratum 4, 68 to 82 feet. Greenish, strongly micaceous, sharp sand. Shells rather abundant, well preserved. Larger organisms.—Crab carapace. Balanus eburneus. Nassa acuta. Anachis avara. Oliva mutica. Natica pusilla. Acus dislocatum. Dentalium n. sp. (laeve). D. m. sp. (sexangulare). Teredo n. Sp. Pholas costata. Pandora trilineata. Corbula cuneata. Tellina alternata. T. tenera. Chione cancellata. Ch. cribraria. Dosinia discus. Lucina mul- tilineata. L. costata. Cardium magnum ? C. m. sp. (aequilaterale), C. m. sp. (inaequilaterale). Laevicardium Mortoni. Arca transversa. Pecten dislocatum ? Mellita testudinata. Cellepora n. sp. (1). * BORING NO. 3. £ 2 | 35 3 ºf : F E.E. i & £ * tº: Mica. Tourmaline. Vºle Microscopic Organisms. C >.:- . +: * ~ → > CO 5' | S 3 * 2: * - | i : ... Feet. - * * * - e 33 5 to 11 || 3 | Clear; yellow and | Very little. None...... Very little; Fragillaria capucina. • ? black; rounded - fresh and + = and sharp; not macerated. º: # Over .1mm in diam- . ; E 5 eter. . < * | 11 to 23| 3 ||----do ------------. A little. --. Crystallized. A little...... Rhizosolenia sp. unde- | }. i termined, No. 1. Two -: # others undetermined. ~ 3 |23 to 30 || 4 |.... do. -----------. ---do ----. A few black Ab undant; Fragillaria capucina. 9 : crystals. macerated. Navicula sp. undeter. 23.3 mined, No. 1. Lithos- 3 : tylidium sp. undeter- 3 * mined, No. 1. Spongo- # = lithis acicularis, Ehr. à Organism undeter. A. : § 30 to 38 || 3 || Clear and; round- A little. --. A few black Moderately Cocconemalanceolatum s ed; size not above crystals. plenty, in Ehr. Synedra sp. up, º .08mm in diameter. flatten ed determined, No. 1. Un- § pieces. determined A and B. • * 38 to 49 || 4 |. --- do . .----. - - - - - - --do -------- do ----. ----do ------- Lithostylidium quadra- 3. tum, Ehr. Melosira ! #3 sp. undetermined, No. o S 2. A and B. E. : 49 to 59 4 || Clear, with some ....do . . . . . A few clear - - - - do ... ----. Fragillaria capucina. ~ : yellow grains; not crystals; Fragillaria sp. undeter- < 2 Over .05mm in di- also the mined, No. 1. Spongo- | - ameter; rounded black. lithis acicularis, Ehr. a 3. and sharp in equal Lithostylidium dentic- e; 5 proportions. Matum, Ehr. A, B, and 2. 59 to 69 3 - - - -do, ----...-----. ---do ----. Not noted . Very little -- A. 5 72 3 | Some grains reach . . . . do . . . . . Dark crys. Very little; Lithostylidium denticu- # .16mm in diameter. tals. fresh and latum. Ehr. Melosira # : | macerated. sp. undetermined, No. Cſ2 | . 1. A and B. 26 BORING No. 3—Continued. # 2 ă ă ăg c --> -s -5 #3 C 2- GD # iſ: ‘i Characteristics of g Tourma- Vegetable - e g op - * 3 š * the quartz grains. Mica. line. matter. Microscopic organisms. 3 ||3: 2. • tº • o B Q 2. Feet. # 72 to 82 1 || Clear, rounded and | Not noted. A few black! None. . . . . . . Shell fragments abun- º * sº i. º: crystals. i. lº Pº : .25ºm in Cliameter. etermined, No. 1. Eu- - notia? *: undeterm’d, rº-3 *- No. 1. otalia sp. un- 5 | determined, No. 1, A- º: # | and B. + = | 82 to 92 | 1 | Clear, rounded and Abundant. None . . . . . . .---do ------- Shell fragments and ‘E 3 - sharp; not over not over echinoid spines abun- $ 2. 25* in diameter, .7mm in di. - dant. Grammastomum *::: with some brown ameter. sp. undetermined, No. º E and green is h 2. Fragillaria sp. un- . S- grains. determined, No. 2. B * = and C, undetermined. # sºngolithis acicularis T. ă 96 | 1 | Clear, size as above; : A little . . . . . . . . do - - - - - ----do ------- Shell fragments and * - grains rounded. Echinoid spines abun- 5 dant. Y/D 97 f i. ---do ------------- ----do ----- ----do ----. ----do ------- None noted. Stratum No. 4, 72 to 97 feet. Greenish micaceous sand, coarse above, growing finer downward. Shell fragments rather abundant, but to a great extent very small and much worn, so as to be difficult to identify. Browned vegetable fragments especially in lower portion, and shell frag- ments larger. Large organisms.-Squalidean tooth. Crab carapace. Balanus ebur- neus. Serpula, n. sp. Nassa acuta. Anachis avara. Oliva mutica. Natica pusilla. Marginella limatula. Scalaria angulata. Architecto- nica gemma. Cylichna, Sp. Dentalium, n. Sp. (laeve). Dent., n. Sp. (sexangulare). Dactylina oblonga. Pholas costata. Pandora trilineata. Corbula cuneata. Solen viridis. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alternata. T. tenera. Tellidora lunulata. Chione cribraria. Dosinia discus. Tapes pygmaea. Astarte lunulata. Lucina multilineata. L. Costata. Cardium, n. sp. (aequilaterale). C., n. sp. (inaequilaterale). Laevicardium Mortoni. Arca transversa. Pecten dislocatum. Anomia ephippium. Glottidia pyramidata. Mellita testudinata. Cellepora, n. Sp. (1). BORING No. 3—Continued. a; dº à 3 & 3 |3.3 .* ce 2– 3 ||= 2 - cº, g - - - *- a - e & * § 3 ;| Peculiarities of Mica. Tourma Vegetable Microscopic organisms. < |S – quartz grains. line. Imatter. <> * ...- * *— 3 ||3: 2- a º KO o ºt c 24 | g : . Feet. * - * C e -- & * ~ : 5 : 97 to 100 || 3 | Clear, with some | None.----- None.----- None. --...--. Orbulina universa, ź * > 3 yellow, green, d'Qrb. Globigºrina PS 8 and black grs. ; bulloides, d'Orb. Rosi- ă #2, ". not over .1mm in lina becoarii, d'Orb. † = * : diameter; sharp. 5 q = 3 C/D 27 Stratum No. 1, 97 to 100 feet. Dark gray, very heavy and plastic clay; disintegrates very slowly on boiling, but settles rapidly, showing much rather coarse sand. Shell fragments numerous, quite large, much worn. Much blackened vegetable bast and fiber. Larger organisms.—Balanus eburneus. Oliva mutica. Natica pu- silla. Pandora trilineata. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alternata. Chione cancellata. Ch. cribraria. Lucina multilineata. Cardium, n. Sp. (32Gui- laterale). Laevicardium Mortoni. Arca transversa. Arca ponderosa. Leda acuta. Mellita testudinata. Cellepora, n. Sp. (1). BORING No. 4. £ 2 3S 3 & 5 ‘E.E 3 |## 9- s & | Characteristics of the • - Vegetable Microscopic organ- ad - - &- - sº Sº- § * grains of quartz. Mica. Tourmaline: ". }SIL) 8. 4- © .: 5 |3: § 3 ; Q 2. ~ 2: I' #äg # Tâ| Feet. - - ; : 5 to 10 3 Clear, rounded and A little. ...|An occasion- Moderate in Syngdra acuta 3 Ehr. * 3: sharp, some red; not a 1 black a mount ; | 3 £ over .05mm in diam- crystal. macerated. F. ** eter. c : , 10 to 22 || 3 || - - - - - - do.------------. ---do ----. ---do ----- ----do ------- Xanthidium 2 sp. un- 24.3 : determined, No. 1. 3 3 Leptocystinema? sp. ă ă ă undetermined, No. £º & 1 cº º-, cº s sº o C/D 3 # --> * &# 5 .5 × 3 # # 22 to 32 || 4 || Clear, sharp and A little....! Not noted. Macerated in Leptocystinema Kin C *::: rounded; not over pieces. 3 in... ahani, Archer. Sy- at 7: e º t : C 3 #|Characteristics of § 3 ;|, the grains of Mica. Tºa. Vºle Microscopic organisms. ‘s F = | quartz. & - * Pºmº | = 5: | 2- . OC Q c - : Q 2. I'eet. | = 2.É. 5 to 10 || 4 || Clear, rounded, None... . . . None.----. Abund a n tº Spongolithis acicularis, 2.3 3 and sharp; not macerated. º .* Sp. C -- - 16mun in undetermined, No. 1. -: *—t oyer º s y | ? § diameter. Leptocystinema 2 sp. – 5 = undetermined, No. 1. ++ 3 Nitzschia ; sp. unde- $ 5 is termined, No. 1. Fra- *23 e gillaria capucina. B. 3.5 § 3|10 to 20 || 4 | As above, but | A little........do ..... In excess....jFragillaria sp. undeter- #2, ## grains not over mined, No. 1. Fragil. #2 * : 1mm in diam- laria capucina. A and £ eter. B. Q QD - < 5.5 - T. 5 ºf 20 to 30 || 3 || Clear, with some | None...... A , few In excess; A and B. 3. : 3 lack grains; b 1 a c k carbonized. * : * , In Ot, Over . 15mm Crystals. 3 * : * in diameter. E 3 & # 3:? § 3 * © ºr OO * : * : | ºr ºf 3 * -- ~ +” °77; #| 30 to 45 || 1 | Clear and brown. Abundant, None...... A bundant; A and B. & E * * ish-yellow; not | clear, and carbonized 2, 3 ºf above.1” in di- yellow. and fresh. a £ #: ameter; sharp 5:3. and rounded. # E 3 z §: Bºž C/D * * * > ºf ap ºr 2 = 3 * * *- :- E 3 a. E|45 to 53 || 3 || Clear and round- Abundant. | None...... A bundant; Fragillaria sp. undeter. ~ 3 & 3. ed; not over macerated. mined, No. 2. Navig. an 2. r | 3 =3 | 72 to 78; 5 Clear, rounded, and Abundant. A few black | None .... Hyalonema? sp. undeter. 5 º š º i. . | crystals. m in ed. N on ion in a GD >. .25ºth in Cilalūeter. (Crassula?) d'Orb. Spon- cº | -------- . Spon 4:35 - golithis acicularis, Ehr. | 2 × . | Spongolithis aspera, Ehr. °3; is 3. : i Spongolithis mesogon- &T 5: gyla, Ehr. Fragillaria 2 : § ă : t Sps, undetermined, 1 and a's GD g 2. Fragillaria capucina. 3 * > . | Lithostylidium sp. un- P – > } t | tº p #5: 3 : determined, No. 1. A is P. a. sº | i | and B. C/2 | | t : Stratum No. 3, 72 to 78 feet. A yellowish-white, very pure and tough clay, difficult to disintegrate by boiling. Washed on sieve, leaves little Sand; White, Very sharp sand goes through. The clay water does not Settle for a long time, showing absence of lime-salts. Shells scarce. 30 Larger organisms.-Balanus eburneus. fusca. Chione cribraria. lita testudinata. Mactra lateralis. Laevicardium Mortoni. BORING NO. 5—Continued. Macoma Arca transversa. Mel- £ 3 O 3 tº 3 |3.3 3 ||3: à |##|Peculiarities of the Vegetabl ... 3 = quartz grains. Mica. Tourmaline. sº Microscopic organisms. O St.: - ~ ºº:: --> Ç 3 |s É Q 2: '##3 >e : ~q → 3 Feet. - | 5.3 78 to 90 Clear, with many | Not noted. A few black | Fresh and | Spongolithis appendic- c; ; ; yellow grains; crystals. macerated; ulata, Ehr. Spongo- ; 33 not over .25* in abundant. lithis acicularis, Ehr. Ž :- diameter. Fragillaria capucina. º: É A and B. £7. 3 90 to 100 . . . . . ... --. do -----------|. ---do -----|- ---do -----|-------------- Shell fragments. 3 : : & © 3 5 + © KO Stratum No. 2, 78 to 100 feet. Yellowish-drab sand, usually coarse above, fine below ; numerous grains of ferruginous conglomerate. Shells rare, in large fragments. Larger organisms.--Nassa acuta. Oliva mutica. Solen viridis. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alternata. Corbula cuneata. Chione cribraria. Dosinia discus. Lucina mutilineata. Arca ponderosa. Anomia ephip- pium. Mellita testudinata. BORING No. 6. ad Cº 3 ||3 ºf = 3.5 # =? f Vegetabl M 5, º sº | Characteristics of the . . . s € Cºëtia Ole icroscopic organ- * |3 * grains of quartz. Mica. Tourmaline. '. isms. © > .- := |sº 3 |s £ Q 2. | : 3, — # # Feet. - * * * * - ~ S 3 : 5 to 10 || 4 || Clear; not over .16mm None.----. None.----. Abundant, Spongolithis acicu- Q Cº. 3 : #4 = + C/D 4.3.3 | = 3 & #5 t * >, >, |10 to 20 | 3 | Clear, with a few Very little. None. ----- Abundant, but None noted. 3 & g black grains; Inot less So than M- * * • e 243 g over .25mm in diam- above. 3 * : : eter; rounded and #### sharp. £3. 3 > UD 31 BORING No. 6—Continued. 3 |# # 3 # +3.: :: * 5 | Characteristics of the - - Vegetable | Microscopic organ- ... 3 *|†of quartz. Mica. Tourmaline. 'm. ISDI] S. O •.: .cf iº- rt E. S. § Q o = Q 2. → a z. - Feet. £ 3 | 5 to 10 || 4 || Clear, rounded; Moderate | In clear A little mac- | None. =.3 g : not over .1” in in am’t. Crystals. erated. †: =#| diameter. . § 3 : E3 #2 i s 3 #3 ! 2.2 s = | : 3: ...} 5.5 ± 3. | # 5: 10 to 20; 2 | Clear, rounded; Abundant. Green, stri- Rounded and Do. #.3 : * not over .25mm ated Crys- macerated, C/D in diameter. tals. | t # 3 20 to 29 || 2 | Clear, rounded; | None noted. Both clear Moderately Lithostylidium dentic. + 3 - not over .25mm ſandgreen. abundant; ulatum, Ehr. Cyclops 3. 2 1D diameter; ; rounded & n. quadricornis. 5 also a little macerated. *::: chalcedony in l | 5 t smooth cubic - ‘. . ; - grains. - * * Ž3 : 29 to 34 || 1 | V a ri e g a ted, Very little. Not noted. Pieces large, None noted. • ?: clear, milky, carbonized, 5.2.2 black, red, and and fresh. E = 3 b row n ; not 3 #3 over .75mm in - à - diameter. | | | ſ *: # 34 to 45| 1 | Clear, rounded; A little.... None...... None - - - - - - - - None tº #3 not over .25mm t . Prs - - in diameter; 3 : 2 black and green 2, sº 3 grains occasion- | 3 : 33| 45 to 57 || 1 |....do ... ---...--. -do --------. do -----|---- do -------. DO # 3 = #|57 to 67 || 1 do ----------- --do - - - - - ----do -----|---- do -------- Do # * ~ * 67 to 72 | 1 |. --. do ... --------. --do - - - - - ----do -----|---- do-------. | Do Stratum No. 4, 72 to 87 feet. Bluish grey, rather fine, clayey and mica- ceous sand; shell fragments, large, few. Larger organisms.-Balanus eburneus. Nassa acuta. Dentalium ? n. sp. (laeve). Tellina alternata. Pholas costata. Corbula cuneata. Mactra lateralis. Tellidora lunulata. Chione cancellata. Ch. cribraria. Lucina multilineata. L. costata. Cardium n. sp. (aequilaterale.) Laevicar- dium Mortoni. Mellita testudinata. Stratum No. 3 (?), 87 to 88 feet. Dark colored clay, tough, evidently originally laminated, with layers variously colored and constituted; very difficult to disintegrate. Washed on sieve it leaves numerous and large blackened peaty fragments, mica scales, a few large rounded grains of pellucid quartz, fragments of ferruginous Sandy conglomerate, and a few indistinct shell fragments, seemingly of Mactra lateralis and Tellina tenera. - Stratum No. 2, 88 to 100 feet. Fine bluish, rather clayey sand; quartz grains much rounded; some particles of ferruginous conglo- Inerate. Larger organisms.-Turbonilla acicula. Corbula cuneata. Tellina alternata. Chione cribraria. Dosinia discus. Lucina Costata. Laevi- cardium Mortoni. Mellita testudinata. 33 BORING NO. 8. | 2 | z w 5 || 3 & i º: E - | - : cº º- ; º =2| Characteristics of ; à |##| “...hº... ºf Mica. Tºma Wºº Microscopic organisms. | <- 3 = x- : line. i matter. } C - .: quartz. : | O -> c | C |Z. ! Feet. -- * ...; 5 to 16 || 2 | Clear, rounded; not Little . . . . . None.----. Very little. None. 3 : 3 over.1” in diam; mace 1 at - *:::: eter; red-spotted - ed. - | # 2. grains and some : ... 3 E carnelian. - * E 3 17 to 22 | 2 | Clear, with some . . . . do . . . . . Green, in . --- do . . . . . . One undetermined. C. 333 red and red-spot- 9-side d 2. ; : . ted ; not over .1mm crystals. = 5 § 3 in diameter. • • * * ####|22 to 32| 2 | Clear, rounded; not ....do .... Not noted Moderate in None. 3.23 : : over .25min in di- a mollut. £7, ameter. - . 3 * 32 to 41 || 2 | Clear, rounded, and Abundapt: Green stri- Abundant: Rosalina Beccarii. = = sharp; rot over , p 1 a t e s ated. macerated. + 3 1" in diameter. large. ſ r |- - - - . - i 2– 41 to 54 2 Clear, with some Abundant: . . . . do . . . . . ---do -----. i Liibostylidium dentic- & 5 & red, and green p 1 a t e s - ulatum, Ehr. Coscino- - 5 grains; not above l a r g e ; ſ discus radiatus, Ehr. 3. ; : .1mm in diámeter. .16mm in ! i Mel Sira sp. undeter- * = diameter. mined, No. 1. 3 :-.; 54 to 63 || 2 | Clear, with a few A little. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Very little : ; Me-losira sp. undeter- 5 ºz red-spotted grs. : : r } mace rated mined, No. 1. ## = not Over .251nn in aud Iolled. à diameter. . - : Stratum No. 4, 63 to 77 feet. Greenish-drab sand, micaceous, much rounded, a little coarser below than above ; very little clay; much browned vegetable remains. Larger organisms.-Balanus eburneus. Anachis avara. Oliva mutica. Turbonilla interrupta. Caecum pulchellum. Scalaria angulata. Den- talium n. Sp. (laeve). D., D. sp. (Sexangulare). Pholas costata. Corbula Cuneata. Corbula, n. Sp.?. Solen viridis. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alter- nata. Chione cribraria. Dosinia discus. Lucina multilineata. Car- dium n. Sp. (acquilaterale). C., n. Sp. (inaequilaterale). Arca transversa, Lima sp. Anomia ephippium Mellita testudinata. Cellepora, n. sp. (1). Stratum, No. 3, 77 to 79 feet. Leaden-blue clay, rather sandy, mica- ceous, easily disintegrated, some fragments of bark. Larger organisms.--Nassa acuta. Turbonilla interrupta. Scalaria lineata. Pholas Costata. Corbula cuneata. Mactra lateralis. Chione Cancellata. Ch. Cribraria. Lucina multilineata. L. costata. Arca transversa. A. ponderosa. Anomia ephippium. Mellita testudinata. 3 E 34 BORING NO. 9. c | Characteristics Of | 3 ºf 2. the grains of Mica. Tºa vegetºmat Microscopic organisms. .5 quartz. i e - 3 Ž - z. T | * = P, Z F w c - L' 2: €et. - - * - - | - —r- e - ââ = Z 5 to 10; 2 Few and clear; None. ... None....i Ab und an t, Orbajina universa, d'Orb. :... = E not over .03” macerated. Planulina n. elegans, < E3 & in diameter. Ehr. Rotalia, In, pachy- * * : 5 : physa, Ehr. Melosira 5–13 sp. undetermined, No. 3. 3 : z = Pinnularia n, gigas, Ehr. 2 - # 3 Synedra acuta, Ehr. Sy- 2 - # = nedra sp. undetermined, : = , = No. 1. Navicula sp. un- F. ### determined, No. 5. Spon- | : 33 | gol it his sp. undeter- ci e g = : mined, No. 1. Spongoli- = . g : this acicularis, Eh r. $ 2.” Sº . Spongolithis aspera, Ehr. 2. £3; | Spongolithis in flex a , = # 4 ºf Ehr. Fragillaria sp. un- £3. 37 determined, No. 1. Frag- : E Z * illaria capucina. B. --> S > QD - Ú/2 * : * | / C -- - | i dony. Ž 50 to 59 3 Clear, with a few ... do . . . . . . . do . . . . . None. . . . . . . . . . None. º: a) . red and blue ſ 2 * : grains; not over ; 3 : 3 | .1mm in diame- º, tº cº | ter - C, @ ; - | à 59 to 64'. --.'----do --------------do ---. |-do...!...do • * * * * * * * * DO. do --------------do *— 35 Stratum No. 4, C, 64 to 73 feet. Greenish-buff sand, rather clayey above, less so below, very micaceous. Shell fragments abundant, small above, larger below. Much browned vegetable matter, mostly Wood, in upper portion. Larger organisms.—Crab carapace. Balanus eburneus. Serpula, n. Sp. Nassa acuta. Anachis avara. Oliva mutica. Pleurotoma cerinum. Natica pusilla. Scalaria lineata. Dentalium, n, sp. (laeve). Dent., n. Sp. (sex angulare). Teredo sp. Pholas costata. Pandora trilineata. Corbula cuneata. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alternata. T. tenera. Dosinia dis- cus. Astarte undulata. Lucina multilineata. L. Costata. Cardium, n. sp. (aequilaterale). Laevicardium Mortoni. Arca transversa. Anomia ephippium. Mellita testudinata. Cellepora (2). Stratum No. 4, B, 73 to 80 feet. Tenacious blue clay; when washed through the sieve leaves but little clear, well rounded quartz sand, little mica, and numerous rather coarse and angular shell fragments. Some blackened vegetable fiber. Larger organisms.-Balanus eburneus Serpula sp. Nassa acuta. Oliva mutica. Marginella limatula. Corbula lineata. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alternata. Tellidora lunulata. Chione cribraria. Dosinia discus. Lucina multilineata. L. Costata. Laevicardium Mortoni. Arca trans- Versa. A. pesata. Anomia ephippium. Mellitatestudinata. Cellepora, n. Sp. (1). BORING NO. 9–Continued. a; 2 £ 3 ºf - E. c. 3 : E 3 + 7. Characteristics of * 3 & 21S * s - ... " \' tº Cº l , * g & & # * * the grains of Mica. Tºa vegetablemat Microscopic organisms. ‘s |º 5 || quartz. * g ~. *— re --> > o à |s É Q 2. dº º - -: ; £ I'eet, | T gº < * * Sº # § 80 to 91 || 1 || Clear, rounded : ... -------|----------|----...--------. Shell fragments a bu n - *:::::: . In Ot. Over .25mm dant. Echinoid spines. 3.4 ° 2 in diameter. Mellita. +E 3 tº º: 2 ºr ºt 2- - º – f Cſ, a C Stratum No. 4, A, 80 to 91 feet. Blue, somewhat clayey and coherent sand, with much blackened vegetable fiber and sea-weed. Shell frag- ments abundant, large, Sharp. Larger organisms.-Balanus eburneus. Nassa acuta. Oliva mutica. Marginella limatula. Utriculus biplicatus. Pholas costata. Pandora tri- lineata. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alternata. T. tenera. Chione cribra- ria. DOsinia discus. A starte undulata. Mellita testudinata. Stratum No. 1, 91 to 100 feet. Very dark, rather sandy clay, leaving but little sharp sand on the sieve. Shell fragments numerous, large. Some browned bark. Larger organisms.-Balanus eburneus. Nassa acuta. Oliva mutica. Dactylina oblonga. Pandora trilineata. Mactra lateralis. Chione cribra- ria, Ch. cancellata. Lucina multilineata. L. costata. 36 BORING NO. 10. Characteristics of ſ 110 t (ºvel' .022:nºn in diameter. the grains of Mica. Tºa. Vegetable mat. Microscopic organisms. Quartz. Il 6. ter. i F 3 : : ; ; = *: # Clear, rounded; Notnoted. Notnoted Albu in d a n t, Orbulina universa, d'Orb. :: * = not over .1mm macerated. Hyalodiscus cervinus, 3: 5 in diameter. : Brightwell...A, B, and † : : E., Spongolithis sp. un- E** i determined, No. 1. Spon- c - ºf golithis acicularis, Ehr. 2 = < Lithostylidium denticu- & 2 : latum, Ehr. Lithostyli- § -2. dium . n. quadratum. : £ 3: Closterium sp. undeter- 2 #2 mined, No. 1. 3 : E 2: 3 & | i # | : - # : Clear, with a few Notnoted. Notnoted. A bund a n t, Melosira sp. undeter- 2.3 red and yellow : macerated. mined, 1 and 4. Eunotia 33 grains; from m. gibberula, Ehr. Spon- ãº, .25mm in diame- golithis sp. undeter- 53 ter down. mined, No. 2. Fragilla- ſº- § ria capucina. Fragilla- £2. ria sp. undetermined, No. § 7, 2. A and B. ; : Clear, with some . . . do . . . . . . . . do . . . . . --- do . . . . . . --- Orbulina universa, d'Orb. # = c a r n e l i a n . Triceratium favus, Ehr. $2 & sharp; not over i Pleurosigma sp. undeter- - 5 .1mm in diame- : mined, No. 1. Rotalia sp. 2 o ter. ! : undetermined, No. 1. S = | Melosira sp. undeter- = 3 | - mined, No. 5. Melosira & 8 ! n. sulcata, Ehr. A. 59 4 : Clear, rounded, ... do . . . . . . . do ... i Moder a tely Hyalodiscus cer win us, £ 3 and sharp; not plenty. Brightwell. Orb ulin a 3 = over 1mm in di. universa, d'Orb. Melo- Tº ºf 3.ll) etel'. | Sira n. sulcata, Ehr. ê š Melosira sp. undeter- • * ~ * mined, 6 and 7. Gallio- #: t t nella distans, Ehr. Pleu- TS 3, rosigma sp. undeter- 2 g - mined, No. 2. Navicula + 2 | n. G. run dle ri, Ad. † : Schmidt. Navicula sp. 4. . : undetermined, No. 6. lº i Cocconeis sp. undeter- of 3 ſ mined, No. 1. Pinnularia 9 : - : . macilenta, Ehr. Spongo- 24 ă i | - lithis sp. undetermined, s = - No. 2. A and B. Clos- E = : . terium sp. undetermined, £5 : - No. 2. Fragillaria capu- {ſº | . ClD 3. : ! º & : i | 5 : 3 | Clear, roun led : | None . . . . None . . . . A little. . . . . . . . Shell fragments few . Spongolithis sp. undeter- mined, No. 2. A and B. 37 Larger organisms.—Abundance of macerated and partly blackened vegetable remains, apparently chiefly of grasses and rushes. Numerous very young shells, irrecognizable. Balanus eburneus. Mactra lateralis. Arca transversa. Lucina multilineata. |BORING NO. 10–Continued. a; ; /. i i Amºs F. . | 35 it cſ ; 2: B = | { l .* : "º | ſ | § E? Characteristics of vegetabl ºt : ;- . . . . . ~~ - ſ - .j Vegeta wr: e e gº £ 2 the grains of Mica. Tourmaline. jº e Microscopic organisms. ‘s ~ := Cluartz. . | # = } - Q ^ y | ... a.º. F. } "E £3 ect. . | F = −. - ; & P * * gº e - | ! ~~ - ; : F 55 to 70 1 | Clear, with few. A little. . . A few crystals | None . . . . Shell fragments abun- * * w Če | y d | F---> e ~ #3 grains of carne- i dant. Orbuiina univer- £ # = lia n, amethyst, ; | sa, d'Orb. Pleurosig. 3 2.5 and Silicified wood; - ma sp. undetermined, £3. not Over . 1mm in : No. 3. Cocconeis scu- *g= 3. diameter. { i tellum, Ehr. Pinnu- < 1 = 3 ! j larian. macilenta, Ehr. | # 5 5 - Navicula sp. undeter- 3 - 3: e -- - * : * : ! mined, No. 4. Gallio- sº. 5 = i | nella (Melosira), dis. z = # 2 : tans, Ehr. Fragillaria - 2 = 3 ſ capucina. Fragillaria = F * = i i sp. undetermined, Nos. # : £ 3 | : i 1 and 2. is a ~ * | | CO | i | } | | Larger organisms.—Balanus eburneus. Oliva mutica. Busycon per- Versus. Utriculus biplicatus. Spirorbis sp. Dentalium, n. sp. (laeve). Pandora trilineata. Corbula cuneata. Solen viridis. Mactra lateralis. Tellina polita ? Strigilla flexuosa. Tellidora lunulata. Chione cribra- ria. Astarte lunulata. Lucina multilineata. L. costata. L. Kiawah- ensis. Cardium, n. sp. (aequilaterale). Laevicardium Mortoni. Arca transversa. A nomia ephippium. Mellita testudinata. Cellepora, n. sp. (1). Cellepora n. sp. (2). BORING NO. 11. Vegetable º lilattel'. the grains of Mica. Tourmaline, (, Ulal’UZ. Microscopic organisms s | } Characteristics g | | | * = Feet. c --> : 2 : | 3 .2 3 5 to 15 3 | Clear, rounded; Very little A few black In e X c e s s, Campylodiscus sp. un- #3 not over .1” in crystals. macerated. determined, No. 1. Ro- c S2 dianatter. | talia sp. undeter- | mined, No. 2. Spongo- h -º- lithis acicularis, Ehr. . . Not noted . . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . Lithostylidium dentic- . ulatum. Spongolithis | acicularis, Ebr. One undetermined, I. 2 0 t {} 2 5 3 d O - - - - d O - 3S BORING No. 11—Continued. 3 |2 | 25 3 & | 2- ‘C - i -- :: *- ! $2 + r. * <> = #| Characteristics 3. s :- ºf b * . * , , : , * I Vogetable ºf º g * . x - of the grains Mica. Tourmaline. matter Microscopic organisms. E = E of quartz- : matter. ~! - P- t t 2- _s +: | ! © $2 = * Q 2. ! *---------. - - --- t JFeet. | 9 * > i ÉÉ# | ** - i © . ; s = 3 | | -º-, * | ; | ; * * - t | 5: £ 30 to 35 || 2 | Clear, rounded, Abundant None . . . . . . . . None. . . . . . . . Campylodiscus sp. un # = 2 and sharp; not termined, No. 1. Cos- < 3 T : over .1mm in di- . . cinodiscus radiatus. ! # 2. * all leter. | i Melosina sp. undeter- a £3 : | | | : mined, No. 1. Spon a ~ : : i go lit his acicularis, C -d 32 - i - E} * 2: 3: 2: 3: - | - Fhl'. º ż ż|48 to 52 || 2 |.... do ........... . . . . . do. . . . . . . . do ------ ---. do ------. : DO. 5 ºf a : 33 #3 | 5 SP G + | | Cſ. | | | i i Stratum 4, 52 to 70 feet. Grayish, very micaceous, rather coarse. looking Sand, with numerous entire shells and shell fragments, the most abundant in the set. Although styled “quicksand” by the borers, it contains many grains and pebbles of clay, so as to render it difficult to separate it all. Sand grains much rounded, often partly conglomerated by a ferruginous cement. Larger organisms.-Balanus eburneus. Serpula sp. Urosal pinx ci- nereus. Nassa acuta. Anachis avara. Oliva mutica. Obeliscus crenu- latus. Caecum pulchellum. Architectonica gemma. Acus dislocatum. Modulus Floridanus. Cochliolepis parasitica. Crepidula fornicata. Dentalium, n. sp. (laeve). Dent., n. sp. (Sexangulare). Utriculus bipli- catus. Pholas costata. Pandora trilineata. Corbula cuneata. Solen viridis. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alternata. T. polita. Strigilla flex- uosa. Donax variabilis. Chione cancellata. Ch. Cribraria. A starte lunulata. Lucina multilineata. L. costata. L. Kiawahensis. Cardium, n. sp. (inaequilaterale). Arca transversa. A. ponderosa. Modiola sp. Anomia ephippium. Mellita testudinata. Cellepora, n. Sp. (1), Celle- pora, n. Sp. (2). 39 BORING No. 12. # - i In Ot, O Vel' .5mm in diameter. b l a c k crystals w it h S O TO € a C tino- lite. i ſ ; | t 5 t i macerated. É £ 8. ; ă ă Fi º 33; Ch 3. E & aracteristics * 21, - egetal - - - 3. § # of the grains Mica. Tºa Viºle Microscopic organisms. 3 * = of quartz. ~ *: t +- > <> 2- • Jº Ç c = C Z. Feef. ;: 5 to 15 3 Clear, rounded. Very little. A few Very large Campylodiscus sp. un- § and sharp : pot b l a c k a mount : determined, No. 1. 3. Over .125mm in crystals. carbonized Rotalia . sp. undeter- diameter. and fresh. mined, No. 2., Melo- : sira (Gallionella) dis- 3 | - tans, Ehr. Melosira # 3. sp. undetermined, No. F 3 : S. Pinnularia viridu- 3 : : la, Ehr. Cocconema Tº 3 i i 1 a n c e o la tu m, Ehr. 3 = | : Lithostylidium den- &T. i ticulatum, Ebr. Sy- Sº as i m e dra a cuta, Ehr. r = t * * +1.5 s º + $. | : t Spongolithis acicula- ; : : : . ris, Ehr. Fragillaria > -ſ; : sp. undetermined, No. ... : | . i 1. Closterium sp. un- := ; : : ; de term in e d, No. 3. 3 = | ; : i Two others, undeter- > * . - | mined, E and F. 3 = 15 to 26 3 ....do .----...--. A little . . . . . . . do . . . . . |-- --do -------. Campylodiscus sp. un- • ‘E : | i determ in e d, No. 2. 2 : l | Rotalia sp. undeter- = = | . | mined, No. 2. Qrbu- > T. | lina universa, d'Orb. a 3 - Melosira sp. undeter- | a? | | i | mined, No. 1. Pinnu- 3; a | i | lari a viridula, Ehr. c. * | Navicula fulva 2, Ehr. 2. n . Lithostylidium den- : : | ticulatum, Ehr. Spon- E | | | go 1 it his acicularis, : i i Ebr. A and B. Cyp- 5 | ris 3 Two others un- ÚO * | determined, E and F. - - - - : i £; # 5 : ! | : ; # = 26 to 40 3 Clear, with a few Abundant. A few A little , ; Rotalia sp. un deter- # 22 : grains of silici- b l a e k macerated. mined, No. 1. On e 3’ 2 3 ! termined, No. 1. Spon- 23 E £5 | --~~~~ 1. Spon a 3.3 : go lit his acicularis, 3 - 3+ Ehr. Lithostylidium # *š: : | denticulatum, Eh r. # 5 5 F - | I and J undeter. (ſ) mined. Stratum No. 4, 56 to 70 feet. Greenish sand, same as in boring 13 at same depths. Larger organisms.--Balanus eburneus. Nassa acuta. Oliva mutica. Marginella limatula. Caecum pulchellum. Dentalium ? n. sp. (laeve). Dent. n. Sp. (Sexangulare). Pholas Costata. Corbula cuneata. Mactra lateralis. Tellina alternata. Tellidora lunulata. Chione cribraria. Do- sinia discus. Lucina multilineata. L. costata. Laevicardium Mortoni. Arca transversa. A. pesata. A. ponderosa. Pinna muricata. Mellita testudinata. Cellepora n. Sp. (1). 42 APPENDIX IV. LIST OF MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS FOUND IN BORINGS, WITH TWO PLATES. BY F. W. HOPKINS. LIST OF FIRESEL-WATER O R G ANISMIS. [To front Plate I.] [The figures represent the objects magnified 300 diameters, unless otherwise marked on the plates.] Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 1. :2. 6 7 27. 28. s - - . Nitzschia sp. undet, No. 3. Boring 14. Stratum 12. 30. 31. 32. O D • X , ), . Navicula sp. undet., No. . Navicula sp. undet., No. . Navicula sp. undet., No. º. 23. - . Eunotia n. gibberula, Ehr. Boring 10. Stratum S. . Eunotia sp. undet. Borings 2 and 3. Strata 11 and 4. 26. Lithostylidium denticulatum, Ehr. Occurs in Borings 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14, and in Strata 4, 8, 9, 10, and 12. Lithostylidium quadratum, Ehr., in Borings 2 and 3. Strata 11 and 8. , Lithostylidium n. quadratum, Ehr. Boring 10. Stratum 12. . Lithostylidium crispum, Ebr. Boring 14. Stratum 12. . Lithostylidium sp. undet, 1. Borings 1, 3, and 5. Strata 8, 11, and 3. . Spongolithis acicularis, Ehr. Borings 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14. Strata 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, and 12. . Spongolithis mesogongyla, Ehr. Borings 1, 2, and 5. Strata 8, 11, and 13. . Spongolithis aspera, Ehr. Borings 2, 5, 9, and 14. Strata 3, 11, and 12, . Spongolithis n. aspera, Ehr. Boring 12. Stratum 5. - . Spongolithis inflexa, Ehr. Boring 9. Stratum 12. Spongolithis anchora, Ehr. Boring 12. Stratum 5. . Spongolithis appendiculata, Ehr. Boring 5. Stratum 2. . Spongolithis sp. undet, No. 1. Borings 6, 9, and 10. Strata 8 and 12. . Spongolithis sp. undet, No. 2. Borings 10 and 2. Strata 8, 6, and 11. . Synedra acuta ? Ehr. Borings 1, 2, 4, 9, 12, and 14. Strata 8, 11, and 14. . Synedra sp. undet, No. 1. Borings 2, 3, and 9. Strata 11, 8, and 12. . Fragillaria capucina. Borings 3, 5, 9, and 10. Strata 2, 3, 4, 8, 11, and 12. . Fragiliaria sp. undet. No. 1. Borings 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 12. Strata 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, and 12. . Fragillaria sp. undet., No. 2. Borings 2, 3, 5, and 10. Strata 3, 4, 8, and 11. - Boring 3. Strata 11 and 4. Boring 5. Stratum 8. - Borings 6 and 10. Strata 8 and 4. Boring 9. Stratum 12. i Navicula sp. undet., No. Cocconema lanceolatum, Ehr. Borings 3, 6, and 12. Strata 8, 9, and 12. : Nitzschia? sp. undet, No. 1. Boring 5. Stratum 11. Nitzschia? sp. undet., No. 2. Boring 14. Stratum 12. Nitzschia sp. undet., No. 4. Boring 14. Stratum 12. Rhizosolenia? sp. undet., No. 1. Boring 3. Stratum 11. Rhizosolenia 2 sp. undet., No. 2. Boring 14. Stratum 12. Gallionella (Melosira Ag.) distans, Ehr. Borings 10 and 12. Strata 8, 4, and 12. *8. ¿sºº-，***** → … • → ±NÇÇ（~~~~=++~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~）; ****）*|-¿Sºº-º-º--:- （Saeſ3>-*>）（?！…>>:）！！！ №” *** → ..--------• ،��(）●«…»●� №aegaeºſae£（sae:rººſrae,，，≡≡≡≡≡g Ëëëëëë！#ë！！！ №±±z. . . . . • • • • • • • • . . ~ ~ ~ . … •.…````.“. — •.º.T. º. （L: șaes！！！！！！！！！！re *„T ~*~* @*（.*?）（ *）（ ）（ *）（.* • • < . } \! | ģ！ī£§！!! §.…!）--º---º-º-º īſ ſāī *—-tºº---, * ŅŅŇŇ），Źź №ºººº %$§ §§ #Tºº%% ） &=º！ #|#|#}}}}#{{{ſ}}};};};### ſiiiiiiiiiiii N''||~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ， ' ' : , „ſiſ, ſº V. HOPKINS, M. D., NEW ALMADEN, DEL. - § * - - 3. - :*:: > ** gºss ... º arrºr- •' ‘. ." : & : º g . . - + & **.*. , fº * - zºº - - º v-xxt=º Lº : => *===le==== - Tº ſºlº A. KRUGER, S, F,, ]}x &. 43 Fig. 34. Fig. 35 Fig. 35. 36. . 37. . 38. º ". 39. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. IFig. Fig. Fig. IFig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. . Fig. Fig. DESMIDS. Xanthidium ? sp. undet., No. 1. Borings 2 and 4. Stratum 11. Closterium sp. undet., No. 1. Boring 10. Stratum 12. Closterium sp. undet., No. 2. Boring 10. Stratum 8. Closterium sp. undet., No. 3. Boring 12. Stratum 12. Leptocystinema Kinahani, Archer. Borings 2 and 4. Strata 8 and 11. - Leptocystinema 2 sp. undet. Borings 4 and 5. Stratum 11. INCERT HE SEDIS. . Borings 3, 5, 10 and 12. Strata 2, 3, 4, 6, . Borings 3, 5, 6, 9, 10 and 12. Strata 2, 3, 4, . Borings 1 and S. Strata 8 and 11. . Borings 1 and 3. Stratum 8. . Borings 10, 12, 13 and 14. Stratum 12. Boring 12. Stratum 12. . Boring 14. Stratum 12. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. 6, S, 9, 10, 11, 12' . H. Boring 14. Stratum 12. . I. Boring 14. Stratum 8. 49. J. Boring 14. Stratum 8. An infant Codakia Ž LIST OF SALT AND BRACKISH WATER ORGANISMS. RADIATES. . Echinoid spine sp. undet., No. 1. Boring 3. Stratum 4. . Echinoid spine sp. undet., No. 2. Boring 5. Stratum 4. . Echinoid spine sp. undet., No. 3. Borings 1, 5, 9, and 12. Strata, 4 and 5. . Coral sp. undet., K. Boring 3. Stratum 4. , Coral sp. undet., L. Boring 5. Stratum 4. . Coral sp. undet., M. Boring 10. Stratum 4. AIRTICULATE. . Cyclops n. quadricornis. Boring 7. Stratum S. SPON G-E. . Hyalone ma . sp. undet. Boring 5. Stratum 3. FOR AMI INIFERA. . Gram mostomum sp. undet., No. 1. Borings 1, 3, 12. Strata 4, 5, and 8. J . Gram mostomum 2 sp. undet., No. 2. Boring 3, Stratum 4. . Grau) mostomum n. Altnericanum, Ehr. Boring 13. Stratum S. . Rotalia n. pachyphysa, Ehr. Boring 9. Stratum 12. . Rotalia sp. undet, No. 1. Borings 3, 10 and 12. Strata 4 and 8. , Rotalia sp. undet., No. 2. Borings 11 and 12. Stratum 12. . Rosalina Beccarii, d'Orb. Borings 3, 6, 8, and 12. Strata 1, 8, and 5. . Truncatulina (lobulata ? d'Orb.). Borings 5 and 12. Strata, 4 and 5. 44 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Figs. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Eig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 2\! ~~ Fi 9. Fig. Fig. Fig. SALT AND BRACKISH WATER ORGANISMs—Continued. 74. 75 76 7 7 81. 82. S3. 84. 85. 86. S7. SS. S9. 9(). 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. [To front Plate II.] . Planulina n, elegans, Ebr. Borings 9 and 12. Strata 12 and 5. . Nonionina (crassula 2 d’Orb). Boring 5. Stratum 3. . Nonionina sp. undet. Boring 5. Stratum 4. . Lenticulum n. discus, Ehr. Boring 13. Stratum 8. . Globigerina bulloides, d'Orb. Boring 3. Stratum 1. . Globigerina n. depressa, Ehr. Boring 12. Stratum 5. . Globigerina sp. undet. Boring 14. Stratum 12. . Orbulina universa? d'Orb. Borings 3, 9, 10, and 12. Strata 1, 4, 5, 8, and 12. DIATOMIS. Melosira sp. undet., No. 1. Borings 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 14. Strata 4, 8, and 12. . Melosira sp. undet., No. 2. Boring 3. Stratum 8. Melosira sp. undet., No. 3. Boring 9. Stratum 12. , 78, 79, 80. Melosirae sps. undet., Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7. Boring 10. Stratum 8. Melosira sp. undet., No. 8. Boring 12. Stratum 12. Melosina sp. undet., No. 9. Boring 13. Stratum 8. Melosira sp. m. sulcata, Ehr. Boring 10. Stratum 8. Cyclotella m. punctata, Ad. Schmidt. Borings 2 and 13, Strata 12 and S. Cyclotella sp. undet. Boring 14. Stratum 12. Campylodiscus sp. undet., No. 1. Borings 11, 12, 13, and 14, Strata. 5, 8, 11, and 12. & Campylodiscus sp. undet., No. 2. Boring 12. "Stratum 12. EIyalodiscus cervinus’ Brightwell. Boring 10. Strata 8 and 12. Coscinodiscus radiatus? Ehr. Borings 8, 11, and 12. Strata 8 and 5. Triceratium favus, Ehr. Boring 10. Stratum 8. Triceratium reticulatum, Ehr. Boring 12. Stratum 5. Navicula sp. undet., No. 2. Boring 3. Stratum 4. Navicula sp. undet., No. 6. Boring 10. Stratum 8. Navicula sp. undet., No. 7. Boring 9. Stratum 12. Navicula sp. undet., No. 8. Boring 14. Stratum 12. Navicula sp. undet., No. 9. Boring 13. Strata 8 and 12. $ Navicula sp. n. Grundleri, Ad. Schmidt. Boring 12 tum 5. Navicula (fulva 2 Ehr.). Boring 12. Stratum 12. Stra- Figs. 99, 100. Pleurosigma sps, undet., Nos. 1 and 2. Boring 10. Fi 9. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 101 102. . Pinnularia n. gigas, Ehr. Boring 9. Stratum 12. . Pinnularia macienta, Ehr. Boring 10. Strata 8 and 4. 103 104 Stratum 8. * . Pleurosigma sp. undet., No. 3. Boring 10. Stratum 4. Pleurosigma sp. undet., No. 4. Boring 12. Stratum 8. 105. Pinnularia viridula, Ehr. Boring 12. Stratum 12. 106. Cocconeis sp. undet., No. 1. Boring 10. Stratum 8. 107 . Cocconeis (scutellum 3 Ehr.). Boring 10. Stratum 4. be， ** * * ：S$Ń}}\， -&&*, * º ***\\à ș\\· :«» Ģº·. (, º.'� oo 9）, o 99.999 o ·· * * ?,?, ? ?,,, ];oºººººº,，, o 99 299 o gºo es$$$$ º o s）; 0 o o 3 0 0 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 3 ** §s © • • • • q «» ， «» º §→ ∞, ∞, ∞; ∞ & ç e o © c o º 9 º go o o o 0 o a 9 » o «» ， o q º º 3. ºſno o o 23% º o o e o o o º 9 0 0 0 0 0 o o £3 6s 65 sº o Q Q Q Q Q o × 9 o ** *. .º.º. y, ºr % : : 㺠% � **, ģ � №iſeſ||||）（|||）（|||| º. V | | O |} }& | \{ $ . NA O, N (- \º/ ALMA D E N . O [ L. * *. , &c., * Giż APPENDIX V. SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF THE « LARGER ORGAINISMS” FOUND IN THE BORINGS. NOTES ON FOSSILS. BY E. WHILGARD. Synoptical table of “ larger organisms” occurring in the Lake Borgne survey boring8. | New Orleans well, 1856. * l Boring. No. 1ŅgNo. 3. || No. 4No. 5No. 6,No. 7No. 8No. 9No. 10.}}};};}} +→+--+ +-+ | ）4） *** | +-->-- »„… +→ | +→.+---++ }+→4_j + | +-->+ →± − | − − | − − | − 3| ≤ + |b| + | 5 + | + +£ + |B| ſº 37 | 75 - || 7 | 75 | 7 || || 7 |（7) - |№ |ºff |ſo （ |&Q |&) |òn |）（ |&õ |&Q |ůO | Jo |）/Q |^2 |ſ/Q |2 |JQ |7) | O |^2 |ſ/? squalidean tooth . . . . . . . . . . . . - || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — Ciºab carapace, fragments - - - - - - - -| || — || || || — | — | — | — | — | — | —- || + | — | — | — | — | — | — | + | -i- || — | — | — — | — | — | — | — | — Cypris sp. ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -_ | ___ | -.- | _ | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | - |- | — | — — | — Balanus eburneuš (?) - - - - - - - - - -|- | --- | || . || ||| | − | | |- | + | -.- | - |- | -|- | -.- | — | — | -F | — | — | -.- | + | + | + | + | — | + | + | + Serpula n. sp. ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - -| . || — | — | | | --- | .-- | — || || || — | — | + | ~|~ || — | — | — | — — | — | - |- | |- | — | — | — | — | |- | — || ~ ~ || — Ranella caudata, Say - - - - - --_ | _ | — | — | — || ..-. | — | — | -.. | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | -|- | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — IFasciolaria distans, Lam. - - - - - - - -__ i ___ \ __,__ || … ) ----- | __/ | ____, | ___ ; ） | – || − | -.- | - || ---- | ---- | - || ~ ~ || ---- | -.- | - || - || − | − | -.- | .- | * | "+ Sycotypus cartaliculatus, Linn. - - - -__, | _ | __| | __| | ___. ; ） _ \ ___, | _ | ___ | --- | - || ~ | ~~~~ ! -- I ----- | -.- | - || ---- | - || ~ | ~ || − | - | - | - || ~ || ---- Sycotypus perversu8 - - - - - - - - -— | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —— | — | — | — |- | — | — | — | — Urosalpinx cinercus, Say - - - - - - -— | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | + | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | + || — | — | — Nassa àcuta, Say - - - - - - - - - - - - - | | | | | | | | | − | − | − | −ł！|- | -|- | — | -|- | — | — | — | -|- | |- | | | |- | |- | — | — | -|- | -|- | |- | -1- A machis avara, Say - - - - - - - - - - - - | | | − | || |- | -.- | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | + | — | | | — | — | — | — | — | -'- || — | + | — Anachis lunata, Say - - - - - - - ----- | -.-.-. | — | — | — | — | ---- | — | — | — | - |- | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — (Oliva, literata, Say - - - - - - - - -- ¿ - 1 -- 1 - 1 - 1 - † •=.* t ~ ~ ！， -- i - --------- | ---- | -— | — | — - | -— | — | — | ---- | — | ---- | — | — |- | — | — Oliva, mutica, Say - - - - - - - - - - - -| || — | |- | || || — | — | + | -— | -!|- | — | — | — — | — — | | | --- | || | |- | - || || — | — |- | + | — | — |- | -!- Þlourotoma, ćerinium, K. and St. - - - - - - - || — | — | — | — || ~ || — | — | | | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − Mangolia filiformis, Holm. - - - - - - - - - || — | — | — | — | — || || || ~ || || — | — | + | ~ || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 7 || ~ | ~ Natiča, pusilla, Sayſ - - - - - - - - - - - - | | | − | || | || || — | — | — | — || |- | — | — | — | — | — | — | + | — | — | — | — | — | --- | + | ~|~ || --- Natica Campoachensis - - - - - - - - - - - || ~ | ~ | ~ ~ | ~ || — | — | — | — | — — | — | — | — | — | — | — || ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ || T. Marginella limatula, Con. - - - - - - - - - | | | − | − | | | − | − | − | − | − | −| . || ---- | — | — | — | — | — | — | -1---- | — | — | — | — | — | | - vojſh noicularis, H. and A. . . . . . - - - - - | -.- || ~ || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | -, — | — | — | — | — | — | — || ~ | ~ | ~ Turbonilla, intorrupta, II. and A. - -- - - || || || ---- | .--. | — | — || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | | | | | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — Turbonilla speira, Rav. - - - - - - - - - - | | | − | − | − | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~• → I - H - || ---- | …__… || ~ ~ ~ || …- | .--• I • • ¡ ••••• I • I =====- | * → 1 • • • I • ! ***-* i -== Turboni]]a, undecim-sulcata n. sp . - - - - - - || ~ | ~ ~ | ~~---- | -.- | — | -} | — | — | — | — | — — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — īſſ ŪŌjila ngicula, Holm. . . . . . . . . . || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | + || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — Öğëăšģºſ šķīſi，ſhō, Holm. . . . . . . . . || ~ || — | — | — | — | — | — | + | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | + | -- Caecum pulchellum, stinip. . . . . . . . . . ! — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —-+ | — | — | — | — | — | —|- | — | — | —|- + | | + | | + + + | + | | | l | | | | | | | + + + | -- 46 +++++ i +---|--|--|--|- +-i- + | | | + | | + + | | | '99 SI ‘Ilê A squoi.IO Aa N. . -+ | + | + | + | + | — | + | + | — | — | + | + | + | — | — | — | + | + |+ |+ | — | — | — | — — | — | — | — | - - - - - - - - - - - ºtroo‘eſſe， qȚIo euoſqO — | — | — | + | — | — | + | — | — | — | + | — | — | — | + | — | — | — | — | + | — | — | -|-|-|-|-|-|| — | — | - - - - - - - - - - rituſ fíonėltooïvo ottoț¢, — | — | — | — | -'- || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — — | — | - - - - - - - - - - - : * ·tiojººds ºu�[º tuoŞ I | T | T.T— | — || ~ ~ || — | — | - || — | —- ) --- | - || — | — | — — | — | — || ~ || _ || .___ | __, | ___ | ___ || ~---Ț* * • • • • • • • • • • •�¡ ¿??ºđs ºu traeqv *---- | ~ ~ | ~~#~— | − | − | − | − − | − | − | - || — | ---- | -.- | ---- | — | — | — | — | — | _ || … | .___ | _ | _ | →- - - - - - - - - - Al3S ’sțIſqeĻſe A xuuoCI ----- - ----~~~ ---- - -->|* ſ.k. & ſae, º +––— | —|----- | -!— | — | — | — | -!-- | -|- | -!— | —— | —-| | — | — | 4. || — | — | + | - - -· · · · · · sutapy'gygiųųų‘BIOpȚIſºI, — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | | | | | | — | — | — | — | — | — | + | - - -· · · · · · · · - Keş “bosňų autoõe jūſ — | — | — |- | -+ | +- || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —- - - - - - - Á BS ºgsomxoſ eſ[ſāļņS --------«=<！--*-------------------•=…=|-|---->|-------|---------•••--->----------------------•«！;|--->|--&�- — | — |- | -|- | —----* -+ | —-}§§Bļu0% ſeuſ [[ØJ, ----— | + | — | + | — | — | — | | + | — | + | -.- | — | — | + | — || 4 || — | + | + | — | + | - - - - - - - - - - - - Kesſe iduoj euįjįoï -- | — | — | + | + | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | - - - - - - - - - - - - Kuš ºgļſtođſ euiſſoſ + | ~ | + | + | — | — | — | + |+ |+ | — | + | + || — | + | + |+ |+ | — |+ |+ |+ |+ |+ |+ | — | + | ~ · · · · · · · · · · Kuşºğaüſſön ſu čūțăſ. -- | - || T | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·uoo ºſſes eaqõeſ， -+--+++-|- | -ſ- | -.- | -|- | + | +- || 4 | +- || — | -|- | -|- | — | + | -4 | 4·ł- || — | — | —|- | -|- | — | -|- | -|- | - - - - - - - - - -|-Ágs‘sțIBJºſtºſ e Iqoe WT -— | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — • • • • • • • • Kus suņwęumo tropoquetī£5 — | — | — | — |- | -|- | — | — | — | — | — | --.|— | — | — | + | + | + | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | - - - - - - - - - - - - - Keş "spļĪĻA Ītopoš ~ | ~ || F | ~ ~ || - || ----+ | ~ || − | − | − | − − | − | − | − | − || ~ || — | ------ || ~ || ---- | – | _ || — | _ | _ | ___ | — | →- - - - - - - - - - - - į eſąmo e eſmoſ 100 -4- | - |-{·ſ- | -4- || — | — | — | + | + | -4- || 4 | -1- || — | -1- || — | + | + | — | -|- | 4. || — | — | |- | -4- || — | — | - - - - - - - - - - - Át:S 'b','couno uſuquoŐ — | - || .|--+ | ~ || || — | -| | |- | — | - || || — | — | -.- | — | — | -|- | -|- | — | — | + | -.- | -|- | -!|- | + | — | + | - - - - - - - - - - Áus ‘equºtųų ſą e.īoptieží -+ | — | + | + | — | — | — | + | — | + | + | + || — | — | - || || + | -4 || — | -.- | -1） | — | — | — | | | |- | — | —| + · · · · · · · · · · · n aqq 'eqensoo surtoq. I –+- | - || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | + | — | — | — | - - - - - - - - - - Kuş'unůšuoſqo guļºjošči ---- »| . || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —- || + | -.- | -.- | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -ds oporoj I | I | T.++ | — | — | -1 || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | + || — | — | --- | — | — | — || || -1- - 'lºz' I 'ſ ) ' ] [ ‘snº) troļļdſ (į (būļļu uJoJL)sminoſanſn — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — — | — | -.- | -1 || — | — | — | — | -1 || — || |- | — | — | —-*· · · · · · · · · - - - - ºds buqoyq Kō -|.| | | | | − | | |T | Ț || ~ | ~ | ~-+ | — | + | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | -l- | — | - |- | — | -|- | -|- | — | —· · · · · · (oavſlužjuuxos) ‘dis ºu umųèqüečí + | + || — | + | + | + | — | + || — | + | --- | + | — | — | + | + | + | — | — | + | — | — | — | + | + | — | -1 | - - - - - - - - - (ox aur) ás ti ;Uum!!!!!!uroCI ---> | <-- I →{— | — | — | -- | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | · · · · · · · · · · ituț¢L'entropunoj empţdono — | — | —·|-— | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | · · · · · · · · · · 100ºsnutepțioſ， smȚmpoſ， --— | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | + | — | — | · · · · · · · · · · ·, Keş ſinnvooisſp sitoſ •= g * - * *++ | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —— | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — || |- | -.- | — | — | - - - - - - - - -tuſoppºbtuſuoſ; eoquojoøìſqo,l \r — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — — | — | -|- | -|- | — | — | —- || — | — | — | — | — — | — | — | — | — | _ | — | — | — | - - - - - - - - - `-``.Á eş ºdſtºgų uputuros — | — | — || ~ || — | — | — | — | — | -- | — || || || — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — || |- | — | — || 4|· · · · · · · · · · · KBS ºtſuſmõttu u prețuoš -- - -|- - - --------- ---------------- ------ --------- ---------------- ------------- -- - ----------------------------- · Úſ. | (/^ | $2 | QZ|| (/. | (Z || J. || 0 | (/\| (/\} {/}| (/\| (/. | U. | Ú | C/ | Ú || (/. | Ú | (/. | (/. || 0 || 0 || 0 | (/. | ∞/.. | J. ~: C | - G„#|…?-+ - || ~ ~ | ~ ~ | ~ ~ | ~ ~ | ° §| ~ ~ | + 5 | -! G | + 5 || ~ ~ | ~ ~ | ~ £3 ≡* 5 || ~ £ | z） ≤ |-- E | ±± G | -, f. || ~ ~ | ~ ~ | ~ ~ | 2. E | ? }:§žiť?º 2. || ? ► | L*|? *|? *|? *|? ► | ► ► | ► | ► | 2 g | ? |#| ? 2. || 9 § || .2 || ~ ~ | ° § 1º. È |$ $ | ° § | 5 5 |3 №l º £| S = | -~ ~ | → º， i - y º• yn º į ， --~ - - -* * * … - * - * * *|----------- -* - - - - - - - -- - - - - --~~~~- - ~~ - ------ - - - -------------- ' - - - - || —~~~~ " ------- | ----- - || ------ - -" - - - . … | … | .-. | .| ſſ ||8||?|| |_| | | 01‘O N'(3 '0N8 "ON!, '0Nº 9 *O NIºg '0N‘j’, ‘ON | ‘º ‘ON€.] 'ON| ‘ON | '0Nſ !'ON | ‘ON}）（\.}«.‘ “ ’N |， o N!| - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------- - - - - - - - ~- - - - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . - - - ------| ºffuſioſ I| ‘pontiļņuo0–'8ffuņºtoq ſiðaſºns ouſjaoſſ op I ºſ itſ fiu!...tmø00 a susqu'off.to .toff.lv), fo oņq)) \boy, Tonſis, - - i - - -- s - i t Chione latilirata, Con. (C. paphia, Lam.) - . - - Dosinia concentrica, Con. (D. discus, Rºve,) - Tapes pygmaea - - - - - - - - * * Mercenaria violacea, Adams - - - - A starte lunulata, Con. - - - - - - - - - Astarte undulata, Say - - - - - - - - - Lucina multilineata, Con. - - - - - L. costata, T. and II. - - - - - Lucina Kiawahensis, T. and H. Lucina crenulata, Con. - - Cardium magnum, Born - - - - - Cardium n. sp. 3 (aequjlaterale) -, - Cardium n. sp., Con. (ii) acquilaterale) I,aevicardium Mortoni, Con. - - Arca transversa, Say - - - Arca pexata, Say - Arca ponderosa, Say Arca Americana, Gray - * - * * - Teda acuta, Con. - - - - - - - - - - - - Modiola, 7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pinna muricata, Linu. - - - Lima sp. - - - - - - - - - Pecten dislocatus, Say - IPecten dentatus 7 - - - Anomia ephippium, Linn. Ostrea, 2 sp., undet. - - - - - - Glottidia pyramidata, Stimp . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mellita testudinata, Klein' or M. Caroliniana, Rav. Cellepora sp. (1) - - - - - - - - - - - Cellepora sp. (2) - - - - I : - s s s . -- - - - - - |- - i - |- H - - i F. : - – - H = f - | T - - - = º º : : = - H. - - H - - - - i º º - - - i. + * – - - -- - - -- -- - - - - -- ---- - -- -- -- - 48 NOTES ON THE LARGER FOSSILS FOUND IN THE BORINGS FOR THE LAKE BORG NE OUTLET’. Balanus eburneus.--The specimens of this somewhat tender species, Occurring in nearly all the marine strata examined, are all so broken and worn as to render an absolute specific identification difficult. Its gen- eral shape could in no case be verified ; but the structural characters, as far as observable, agree with those of B. eburneus. Serpula “femestrata,” n. sp.?—Of very general occurrence in the marine sands; minute ; fragments rarely above 0.3" in length ; some. times two or three tubes longitudinally coherent. Canal orbicular, about 0.3" in diameter, smooth. Walls of about the same average thickness as the diameter of the canal exterior of four to five rough, irregular lamellar costae, each forming a ridge between two rows of transverse rect- angular cells, which, when worn, impart to the surface a fenestrated appearance. On the longitudinal section these cells appear subquadrate and twice the diameter of the solid portion of the tube-wall. Pl. III, Fig. 11a; b, worn fragment; c and d, horizontal and longitudal sec- tions. Turbonilla undecim-sulcata, n. sp.–In form of spire, etc., resembles T. 5-striata Holmes. It differs in having eight revolving lines, one of which is double, and two broad furrows. One of the latter is at base, close to the shoulder, then four fine lines, of which the lowest is the double one ; then (a little above the middle of the volution), the second broad furrow, then four more lines. Fig. 10, basal whorl, with magni- fied view of lines. Utriculus (Tornatina) biplicatus.-This is the species named Bulling canaliculata in my report on the fossils of the New Orleans artesian Well (Rep. U. S. Eng. Dept. for 1870). Upon examination of more numerous and perfect specimens in the present series, I identify the New Orleans specimens likewise with U. biplicatus. Cylichma sp.–From the broken and much worn specimens found, I am unable to identify this shell positively with any of the described Spe- cies. It comes nearest C. oryza Stimp. Pl. III, Fig. 14. Architectomica gemma.-Although differing slightly in Sculpture from Holmes' description, this can hardly be claimed as a new species. Pl. III, fig. 9, basal and dorsal view. In the latter the prominence of the apical volution is not sufficiently shown. . Vatica Campeachemis. Pl. III, fig. S.–Young shell, natural size. A careful comparison of this shell with a full suite of specimens from the West Indies, establishes its identity. From the New Orleans artesian well of 1856. Dentalium (Antalis)? “laeve,” n.sp.?—Minute, almost straight, young shells, semi-transparent, very fragile, very abundant in some sediments; older ones opaque, porcelain-like; surface perfectly smooth and Shining, with no trace of longitudinal striae, but faintly perceptible growth-lines. Apex rounded, imperforate, as observed in immature specimens of 2 to 3mm length. Greatest length of fragment observed 6.75", indicating about 10mm as the length of the mature shell. The imperforate apex. if maintained in maturity, seems to separate this shell from Antalis and Dentalium. Pl. III, fig. 6. Dentalium “sewangulare,” n. sp.?—Larger than the preceding, but no perfect specimen seen. Shell rather thick, not shining, six-sided, With an elevated line midway on the faces; curved especially toward the apex. Resembles strongly D, alternatum of the Mississippi eocene. Pl. III, fig. 7; A, apex; C, basal cross-section. \\\\WN- Ř·§§ ÑŅŅŇ№S& §§ § i — — — — — . §ź///// ^^ =… ~~·oo • •=. • )))))))))) * * £ - . & . A. KFU C C FR. S. F. ae ∞ { \ 49 Corbula cuneata.-4: Rather more deeply and regularly ribbed than Say's figure, but clearly referrible to this very variable species.” (R. E. C. Stearns.) Very abundantly and generally present in the strata exam- ined, and somewhat unaccountably absent from the fossils of the New Orleans artesian well of 1856. Astarte undulata Say. (?)—Not over 3.5” in diameter ; agrees most nearly with this exceedingly variable species of Say. Cardium “aequilaterale,” n. sp.?—Shell orbicular, perfectly, equilat- eral; maximum length, 2.2”; profoundly radiately ribbed : ribs about 28 in number, obtuse on edge, nearly triangular in cross-section, Smooth, except the last 5 or 6 posterior ones, which have distant, Smooth, mamillary warts, very uniform in size, so as to appear to be an adult shell. Very abundant in some of the Lake Borgne specimens, but not observed in the New Orleans well series. In both Suites, however, there occurs sparingly another minute species. Cardium “inaequilaterale,” n. sp., perfect specimens of which from New Orleans were forwarded by me to Mr. Conrad, and recognized as new, but not as yet described in consequence of having been mislaid. In general form it resembles C. magnum, but is distinguished by its minuteness and surface sculpture from all described species. No perfect specimen was found in the Lake Borgne suite; characteristic fragments are not uncommon, but none sufficient for figuring. Strigilla (Tellina) flewuosa, Say.—One of the most abundant shells of the New Orleans series, is quite rare in the Lake Borgne Suite. Abra n. sp. (fide Conrad, 1870).-A pretty species, abundant at Some levels in the New Orleans artesian well, and to which Some fragments found in the Lake Borgne borings may be referrible. Pl. III, fig. 3. Venus cuneimeris (Circomphalus 2), Pl. III, fig. 5.—Agrees with speci- mens from Florida collected by Mr. R. E. C. Stearns. Probably from the New Orleans artesian well of 1856, at 41 feet. Tapes pygmaea.—Believed to be a new species by Mr. Conrad, to whom I transmitted specimens in 1870, but not described by him. The shell figured agrees altogether with Floridian specimens in the possession of Mr. Stearns. Pl. III, fig. 1. Lucina (Codakia) n. sp.?—Only one valve found, somewhat imperfect. Hinge showing two subtriangular pits separated by a thin, straight, vertical lamellar tooth. Shell much compressed, undulate, thick. Pl. III, fig. 2. Mellita testudinata Klein 2—None of the fragments found were large enough to ascertain distinctly its general outline or the existence of per- forations. Professor Carpenter, in a note on specimens sent him by Mr. Forshey, determines the specimens to be lI. pentafora (doubtless M. quin- quéfora Lamk). But the form of the spines and spicules of my speci- mens, as well as the sculpture of the pits, does not agree with M. Quin- fora, but very closely with M. testudinata. On the other hand, in the regularity of the arrangement of the pits on the surface, it differs mate- rially from the photograph given in the Cambr. Mus. Cat. (No. 7, Pl. XII°), of M. testudinata. Pl. III, fig. 12, fragments showing surface Sculpture, spines, and spicule. Cellepora sp., (1). Pl. III, No. 1; A, lower, B, upper surface; frag- ments only found. - Cellepora sp., (2). Pl. III, No. 2; A, complete specimen, lower sur- face; B, upper surface; C, same magnified. 4 E O SS §§ \O i & S (ºzážTTETTE.T.s.º. v. I S. e . Ş f • 2 a 3 × 3 & # 3 & # 3 & 3 & # 3 : 3 & # § Š Tº EETE ET }- TI —l L —L L– —ſ LT E § $ ~~~~ § Sº " S * . *~ § S. Ś § > N S N \\ SS C à cry tº) c N S. ſº s r F- y Fºx : TFT: TH THITI Tritº—º r— § S : § -Ø|||||IIIlling||||IIIHIII g|Eºsºx 'S rs § S * t SS - * NS N. ~ * | < 0.7%TTTTTTTTTTTTETTTTTTTTTTIſ: C § § § § § § ſ `s § § § 3. § - f N ^ •UZZZZZZZZZZZLIII.I.I.I.I.E.III/III.Eºiºsº Ç * § § N s s `s w - -- º: * * S S - NS NS ~H(Z źZ||||||| ||| |bg||||||||||||||||||| ||||||:#;"> T s s º § #– G ă. - S-É # = sā N ...: & | loſſ/ZZZZEEEEEEEEEEEE|IIIEIIIHF:FE::::::::NºN:::::::::FE::::::::::::::: H sº • . . | | . - Ö §§§§§Cºlliſſiſſilliºl|||||||||||||||||||BºSE&S㺠& sºme ºf 3 grº |\ § S § 3 sº | \, E(E==TTTTTTTEITTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTE=EE | | § 23 b- ię. ECFEITTTTTTTTTTTETTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTE. Sº } tº SO sº ==#TTT ||||||| T&Tiº E s ley º cº #TTTETiº © Ið 5– ČJ. \º be =HITITIETITIEºgº i| # > S $ S § § § S. s \\ § SS S SQ NS § S CŞ tº, 22., ex-2 * * ~ * * * GENERAL LIBRARY, - . MAR 4, 1899 AMERICAN SOCIETY MECHANICAL ENGINEERS PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS - t \, —— - z r ! t - : * > . . . . . \ 2-, ; : "... }, \, ( [ _ " - . . . . . . \,-\ºva # * , * & A". ^_^' > W y \- v - - - - -- - # * \Z^_^^ - - - - --- THE ENGINEER HIS WORK HIS ETHICS HIS PLEASURES `-- \ S With the compliments of the author. AMERICA.W SOCIETY OF MECHA WICAL EAWGI WEERS– ANNUAL ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, 1898. Forming a part of Volume XX. of the Transactions. BY CHARLES WALLACE HUNT, IT has been the custom of this Society for the President to deliver a formal address at the end of his term of service. This practice, like other acts which continue long enough for the establishing of a custom, must have good reasons for its exist- ence, although they may not be fully appreciated either by those who established or by those who follow the custom. The duty which devolves upon me this evening was first en- tered into as a task, but it grew to be a pleasure, as the growth and importance of the functions of the engineer became evident on every side, as we study them in our national development, in our industries, and even in the comforts and the luxuries of our daily life. Each one of us looks out upon the same world from a different standpoint, and each sees the same general scene, but the scope of the view and the details observed will vary to a greater or a less degree, depending upon our particular position. In addi- tion to this, each, as it were, looks through a colored glass which gives a personal tint to the scene, colored by the effects of our environment, as well as by Our personal temperament. Could we combine all these various pictures, large and small, which are presented to our view, with all their varied tints, we would obtain a kind of composite image, which would be a more accurate and probably a more pleasing representation of the real subject than any one of us sees individually. A senior, who has travelled the rugged path of life, should be able from his experiences on the way to select such views as would be both useful and pleasant for a junior to consider as he starts out on a similar journey. The interest of our annual meeting is heightened, and an intellectual pleasure is given us, when one of our body presents to the others those subjects which seem to 2 PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. him important and interesting, that all may compare them with the view as seen from their own standpoint. As we pass from subject to subject, each will combine the picture presented with his own personal conceptions, giving, as it were, a stereoscopic effect, each one gaining a wider and a clearer view. In making this survey we will first consider those matters which immedi- ately concern engineering practice, and then pass on to wider fields and subjects of more general interest. The Word “Engineer.” In order that we may proceed in harmony of thought, we must use words in the same sense. Let us, then, first consider what we mean by the word “engineer”—not what it meant historically, but what it has come to signify in the active world of to-day— and try to bring our individual conceptions of this meaning into harmony each with the other. Following Tredgold, I have herein used the word “engineer” in the broad sense of one who is skilled in the application of the materials and forces of nature to the uses of man. Considered in this broad sense, the engineer is interested in every investigation and discovery in the whole realm of nature. Experience has shown that every field is tributary to his work. The theoretical abstraction of yesterday becomes a demonstra- tion to-day, and to-morrow it is the task of the engineer to apply it to the uses of man. The new discoveries of materials, of forces, and of laws which now succeed each other so rapidly, make a corresponding increase in the range of the work and the responsibility of the engineer of this present day. Engineering Practice. That we live in an age of changes is at once our opportunity and our pleasure. Some of these changes burst upon us, attract- ing universal notice, while others come so slowly that they are almost unobserved. A change of the latter character has been taking place of late years in the work of professional engineers. This has largely come from the development of our manufactur- ing institutions from the position of being a minor factor in our economic life to being one of commanding importance, and the PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. 3 necessary employment of skilled engineers to conduct their technical affairs. The engineer of the user and the engineer of the maker have widely different duties. Consider how different may be the in- formation required in practice by two classmates, whom we will designate as “A” and “B,” who graduate from college as engi- neers. We will suppose that “A” secures a position in the engineering department of a city, and commences his work, which may be the designing of a new water-pumping station. His college course has fitted him for the work. His text-books were suited to problems of this character. He finds abundant infor- mation on all branches of the subject, in data published in the proceedings of scientific societies, in technical literature, and in annual reports of city departments. The forms of contracts to be entered into are at hand, all found elaborately drawn, with every point safe-guarded, and need only a little selection and adaptation to suit his case. They place in his hands the power to decide absolutely and without appeal all questions which may arise in carrying out the work. “B” obtains employment in the engineering department of a manufacturing corporation, which in due time is to submit a tender for the construction of the pumping plant for which “A.” has issued specifications. He will find that the form of contract proposed by “A” has many minute and carefully worded clauses to bind and limit the supplier. The tender to be sub- mitted for the execution of the work must in its scope and word- ing protect the interests which “B” represents, not only in a general sense, but in every one of the clauses of the proposed contract. Every obscure phrase and every adjective used by “A” must have definite consideration and be clearly defined in both an engineering and a legal sense. “B” here finds that the information derived from his college course is meagre, and there is no technical literature which he can use, either as a general guide for making a form of tender, or the proper ex- pressions to use to define or limit the obscure clauses or words found in the specification. Ilooking at the subject from a purely technical point of view, we see quite as great a variation in their work. In the case supposed, “A” would require only a general knowledge, while “B” would require the most thorough and exhaustive informa- tion of the qualities of constructive materials, and shop practice 4. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. available in that particular location. The farther we carry the comparison of their work, the more clearly it is seen that the educational needs are becoming more and more complex, to correspond with the growing specialization of engineering work. Bractice Abroad. There is another phase of engineering practice represented by the duties of “A” and “B” which now becomes interesting, if the work of American engineers is to take the place in the world at large to which the indications now so plainly point. In other countries it is a common practice for “A” to make all the general designs and all of the details for engineering work, and the supplier has no responsibility for either, or for the efficient working of the plant when completed. If errors or Omissions are found in the drawings or specifications, the cost of the changes required is paid by the purchaser, in the usual bill for extra work. In this case, the duties of “A.” are exhaus- tive, and those of “B” are small or disappear altogether. American Practice. The American practice is tending to the method of making the requirements issued by “A” of a general character which will cover the results sought, and leave to the supplier, “B,” the work of designing the particular means to accomplish the desired end. Business has become of such a magnitude and so complex that one mind cannot fully grasp and readily handle the new discoveries, new materials, and new practices which now come so rapidly. For efficient and economical results, each phase must be handled by an expert. There will be many “B” engineers to respond to the require- ments of “A,” and each will present for consideration different ideas, different materials, and different shop practices. “A.” must select, from these various plans and details submitted, the one which best promises to fulfil the requirements. It is a division of labor between “A” and “B,” each of whom, by tastes and training, is especially fitted for his part of the work. We may paraphrase their duties by saying that “A” is a judge, “B” is a counsellor. s PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. 5 Post-Graduate Work. At the present time we cannot expect our technical schools, painstaking and perfect as they are, to fully prepare both “A.” and “B” for such new and varied duties, or even to have their instruction in engineering fully abreast with the latest practice, or at least not until progress in the arts and sciences has sub- stantially ceased. It takes time for a new practice or a new result to be recorded, published, considered, and adopted by the teaching staff. This difference between the teaching and the engineering practice of the day is not only an indication of progress in engineering, but in some measure is an index of its rate. The student, then, must expect, as a normal proceeding, to supple- ment his graduating acquirements by practical experience, together with a personal contact with his professional breth- ren, in order to place himself fully abreast of the times, and to be fitted for the most effective and useful engineering service. Engineering theory and practice are rapidly extending with the general advancement of Our economic interests, and the en- gineer, whether he be a young graduate or otherwise, who does not make use of the modern aids to information, among which are to be counted scientific societies, and a personal association with his brethren, with the innumerable hints and suggestions which come from these, will soon be found struggling with what seems to him adverse fate, but what, in reality, is inferior knowl- edge, behindhand knowledge, or, plainly speaking, ignorance greater or less. The engineering world has passed by him, and he must then view the working out of the law of the sur- vival of the fittest with what grace he may. Laboratory Development. An interesting development in the engineering world of the present day is the rapid growth of the experimental equipment of our colleges and technical schools. There seems to be no limit to the expense and the completeness of the illustrative and experimental machinery which is being installed for the instruction of the students of these institutions. And not less valuable is the learning, industry, and skill of the professors 6 PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. in charge of and directing these schools, whose theoretical acquirements are supplemented by being in constant per- sonal touch with the industrial and economic interests of the country. + It is possible that by an organized effort the magnificent equipment of trained professors and experimental apparatus could be brought in closer touch with each other, that to a material extent their work and investigations might be made to proceed on a predetermined plan. This would broaden their field of experimental investigations, lessen the duplication of work, systematize the publication of results, and more rapidly extend our growing fund of accurate engineering data. A Helping Hand. The engineering and scientific work of to-day uses one or the other of two systems of metrology, the English or the metric. The discussions of the relative importance and the desirability of these systems of weights and measures are frequently interest- ing, and may to some extent be useful in familiarizing the terms and making easier the conversion of quantities from one system to the other. Practical engineers can, however, lay aside aca- demic discussions on the advantages or disadvantages of either, and recognize that the two great systems of metrology are each used by great engineering nations to the practical exclusion of any other, and they may safely assume, without discussion, that they are not likely in the near future to be changed in any ma- terial way by those using them. It is especially desirable that English-speaking societies shall give every practicable aid to engineers using the metric system of measures, that the work of their engineers may be readily available and with the least possible trouble in making conver- sions of quantities from the English to the metric system. Such computations are always troublesome to perform, and distract- ing to the mind when undivided attention is required by the subject matter of the article. If the numerical expression in English measures is followed in a parenthesis by the exact metric equivalent, the article is practically translated when printed, as most engineers using the metric system read the English language, although they may not speak it, or readily make numerical conversions. The greater the availability and PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. 7 the publicity given to the published proceedings of a scientific society, the more nearly has the society accomplished the chief object of its existence. An Entending Field. It has long been evident that we were making rapid progress in perfecting our manufacturing machinery, as well as organiz- ing and developing our industries, thus constantly increasing the efficiency of our labor, until we have reached a point where an hour's labor with its facilities produces more of our principal products, and transports them farther, than an hour's labor will do in any other part of the world. The late war has revealed to us the fact that we have gone On reducing the cost of our products, and increasing our capacity for production, until our country alone does not furnish a suffi- cient market to insure steady work for our labor, and prosperity for our merchants and manufacturers. Like confined waters, the tendency of these increasing economic forces has been to break out from their confinement and equalize trade conditions by seeking a market in the world outside. If articles which are necessary to supply the wants of man can actually be made here with less labor and cheaper than elsewhere, here they will surely be made, though it modify our traditional ideas of isolated posi- tion, and our protective theories. One hundred years ago the iron trade of Sweden was greater than that of England, and remembering the great changes which have taken place in the last hundred years, it would be rash to assume that the momentous economic changes which are now taking place, may not cause an equally great shifting of the centres of more than one phase of industrial activity. Scientific Societies. Every age has produced most ingenious and able engineers and mechanicians, as is conclusively shown by specimens of their work. Many of these have been preserved and handed down to us, causing us to wonder at their skill when we con- sider the limitation of materials then available, and in their time the paucity of exact knowledge of the laws of nature. But the special knowledge and experience of those masters in the art 8 PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. practically disappeared when death claimed the originators, as only a small portion usually remained in the minds of the pupils, and but little of this was transmitted to posterity. It was only when scientific and technical societies for the preserva- tion of accurate records had developed, in the fulness of time, making all the world pupils, that the valuable knowledge so laboriously obtained was preserved and handed down to those who, sooner or later, could utilize it for the comfort and the advancement of mankind. These lately developed scientific societies, which are so prominent a feature of the present age, were organized for the discovery and the universal diffusion of scientific knowledge, an object entirely different from that of all mediaeval guilds and trade organizations. At first they were largely philosophical, discussing theories and experiments which at the time appeared to the community at large to have little or no direct bearing on the practical affairs of life. The members presented to the society the results of their investigations and experiments, in the form of written papers, making them permanent records to be consulted and made avail- able by others who were contemporaneous or who would succeed them. This was the vital germ which was to develop and elevate science and its applications in industrial work in succeeding ages. These societies thus became, so to say, the savings-banks of our civilization, the repositories and guardians of the results of in- vestigations, experiments, and experience that otherwise would have been lost to the world. As industrial interests became more important, other societies sprang up, each devoted to some particular phase of scientific or technical work; each gathering, selecting, and recording data, not alone for their members, but to become permanent additions to the general fund of scientific and engineering knowledge. The growth of these societies has been accompanied by a gradual de- crease of secret methods of manufacture, formerly so prominent, but which have now practically disappeared in our industries. Manufacturing supremacy is now decided by other factors. The advance made in the accumulation of useful data and more accurate knowledge in practical engineering gained one season, is presented to a scientific society the next, and still later it will be embodied in text-books for the instruction of students who are soon to take our places and carry on our work. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. 9 Until attention is called to the subject, we are not likely to real- ize that, in their essential parts, the great bulk of the engineer- ing data available to us now has been first presented to a sci- entific society, and there permanently preserved until the time came for its utilization or application. It is this great fund of information, principally accumulated during the last century, that we draw upon for the materials for our text-books, our general treatises, and our engineering hand-books. Applied Science. Turning now to the effects of this accumulation of scientific data and literature available to all alike, and the results follow- ing its application by organized methods of procedure, Our first glance will show prominently the wonderful and rapid increase of the importance of engineering in our industrial life. It has transformed almost every phase of it, and put into our hands materials and processes which make the actual life of our im- mediate ancestors seem primitive by comparison. Commencing under adverse conditions and developing in a field of restricted capital, with scarce and high-priced labor, engineering in America has applied the forces and materials of nature to the uses of man in a characteristic way. Freedom from mediaeval traditions and the hampering conditions found in the older countries left them substantially free in the choice of means to accomplish their end. Influenced as our engineering has been by the experience and the work of other parts of the world, yet we cannot escape the fact that its development was essentially independent, and in some phases unique. Improvement has followed improvement in technical matters, profits and savings have been added to the capital invested in our industries, until our country, two hundred years ago an untraversed wilderness, one hundred years ago a struggling nation—struggling with industrial difficulties and serious po- litical problems—has triumphed over those early limitations, and has developed into a nation which in numbers, prosperity, and wealth takes a prominent position among the great nations of the world. - The Advent of the Engineer. Whichever way we turn, we behold marvellous changes, which have followed the advent of the engineer on the scene. A view 10 PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. of one subject will in a measure serve to represent these changes, and to recall similar illustrations to your minds which differ from this only in degree. It is but a few years, well within the memory of men now living, that our navy and all the other navies of the world were composed of sailing ships. In one of these vessels a mechanical germ was introduced in the form of a steam engine and an engineer. The grave question soon arose as to what should be the status of the new intrusion into the personnel of the ship, the engineer. This factor, which was soon to revolutionize the navy, was considered unimportant at that time, as is shown by the first official record on this subject in the Navy Depart- ment at Washington, stating that it would seem that such persons should be exempt from the penalty of corporal punish- ment. The engine grew in size with each succeeding vessel, and as it increased, the sails correspondingly shrank, until finally they disappeared altogether. Other mechanical germs also found a lodgment in the ship, which have so developed that hydraulic and pneumatic pressures are produced, and electric currents are generated and distributed, to govern the rudder, hoist the anchor, ventilate the compartments, energize the combustion, revolve the turrets, train and control the guns, handle the am- munition, and purge the ocean's water of its impurities, making it wholesome for the ship's use. Following these in quick succession came incandescent lamps and search-lights, breech-loading and rapid-fire guns, multi- charge automatic guns, and mobile torpedoes—One mechanical appliance rapidly following another, until the ship-of-the-line, which but just now embodied the result of hundreds of years of thought and experiment, has been completely transformed from keel to topmast into a vast machine, controlled and operated, even to the least important function, not by sailors, but by mechanicians. In every phase of our industrial life the changes wrought by the engineer are quite as evident; for instance, note the marvellous changes in the manufacture of steel,-in the development of electric locomotion,-in iron building con- struction,-in machine tools, in agricultural implements, in sewing-machines, in textile industries, in electric me- tallurgy. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. 11 Aſs Work. The life of the engineer has a full measure of the labors, the trials, the discomforts, and the disappointments which are found in this as in every other walk of life. But it also has the successes which come from well-directed labors. It is not, however, either the useful work in itself, or what are called the successes of life, which brings happiness. It is man's ideals which make him happy. Let us together survey some of the surrounding influences which tend to give high ideals of life to the engineer, no matter what the trials or the vexations of the moment may be. We will pass in review the interesting character of his daily work, his pure-minded associates, the higher pleasures of life, and the fascinating scenes by which he is surrounded. We will then better appreciate with what elevated emotions a father can lead a son, or a teacher his pupil, to the path of an engineering life, and place in his hands the mathematical, chemical, and physical implements to enter upon a work which will bring to him use- fulness, pleasure, and honor. Whichever way engineering may develop as time rolls on, its elevating influences are constantly at work on the mind and on the character. The work is carried on under unchangeable laws, which must be rigorously applied and adhered to, or failure is sure to result. Man builds to master, to resist, or to guide the forces of nature. If he has rightly judged the condi- tions, his work stands as a permanent monument of the fact; but if otherwise, the irresistible laws of nature will develop the defect and discover his ignorance, incompetence, or error to every observer. His Researches. Hence he laboriously seeks out the unseen laws and forces of the universe, then expresses the revelation in a workable form for his daily use. He tests his materials with painstaking refinement. He measures electric resistances with an accuracy now reaching the point of one in four millions,—time to the one- millionth part of a second;—divides a circle with a mean error not exceeding the one-millionth part of the circumference;— makes surfaces six inches square with a variation from absolute flatness of less than one two-hundred-thousandth of an inch, 12 PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898, and parallel within one second of arc;-rules lines which vary from absolutely perfect spacing by only one three-millionth part of an inch;-measures his optical work with a wave-length of light as a unit of distance, and handles this unit of the one forty-thousandth of an inch as easily as a mechanic handles a rule;—sees clearly the spectrum of Samarium when one part is diluted with three million parts of lime;—and surveys lines eleven miles long, in the open air, with an average variation in three measurements of only four-tenths of an inch. Płºs Ethics. The effect of living and working in such a sphere of action, where it is inconceivable that an engineer could knowingly be otherwise than exact in his work, should tend to influence the whole trend of his life and character, and make them to a greater or less degree a reflex of his daily work. He of all men has the most unchangeable and exalted basis for his ethics— the clearest of all knowledge of the disastrous results which will surely follow the violation of law. The very qualities of his mind which make his work a pleasure and a success will all tend to bring his every act into compliance with the inexorable laws of the universe. If it is otherwise, and his conduct is not guided by, and his ethics are not in accordance with the laws of right doing and right thinking, then, and to that extent, he is not an engineer—not one who is skilled in the application of the laws and the forces of nature to the uses of man. His Pleasures. It is with hesitation that I ask you to contemplate the pleas- ures of life enjoyed by those whose daily walk is thus sur- rounded. Words fail to describe the exquisite pleasures and the noble aims which are inspired by the contemplation of the wisdom and beneficence of the laws of the universe, which the diligence of man has revealed to us. Who can estimate the satisfaction which comes to the mind of the engineer from the knowledge that his work, the fruit of his investigations, and the wisdom of his decisions will be judged, not by fallible human methods and its caprices, but by the infallible and immu- table laws of the universe ! PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. - 13 Then consider the pleasure which comes from working in the open air, in the broadest light, where every interested one can see his difficulties, his investigations, his adaptations, and finally, if God has given him ability equal to the task, his solu- tion of the problem. When victory comes, he is given the honor due to the work in unstinted measure, and he can accept it with propriety and count the commendation as one of the pleasures of life. - - It is inspiring to the earnest engineer to feel that the actual workings of his mind, and his inner and fundamental conception of the forces of nature, of resistances, of materials, of workman- ship, will be shown in his works as in a mirror. Roebling, Ericsson, Sir Benjamin Baker, and Edison have worked, as it were, in a glass house. Their thoughts and judgments are shown to all the world, not by inadequate words, but in the works of their hands—the Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, the turreted Monitor, the Forth Bridge,_the quadruplex tele- graph, the enclosed filament whose electric conductivity in- creases with the current. Then he has the gratification to the mind which is found in comprehending and intellectually seeing, as clearly as in a dia- gram, the theoretical lines of the forces in a structure, and then clothing those lines with materials of strength and re- sistance, to make them realities, and adapted to do the every- day work of life. The Brooklyn Suspension Bridge by Roeb- ling shows an almost ideal correspondence of the two, so that it may represent either theory or practice, depending on which way at the moment he chooses to look at it. Again, he uses a system of weights that cannot be seen or handled, the purely intellectual atomic weights—yet the rock under our feet is not more firm and real than is the work done with these in- tellectual aids. Aſis Environment. Working in a field and in touch with a body of his fellow-men having similar tastes, he sees on every hand scenes of engross- ing interest—the telescope photographically recording the po- sition and motion of stars which no human eye has ever seen, the spectroscope analyzing the materials of the sun and stars with all the accuracy which it would show if the articles were in the laboratory, looking with Roentgen rays through a double- 14 - PRESIDENT's ADDRESS, 1898. barrelled rifle, and seeing not only the leaden bullets within the steel barrels, but also the wads and the charges, and photo- graphing lines in the ultra-violet and infra-red spectrum far beyond the reach of our vision. He stands by a quartz filament galvanometer which indicates an electric current so minute that if it should be increased in magnitude eight hundred thousand times it would still be only the one-millionth part of an ampere; and on the other hand, in contrast, sees the Niagara electric generator of five thousand horse-power, with a current so much larger than that of the galvanometer that the difference can only be expressed mathe- matically, not in colloquial language. He sees with entrancing interest the liquefaction of hydrogen at a temperature of only twenty-three degrees centigrade above absolute Zero, and, again in contrast, sees what promises to be a rosetta-stone in astral analysis, in the precise correspondence of the spectrum of the star gamma Cygni and that of the chromosphere of the sun. He shares in the enthusiasm at the results of two years of unremitting work in the extreme part of the known spectrum in isolating a new element, monium,_in the Hertz electro-mag- netic waves now applied in wireless telegraphy, -in the newly discovered element polonium, whose radiations make the air through which they pass a conductor of electricity. More nearly touching him personally comes the work of the biologist, whose quest for the thing we call life has continued from the primitive man to the present time. Constantly flit- ting from his grasp, it has seemingly passed from fire and storm to mountain and deep, from animal and plant to flower, to seed, to cell, and now it has been followed to the molecule or the atom; and yet it as completely eludes his grasp, or even his comprehension, as ever it has. But followed it certainly has been, by all the laws and forces of nature at the command of man, until the search for it is now in the atom, a space physically so small that only the trained imagination can even faintly comprehend its minuteness. And there, on the outskirts of this unexplored world, stands man, with spectroscope and polarized light, peering into the sphere of action which we call an atom, well knowing that therein lie wonderful forces, activities, and at least the effects of that mysterious entity, life itself. He sees a field for investiga- tion so fraught with possibilities, so infinitely beyond the com- PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1898. 15 prehension of any conception which we can form of the capaci- ties of the human mind, that he stands gazing into the abyss with the same devout wonder and awe as does the astronomer when viewing the illimitable heavens. The two are standing, as it were, back to back, and each is gazing into an infinity—one into the infinitely great, and the other into the infinitely small. Thus stands the engineer in the midst of a countless number of earnest explorers in the field of unrevealed nature, and, so to speak, sees the tools forged and the materials discovered with which he is to work. Cheerfully can he enter upon his daily task with the consciousness that his application of these dis- coveries is of real service in lightening the burdens of our life, as well as elevating and ennobling his fellow-men. The scenes which we have just brought to our intellectual vision are not those of the untrained imagination, of rhetoric, or of unreality, but those of the most rigorous truth, among the most real and matter-of-fact things known to us in all the realms of nature, and brought before you in the plainest language at my command. We have traversed a wide field together, and now, as we draw near to a personal parting—never to meet again under similar circumstances—let us, as we travel the way of life, appreciate its elevating pleasures, and carry to our daily tasks and to our homes a higher realization of the dignity of the life and of the work of the engineer. 32d Congress, [SFNATE.] Ex. Doc. 1st Session. **:2-y --- • A * R. E. P. O. R. T T H E S F C R F T A R Y O F W A R, coxſyſ UNICATING Reports in reference to the inundations of the Mississippi river. JANUARy 21, 1852. Read, and ordered to be printed. M JANUARY 22, 1852. Ordered that three thousand additional copies be printed, three hindred of which for the Topographical Bureäli. WAR DEPARTMENT, JWashington, January 20, 1852. SIR : In compliance with the resolution of the Senate dated December 9, 1851, “that the Secretary of the Department of War communicate to the Senate any reports which have been received in reference to the inunda- tions of the Mississippi, and to state whether any further appropriation is required to complete the surveys and investigations heretofore directed,” I have the honor to transmit herewith the report of the Chief Topographical Engineer, accompanied by the reports of Lieutenant Colonel Long, of the topographical engineers, and Mr. Charles Ellet, jr., civil engineer, and sub- mitting an estimate of fifty thousand dollars for the ensuing fiscal year, for the further prosecution of investigations in reference to the inundations of the Mississippi. - -- - I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, C. M. CONRAD, Secretary of War, Hon. W. R. RING, President of the Senate. [20] 2 BUREAU of Topogº APHICAL ENGINEERs, Washington, January 19, 1852. SIR I have the honor to acknowledge your direction to report upon a resolution of the Senate of the 9th ult., calling for such reports as have been received in reference to the inundations of the Mississippi; and to state whether any further appropriations are required, in order to complete investigations on that subject. - - To execute the appropriation law of September 30, 1850, two parties were organized : one under Captain Humphreys, of the corps of topo- graphical engineers, the other under Mr. Charles Ellet, jr., civil engineer. At the commencement, a board of engineers was organized, consisting of Lt. Col. Long and Captain Humphreys, with directions to report upon the required surveys and investigations. The report of the board will be found printed as Senate Ex. Doc. No. 13, 2d session 31st Congress. The duties of this board were, to “decide upon the extent and character of the surveys to be made;” aſter which Lt. Col. Long was to resume his former duties at Louisville, Ky., and Captain Humphreys was to “give his attention to the requisite surveys.” : Afterwards, on the 18th November, 1850, a separate and additional party was organized under Mr. Ellet. - - - These parties went to work as soon as practicable, and pursued their in- vestigations with great industry. - Unfortunately, the zeal of Captain Humphreys induced him to remain so long and so late in the field during last summer, on the lower parts of the river, as to produce the most alarming indisposition, and so protracted and painful a debility, that, under advice of his medical attendants, he was or- dered to the north, and has been relieved from the necessity of making the required report. - - . . - On the 10th of October, 1851, Lt. Col. Long was directed to repair to . Philadelphia, and from the notes of Captain Humphreys, and such informa- tion as he should receive from him, to make the report. This order, and another, placed Lt. Col. Long again at the head of the board to which he had been previously assigned. - - • The result of these arrangements has been to produce two reports: One from Lt. Col. Long, dated 26th November, 1851. One from Mr. Ellet, dated 31st October, 1851. * These two reports are now submitted, in compliance with the resolution of the Senate. . Lt. Col. Long, in his report, limits himself to an exposition of what has been done (by Captain Humphreys’ command,) and of what is yet required to be done. He also enters into the question of the funds wanted for fu- ture operations. From this last, an estimate is now submitted of 50,000 dollars, for the ensuing fiscal year, for the further prosecution of investiga- tions in reference to the inundations of the Mississippi. Mr. Ellet, in his report, goes into a statement of these inundations, and proposes remedies. º In the annual report from this office of 6th November, 1845, an effort is made to expose the pernicious consequences of what are called “cut-offs,” as applied to the Mississippi and other similar rivers. This subject is treated more extensively in the report of Mr. Ellet, and the pernicious conse- quences of the practice more elaborately exposed. Mr. Ellet names seve- ral places on the Mississippi liable to these operations, and recominends 3 ſ 20 measures to protect them against such efforts by man, or by the gradual ac- tion of the stream. * Also in the annual report from this office of November 14, 1890, it is stated, in reference to protection from inundation, “there have been sug- gested but two modes which offer any reasonable prospect of success: One to make additional outlets to the river during periods of high water, adapted to relieve the river when it should rise to a given height, and so made as to avoid abrasion from the action of the discharging water ; the ºther a systerli of judiciously arranged dikes or levees, or probably a judicious combination of both, according to facts and localities.” Mr. Ellet reasons with much ability upon these two ideas, pointing out favorable positions for the outlets, and indicating the extent of the dikes, and the dimensions which should be given to them. He considers the levees recommended, “averaging eight feet high and four hundred and fifty miles long, would involve an expenditure of probably not more than $2,500,000. Such an expenditure would, in fact, be ample to protect the whole coast (river coast) below Red river, from the floods that are now felt. But such wórks would not protect the country above, and would be incompatible with the drainage and reclamation of the delta.” - , . He also calls to his aid a fourth accessory means of controlling these floods; that of reservoirs in the mountain gorges, near the heads of the Yrincipal streams. While I willingly admit that ail the speculations of a ro * * man of intellect are full of interest, and deserving of careful thought, yet I cannot agree with him that these reservoirs would have any good or pre- ventive effects upon the pernicious inundations of this river, and even doubt if the waters so proposed to be collected have any appreciable, and certain- ly not an injurious effect, upon the inundated region. These reservoirs can of course collect only the waters which shall drain into them, and can have no possible influence upon other water below the reservoir draining space ; or, in other words, from the immense plateau of country which lies between the headwaters of these rivers, or below points where gorges for reservoirs would probably be found. My impressions are, that the pernicious inundations of these rivers are consequent only upon a general rain, or a general and rapid thaw of the Snow, over this immense plateau. The calculation of downfall water has direct reference to this extensive plateau; and unless it can be shown that the vast supply of water from this plateau, or a large portion of it, would be collected and restrained by these reservoirs, I do not perceive their ad- vantage to the system proposed to be adopted. - There is a reasoning of Mr. Ellet, referable to any system, which deserves much consideration. It cannot be doubted by any one who has studied, that effeetual remedies to the evil complained of force considerations of any sys- tem beyond the limits of any one of the affected States, and, in reference to unity of plan, the success of any plan, efficiency and economy, require the energetic action of some general supervising power. This idea involves considerations beyond my province to discuss. The result, however, to my judgment is very clear, either but little can be done, or the work must be done hy the general government. Respectfully, sir, your obedient servant, - - J. J. ABERT, - Colonel Corps Topographical Engineers. Hon. C. M. CoNRAD, . w Secretary of War. ... º * - * , | 20 | 4 :*. REPORT ON THE NATURE AND PROGRESS OF THE DELTA SURVEY'S OF Y. THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI. * By S. H. LoNG, Lt. Col. T. E., PREs’t Topographie AL BoARD. OFFICE WESTERN RivièR IMPRovºſeNTs; Louisville, JNovember 26, 1851. SIR : In obedience to your instructions of the 10th ultimo, requiring a report on the nature, progress, and cost of the operations performed under the direction of Captain A: A. Humphreys, of the corps of topographical engineers, for the purpose of ascertaining the most effectual method of pro- tecting the alluvial grounds of the lower Mississippi against inundations; also, on the nature and probable cost of the operations remaining to be performed for the same purpose; I have the honor to submit the following, as the summary result of my inquiries and investigations in relation to these premises. º The impaired health of Captain Humphreys has been assigned as the oc- casion of my interference in this arduous and complicated duty, for which no other Gould be so well qualified as the officer under whose directions the operations were performed. But from recent personal interviews with Captain H., and from the representations of his physician, I am persuaded that the continual illness of that officer renders him unfit for the laborious task of collating and reporting on the proceedings had, under his direction, ..in relation to the required surveys of the Mississippi delta, and I shall ac- cordingly endeavor to perform the task, in a manner as brief as practi- vable, and in conformity to the best lights that can be obtained in relation to the same. - . The system of surveys and investigations deemed most conducive to an adequate development of the facts and circumstances affecting the inunda- e. tions of the Iower Mississippi and the means of “protecting the adjacent country from their injurious effects,” has been fully set forth and explained in the report of the board of topographical engineers, dated Napoleon, December 18, 1850, to which I beg leave to refer for any information that may be wanted in relation to the “required surveys.” The surveys, &c., that have been made, and that are to be treated of in this report, are to be regarded as items embraced by that general system, and constituting merely a portion of the same. The items alluded to have been gleaned from the copious field-notes kept by sundry individuals employed on different depart- ments of the field-work, and especially from the summary statements of Lt. Warren, G. C. Smith, J. K. Ford, J. Bennet, and others, serving in the several departments of the surveys. The surveys and observations at and near New Orleans, having for their objects the establishment of transverse sections of the river bed; the transit speed of the river currents across those sections, at different stages of the water ; the proportional quantity of alluvial matter held in suspension by the river at each stage; the quan- tity of water and floating matter conveyed downward, in all stages, during a period of one year; the per-centage to be deducted from this quantity on account of the floating sedimentary materials, OI’ the sum total of sedimen- tary matter annually passing the sections ; the maximum quantity of Wà- ter, &c., that can flow between the river. banks at New Örleans, without producing overflows, &c., &c., were confided to the direction and supervi- i \ § 5 [ 20 J sion of Professor Forshey, who is still employed on this service, and is ex- pected to persevere in it, during the lapse of one entire year, at least. Of the progress made in these operations, I have as yet failed to obtain any definite knowledge, except that the services of Professor F. have been performed with the most assiduous and careful attention on his part, and in a manner conformable to the instructions of Captain Humphreys, and satis- factory to that officer. - - / Epitome from the report of Lieut. Warren, official and personal assistant of Captain Humphreys. - The report of Lieut. Warren relates principally to operations under the personal direction and supervision of Captain Humphreys, and embraces the following items, unaccompanied by any specific results, or statistics, except by reference to copious field-notes, not yet in my possession. 1. On the completion of the investigations and report of the board of topographical-engineers, in the latter part of December, 1850, arrangements were made by Captain Humphreys for the commencement and prosecution of the surveys and other observations therein proposed. 2. The preliminary outfit for these purposes consisted of two quarter- boats, three row-boats or yawls, together with the requisite cooking appara- tus, provisions, and various implements necessary to the prosecution of geo- detic and hydrographic surveys. - tº . . Surveying instruments, consisting of theodolites, compasses, chains, levels, “’ &c., &c., were also procured and distributed among the surveying parties, in a manner adapted to the nature of the services required of each party. 3. Printed luetnoirs, books, maps, charts and other public documents, descriptive of the aspect, character and changeable features of the vast allu- vial district, constituting the spacious delta of the lower Mississippi, were procured, for the purpose of obtaining an adequate and authentic knowledge of the present and former condition of the great delta district. - NoTE.—lnventories of the books, instruments and other public property, alluded to, have been prepared by Lieut. Warren, and are here with pre- sented. (See doc. A.) * - Organization of field parlies. 4. The force deemed needful to the prosecution of the contemplated sur- veys, was distributed into three distinct parties, in the following order, to wit: - A topographical party, consisting of two principal assistants, three sub- assistants, and twenty-nine laborers, including chainmen, axemen, boatkeeper, steward, cook, &c., unds; the direction of J. K. Ford, esq., assistant civil engineer. - - • * , - - * * * A hydrographic party, consisting of one principal assistant, two sub- assistants, one pilot, Seven boatmen, a steward and cook, under the direction of G. C. Smith, esq., assistant engineer. & And a hydrometric party, consisting of one principal assistant, two sub- assistants, two carpenters, two principal boatmen, one clerk, one messenger, and sixteen extra laborers and gauge observers, occasionally employed in making observations and performing Sundry other services, under the direc- tion of Prof. C. G. Forshey, assistant civil engineer. [20] . . 6 - • *w. NoTE-A statement exhibiting the names, capacities, rates of pay, Com- ºncement and termination of service, &c., &c., has been prepared by Lieut. Warren, and is herewith presented. (See doc. B.) - 5. From a report of Lieut. Warren, (see doc. C.) the following summary of expenditures incurred in the prosecution of surveys, &c., under the di. rection of Captain Humphreys, and within the period of his personal com- mand, commencing on the 1st November, 1850, and ending on the 30th November, 1851, exhibits the proximate cost of the work, and, of course, the amount drawn from the treasury on account of the same. The sum. mary is as follows: - Expenditures on account of delta stºrieys in 1850 and 1851. Expenditures for the 4th quarter of 1850. - * . - $1,662 52 Do. do. 1st do. 1851 - - - 10,131 16 Po. do. 2d do. i85? – <--> - 10,487 26 Bo. do. 3d do. 1851 (about) - t- 9,902 47 Bo. do. 4th do. #8.5i “ - *- 4,816 59 a-m-s-s--- 37,000 00 - Amounting to *: - qº *> NotE.—The last two items of the summary have been given as a near . approximation of the amounts likely to be expended for the third and fourth quarters of the current year, the amounts remaining to be verified by Sundry vouchers, not yet received. The details of expenditures have been exhibited in a multiplicity of vouchers, accompanying the quarterly returns, already made to the Topographical Bureau, by direction of Captain Humphreys, - - - 6. Agreeably to the document above cited, (doc. C,) the expenditures on account of the hydrometric party, under the direction of Professor Forshey, are to be restricted to an amount not exceeding $500 per month, from and after the end of the current November. No returns or reports, relating to the progress of the investigations committed to the charge of Professor Forshey, have yet been received from that gentleman. - 7. In addition to the assistance rendered Captain Humphreys by Lieut. Warren, in the transaction of office business, kieut. W. was employed, ftom time to time, in setting and adjusting river gauges at Donaldsonville, Baton Rouge, New Carthage, Natchez, Lake Providence, and various other points; and in directing topographical surveys in the vicinities of Bonnet Carré and Carrolton; also, in aiding the several parties above designated, in the performance of their appropriate duties. Early in June he ceased to participate in the field operations, and resumed office duties, in aid of Cap- tain Humphreys, who, about this time, experienced a violent attack of a sort of cephalic neuralgia, which suddenly and effectually disqualified him for duty, and still continues to frustrate all his efforts to transact the busi- ness of his station. In the mean time, Lieut. W. has been employed in the settlement of accounts, and the preparation of drawings, and other papers, relating to the delta surveys. For an account of the services performed by him, reference is had to his report, herewith presented, in the papers before cited. (See doc. D.) 7 [20] 8. Epitome of the operations of the topographical party, from the report of J. K. Ford, esq., assistant civil engineer. The field or district comprising these operations is situated on the westerly side of the Mississippi river, commencing at a point above and in the vicinity of Routh’s landing, near the upper mouth of Red river, and ex- tending downward to Baton Rouge, and thence on both sides of the river, and extending still farther to the city of New Orleans. siderable localities of the district are the following: • The Red river cut-off, mouths of Red river, head of Bayou Atchafalaya, Raccourci island and cut-off, Tunica bend, Point Coupée, Morganza, Bayou Sara, Port Hudson, Baton Rouge, Bayou Manchac, Plaquemine, Donald- sonville, Bonnet Carré, Red church, Carrolton, and New Orleans. Surveys by compass and level were made on the right bank of the Mississippi, through the entire district, from a point five miles above Routh’s landing to New Orleans ; and on the left bank, from the Red river cut-off to the Rac- courci cut-off, and from Baton Rouge to Carrolton. Offsets on the right and left of the river, together with triangulations, to determine the width of chan- nels, bayous, &c., and numerous observations, for determining the relations of surveyed lines to extreme high-water marks, of the present and former years, were made atmost of the points above indicated, and in various other localities. Agreeably to the report of Mr. Ford, here with submitted, (see doc. E.,) the lines surveyed in various subdivisions of the district embrace the locali- ties, distances, &c., exhibited in the following table: The more con- * * w ,” * ! ... - i Designation and definition of localities. Nature of Length of Total - survey. Surveyed lines: distances. i | - | ! e Ç - Miles. Miles. ! - - Prom Routh’s landing to Raccourci * Main lines. . . . 24.30 including Red river island, Raccourci island, S Offset limes... $.48 &c., on both sides of the river. J Triangulations 6. 70 39.48 l : w ta • e ; - - ! * From Raccourci cut-off to Baton Rouge, on ) Main lines.. .. 63, 78 right side of the river. Offset lines. . . . 8.47 T2.25 | ! $º. : ! - - - -. º i Main lines. ...! 188.45 From Baton Rouge to Bonnet Carré crevasse, º : - | Offset lines... 64.99 - - e w }\. i: \ is: * i. I - s : - fºr - on both sides of the Mississippi } : Triangulations: 52.47 305,91 i - ! From Bonnet Carré crevasse to Carrolton and Main lines. .. 57.50 - - | r t e . & ºr the vicinity of New Orleans, on both sides | Offset lines. . . . 2.50 tº - - i - of the river. J Triangulations; 39.16 i ! Aggregate length of limes surveyed on both sides . of river . . . . . tº e º º 0 ° tº e º e º 'º e º ºs e º e g º 'º - º a tº g º ºt . * * * * * * * * * * g º t tº : 486.80 486.80 9 l 6 - - 6 [20] 8 * 9. The drawings in plan, profile and section, showing the extent and po- Šition of the lines surveyed, and the topography of the country traversed by then, are numbered in sheets from one to sixteen. They are still in an unfinished state, having been sketched merely in pencil delineations; but are of a character to illustrate, with great precision, the topography of country in the immediate vicinity of the lines surveyed. NoTE:-The reports of J. K. Ford and Joseph Bennet, esqs., herewith presented, (see docs. E and F) and the field-notes therein referred to, ex- plain in detail the developments brought to light by the surveys; although these developments are not yet sufficiently copious and extensive to reach the objects and answer the ends for which the surveys were instituted. The field operations of the topographical party were terminated on or about the first of July ; subsequently to, which, Messrs. Ford, Bennet and Fuller have been employed in sketching the lines surveyed, and reporting the work done by the party. - N 10. Epitome of the operations of the hydrographic party, from the re- port of G. C. Smith, esq., assistant civil engineer. (See doc. G.) The operations of this party were commenced at a point about ten miles below New Orleans, by running a compass and level line from the shore of the Mississippi, eastward to Lake Borgne, about six miles. By this survey it appears that extreme high water of the Mississippi at the point in ques- tion, in 1850, rose to an elevation of eleven and a half feet above the low tide surface of the lake. This fesult having been determined, the hydro- graphic party proceeded to sundry points within the district traversed by the topographical party, as before designated ; and established a multipli- city of sectional lines, stretching across the Mississippi, Red river, and numerous outlets and bayous of the former. The points at which they operated ware as follows, viz: Carrolton, Routh’s landing, Red River island and cut-off, mouth of Red river, head of Atchafalaya, old channel sur- rounding Red River island, Raccourci cut-off and island, Towers’ landing, Morganza, Bayou Sara, Faussi rivière, Wintersville, Baton Rouge, Bayou Manchac, Plaquemine, Bayou La Fourche, Bonnet Carré, &c. From the report of Mr. Smith, above cited, it appears that more than eighty sectional lines and soundings thereon have been established by the party, but the areas of the transverse sections, except in two or three instances, and the average velocities of the currents thereat, have not yet been computed or communicated; except merely by reference to copious field-notes, not yet received. - * - 11. In the prosecution of their work, the hydrographic party found it impracticable to take the transverse sectional soundings, with the requisite precision, by the use of row-boats; the current being too strong, and the maximum velocity too great, in very many instances, to admit of soundings across the river in right lines. For example, at Routh’s landing, after a multiplicity of attempts, the party succeeded in ascertaining the proximate velocity of the river in the most rapid channel, and found it to be seven and one-fifth miles per hour; a current too rapid for row-boats to ascend, or even to traverse in a right line. The same was true, also, in relation to numerous other rapid passes in the river. Y. - In order to obviate this inconvenience and difficulty, a small steamer, the Byrona, with one engineer and two firemen, was chartered for one month 9 . | 20 | at six hundred dollars, by the use of which, the soundings could be effected with far greater accuracy than by the use of row-boats. g * * Thus equipped, the party were enabled to accomplish with the requisite precision a multiplicity of soundings on twenty sectional lines at and near Carrolton, and eight in the vicinity of Bonnet Carré ; copies of the notes taken on the former were furnished to Professor Forshey, to enable him to make his observations at Carrolton with the certainty of obtaining reliable results. As yet, no communications covering the results obtained from: these soundings, &c., have been received. 12. Since the close of the field operations of the party, Mr. Smith, as- sisted by Lieutenant Warren and O. Sackersdorf, esq., has been employed in plotting the lines, &c., surveyed under his direction, and in preparing profiles of sections, together with the soundings, &c., showing the form and capacity of the river channels at those lines. Operations of the hydrometric party. & 13. The operations of this party have been carried on, for the most part, at Carrolton, a few miles above New Orleans, under the direction of Pro- fessor Forshey, the objects of which, as specified in the report of the topo- graphical board, are : 1st, “The determination of a transverse section of the ſississippi near New Orleans, with the utmost care and precision ; including all subordinate sections at the same point, from the lowest to the highest water surface of the river, not exceeding the height of the natural banks of the river; and in such a manner as to exhibit with accuracy all the subordinate sections corresponding to every rise of one foot, from the lowest to the highest stage contemplated, as above.” 2d. “The average velocity of the river currents, corresponding to each of the different stages above designated, should be determined with the utmost precision; and the duration of each stage, for at least ones &ntire year, should be carefully observed and noted in months, days and hºurs, for the purpose of determining, as nearly as practicable, the aggregate annual du- ration of each stage, the amount of water conveyed annually through the river channel from New Orleans to the gulf; and more especially the mag- nitude of the largest volume that can pass in the channel from New Or- Jeans to the gulf, without overflowing the banks of the river;” and, 3d, “a small quantigy of water should be taken from the main channel of the river at each and every stage designated in the preceding item, for the purpose of having the water carefully analyzed, or of separating the earthy matter held in suspension by the water in each stage. The separation should be carefully and skilfully made, for the purpose of determining the quantity of sedimentary matter conveyed downward in each stage, and the annual amount conveyed by the river from New Orleans to the gulf.” 14. The known ability and fidelity of the gentleman to whom these del- icate operations have been confided, give assurance that they will in due time be faithfully executed. The skill, care, patience and perseverance of Professor Forshey, are sufficient guarantees for their effectual accomplish- ment. The progress made therein has not as yet been reported: nor can any final results be expected prior to the lapse of one entire year from the commencement of the observations. - 15. Of the various operations contemplated in the report of the topo- [20] 10 graphical board, and still remaining to be performed, the following consti- tute the principal items, to wit: - 16. The completion of the observations, &c., intrusted to the direction of Professor Forshey. -- 17. The rectification of the level notes in a manner to show their rela- tions to a plane of common reference, viz: to the level of low tide in the gulf. - * > 18. The completion of the drawings, in plan and section, explanatory of the surveys already made, and affording the requisite facilities for connect- ing them with delineations hereafter to be made. 19. The compass and level lines on one or both sides of the Mississippi should be extended downward from Carrolton to the Balize, with suitable offsets to the right and left, extending outward from the river shores to the level of tide-water, on both sides of the river. 20. The sectional surveys and observations proposed to be made across the Mississippi at some suitable point below the mouth of Red river (probably in the vicinity of Bayou Sara,) for the purpose of ascertaining the entire quantity or volume of the river that must pass that pointin ex- treme flood ; –with the view, also, of ascertaining the maximum volume that can flow past this point, compared with the maximum volume that can flow past the Carrolton section, without overflowing the natural banks of the river—remain to be made. NotE. As stated in the report above cited, the difference in magnitudes of the two volumes in question is to be regarded as surplus water, which must be conveyed to the right and left from the Mississippi, through outlets or waste-weirs, at several points between the mouth of Red river and New Orleans, in order to exempt that city and the country below it from over- flow. . -. " 21. The individual capacities of the several outlets or waste-weirs, Bayou Atchafalaya, &c. included, required to convey away the surplus water of the most excessive flood, and prevent overflows at and below New Orleans, remain to he determined. - 22. The transverse compass and level line, or lines, extending eastward and westward entirely across the delta region, abové and below the mouth of Red river, together with numerous offsets, extending from the same to the gulf coast, &c., as contemplated in the report of the topographical board, was designed for the purpose of ascertaining the direction and posi- tions of outlet channels proper for conveying the surplus water, &c., of the Mississippi, by the nearest and most favorable routes, into the open gulf. These lines remain to be surveyed. 23. The number and positions of the outlets, and the directions and ex- tent of the channels by which the surplus water should be conveyed to tide- water of the gulf; also, the magnitudes of the channels through which the water is to be conveyed, with the least possible danger of producing in- undations on the ſess elevated portions of the delta region, remain also to be determined by the Surveys mentioned in the preceding paragraph. 24. The surveys first considered have also for their object a development of the approximate capacity of all sub-marine cavities below the surface of the gulf tides, with the view of ascertaining with some degree of pre- cision the length of the period required to replenish those cavities with sedimentary matter deposited from the surplus water of the Misiºn and Red rivers, . #. * 11 - | 20 25. In the report of the topographical board the survey of sectional lines across Red river, at a point below the mouth of Black river, together with soundings and other observations, similar to those required at Carrol- ton, near New Orleans, was accidentally omitted. , Surveys and observa- tions for purposes similar to those required at Carrolton, viz: for ascertain- ing the quantities of water and silt actually conveyed downward through the channel of Red river and deposited within the Mississippi delta, should be made. & 26. The other surveys on the Mississippi, above the mouth of Rel river, as contemplated in the report above cited, yet remain to be made. JMeans of accomplishing the surveys. 27. I am credibly informed that the orignal estimate for this work was prepared agreeably to the direction of the Superintendent of the Coast Sur- vey, and contemplated merely a hydrographical and topographical survey of the delta region of the lower Mississippi, below the mouth of Red river. The survey of lines of level was not then regarded as an essential part of the work. The probable cost of the surveys, including soundings in all the water-fields to be surveyed, but exclusive of the running of lines of level, was one hundred and twenty thousand dollars, ($120,000.) To this should be added, on account of lines requiring the use of the levelling instrument, at least thirty thousand dollars ($30,000) more, making the aggregate amount one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, ($150,000;) which, in view of the unavoidable hardships, exposures, and dangers to be encountered, and the consequent limited portion of each year during which the surveys can be kept in progress, as also the high prices demanded for services under circumstances so unpropitious, may be regarded as a moderate estimate. 28. With respect to the probable cost of prosecuting the surveys during the ensuing year, it may be estimated as follows, viz: Services and subsistence of assistant civil engineer in charge of hydrometric surveys near New Orleans, at $7 per day for one year, say - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $2,500 Services of three assistant engineers in charge of topographical and hydrographical parties, at $6 per day each, for one year-- 6,570 Services of eight sub-assistants on various duties, at $5 per day each, for one year, say - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14,000 Services of one pilot and one steam engineer, at $100 per month - each, for eight months- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1,600. Services of leadsman, steward, cook, and six boatmen, nine per- sonis, at $30 each per month, for eight months------------- 2,160 Services of axemen, chainmen, gauge-tenders, &c., &c., thirty persons, for eight months of the year, at $30 each- - - - - - - - - 7,200 Subsistence of field parties eight months, say fifty individuals, at thirty cents per day for each------------ * * * * * * * * *m ºn as ºr m as m. a- 3,600 One small steamer of light draught for soundings and hydrogra- phic surveys, including outfit, say - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- iO,000 Contingencies, including fuel, stationery, &c., say- - - - - - - - - - - - - 2,37 * ~, Almounting to----------- * * * 50,000 A t Y. . . . . .” * : [20] 12 . . 29. In the foregoing estimate I have included the probable cost of a light draught steamer, the utility and necessity of which have been º, demonstrated during the progress of the surveys and other operations already performed. . - -- I have the honor to be; sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, - S, H. LONG, Lieut. Col. T. E., . . . . . . . . . President Topographical Board. Col. J. J. ABERT, . Chief of Topographical Engineers, Washington, D. C. *. \ º, } : & a g 4. & Ç & * \ ** tº. .* - # : t .* ... • ſº 13 r | 20 #EPORT ON THE OVERFLOW's OF THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI. PREPARED UNDER INSTRUCTIONS FROM THE war DEPARTMENT, - By elix RLEs ELLET, JR., civil ENGINEER. - Introduction. In this report; the causes of the more frequent and more extensive over- flows of the delta of the Mississippi, in recent than in former times, are considered; and plans suggested for the mitigation of the evil. - . The greater frequency and more alarming character of the floods are attributed— - - - - Primarily, to the extension of cultivation, throughout the Mississippi valley, by which the evaporation is thought to be, in the aggregate, dimin- ished, the drainage obviously increased, and the floods hurried forward more rapidly into the country below: - *. Secondly, to the extension of the levees along the borders of the Mis- sissippi, and of its tributaries and outlets, by means of which the water that was formerly allowed to spread over many thousand square miles of low lands, is becoming more and more confined to the immediate channel of the river, and is, therefore, compelled to rise higher and flow faster, until, under the increased power of the current, it may have time to excavate a wider and deeper trench to give vent to the increased volume which it conveys. - Thirdly, to cut-offs, natural and artificial, by which the distance traversed by the stream is shortened, its slope and velocity increased, and the water consequently brought down inore rapidly from the country above, and precipitated more rapidly upon the country below. Fourthly, to the gradual progress of the delta into the sea, by which the course of the river, at its embouchure, is lengthened, the slope and velocity there are diminished, and the water consequently thrown back upon the lands above, $º - It is shown that each of these causes is likely to be progressive, and that the future floods throughout the length and breadth of the delta, and along the great streams, tributary to the Mississippi, are destined to rise higher and higher, as society spreads over the upper States, as population adjacent to the river increases, and the inundated low lands appreciate in. value. For the prevention of the increasing dangers growing out of these several Co-operative causes, six distinct plans are discussed and advocated : First–Better, higher and stronger levees in Lower Louisiana, and more efficient surveillance—a local measure, but one requiring State legislation, and official execution and discipline. Second—The prevention of additional cut-offs; a restraint which may call for national legislation, or possibly judicial interference, to prohibit the States and individuals above from deluging the country below. Third—The formation of an outlet of the greatest attainable capacity, from the Mississippi to the head of Lake Borgne, with a view, if possible, to convert it ultimately into the main channel of the river. Fourthly–The enlargement of the Bayou Plaquemine, for the purpose | : * [20] * 14 .# of giving prompt relief to that part of the coast which now suffers most from the floods, viz: to the borders of the Mississippi from above Baton, Rouge to New Orleans. Fifth-The enlargement of the channel of the Atchafalaya, for the purpose of extending relief higher up the coast, and conveying to the sea, by an independent passage, the discharge from Red river and the Washita. Słath—The creation of great artificial reservoirs, and the increase of the capacity of the lakes on the distant tributaries, by placing dams across their outlets with apertures sufficient for their uniform discharge—so as to retain a portion of the water above until the floods have subsided below. It is proposed by this process to compensate, in some degree, for the loss of those natural reservoirs which have been and are yet to be destroyed by the levees; and at the same time, and by the same expedient, improve the navigation of all the great tributaries of the Mississippi, while affording relief to the suffering and injured population of the delta. - It will be seen that these several plans harmonize with each other, and may be carried on simultaneously, - - It will be shown, moreover, that they will all be needed, and that they must be adopted promptly and prosecuted vigorously, to afford efficient and timely protection; and that, if adopted, and pressed forward boldly, they will ultimately secure the immediate object of Congress—the protec- tion of the coasts of the Mississippi from overflow, and simultaneously the perfection of twenty thousand miles of precarious navigation, and the ulti- mate drainage and cultivation of fifteen or twenty millions of acres of un- inhabitable swamps. .* & Nothing will more forcibly impress the mind of the practical man with the inestimable value of the Mississippi and its tributaries, as a social, commercial, and political bond of this happy country, than the compre- hensive study of the grand and beautiful problem of controlling their WaterS. - * - The writer is fully aware of the distrust with which some of his views on this subject have been, and may yet be for a season, regarded. But he submits his plans to the calm consideration of an enlightened public, in, the confident belief that every year, and each succeeding flood, will secure for thern closer attention arºl additional strength. ** - * • * , , 'l r * . . . . .” & ^, , , ~ * - Report on the means of protecting the Delta of the . Mississippi from in- undations. PART I. OF THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DELTA GF THE MISSISSIPPI. The delta of the Mississippi is usually assumed to extend from the Gulf of Mexico to the point at which rock in situ is first encountered on both sides of its channel, and supposed to be found in the bed. This point is near the village of Commerce, about twenty-eight miles above the mouth of the Ohio. But if we mean to designate by THE DELTA that formation of alluvial soil through which the Mississippi now flows, and which has 15 * , [20] been raised above the sea by the earthy matter brought by the river frog. the highlands, it will be difficult to assign its true northern limit. There is no evidence that the Gulf of Mexico, in the present order of things, and under the present adjustment of land and water, ever washed the base of the hills north of the Ohio. - - If that fact be assumed, it involves the further assumption that there existed at some remote period a cataract or rapids, having a descent greater than the pitch of Niagara, somewhere above the mouth of the Ohio. The elevation of the low water surface of the Mississippi between Com- merce and Cape Girardeau is two hundred and eighty-five feet above the level of the ocean; and if the present level of the sea ever extended up to that point, the Mississippi must then and there have precipitated its waters over a ledge two hundred and eighty-five feet high. Without intending to maintain this assumption, which has never been supported by facts or...demonstration, for the present purposes we may adopt the mouth of the Ohio as the head of the delta, though only for the con- venience of assigning some limit to the field of investigation. To be able to form a just conception of the present physical constitution of the delta, and the causes of its overflow, we must imagine a great plane sloping uniformly from the mouth of the Ohio, in a direction devia- ting but little from a due southerly course, to the Gulf of Mexico. The length of this plane, from the mouth of the river to the waters of the gulf. is five hundred miles. Its northern extremity is elevated two hundred and seventy-five feet above the surface of the sea, and is there and everywhere nearly level with low water in the Mississippi river. Its total descent, following the highest surface of the soil, is about three hundred and twenty feet, or at the rate of eight inches per mile. - The breadth of this plane near the mouth of the Ohio, in an east and west direction, is from thirty to forty miles, and at the Gulf of Mexico it spreads out to a width of about one hundred and fifty miles. It is enclosed on the east and west by a line of bluffs of irregular height and extremely irregular direction. - This plane, containing about 40,000 square miles, has been formed in the course of ages from the material brought down from the uplands by the Mis- sissippi and its tributaries. The river has therefore raised from the sea the soil which constitutes its own bed. It flows down this plane of its own creation, in a serpentine course, frequently crowding on the hills to the left, and once passing to the opposite side and washing the base of the bluff which makes its appearance on the west at Helena. - º The actual distance from the mouth of the Ohio to the coast of the gulf is, as stated, in round numbers, five hundred miles. The computed length of the Mississippi river from its confluence with the Ohio to the mouth of the Southwest Pass is 1,178 miles, and the average descent at high water ºn of a foot, or 3% inches per mile. The course of the river is therefore lengthened out nearly seven hundred miles, or is more than doubled by the remarkable flexures of its channel; and the rate of its descent is reduced by these flexures to less than one-half that of the plane down which it flows. - e In the summer and autumn, when the river is low and water is scantly supplied by its tributaries, the surface of the Mississippi is depressed at the head of the delta about forty feet, and as we approach New Orleans, twenty feet below the top of its banks. It then flows along sluggishly in * # º . . . . º. º. * *** ------~~~~ * ~, •' * ...’ - | 201 16 / - a trench about 3,000 feet wide, 75 feet deep at the head, and 120 feet at the foot, and enclosed by alluvial and often caving banks, which rise, as stated, from twenty to forty feet above the water. • But when the autumnal rains set in, the river usually rises until the month of May, when it fills up its channel, overflows its banks and spreads many miles over the low lands to the right and left of its trace. This leads to another important feature in the characteristics of this stream. . The Mississippi bears along at all times, but especially in the periods of flood, a vast amount of earthy matter suspended in its waters, which the cirrent is able to carry forward so long as the river is confined to its chan- nel. But when the water overflows its banks, its velocity is checked, and it immediately deposites the heaviest particles which it transports, and leaves them upon its borders; and as the water continues to spread further from the banks, it continues to let down more and more of this suspended ma= terial, the heaviest particles being deposited on the banks, and the finest clay being conveyed to positions most remote from the banks, The consequence is, that the borders of the river which received the first and heaviest deposite are raised higher above the general level of the plane than the soil which is more remote; and that, while the plane of the delta dips towards the sea at the rate of eight inches per mile, the soil adjacent to the banks slopes off at right-angles to the course of the river into the interior, for five or six miles, at the rate of three or four feet per mile. These lateral slopes, with the high water and low water levels of the Mississippi and the artificial levees, are exhibited in the annexed section, (fig. 1.) which is a fair average obtained from a number of surveys made at various points between Donaldsonville and Baton Rouge, by Messrs. H and William G. Waller, civil engineers. . it will be perceived from this section and description, that in times of flood, the surface of the Mississippi is eighteen or twenty feet higher than the level of a great part of the actual delta; and that, at low water, its surface is found in the very lowest depression of the delta; so that all the lateral streams and adjacent low grounds have then a natural drainage to- wards its channel. : The lands immediately on the borders of the river are extremely-fertile, and often highly cultivated. But as they are all subject to inundations by the high floods of the river, they are guarded by artificial embankments, which have been thrown up in front of each plantation by the individual proprietors. The water presses upon these embankments, and often pro- duces breaches through them ; when, as may be readily appreciated from the representation above, it rushes in a deep column into the low grounds, from which it had been previously excluded by the levees, and sweeps over any improvements that may have obtained a foot-hold there. It is to find means to prevent the disasters incident to these crevasses, and to preyent the over- flow of these low grounds, or swamp lands generally–covering, it is sup- posed, nearly 40,000 square miles—that the reconnoissance, of which the results are now given, has been instituted. - What is here said of the Mississippi applies equally, though with modifi- cations due to the difference in the magnitude of the streams, to all the tribu- taries, great and small, which flow into it, from the mouth of the Ohio to the sea. Each tributary is enclosed, at low water, by banks twenty or thirty feet high, which it overflows at periods of flood, mingling its waters of overflow in the lateral low grounds with those of the Mississippi. The !//v6–2 (7.an?'.• , 4-4 - 4/ 2'- "e s ON THE USE OF CAST IRON FOR COMPRESSIVE MEMBERS, IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF IRON BRIDGES. A paper read before the American Society of Civil Engi- neers, June 15, 1870, by F. C. LowTHoRP, C. E., ~ * Member of the Society. - - #, ON THE USE OF CAST IRON FOR COMPRESSIVE MEMBERS, 2^ / z s / . . a- * - r − i : A * ' ... -- 2’ i- z’ {- * A _* * s * 2- - - - - , * * IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF IRON BRIDGES. © — A paper read before the American Society of Civil Engi- neers, June 15, 1870, by F. C. LowTHORP, C. E., Member of the Society. Having recently had my attention directed to an article published in the February No., 1870, of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, Pa., over the initials “A. P. B.’ in which the writer in his attempt at criticising “A work on Iron Truss Bridges for Railoads,” by Brevet Col. W. E. Merrill, U. S. A., after quoting the names of numerous authors, arrives at the strange conclusion, that cast iron is an unsafe material to use in such structures. Believing the article in question—appearing as it did in a leading jour- nal of science—was calculated to mislead many who are deeply interested in the subject, but whose time is so taken up in the discharge of other duties as to prevent their investigating the matter, I have been led to prepare and read before you the following facts and observations : There have been many bridges built entirely of cast iron, which, so far as I can learn, have answered their purpose admirably. More than eighty years ago a cast iron arch bridge of 240 feet span was built at Wearmouth, England, and upwards of fifty years since another of three spans of 240 feet each, across the Thames at Southwark. Many others have since been erected in the British dominions and on the continent. 2 On this side of the Atlantic we have at least two notable specimens: one of two spans of 200 feet each, across the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, a much admired bridge, designed by Strickland Kneass, Esq. The other a bold and remarkable, and, judging from a photograph I have seen, a handsome structure, built over Rock Creek, at Washington, D. C. This bridge has a clear span of 200 feet, a rise of 20 feet, and a width of 26 feet, 4 inches, and has two supporting arches which are formed of cast iron pipes four feet in diameter, through which is brought the entire water supply of the city. It was designed by Maj. Gen. Meiggs, of the U. S. A. I think it very remarkable indeed that A. P. B., who has enjoyed the great advantage of examining so many authors, should have done it in a manner so superficial as to overlook the results of the numerous experi- ments of such men as Tredgold, Hodgkinson, Whipple, and Maj. Wade, of the U. S. Ordnance Corps; as also the practical experience of such well known engineers and builders of bridges, as Whipple, Bollman, Fink and others; or surely he would never have taken for granted the state- ments of Mr. Edward Clark, that “Cast Iron Changes its Length nearly twice as much as Wrought Iron for every Ton of Imposed Load,” and “that it does not recover itself fully after the load is removed, even when that load is but one on to the inch.” These properties A. P. B. observes, “are sufficient to give wrought iron the preference for compressive members in bridge construction.” In contradiction to the preceding, I quote the following facts: Hodg- kinson, in his experiments on columns or hollow cylinders, the bearings of which were flat or at right angles with their axes, found that those of 48 diameters in length (10 feet long by 2% inches diameter,) required a force of 18000 lbs. per square inch to break them, and that others of 34 diameters in length, (10 feet long by 33 inches in diameter,) required 26,000 lbs. per square inch to break them. His experiments also demon- strated the fact that columns of the same dimensions having both ends rounded, would require but one-third, and with one end rounded and one flat end, two-thirds of the above forces to break them. In many of the hollow columns tested, at the point of fracture the metal was found to be much thicker on the one side than on the other, but they appeared to be generally as strong as those whose sides were of uniform thickness, (see Francis' work on cast iron columns.) Mr. Whipple in his valuable 3 treatise on bridges, page 52, observes, “with regard to the simple positive and negative strength of iron, it is only necessary for me to state in this place, that, as the result of a multitude of experiments, a bar of good wrought iron an inch square will sustain a positive strain of about 60,000 lbs. on the average; and a negative strain in pieces of a length not exceeding twice the least diameter, of about 90,000 lbs. Cast iron resists a positive strain equal to from 15,000 to 30,000 lbs. to the square inch, but usually not over 18,000 lbs, in fact it is seldom relied upon to sustain this kind of strain, and its power of resistance in this way is not so well determined as in the case of wrought iron. But cast iron resists a nega- tive strain even better than wrought iron, its power of resistance being from 80,000 to 140,000 lbs., seldom less than 100,000 lbs. to the square inch, for pieces of a length not exceeding twice its least diameter. But in pieces of such dimensions as must usually be employed in bridges, fractures would take place by latteral deflection, with a much smaller force than would crush the material. “It is therefore necessary to take into account the length and diameter, as well as the area of cross section, in order to determine the amount of negative strain which a piece of cast iron, or any other material may be relied upon to sustain.” According to the numerous experiments of Maj. Wade, of the U. S. Ordnance Corps, (see Haswell’s Engineers’ and Mechanics' pocket book, page 484.) we have the following as the comparative tensile, compressive, and torsional strength and hardness of wrought and cast iron : CAST IRON. Tensile. Compressive. Torsional. Iſardness. Least, 9,000 84,529 1,660 4.57 Greatest, 45,900 174,120 3,060 33.5i Mean, - 31,829 144,906 2,760 22.14 WROUGHT IRON. Least, 38,027 40,000 1,296 12.14 Greatest, 74,592 127,720 1,836 14.45 Having had some experience in the construction of Iron Bridges, I will state some of the facts which have fallen under my own observation. During the years 1856-57 I constructed for the C. & F. R. R. Co. of Pa., across the Jordan Creek and Valley, a single track Deck Iron Bridge 4 about 1120 feet long, and 89 feet high ; the bridge consisted of eleven spans of 100 feet each, the side trusses (see figures 1, 2, 3,) were double cancel, and were divided into 12 panels each, they were 16 feet high, and were placed 10 feet apart from centre to centre. Each lower chord (see fig. 4, C. C. C.) was formed of eight round bolts of wrought iron, which were connected longitudinally with screw swivels (B. B.) and laterally with combination or angle plates of cast iron (D. D.) through which the chord bolts (C. C. C.) pass, the plates being held in position by means of the jam nuts (n. n.) The end panels had each but one chord-rod (fig. 1, C. C.) which was secured to the base plates of the end posts in such a manner as to admit of the free expansion and contraction of the metal in the bridge. All of the post bearings were pivot at bottom, and knuckle-joint or hinge at top, the posts were of cruciform section, the webs of the end posts were 12 inches wide by # of an inch thick at the middle, and tapered to about 5^xá’ at each end (see fig. 11,) the webs of the intermediate posts varied from 9//x}^* to 9//x}^^ thick at the centre, and tapered to 4//x}^^ and 4//x}^ near the ends, (see figs, 4 & 10,) enlargements, recesses, &c., were made in the posts for the passage of the main rod counter diagonals etc. (See figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11.) The upper chords, (see figs. 4, G. G. G. & F.) consisted of hollow cylin- ders strengthened with 4 longitudinal webs and were turned off to a square bearing to receive the tenon of the cap F. The plate H to which the floor beams (z. z.) are secured, is made to clamp, loosely, the upper part of the cap F, so as to admit of a free expansion and contraction of the frame of the bridge, the wood-work of the track remaining unaffected. Cross struts and vertical cross ties were secured at every panel of the bridge, as shown in the end and intermediate sections, (see figs. 2 & 3, v. v. & s. s.) The upper part of the bridge was laterally braced throughout, but there was none in the bottom, except the end panels of each span. The bridge was supported on trussed piers of cast and wrought iron, which varied from about 30 feet to 54 feet in height, these stood upon and were anchored fast to foundations of massive masonry, which were raised a few feet above high water mark. The extreme end posts of the bridge rested on abutments of masonry, the back walls of which were carried up to grade. Figs. 1, 2, 3, show a 5 general outline of the bridge and piers, and in the latter the columns P. P. P. were of cast iron of cruciform section, excepting the ends which were cylindrical, and were turned off to fit into each other with tenon and socket joints, at the junction of each section of the piers. At bottom each column rested upon a pivot base which was bolted to the coping of the masonry. The cross struts, which were of round, wrought iron, 2% inches diameter, passed through the columns; they had two screw nuts at each end, (for struts, see s. s. s.) for the purpose of retaining in position the columns and the eyes of the diagonal tie rods, t. t. t. On the top of each sett of columns (four constituting a sett) was placed a cast iron frame, which for convenience, I call a spider frame. The spider frames were adjusted and held in position by means of four 2% inch vertical screw bolts, each about 15 inches long, the bottoms of which were rounded and set in recesses in the tops of the columns, the nuts being let into recesses in the underside of the spider frames. Pivot bear- ings were cast on the top of the spider frames for the end posts of the several spans of the bridge ; the spider frames were also connected to each other by the cross struts, tie rods, and a cast iron cornice; the whole being secured to the masonry by means of the guy rods (g. g.) Ali of the posts and struts for the bridge were used as they came from the foundry, no machine work being required. The difference in the lengths of the posts being adjusted by means of wrought iron washers placed on the pivots. All the main and counter diagonals, also all of the diagonal tie braces, both in the bridge and the piers, had eyes at each end, but were connected and adjusted with screw swivels. All of the screw ends of the bolts in the bridge and piers, except the struts of the latter, were enlarged. The contract with the Company required all of the wrought iron work of the bridge to be tested with a tensile strain of 22,400 lbs. per sectional inch ; and as there were between 5,000 and 6,000 bolts, it was rather a serious matter. During the operation of testing, several hundreds of the bolts broke in the welded parts, most of them in the eyes, only one broke in the screw part, a highly crystallized # inch bolt. I recollect one instance in which a full set of chord rods for one or two panels, broke while being tested; they had been welded, or rather an 6 attempt had been made to weld them, and although before testing it could scarcely be seen where they had been united, so very smoothly and nicely had the work been executed, yet after being pulled apart it was scarcely perceptible where there had been any adhesion. On a subsequent occasion while experimenting with a working model of my testing machine, at the Locomotive and Machine Works of Trenton, N. J., I requested the foreman of the Smiths’ shop to procure a round bar of wrought iron one inch in diameter, about four feet long, and to have an eye formed at each end of the same ; cautioning him to see that the welds were perfect. When he returned with the bar I asked, are you sure that the welds are perfect? to which he replied, “I will guarantee them.” The bar was placed in the machine and power applied until the force reached 16,000 lbs. when one of the eyes broke, and Maj. Anderson, of Fort Sumpter notoriety, who was witnessing the operation, narrowly escaped having his leg broken by the cross head flying back. Upon examining the frac- ture, not more than two-thirds of the weld was found to be sound ; on seeing which, the Major remarked, “That shows the importance of having all welded work tested.” While testing wrought iron bolts I have noticed in some instances bars have been broken when under a strain of about 60,000 lbs. per square inch presenting a fractured surface of fully one-third crystaline texture, the elongation of the bar being quite small. In one instance, two bars, each 12 feet long, were tested, the one after the other, each bar broke near the middle after elongating about 11 inches under a strain not exceeding 40,000 lbs. per square inch. At the point of fracture the bars were reduced probably 3–32nds of an inch in diameter, the surfaces of the fractured parts were entirely fibrous and were too hot to handle without burning the hands. The Jordan Iron Bridge at the time of its completion was one of the longest, if not the longest in the United States. There were compara- tively few Iron Truss Bridges in the country at that time, and they were looked upon rather in the light of an experiment than otherwise. The first stone of the masonry for the Bridge was laid August 27, 1856, and during the month of July, 1857, it was completed, and was tested with a load of 2,520 lbs. per foot lineal, or 1.12% tons gross 7 was placed upon one span and successively pushed and pulled over all the spans for the space of about one hour and a half, to the entire satisfac- tion of the officers of the company. This Bridge has been in use about thirteen years; and I was recently informed by Joshua Hunt, Esq., the President, that it is now in perfect order, and has cost nothing thus far to keep the iron work in repair. The extension of iron under a force of 22,400 lbs. to the square inch was uniformly about 1–16 of an inch to every five feet in length, and the contraction precisely the same upon the removal of the strain. The results of the testing proved conclusively the uncertainty of welded work, and the reliability of screw bolts; and I have ever since felt it to be my duty to use as small an amount of the former as possible. I allow no welds to be made in either the lower chord rods, or the main and counter diagonals of my bridges. Of course I use screw nuts, some of which are made by welding, but the force exerted on the weld can never exceed the one-fourth of that on the bolt, and may answer its pur- pose even though not quite sound. The cutting of the thread moreover, will test the soundness of the weld, which can readily be ascertained by inspection after the cutting. The breaking of a nut, however, rarely occurs, even though the power exerted should be greater than that which takes place in practical working. While the second span was being erected I discovered some singular looking spots on the webs of several of the posts, which upon examination proved to be sand flaws, commonly termed honey combed, filled with a mixture of sulphur and plumbago. I had such posts removed, and at the request of the President of the Company, sent one of them—an end post—(see fig. 11,) to Catasauqua, where it was placed in a horizontal position in a hydraulic press, and subjected to a compressive strain of 160,000 lbs., which produced little or no deflection in it. A defective intermediate post was placed in my own testing machine, and subjected to a compressive strain of about 53,700 lbs., which caused a downward deflection of the post of about two inches, more or jess, from which it partially recovered on removing the strain. At the foundry where cast, a sound intermediate post was placed upon props, (see fig. 10,) blocks of wood were placed each side the vertical web 8 at the centre, a rectangular mass of iron of 4,000 lbs. weight was laid on top the blocks, and was mounted by three men of about 150 lbs. each. The men then surged up and down awhile, breaking the vertical web from the bottom up to the cross web at a point about one foot from the centre of the post. Five men then got on, and after surging awhile broke it in two. Another of the same kind of posts was tried with precisely the same results. The last two experiments indicate a positive strain of more than 32,500 lbs., and a negative strain of more than 66,000 lbs. to the square inch, not taking the surging into account. I built a bridge for the Central R. R. of New Jersey, at Bound Brook, the end bearings of the upper chord of which, have neither been turned, planed, or had a tool on them, and yet these parts are constantly under- going a compressive strain of 14,000 lbs. per square inch. Another bridge of 92 feet spans on the line of the Newark and New York R. R., when loaded with 2,500 lbs. per foot, lineal, on each track, produces a strain on the upper chord of (19,000) lbs. per square inch, in both cases the elasticity of the metal remains perfect. Several years ago I erected an iron public road bridge, across the Lehigh river at Easton, Pa., the bridge consisted of two spans of 132 feet each ; each span had three supporting trusses, there being two carriage-ways, and two outside footwalks ; each carriage-way was 113 feet wide, and each footwalk 4 feet wide. The floor beams and all parts acting by compression were of cast iron, and all those acting by tension of wrought iron. The joists and flooring were of wood. Over this bridge there has been a great deal of heavy teaming, the street railroad is also laid over it. I have been credi- bly informed that during the late civil war, the troops marched over it keeping step to the music of the fife and drum, and that too, while the bridge was otherwise crowded with human beings. I thought it rather a foolhardy experiment, as it was quite light and not designed to be so used. I now think that all such bridges should be constructed with such a contingency in view, for should one break down when so laden, the result would be terrible. The facts I have stated prove beyond a doubt in my opinion, the reliability of cast iron for compressive members in bridge construction, either alone as in an arch, or in combination with wrought iron or steel as in a trusS. 9 Cast iron, it is true, is liable to defects such as unequal thickness in the sides of hollow columns, cold-shuts, honey-combs, etc., all of which can be readily detected by competent, practical men. Wrought iron also is liable to defects, as it comes from the mills or forges, it may be cold-short, or it may be imperfectly worked and welded, and when required to be worked into different forms the welds are quite uncertain. From what I have observed and read in regard to the compressibility tenacity, and elasticity of wrought and cast iron, I am led to infer that if a bar of each 1 foot long by 2 inches square be acted upon compressively’ the latter will yield the most at first, but as the pressure is increased it will yield less and less until its power of resistance becomes greater than that of the wrought iron, when the latter will give way. It has been suggested to my mind that tensively wrought iron may have greater elastic power than cast, while compressively the latter may possess the greater. Tensively sponge has a very slight elastic power, but very great compressively. With India Rubber the case is just the reverse. But the testing of cast iron in solid bars or masses, is by no means, in my opinion, a fair test of its strength as used in bridge building. It is well known by practical iron workers that the outside or surface of cast- ings is harder than the interior of the mass, and much stronger both tensively and compressively, consequently the casting of it in hollow cylinders and hollow squares, the H, the X, or cruciform, and various other shapes, adds greatly to its strength, (see figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 & 17, each of which has a sectional area of one square inch, and a length of ten inches. According to Mr. Whipple's tables, the safe compressive load for columns indicated by the figures alluded to, varies from 13,000 lbs. for the square solid one, fig.12, to 21,800 lbs. for the hollow cylinder, fig. 16. I am unable to state the tensile strength of the columns of the various forms alluded to, but am led to believe that the quality of metal and area of section being the same, the greater the surface the greater the strength. The advantages of cast iron as a material in bridge construction, con- sist not only in its great power of resistance to compressive forces, but also in its susceptibility of being cast into any possible shape desired, at the smallest cost; and the percentage of corrosion in cast iron is very much less than in wrought iron. 10 In order to illustrate the advantages afforded by the use of cast iron in bridge construction in place of wrought iron alone, I will compare the details of a bridge designed by Mr. Linville with one designed by myself; the photographs of the latter are hanging on your walls: By the “Lin- ville Bridge,” I mean that generally known as the “Keystone Co's Bridge,” which is by some, called a wrought iron bridge. In this bridge the chords A A, (figs. 6 & 7) consist of eye bolts made of flat bar iron, connected at each panel with round pins, (B B) of wrought iron or steel, on which rests the lower ends of the posts, (M M) and to which are attached the main and counter diagonals, H H & I. The upper chords (FF) are formed by placing between two horizontal plates, two H. (h) and two trough beams of wrought iron. [In a bridge of a similar character at Easton, Pa., the top and bottom plates of the chord vary from 3 of an inch to # of an inch, more or less, in thickness, and about 21 inches wide.] The angle blocks G G, which form the upper bearings of the main and counter diagonals are made of cast iron; they are hollow and are attached to the chord plates by means of dowel projections cast on their bottom sides, which fit into recesses cut into the plates for the purpose. The floor beams which are of wood, rest either on the bottom or top chord plates. In my bridge, (see figs. 8 & 9) the lower chord is formed of six round bars of wrought iron, (a a a &c.) which are passed through the combina- tion plate or angle block (b b) and are connected longitudinally with sleeve screw nuts (m m) and laterally with the plate (b b), the latter being held in position by the jam nuts (n n n.) - The chord rods (a a a,) being proportioned to the strain, the ends of the smaller ones are enlarged so as to screw into the sleeve nuts of the next larger in size. The floor beams (c. c.) which are of wrought iron, are suspended from, and bolted fast to the combination plates. The upper chord (h. i. g.) is made of cast Iron, and is hollow and cyl- indrical in form, excepting the part forming a cap over the post, which is also hollow, but of rectangular form and very thick. The cap is provided with angle bearings (P. P.) on top for the nuts or the heads of the main and counter diagonals (k. k. l. l.,) and beneath with suitable recess and bearing for the top of the post, and bearings on the sides for the lateral diagonal tie bolts (t. t.) and cross struts (S. s.) © 11 The ends of the sections of the upper chords, and of the tops and bot- toms of the intermediate posts are turned off so as to afford good bearings at right angles with their axes. In order to obtain greater stiffness in the posts and upper chords, they are made largest in the middle, and where, as in the present instance, the post is for a double cancel truss, a middle piece (e. e.) is inserted. This piece it will be seen, has an opening for the passage of the main and counter diagonals. It is made very strong and the top and bottom parts close the hollow ends (f. & d.) of the shaft of the post, so that no moisture can enter. The ends of the main and counter diagonals are enlarged on account of cutting the screws. Having described the details of the two bridges, I will proceed to show the advantages which I think the one possesses over the other. In the Linville bridge, the lower chord bolts must be drilled exact, or they will not have a bearing, and being flat, expose about 3 more surface for painting and corrosion than would round bars of equal area. The whole strain is thrown upon the connecting pins at every panel. Should one of the chords, main or counter diagonals break, it could not be replaced except with great difficulty and danger, as the least spreading of the truss would prevent the pins reentering the eye holes. In my bridge the lower chord-rods, although placed in position and bolted together, when there is no strain on them, are independent of each other, and should any of them, or the main and counter diagonals break, they may be replaced without the necessity of falsework. All of the rods can be thoroughly protected with paint, and the bolts being round they present the smallest surface possible for corrosion or painting. The only cross strain in a combination plate, is that of one set of main diagonals. The combination plate affords a safe support for the floor beams, and a square bearing for the bottoms of the intermediate posts, thereby rendering the whole strength of the posts available. In the Linville bridge, the whole length of the interior and exterior of the shaft of the post M. M. from E. to E. is exposed to corrosion, and there is little or no chance afforded for repainting the sames U-2, Zºx. 2, , , Although in the drawing, which is a correct copy of a lithograph of the Linville bridge sent me, the important parts C. & D. are represented as of º 12 Wrought iron, all I have seen or examined were made of cast iron, and the post having one round bearing, loses one-third of its legitimate strength. In my bridges no moisture can enter the posts, and the bearing being flat and at right angels to their axes, their whole strength is available. Any one must perceive at a glance that the upper chord of the Linville bridge, being composed of several members in sections, present a great amount of surface, both on the exterior and interior, subject to corrosion, more than double what there is on the upper chord of my bridge. In conversation with the late Mr. Roebling, a short time previous to his death, he remarked to me, “I do not like the upper chord of the Keystone Co's bridge, I see no possible way to prevent interior corrosion.” A few years since, Prof. McGowan, (I think that was the name,) before a scientific association in London, remarked in allusion to the wrought iron bridges of Great Brittain, “Our Iron Bridges are gradually melting away, forty tons of rust having been removed from the outside of the Brittania bridge, which does not indicate nearly the whole amount of corrosion, as that of the interior has not been taken into consideration.” Mr. L., in order to secure a square bearing for the nuts of the upper ends of his main and counter diagonals, uses a cast iron angle block (G. G. figs. 6. & 7.,) some of which broke on the Easton bridge, I have been informed, during the process of erecting and adjusting ; had they formed a part of the chord itself, such an accident could not have occurred. In placing the angel block G. on top of the chord, as is done by Mr. L. a large amount of the effective strength of the chord is lost, for it will be perceived that if a force acting on the main diagonals H. H. be resolved into the counter-acting vertical and horizontal forces, the latter will be found exerting itself along the upper surface of the top chord, instead of the central axis of the same, the tendency of which is to buckle it. For a common, but much worse example, see fig. 5. In a top chord 21 inches wide, Mr. L. can use but two main, and one counter diagonal. In my bridge the upper chord which is of cast iron, is composed of one member in sections and the bearings for the mains and 13 counters are always so arranged that the resolution of their forces into the vertical and horizontal ones invariably cause the latter to be exerted along the line of their axes. In an upper chord of 15 or 16 inches diame- ter or width, I can use double the number of main and counter diagonals of equal size, that Mr. L. can in his chord of 21 inches, and my chord has the further advantage of angle bearings which cannot break. As there is safety in numbers there certainly must be more in double than in half the number of bolts. However much Mr. Edwin A. Clarke may distrust the use of cast iron in bridges, Mr. Linville has shown great confidence in it, or he would not have made his end posts, and main and counter diagonal bearings entirely of it, as also all of the intermediate post bearings, as he has done in all of the bridges built for the Penn. Central R. R. Co., across the Schuylkill river, including the one for the Junction R. R., which has a span of 250 feet. Indeed it wonld be highly criminal for any engineer or builder to use cast iron in parts of such vital importance if he thought it unsafe. It may be said a post of cast iron will not withstand the battering of an engine when it runs off the track. No posts can withstand such concus- sion, unless constructed for the express purpose, which would require such an amount of material as would prohibit their erection. In my opinion every track of a railroad over a bridge should be pro- tected with guard rails of iron, so arranged as to prevent the wheels leaving ths track, by confining the flanges of the wheels of the cars in position, the efficacy of which arrangement may be seen in the very short curves around which our street railroad cars pass with perfect safety. Although foreign to the subject of bridges, still inasmuch as the strength of cast iron as a material for bridge and other building purposes is the matter in question, I think there will be no impropriety in asking, Without cast iron for gearing purposes, what would become of the countless factories, machine shops, rolling and other mills, which have caused our towns and cities to resound with the hum of life and activity ? Or in what possible way can cast iron be more severely tested, than when used in the form of wheels for railway cars heavily loaded, and dashing along over rough railroads with the velocity of the wind 2 Yet there is more danger of the breaking of a wrought iron rail, than a cast iron wheel. 14 In the use of cast iron or other materials in bridge construction, it will not do to be governed by theory and figures alone, good judgment formed by observation and practical experience, is highly necessary in propor- tioning the various parts; for instance, we may choose between a column of 6 inches or 10 inches in diameter, in the first, the area necessary may require the sides of the column to be 3 an inch thick, whereas the area of the latter would require the sides to be but of an inch thich, both of which are according to theory and calculation. Both experience and prudence would dictate the use of the smaller column as best calculated to withstand the vibration and shocks that might be looked for. Although I consider it exceedingly unwise to reject cast iron for com - pressive purposes, instances may occur in which wrought iron might be preferable. In all such cases the engineer will of course be governed by circumstances.’ The practical experience of most engineers and builders, will justify me in the assertion that there is much more to be feared from defects in wrought iron used for tensile, than in cast iron used for compressive purposes. So far as my own experience goes, which has been of many years and over a tolerably broad field, I have endeavored to give you a true state- ment, as I have also, so far as my time would permit, of such facts as have a bearing upon the subject, which 1 have been able to collect from the experiments and writings of others. TRENTON, N. J., June 1, 1870. N. B.-Since reading the above paper, I have received the following: EASTon, Pa., July 7, 1870. F. C. Low THoRP, ESQ., Dear Sir : Yesterday, we found, that with the L. V. Engine, Tioga, weighing 32 tons, exclusive of Tender, on the center of the Bridge, that the deflection was 1–10 of an inch. Yours, W. FIRMSTONE, Agent. The bridge alluded to was a single track through, of 129 feet span, with trusses 10/9// high. The compressive members being of cast iron. The exceedingly small amount of deflection is due to the effect of counter bracing. Z = 76///darn.” – 73.500 Z= 9.2izon 9 = 7.37.9.9 * = - - J-6%/ams-42290 * 1. ** 1. * * -- i- | ź : ( C C | — | | * , ------ W ! t | - &E --- | | ,------------ |→ - 17 - F=S -- il J ------- - ---- - ! I • F= #F#– | l ! - ~I- - The Duval Steam Lith Co. Phila. Fig.10. £Cazo-º- yaºi o . ~~ * Z. . . . *~~~~//-- Y.’. ** ** - tº . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -- - - --- . . - - ; : - ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY. STUDIES ON & APPLIED TO THE GULF OF SPEZLA CAEs A R GUAR AsCI, COLONEL OF ENGINEERS. - § (Traduit de la Rivista Marittima.) ; - - - - - - - - - - } TRANSI, ATED IRY FIFST LIEUT. G. McC. DEREY, | CORPS OF ENGINEERS, U. S. ARMY. | -- º - } - #- - COAST DEFENSE ~ } i - W A S H IN G T O N : - : Gover NMENT PRINTING of F1.cº. i 1884. * ,- . . . | ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY. STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE THE GULF OF SPEZIA BY C APES AIR GUARASCI, COLONEL OF ENGINEERs. (Traduit de la Rivista Marittima.) TRANSLATED BY FIRST LIEUT. G. McC. DERBY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, U. S. ARMY. W A S HIN G T O N : GOVER NIMENT PRINT ING OFFICE. 1884. 270 ...~" OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS, UNITED STATES ARMY, Washington, D. C., June 18, 1884. SIR : The Board of Engineers has submitted a translation of an article from the Rivista Marittima, entitled “Studies on Coast Defense applied to the Gulf of Spezia.” - The paper contains valuable information for the officers of the Corps of Engineers and for the Army generally, and I respectfully recommend that authority be granted to have it printed, with its accompanying plates, at the Government Printing Office, and that 800 copies be obtained for the use of the Engineer Department, upon the usual requisition. The paper, with its accompanying plates, is submitted herewith. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, - JoHN NEWTON, Chief of Engineers, Brig. and Bvt. Maj. Gen. Hon. ROBERT T. LINCOLN, - Secretary of War. [Indorsement.] Approved. * By order of the Acting Secretary of War: JOHN TWEEDALE, Chief Clerk. WAR DEPARTMENT, June 19, 1884. UNITED STATEs ENGINEER OFFICE, New York, May 22, 1884. SIR: I have the honor to return herewith the pamphlet entitled “Con- sidérations sur la Défense des Côtes appliqués au Golfe de la Spezia,” with the translation of it that I was requested to make. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, GEO. McC. DERBY, p Lieutenant of Engineers. Col. J. C. DUANE, - Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., President of the Board of Engineers. [Indorsement.] OFFICE BOARD OF ENGINEERs, New York, May 27, 1884. Respectfully forwarded to the Chief of Engineers, together with the translation herein referred to, and with therecommendation that it be pub- lished for the information of officers of the corps. - Qn behalf of the Board: - J. C. DUANE, Colonel of Engineers, But, Brig. Gen. U. S. A., President of the Board. STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE APPLIED TO THE HARBOR OF SPEZIA. A well organized and complete defense by means of fortifications cannot be made at any point whatever of a coast; but only where special hydro- graphic conditions permit the location of a series of works which, collect- ively, shall, under all circumstances, have a preponderating defensive value over the means of attack. To attain this end two conditions must be fulfilled, one independent of, the other dependent upon, the work of man. Only when the hydrographic conditions of the coast impose a limit to the development of the attack, and hence to its importance, is it possible to fix the defense so that it may have the superiority demanded. The hydrographic conditions alluded to are found where shoals prevent the free movement and concentration of vessels, or where the coast line forms sinuosities sufficiently narrow into which the enemy’s vessels must necessarily enter to use their means of attack efficiently; in such cases the arrangements necessary for a successful defense are easily determined, the only absolute condition controlling the location of the works being to pro- vide the necessary concert of action, so that the burden of resisting an attack may not fall upon a single work. - A disregard of the principle of concentrating the fire of the greatest possible number of guns upon all points where the attacking vessels may present themselves, would neutralize such naturally favorable hydrographic conditions, and permit the attack to overcome the various works in suc- cession. The results of this method of attack are certain and infallible, and are confirmed by many instances, amongst which, to cite a single one, it will be sufficient to recall the attack upon San Juan d’Ulloa, made by a small French squadron composed of three frigates, a corvette, and two gun-boats, which, from its ability to reconnoiter and select a good position at 1,100 meters, not exposed to the principal front of the fortified lines, succeeded in half a day in silencing the armament of 193 pieces and in forc- ing the place to capitulate. It is often said as an aphorism in regard to coast defense that this duty should be intrusted exclusively to the fleet, which it is claimed ought to defend its own shores at a distance and on the open sea. For when by a 8 STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE bold initiative the war can be carried to the coast of an enemy's country, doing serious damage to his dock-yards, arsenals, forts, &c., thus paralyz- ing his naval power by action against the fundamental bases of operations of his fleet, it is highly improbable that similar attempt on the part of the enemy will be made. But a bold initiative of this nature may, however, be unsuccessful, in consequence of innumerable and unforeseen contingencies to which naval operations are liable; furthermore, for the very reason that a timely ini- tiative may be so fruitful in great results, it must be expected on the part of the enemy. It may be readily conceived, then, that a victory in a naval engagement, won in distant waters, may be decisive, and in such case the one that remains in control of the seas can select at pleasure his objective on the enemy’s shores where he will do the greatest damage to the seaboard cities, and bring ruin to the more important establishments, dock-yards, arsenals, &c., so that the one that has met with reverse finds himself, in consequence, exposed to extreme disaster. The action of fleets should be prompt, free, and very mobile ; and for that reason it would be absurd to claim that fortified works, which are fixed defenses, could resist all the operations that might be attempted against an extended shore line; and it would be no less absurd to deprive the fleet of its mobility to protect certain fixed points on its own coast by obliging it to hold itself in readiness to defend them even against opera- tions which the enemy could complete in a short time. It is the general opinion, and unquestionably true, that the Gulf of Spezia, with its grand dock-yards and arsenal, should be defended by pow- erful fortifications, leaving to the fleet entire freedom of action, either to assume a bold initiative or to contend with a superior naval force, and it would be unwise to weaken it by withholding a number of vessels for the defense of the arsenal. Whatever may be the arguments of those who are in favor of a naval defense alone for these waters they cannot succeed in disproving the value of sea-coast defenses. Moreover, the outlay required to provide the necessary fortifications for Spezia, if applied to the navy, would at the very most increase its strength by but one or two vessels. The necessity of defending the Gulf of Spezia by means of fortifications has therefore been rightly maintained, and, admitting the wisdom and necessity of such defense, it will be useful to examine in what way the principles enunciated for the execution of an efficient defense can be satis- fied. - s For that purpose it is important to consider, first, what may be the ob- jective of the attack which the works should resist. Spezia is, without doubt, an important objective for the attack of an enemy, who would wish to paralyze our fleet by depriving it of the indis- pensable means of holding the seas to defend our coast. We must therefore APPLIED TO THE GULF OF SPEZIA. .* 9 admit that he might propose to attain his end either by an attack from the land side or an attack by sea or finally by a combination of both. Now, leaving aside the land defenses, the importance of which depends upon the number of troops that can be assigned to their support, it is evi- dent that the sea-coast works, that is to say those to which the defense against a naval attack is intrusted, should have a maximum defensive power sufficient to withstand any attack that can be made upon them, for the use of troops could not be depended on to compensate for an inadequate or inferior defensive system. Finally, we must absolutely free ourselves from all idea of receiving any assistance from our fleet if we wish to leave it free from all obligation of guarding the arsenal and give to it the liberty of action necessary for the defense of our extended sea-coast. Admitting the foregoing, the works for the defense of the arsenal from an attack by sea should be of such a character as to prevent an hostile fleet from freely approaching near enough to the works to destroy them either by its artillery or by landing a few bold men; and provision should be made for preventing the landing of boat parties supplied with the means of rapidly destroying the structures and material. . Indeed, the work of a few men landed at the arsenal and supplied with the necessary explosives might cause a greater destruction than would be feared from near bombardment. It need only be considered what enor- mous damage could be done the most important structures in the arsenal, such as the docks, by means of a torpedo exploded in the filling and empty- ing sluices, to realize that several thousand cannon shots would not suffice to do the same damage. It is therefore easy to conceive that the fortifica- tions of Spezia should be studied with the double purpose of preventing bombardment and the approach of the enemy's vessels to the neighbor- hood of the arsenal; but that of the two the second point should be given absolute importance. Among the various projects for the defense of the Gulf of Spezia, pref- erence has always rightly been given to the idea of closing the entrance with a dike. While at first the prevention of bombardment was consid- ered the main object, it is none the less true that it is essential we should keep in view its more important object, that of preventing access to the ar- senal. Although concerning the position of the dike several opinions have been discussed at length, and though the necessity of placing it as far as possible from the arsenal to prevent bombardment is generally admitted, there is yet a difference of opinion regarding the precise location which will attain at the same time the double result of preventing bombardment and access to the arsenal. - An exterior dike situated on the extreme chord of the gulf, drawn be- tween Points Maralunga and Scuola, would at first sight appear the most suitable as placing an obstacle at the greatest possible distance from the ar- 10 : STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE senal. But this extreme location, which primarily appears the most ra- tional, would have a serious disadvantage; for a dike whose openings could not be securely defended by guns would answer the purpose but boorly; and the exterior dike cannot be otherwise defended than by works situated on one of the extreme points of the shore, together with others erected on the dike itself; all of which being exposed to the open sea would fail to satisfy the condition which, as we have shown, is indispensa- ble to insure a superior defense. The attack being able to develop itself freely, would always have the means of choosing favorable positions from which to silence the exterior works one after the other; and this being done, what obstacle would prevent the enemy from passing beyond the dike and bombarding at his pleasure, or, what is still worse, taking pos- session of the arsenal? - If we neglect the objection of exposing the works to the open sea, a line of works on the extreme chord from Scuola to Maralunga and a dike a little in rear would constitute a less defective solution. Of course, the advanced works in this case would be neither more nor less efficient in keeping the bombardment at a distance than in the first case, for we should not admit that the enemy would try to pass through the intervals between the works. For if armored vessels can, and even ought to, venture a great deal when they have a fortified channel to force, it is none the less true that such an operation would be unnecessarily hazardous, when, after having forced the passage, instead of finding space to escape from the persistent action of the guns of the defense, they would run upon an obstacle like the dike situated a little in rear of the fortified lines. - - The second solution would therefore present the same difficulties to the bombardment as the first ; with this difference, however, that after hav- ing reduced to silence the works of the defense in the first case, the ex- terior dike would be powerless to prevent either the entrance to the arsenal or the bombardment which would subsequently be made even at a very short range when the vessels had passed the dike; whereas, in the second case, the dike being behind, with its openings still well defended, nar- rower, and situated in a re-entering, could still effectively prevent access to the arsenal and limit the distance to which the vessels could approach to effect the bombardment. The foregoing considerations appear to prove conclusively that the sys- tem of the dike a little withdrawn and defended more in front by fortifi- cations placed on the extreme chord of the gulf is more effective than the exterior dike defended by works established on the same line; provided, of course, the immediate defense of the openings is secured by other coast works located on the flanks. - This solution, however, although better than the first, is still open to | APPLIED TO THE GULF OF SPEZIA. 1 T criticism, because the advanced works being still exposed to the offing would be deprived of the conditions necessary to insure the superiority of the defense, which, as has already been demonstrated, can only be obtained. in the single case when the attack is crowded into a limited space where it can bé swept from all sides by the converging fire of the defense. It is therefore of the first importance that the works placed in advance of the dike should also be in a re-entering position imposing a necessary limit to the development of the attack. Now, it is evident that to execute the project of the defense under the best possible conditions the dike ought to be placed at a greater distance from the arsenal than that of bombardment; but the dike itself and the more advanced works should be situated in a re-entering with respect to the extreme chord of the gulf. As the length of the axis of the Gulf of Spezia will not permit this disposition, it is clear, as we have demon- strated, that the only possible solution to satisfy the principle insuring the superiority of defense, consists in seeking to always hold the works in a re-entering position, and to so manage that their efficiency shall extend to the limit necessary to prevent bombardment. In this way access to the arsenal will be prevented absolutely, and the bombardment will be opposed by the preponderating fire of the defensive batteries. In a word, the best solution would be obtained if the dike were placed beyond bombarding range, and if it were defended in front by works established in a re-entering position. As this cannot be obtained, the best remaining solution is that which places the dike as far as possible from the arsenal, protecting it by works located and armed in such a way as to extend their effective action beyond the limit necessary to prevent bom- bardment; but always with the condition that the works shall be located on a re-entering line, that they may surround and sweep effectively with converging fire the zone of water into which the enemy must necessarily advance to be able to attack them. To make these principles clearer it will be well to examine them more closely and for the special case of the defense of Spezia. Plate I represents the case in which the works in front of the dike are placed on the extreme chord of the gulf; that is to say, one at Maralunga, one at Scuola, and three in the interval between these two points. It is assumed that the dike placed between points Santa Maria and Santa Teresa, where it is at present being constructed, has its openings de- fended near at hand by work situated on each of the points mentioned. In this way the defense by batteries for horizontal fire would be intrusted to seven works, which we will suppose armed with guns mounted in re- volving turrets, or, if preferred, on platforms allowing a sector of fire of 360°. We will also leave out of consideration other works with great elevations whose fire, while always useful, will not constitute the funda- 12 STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE mental basis of the defense. It will further be supposed that the zone of effective fire for the guns constituting the armament of the water batteries extends to 2,500 meters. With these data the zone in front of the dike effectively defended would be limited by the line m. g at a mean distance of 8,700 meters from the arsenal. In this zone the fire of the works would be combined according to the diagram shown on the plate, in which the numbers that mark the different sectors indicate the number of batteries having simul- taneous action in each of them. Now, it is easy to see that, with the arrangement indicated, there are still large zones of water, swept only by the fire of two batteries, in which vessels could take up positions to attack, at quite short range, and from which it would be sufficient for the enemy to silence one of these batteries to render its task with the other much easier. It is thus shown by the diagram how a concentration of fire would clear the way, step by step, rendering successive attacks possible and more and more easy. But if, on the contrary, we suppose the defense made up as in the dia- gram, Plate II, the task of the attack would be much more severe, for, in this case, excepting in a few very narrow and most distant sectors, where vessels could take position exposed to the fire of two batteries only, in all the rest they would always be under the simultaneous fire of several batteries. In the latter diagram it is important to notice that the two batteries Scuola and Maralunga are supposed to have their fields of fire limited towards the offing, as indicated by the lines in in m and m' m/, re- spectively, in order that they shall not be left exposed to attack in that direction from sectors where the co-operation of other batteries would be wanting. It is, therefore, supposed that these batteries would be so located that they would be protected by the coast from the sea outside the lines mentioned which constitute the limits of their fields of fire in that di- rection. e A comparison of the conditions of defense presented by the two diagrams shows clearly that while in the first the effective fire of the defense reaches as far as 8,700 meters from the arsenal, on the other hand the safety of the works cannot be well assured ; whereas in the second diagram effective action is much better secured. Consequently if we could assume that a bombardment from a distance of not less than 7,500 meters is not dan- gerous and of but little effect, the superiority of the second solution would be evident. It may be objected, however, that if we cannot with the present arrangement of guns afloat attain a range of 7,500 meters, we must expect at any time that greater ranges will be obtained. This objection is cer- tainly serious, but after all it can only arise from a new arrangement of guns on board ships, and we may assume that in such case we also might have such guns with ranges exceeding even 8,700 meters, and in that event APPLIED TO THE GULF OF SPEZIA. - 13 the arrangement in the first diagram would not only have no advantage over the second, but would be in every respect inferior. Beyond a doubt if we were to succeed in obtaining such long ranges it would become a very serious matter to protect the arsenal from all danger of bombardment, which could then be made from such distances that our batteries could not offer a certain and effective opposing fire. However, the use of such guns on board ships is a question of the future, and if it should be realized we would then have to adopt other measures for the defense, which could per- haps be no longer intrusted exclusively to fortifications, but should then be assisted by the fleet. In any event it is certain that if neither of the two solutions should succeed in preventing bombardment, the second would always be the more effective in preventing access to the arsenal. Besides the two foregoing solutions there would also be a third, shown in Plate III, in which we assume the batteries situated at two chosen. points on the body of the dike itself. This solution would have the ad- vantage of a defense situated in a re-entering; but, on the other hand, it would lessen the distance to which vessels could approach to bombard and it would still have the objection of exposing the works to successive at- tacks, they being so placed that the assistance of the other works would be of but little advantage to them. To improve the diagrams of the field of fire it would evidently be proper to add other batteries on the points of the coast in front of the dike, and then we would fall anew into the solution of Plate II, without having the advantage of pushing farther off the limit to which vessels could approach to effect a bombardment. - Having discussed the considerations on which we should depend to de- termine the defense of a coast, and having made a special application of them to the Gulf of Spezia, it is well to examine and discuss the best type for works of such great importance. It would be superfluous to repeat here all the arguments so often presented on the advantages and disadvantages of the three known types, namely, barbette batteries, armored casemates, and revolving turrets. Barbette batteries have already demonstrated their capabilities. It is not lack of experience that will prevent our discussing their real value. We know that even with parapets of extreme thickness the men and the pieces are very imperfectly protected, for the gunners must necessarily be exposed while serving the piece and the matériel cannot be sufficiently pro- tected by the parapet. These disadvantageous conditions are further aggra- vated by the greater precision in firing, which is constantly increasing, and by the growing use of explosive shells and shrapnel. The dangers to be feared from the above causes reach a maximum in the case of low batteries like sea-coast water batteries, particularly if armed with heavy guns, which stand a greater chance of being damaged by direct fire, or even by large & 14 STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE fragments of shells capable of injuring the mechanism of the carriage. It may therefore happen that even if the water batteries are armed with the most powerful artillery, they may be silenced by an attack made with cannon of smaller caliber. • . We must also consider how dangerous a combined naval and land attack might be for the water batteries if the enemy should succeed in taking up a position commanding them, a possibility which, although very hazardous on account of the presence of other defensive works, should not be entirely forgotten. Evidently armored batteries with casemates or revolving turrets are exempt from the above disadvantages, and as long as we can rely on the thickness of the armor and on the possibility of reducing to a minimum the probability of the embrasures being entered by direct fire, these batteries will be found unquestionably superior. At any rate the objections made to them can be removed or sensibly diminished. On the contrary, with barbette batteries the difficulty is special and peculiar to their type. But barbette batteries have in their favor a quality which, from a finan- cial point of view, is satisfactory at first sight; they cost much less than batteries with armored casemates or turrets. We must not deceive our- selves on this subject. The economic question is of such an important character that we must take it seriously into consideration, for it marks the limits of possibility independently of technical considerations which are found by inevitable laws. It does not therefore seem out of place before examining the three types in question and making a comparative discussion of them to establish their relation as regards expense. How- ever, for the special case of the Gulf of Spezia, taking into consideration the extent to be given the fields of fire to obtain the combination shown in the diagrams already discussed, we must necessarily omit the system of batteries with armored casemates, whose field of fire is far too limited. Consequently we should compare turret batteries and barbette batteries, and to establish the data closely it is assumed— a. That the armament is to be of Italian 100-ton guns.” * The 45-centimeter (Rosset) breech-loading gun of the artillery throws a projectile weighing 1,000 kilograms. - - At a distance of 2,500 meters, the velocity of the projectile being 413 meters, it follows that the total striking energy of the projectile is 8,697 meter-tons, or 61.5 meter-tous per centimeter of its circumference. This energy is that necessary to pierce squarely 51 centimeters of iron armor in a single thickness. The side of the Inflexible being protected by two iron plates of a total thickness of 61 centimeters (sandwich armor), requires that the projectile shall have a striking energy of 44 meter-tons per centimeter of its circumference to pierce it squarely. Under the present hypothesis it is clear that the works armed with 45-centimeter guns would defend the entrance to the Gulf of Spezia very efficiently, since at the ex- treme distance of 2,500 meters the projectiles would have an energy about once and a half greater than that necessary to pierce the side of the most powerful iron-clad of the English fleet, the Inflexible. APPLIED TO THE GULF OF SPEZIA. 15 b. That the armor plates are to be 55 centimeters thick, and of Schnei- der steel like the specimen presented by the house of Schneider & Co. for the experiments made at Spezia with the naval 100-ton gun. c. That when mounted in turrets it is always proper to have two guns in each turret, whereas if mounted in barbette it is preferable to have an isolated battery (batterie à puits) for each cannon, which is necessary both to enable us to give the piece an extended field of fire and in order not to expose more than one piece to the same shot from the direction of the sea.” d. That the parapets necessary for the barbette batteries, as well as those which in the turret batteries cover the lower part of the turret, should preferably be constructed of masonry at least 7 meters in thickness, rather than of earth or sand. e. That however the cannon be mounted, the magazines for the shelter of the ammunition, machinery, and equipment should in general be placed underneath the platform. - f. Finally we assume 300,000 francs as the cost of the 100-ton gun, including the carriage and the mounting of the piece. With the preceding data as a basis we have briefly calculated the net cost of a 100-ton gun mounted either in barbette or in a turret, and ac- cording to whether the battery is constructed isolated in the bay, on the dike, or on shore. The results of these calculations are shown in Table A, hereto annexed, from which it follows that everything included, cost of cannon, and accessories— The outlay per piece in a barbette battery is— Francs. Isolated --------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 665,000 On the dike-----------------------------, --------------------------- 615,000 On Shore------------------------------------------------------------ 460,000 The outlay per piece in a turret is— - Isolated ------------------------------------------------------------ 1, 140,000 On the dike--------------------------------------------------------. 1,090,000 On shore---------------- * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g = a, 947, 000 Hence, if i, d, and s represent respectively the cost of the barbette gun. according to the three situations of the battery, that is, isolated, on the dike, or on shore, the corresponding cost of the turret gun would be— Turret gun— Isolated.-------------------------------- … - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i. 71 it On the dike----------------------------------------------------------- 1.77 d On shore------------------------------------------------------------- - 2.06 s * We exclude à priori the supposition that the barbette guns should be mounted on revolving platforms, which would permit their being placed in pairs as in turrets. The platforms would be too feebly protected, for even the detached débris from the parapet that might happen to fall on them would suffice to prevent their being re- wolved. - - t If we take into consideration the cost of the interior revetment with armor, 16 STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE We may therefore remember that in the single case when the battery is situated on shore the cost of the turret gun exceeds by very little twice the cost of the barbette gun ; and since for the other locations, that is on the dike and on foundations isolated in the bay, the cost of the turret gun is sensibly less than twice that of the barbette gun, it will be readily con- ceded that, under the conditions of the Gulf of Spezia, where we must have at least two batteries isolated in the bay, if we take for a mean the cost of a turret gun as equal to twice the cost of a barbette gun we shall be making an hypothesis altogether favorable to this latter method of mounting. But are two cannons in barbette equivalent from a defensive point of view to a single cannon in a turret? This is the important question which deserves to be all the more attentively discussed, since, from its nature, it is very complex; and, moreover, we lack elements of comparison to do it with any accuracy. However, if we cannot have a rigorous solution it is at least possible to reach some conclusions of practical use. For this purpose it is desirable to examine the diagram in Plate II, and to suppose that the various sectors of fire correspond to the same number of pieces, whether mounted in barbette or in turrets. Now, to make an hypothesis favorable to the barbette batteries, let us assume that while armed with 100-ton guns they are attacked by vessels armed with less powerful pieces; or, in other words, let us suppose that they have to resist vessels of the type the most common in existing navies. It is evident that the 100-ton guns will have effective action at a distance greater than the 2,500 meters assumed in the diagram, and even greater than prudence exacts our fixing to preserve a sufficient probability of hit- ting the mark. But whatever be that distance it is beyond doubt that the vessels would also have effective action upon the batteries. Consequently, if we take as a radius the distance in question, and de- scribe the sectors of fire as in the diagram, Plate II, we will have a new diagram similar to the preceding one, in which there will be towards the extreme edge of the total zone of fire spaces scarcely swept by two batteries at the same time, and the greater the radius of effective fire the larger will be the surface of these feebly-swept spaces. On the contrary, if the batteries had turrets with armor 55 centimeters thick it would be necessary primarily that the attacking vessels should also be armed with 100-ton guns. Besides, they would be obliged to come within close range of the batteries in order to attack them effectively; and either for the bottom of the turret or the interior Scarp of the parapet, as mentioned in the note to the table, these ratios become 1.28i, 1.30d, and 1.418; much more favor able to mounting in turrets, but which we will not consider, in order to demonstrate our proposition with abundance of proof. APPLIED TO THE GULF OF SPEZIA. 17 they would therefore be obliged to place themselves in zones of water swept at the same time by four or five batteries at least. Hence, the presence of the turrefs with 55-centimeter armor, in the case shown in the diagram, Plate II, is equivalent to more than doubling the simultaneous action of the batteries on the zone that is useful to the attack; or, in other words, this means that a cannon in a turret can surely be considered as equivalent at least to two cannons in barbette, with this much more, however, that it suffices to employ for the attack on barbette batteries cannon of ordinary caliber, whereas against turret batteries with armor 55 centimeters thick we must have at least 100-ton guns. If, finally, we suppose that the vessels, in addition to their armaments of 100-ton guns, are at the same time protected by armor of the defensive power of that adopted for the vessels of the type of the Duilio, Dandolo, Italia, &c.,” then the barbette batteries will always be exposed to being attacked by these vessels remaining in the offing, and hence their num- ber, whatever it might be, could not compensate for the inefficiency of the fire; whereas turret batteries would always oblige the vessels to make their attack by placing themselves in quite restricted zones, where the de- fense would have not only efficient action, but also the possibility of being superior in number of pieces. The conclusions thus deduced from the comparison of the introduction of cannon in barbette and in turrets are, we must repeat, neither general nor rigorous; but for the special case that we have considered, that is, for the defense of the Gulf of Spezia, they constitute an element sufficiently certain to make as give the preference to batteries with revolving turrets. As to the particular structure of the turrets, the experiments made at Spezia with the naval 100-ton gun (Armstrong,43 centimeters) have proved that if protected with plates of Schneider steel, 55 centimeters thick, they would be capable of resisting the 100-ton gun ; for in these experiments the Schneider plates were not entirely pierced by the 908-kilogram projectile fired by the 100-ton gun with an initial velocity of 455.40 meters and a striking velocity of 451.80 meters, giving a total striking energy of 9,333 meter-tons, and of 69.36 meter-tons per centimeter of circumference of the projectile. Consequently plates that have given such satisfactory results under the favorable conditions of firing in a polygon can leave no doubt as to the superior results they will give in practice, the more so if we take into con- sideration the small probability of the projectiles striking the armored sides of the turret normally. Such conditions can only obtain in experimental firing done with deliberation and at very short range. It is known that in connection with the batteries of the Gulf of Spezia, * Armor of Schneider steel from 55 to 70 centimeters thick. 270 2 - - I8 - STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE Grüson & Co. have presented several projects for armored batteries and revolving turrets with armor of chilled cast-iron. In a general way the types of both seemed acceptable, but there were differences of opinion as to the propriety of using for the defense of Spezia armored case- mated batteries or only batteries with revolving turrets. It is certain that a turret of the Grüson type for two 90-ton guns, with a thickness of cast- iron sides capable of resisting the 32-centimeter gun,” would cost 1,400,000 francs, and the total weight of the turret, without guns, would be about 1,616 tons. On the contrary, a turret of the Duilio type, with armor of Schneider steel, 55 centimeters thick, would be capable of resisting the 100-ton gun, and, taking into account also the cost of a ring of armor 45 centimeters thick on the interior revetment of the glacis of the turret for the sectors exposed to fire only, would cost, in all, about 1,446,000 francs, reducing the weight of the turret alone to 600 tons. It is therefore seen under how much better conditions we can now ob- tain turrets capable of resisting the 100-ton gun by abandoning the idea of constructing them of chilled cast-iron, and adopting, on the contrary, ar- mor of Schneider steel. But what is the number of turrets, each with two 100-ton guns, neces- sary to insure the defense of the gulf? To answer this question it will suffice to find how many vessels can, while preserving the liberty of action necessary for the attack, present themselves at the same time in the zone of water where they must necessarily advance to be able to act effectively against the turrets. If we take into consideration that this zone can also be made dangerous by torpedoes, it seems improbable that more than three vessels (Duilio type) would be able at the same time to attack the works, bearing in mind the dangers the torpedoes would present at the distance they should have to multiply the objective points of the defense. It would therefore appear sufficient to make sure of the safety of the defense, that each of the seven batteries shown in the diagram should con- sist of a single turret with two 100-ton guns. - The question being reduced to this, the necessary outlay would be the following: Francs. For two turrets on foundations isolated in the bay, including two cannons, - machinery, &c., and including the interior revetment of the glacis (see table), each 2,506,000 francs---------------. --------------------------- 5, 012,000 For five turrets on shore, including the two cannons, machinery and tools, and including the revetment as above, each 2,120,000 francs ---------- - 10,600,000 Total - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15, 612,000 * The 32-centimeter gun (Rosset) throws a projectile weighing 350 kilograms, which, at a distance of 500 meters, has the energy necessary to pierce squarely an iron plate 43 centimeters thick; that is, 36 meter-tons per centimeter of its circum- ference. APPLIED TO THE GULF OF SPEZIA. ~ 19 If from this sum we deduct the cost of the fourteen 100-ton guns, We will have merely for the fortifications intended for coast defense with hori- zontal and armor-piercing fire, the sum of 11,412,000 francs. The defense being established in the manner indicated, we believe that it can be considered final from a general point of view. We admit readily that it can be subjected to modifications in details, which, however, become matters of estimation, and may be judged in different ways. The proposed armament of fourteen 100-ton guns only, may perhaps be considered too feeble; and it may be called in question whether the defensive power of the works will attain the necessary limit, or whether it will be excessive with superflous expense; these objections or others may be raised; but we do not believe, however, that they can constitute a vital question, for it will certainly be easy to study the details of the subject so as to reach a practical solution. The only really serious point is that to carry out the propositions under discussion, even within the restricted limits in which we have proposed them, not only a considerable expenditure of money is necessary, but the period of time required is too long to provide for an urgency already too much neglected; consequently we realize that prudence demands that we should provide at once for the defense of our arsenal and as thoroughly as possible, and at the same time that the structures necessary for the perma- nent defense should be undertaken, beginning with those that will require the longest time. During the construction of the works, we should pro- ceed with that of the 45-centimeter guns, that the defense may be com- pletely finished within a delay of about five years. We also think that it would not be difficult to establish at short notice a provisional defense; for the dike already closes the Gulf, and it only re- mains for us to defend the waters in front to prevent bombardment, which would not be difficult to accomplish with torpedoes and provisional batte- ries, managing, however, to locate these batteries so as not to permit an at- tack upon them from the offing, and so as to oblige the enemy's fleet to develop itself in a re-entering, and be subject to the enveloping and con- verging fire of the defense. TABLE A. Barbette battery for a 45-centimeter G. R. C. breech-loading gun. Battery isolated in the bay. Battery on the dike. Battery on shore. | . | e - Francs. Francs. Francs. Riprap and foundations. 245,000 Riprap for foundation, Excavation for instal- Masonry * * * * - - - - - - - - as s = 105,000 enrockments and sur- lation and founda. Cost of 45: centimeter charge -----...- ...----. 195,000 tion ... . . . . . . 40, 000 gun, including carriage 300,000 Masonry above for shel. Masonry.............I. 105.000 Machinery. --- . . . . . . . . . 15, 000 ters and magazines, Cost of gun and car. ; &c. : :----------------- 105,000 riage................. 300, 000 45-centimeter gun, in- Machinery ...... . . . . i5.000 cluding carriage... . . . . 300,000 - - 3. Machinery for raising i projectiles, cartridges, * &0-------------------- 15, 000 Total ------------- 665,000 Total.------------. 615,000. Total.----------.. 460, 000 20 STUDIES ON COAST DEFENSE. TABLE A—Continued. Battery of one turret (with Schneider 55-centimeter armor) for two 45-centimeter G. R. C. breech-loading guns. IBattery isolated in the bay. Battery on shore. Francs. Riprap and foundations 426,000 aSOIn TV - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 174,000 Turret for two guns -- . 1,055, 000 Machinery and 10-horse - power steam-engines 25,000 Two 45-centimeter guns 600,000 Total - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 280, 000 Battery on the dike. Francs. Riprap for foundation, enrockments and sur- charge ------ - - - - - - - 326, 000 Masonry above for shel- ters, magazines, &c. 174,000 Machinery and steam- engines ------------- 25,000 Turret for two guns. - 1,055,000 Two 45-centimeter guns 600,000 Total ------------ 2, 180,000 I'rancs. Excavation and foun- dation.-------------.. 40, 000 Masonry--------. . . . . . 174,000 Turret for two guns. 1,055, 000 Machinery and steam- engines 25,000 Two 45-centimeter guns 600,000 1, 894, 000. IN O TD E S. 1. The surcharge, considered under the head of enrockments, is intended to insure thorough settling of the foundations, and is supposed to be formed of rocks making a weight not less than that of the structures to be placed upon the same foundations. 2. In the total cost of the turrets we have not included the cost of the annular revetment With armor of the interior of the parapet. - O This revetment which is certainly necessary for the parapets of the turrets is not less so for the interior scarps of the parapets of the barbette batteries. when limited in either case, to the sector ex increase the expense about 226,000 francs. This revetment, posed only, and when made of 45-centimeter armor would ==#ffff;" frr:Iſmſ）， IT）“ ·s222/y 22×2.7×75 � �^ º sº??/V 222222272%/ 272229 （~~~~__ ~ ~ ~ ~）;~ _ /.{# aº!,^\/\ ·\/• į/* 2}// \A# .*\//^ \\# \*\*/ ·/ ^\,#,^*\/ \ 。\,/„“\\ /on/6øysaº? ae}，\Xſá ØZ-L •4\\\•^\ ：æí – º >\ \ �ØØŒŒ%�%~@% 2?-???ZY 9 Ø Z7 Z. ZWZ-Z ſaei I， ſºiſſ!ſºn:- 1 , iiſ， ſae ºº)? /ſ/07? /274" �4 %Z*Zºº ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~）*ae “№， №žį！ ` ~ ~ ,3，722O$? ZZZZZZ ）غ.… → *** ±NJ… ~~ 222ANJ•* %\`s，…«* „~~* 42zºruegºſ ºg ſºoſ/…,90% !! ！! ！！_ ----- ~- - ---- - ---- - - - ~- - → + ×-_- --- … =~~ ~~~~ ~_. --★ → → → → → → →== * <=== ** ****** %------- №ſzº~~） . . . . . ???· · · · ·__22^ ^�}^-，* …，~,~ ~ ~ ~ ！ %Œ„ - “_2 - 2°/ \L ^^\\^ < @•. --~~~ 7„”' , ' „ “^NJ^ S ¿%@****--> • <- - -Ž** ~ _ .-----~~ ~ ~ ~ ---- ·2^�~ ~ ~ ، 2！• &’ 8º¿? Zxºgo??} •/* v #„”* 2/→ \ @/,'’, Ø/\ *\ # ? #* }y »azó，7 } + ?# \ ?22|\Ź/2 ：%%{}~ ！（）^ ?！?- -|－| ſºØ ……º62–→|،· ^ ºmae«…yae （a%@@% 。ºſ272/rº/V №%~~~~Ø ( Ø 2. Z ØØ ſaeØ T H E I D E A L WOOd=Preserver: IS IT POSSIBLE AND OBTAHNABL:E A PAPER READ APRIL 8, 1897, BEFORE THE Engineering Association of the South BY C. S. McKINNEY, NASHVILLE, TENN. Member of th. Association. COPYR 1 GHT, 1897, BY C. S. MCKINNEY. IMPORTANCE OF THE QUESTION. There is no question of greater importance to engineers in general than that relating to the preservation of wood. Many, who have searched for the ideal method of preservation have only met with disappointment and have despaired of its inven- tion in time to save our rapidly disappearing timber supply. The history of engineering is strewn with wrecks of nurn ar- ous methods that promised much, but performed little. How- ever, many failures are but so many prophecies of final success. The substances which So far have given the best results are the chloride of zinc (used in Burnettizing), the bichloride of mer- cury (used in Kyanizing) and the products resulting from the de- structive distillation of coal tar (used in creosoting). With the advantages and disadvantages of each of these processes, en- (I) gineers are familiar, since all have been thoroughly discussed in engineering literature. WOOD CREOSOTE. Some years ago great results were promised for half a dozen or more different brands of so-called wood preservers, most of them with names ending in “ine,” based on the rather remark- able theory that the product from the distillation of pine ties, the lives of which in their natural state would average not more than six years, if painted on other pine ties, would give to them indefinite existence. This appears analogous to the savage man's idea, that the more Scalps of his brother man he could take and wear at his belt, the stronger and longer lived he would become. Time has shown that the “ines” had one merit; they were cheap in the be- ginning—but they proved dear in the end. In a report of the United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, puplished in 1894, under the subject of creosoting we find: “Two kinds of oil are used : (1) Dead oil of coal tar, ob- tained from coal and containing naphthalene as its principal pre- servative; and (2) wood creosote oil, obtained from the destruc- tive distillation of pine timber, and containing paraffin. * * * Wood creosote oil is much cheaper than the dead oil, and is less dense. * * * One of the creosoting companies which used this material, but abandoned it, states that its life as an antisep- tic is limited on account of its being more soluble than dead oil. About 12 pounds per cubic foot were used for pine, and treated ties cost about three times as much as those untreated. It is said to contain 53.30 per cent of neutral oils (mostly paraffin oils), 36.70 per cent. of tar acids, and IO per cent. Of tar.” Some engineers, experimenting with such wood creosote compounds, required the following tests: “F1ashing point... . . . . . Deg. F. 200 || Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.05 Burning point. . . . & 4 “ 220 | Tarry matter. . . . . . . . . Per cent. 5 Temperature at which mate- | Tar acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . Per cent. 45 rial will run. . . . . . . . Deg. F. 15 Neutral oils. . . . . . . . Per cent. 50 Material will not be accepted which flashes below 172° F.; burns below 200°; will not run at 20°; specific gravity less than 1.03; has more than 12 per cent of tar or less than 30 per cent. of tar acids.” COAL TAR CREOSOTE. By creosote in the remainder of this paper is meant “dead oil” of the best quality, distilled from coal tar, and free from tar (2) and other impurities. This material properly applied to well selected timber in the right condition will protect it both from decay and attacks of Teredo and Limnoria. The reason there have been so many failures in creosoting is, that (as stated by Angineering AVezº’s) “the oil in common use is from England, re- fuse of gas works, boiled in iron tanks, mixed with naphtha and called dead oil, of which the United States has imported ten million gallons annually.” So extensive has been the use of this inferior material that many engineers have entirely lost con- fidence in creosoting as it is usually done. Properly done, with the best creosote from coal tar, no fault can be found with the results, but the price prohibits its general use. As long as lumber is so cheap as it is in this country, true dead oil creosote cannot be used economically except to a very limited extent. The denseness of dead oil is largely due to its principal pre- servative, naphthalene, which melts only at 175° F. To liquify naphthalene and force it into the wood cells where it will solidify and become permanent, requires an extensive plant involving the investment of a large amount of capital. Then the selection of the proper quality of lumber for treatment, its transportation to the works, and from there to the place where it is required for use, adds so greatly to its cost that its general use, as before stated, is prohibited. To a certain extent the same objections exist in the use of the chloride of zinc and bichloride of mercury processes. Both require considerable investment of capital in the plant, and ex pense of transportation to and from the works; besides there are other Serious objections to each of these processes, so well known to engineers that it is unnecessary to enumerate them. That the advantage derived from the use of these chemicals comes from the chlorine in their composition is evident from the fact that other salts from the same metals are valueless as wood preservers. THE IDEAL WOOD PRESERVER DEFINED. Hence We conclude that the ideal wood preserver must be one which combines the efficiency of the chlorides with the permanency and efficien- cy of the dead oil creosote process, in a form readily absorbed by the wood, without the aid of cumbersome machinery or expensive pressure appli- ances, and which can be successfully applied to the lumber anywhere by unskilled Workmen, This ideal in a wood preservative was very nearly attained (3) in 1870 by R. Avenarius, an officer in the Prussian army, in his efforts to produce a compound which would preserve from decay the vineyard stakes in the Valley of the Rhine. To this prepa- ration was given the name “Carbolineum,” which has since be- come known as a successful wood preserver in all parts of the world. In 1887 the following report was made by the United States Department of Agriculture regarding this first product: “According to F. Engle, government surveyor of buildings (Germany), painting wood with Carbolineum as a protection against the weather and rot gives favorable results. The Impe- rial C (vernment surveyor of buildings 1 o confirms this sº ate- ment in a certificate under date of January 19, 1885, in which he states that on the imperial roads woodwork used in underground construction during the years from 1870 to 1885, when painted with Carbolineum, had no decay up to date of certificate. For the sake of experiment two pieces of pine wood, taken from the same plank, were thus treated: The first was painted with Car- bolineum, while the second was left in its natural state, and both placed in the ground under the same conditions. At the end of three years the painted specimen was found to exhibit no signs of decay, but the unpainted one was in a rotten state. “The district surveyor of buildings inclines very favorably to the use of Carbolineum on buildings in the water, and on sluice gates, dam barriers, piles, posts, especially when the wood is kept wet or dry, or by turns wet and dry. It is found that Carbolineum is cheaper than the semi-fluid tar. For an area of 6 square meters I kilogram of Carbolineum is ordinarily used; and its superiority over tar is shown by the fact that even the largest manufacturers, where tar is a by-product, and the use of which costs nothing, are coming to use Carbolineum. “It is best and most advantageous to paint with hot Carbo- lineum, for in this state it is more fluid than when unboiled, and for this reason penetrates into all cracks and Openings, at the same time dissolving any rosin or oil present; it also disinfects more energetically in a warm state than in a cold one. In warm weather, and on wood when the surface is not buried in the earth, it is only necessary to give a thicker coating of the un- heated oil, especially as it can be repeated after a while. Wood that is not completely air dried must always be treated with hot Carbolineum. All the wooden parts of bridges that are exposed to changes of wet and dry, as well as their gravel-covered layer of planks, are painted with two coats of hot Carbolineum.” IMPROVED PROCESS OF MANUFA CTURE. Since the date of this report very valuable improvements have been made and patented by the original inventor, which brings “Carbolineum Avenarius” fully up to the requirements, (4) above stated, of an ideal wood preserver. The basis of the Com- pound is the best and purest heavy coal tar oils, or “dead oil,” to which are added other powerful antiseptics, including that most powerful of all, chlorine, which induces such chemical changes in the crystallizable constituents of the dead oil as greatly to add both to its efficiency and penetrability, making the liquid self-impregnating and dispensing with the expense of a plant and machinery and transportation of the lumber; for naphthalene (CoHs) is converted from the solid form into naph- thalene dichloride (CoH,Cl) and chlor-naphthalene (CoH,Cl), which are heavy yellow oils, that readily enter into the cells of the wood, rapidly coagulate the albumen of the cellular tissue, and in time possibly part with some of the chlorine and partially reassume the solid form of naphthalene. Para-naphthalene, or anthracene (CI, H16), is converted by the chlorine into dichlor-anthracene (C.HsC1,) and chlor-anthracene (C, H,Cl) and substitution compounds in solution. COAL, TAR ACIDS. It was once supposed that the powerful antiseptic, carbolic acid, or phenol, was a valuable addition to wood preservatives, but experience shows that its tendency is to “burn” and weaken the fibre of the wood, and on account of its solubility in water it is not permanent. Dr. Fresenius, a distinguished chemist of Wiesbaden, in commenting on the absence of raw carbolic acid in Carbolineum Avenarius, says: “Carbolic acid is soluble in water and destroys the wood fibre, decreasing its strength and resistance to mechanical action, therefore its presence in Carbo- lineum Avenarius would be detrimental.” s The Technical Review of Natural Science, Vol. IV., No. 11, asserts that “a mixture containing 30 per cent of carbolic acid would be destructive to wood fibre.” Phenol (C6H5OH) is not technically an acid, but is similar in composition to an alcohol, and is converted by the chlorine treatment into chlor-phenisic acid, or trichlorophenol (C, H,Cls- OH), which is but slightly soluble in water, much less so than phenol, hence it is a more durable as well as a more efficient preservative on account of combination with chlorine. These results are accomplished by an intricate process and expensive machinery, both fully protected by patents, and neither the process nor the machinery can be or is used by (5) others than the original manufacturers. Notwithstanding this fact many worthless counterfeits have been put on the market both in Europe and America. So far, no American counterfeit is worthy of being called an imitation, for they are usually crude mixtures of raw carbolic acid and cheaper grades of petroleum, or the waste liquor from gas works, but several German coun- terfeits bear some resemblance to Carbolineum Avenarius in color and general appearance, so much so as to deceive a careless observer; but, put to the test of a comparative analysis they are shown to be very different, as well as woefully deficient, as shown by the analysis by Dr. F. Filsinger, of Carbolineum Ave- narius and seven of the most prominent German counterfeits. We append hereto a translation of the original analysis, only changing the temperatures from Celsius to Fahrenheit by the usual formula, *s-F. (See page II.) Attention is called to the great differences in specific gravity, viscosity, flashing and burning points, the comparatively small per cent. of volume lost by Carbolineum Avenarius by distilla- tion at high temperatures, which proves the absence of the lighter and worthless products from coal tar or petroleum, and especially to the character of the “residue after distillation,” which in the case of Carbolineum Avenarius, is a “clear red brown thick fluid,” while the residue in all the counterfeits is thick, or almost solid, with anthracene. This final result con- clusively proves the assertion made above in reference to the conversion of these solid or crystalline products of dead oil into the oily fluid Napthalene Dichloride, and the other fluid com- pounds before mentioned. OTHER EVIDENCES OF VALUE. But aside from the chemical or theoretical view of this com- pound there are others, which unmistakably point to it as the ideal wood preservative. There are: (1) Its extensive and successful use since 1870—more than a quarter of a century. (2) Its proved practical value under all condition and ex- posures, in all parts of the world. (3) Its unqualified endorsement and extensive use by dis- tinguished engineers, architects, and others, who have thorough- 1y tested its merits, and are by education and Occupation the most competent judges of such an article. (6) (4) The almost entire absence of complaint from consum- ers, who, after many years use of this material, are unanimous in voluntarily giving to it the highest praise. Investigation of the very few complaints received have in- variably shown that failure has resulted either from careless and inefficient application,or from the use of counterfeit carbolineums. QUANTITY REQUIRED AND EXPENSE. We will now consider the very important questions of quantity required and expense of using this material. As in the successful use of all other substances of value for preserving wood, some care should be taken to have the timber in the best possible condition to receive it. Timber should be at least partially seasoned, but if the timber is only slightly dried out it should be dipped for a longer time in the preservative, which should be heated to a higher temperature than would be mecessary for seasoned timber; or, if applied with a brush, the preservative should be very hot, and longer time for absorption allowed between coats and before putting the timber in position. On seasoned timber during warm weather heating the preserva- tive is not always necessary. Sawed timber takes it best and the more sap there is, or the more porous the wood, the better. A special claim of economy is made for this process, as it enables otherwise useless timber to be made available, and to last as long as expensive timber-longer than the most expensive timber, unprotected by a preservative. The different kinds of wood, and the different conditions each kind may be in at the time of treatment, will determine to some extent the quantity which will be readily absorbed, and the conditions for successful application. More or less may be used upon a given surface according to the judgment of the engineer in charge as to what will be sufficient to give protection, and this depends somewhat on the exposure to which the timber will be subjected. More should be used on timber which has to go under ground, or where it will be alternately wet and dry, also where timber goes into water infested with Teredo and Limnoria. Un bridge timber, more should be used on the mortises and tenons, or where timbers come in contact, than is necessary on other portions. Therefore an absolutely accurate estimate of quantity required for a given surface could not be made which would apply to all cases, where such varied conditions, as above stated, (7) -3: exist. However, long experience has demonstrated that the average quantity required, under all ordinary conditions, is one gallon to I50 Square feet of surface of rough lumber for one coat, and from one-fourth to one-half of this quantity for the second coat, should it be required. For ordinary atmospheric exposure the preservative should penetrate the wood from one-sixteenth to one-eighth inch, for extraordinary exposure to decay or to teredo the penetration should be from one-eighth to three- sixteenths of an inch, or more. Freshly cut sections of treated timber do not show the depth of penetration until after exposure for some time to light, which will develop the color of the material and partially show the depth of penetration, though the taste and odor of this material is found to extend much deeper than the color line, and so also does its preservative effeet. The cost of material per thousand feet, board measure, varies with the size of the timber, the larger timber requiring less per Iooo ft. B. M. than smaller sections. For example where 14x14 inches, 7x15 inches, 5x12 inches and 3x12 inches are used in bridges, we would esti- mate the cost per IOOO feet B. M. of each size as follows: Tº --> ‘L’ o, § 3 £ 4- § Tº º # - ‘E 3 +. Q5 + #. C'c E. G | 3 +. q) r- UD ‘5 % C ſº SIZE OF TIMBER. ſº º º: C T ...; $– Uſ) *— ~ * – º q) r- Q) > Q5 † : - ––9 C ºn- 80 - º R E S -4-2 $– # 9 ſm º E - Ø gö #. Q) +-) cº- Tº y O | H Oſ) Z O 14x14 inches X. . . . . . . . 61.22 285.68 1.90 $1.90 7x15 inches X. . . . . . . . . . 114.28 419.02 2.78 2.78 5x12 inches X. . . . . . . . . . 200. 566.66 3.77 3.77 3x12 inches X. . . . . . . . . . 333.33 833.33 5.55 5.55 This 4,000 ft. Board Measure contains 2104.69 14 ga1s. |cost 14.00 Average, per 1000 feet B. M. contains 526.17 3.5 ‘‘ ** 3.50 If half of the above quantity was added for a second coat, the cost of thoroughly treating the timber would be only $4.50 per 1,000 ft. B. M. Should the cost be double that amount and the life of the timber was only doubled, great economy would result from the use of the preservative; but, there is evidence that the life of some timber has already been extended five times the natural period, and yet appears perfectly sound and good to last as long again. In such cases the enormous saving from the use of this excellent preservative becomes apparent. (8) SAVES PAINT. Another advantage in the use of Carbolineum Avenarius is that it takes the place of and saves the cost of paint, while the color, which is a rich nut-brown or walnut, is not objectionable. Paint of any color can be used over the preservative after it has become thoroughly dry, which, however, takes considerable time, but paint adds nothing to the protection of wood on which the preservative has been applied, hence it is a useless expense, unless a different color is demanded. Paint must be used every two or three years, Carbolineum Avenarius may be renewed every ten or fifteen years, but experience does not seem to indi- cate that any renewal would be required, except to renew the intensity of the color, which will fade to some extent after a number of years. A NOTABLE EXPERIMENT. The interesting experiment of Dr. J. Edward Lingard, of Derby, England, shows the rapidity with which wood will sea- son after treatment with Carbolineum Avenarius, which does not close the pores of wood, and proves that moisture is not re- tained in wet, or green, wood to produce “dry rot,” as when the pores of wet or unseasoned wood are closed with paint or coal tar. It also demonstrates the fact that when unseasoned wood, treated witth this preservative, is exposed to a damp atmosphere. or to rain, instead of absorbing water, it will continue, even under such conditions, to dry out, since in this case the pieces lost four ounces in weight while exposed for 72 hours to damp- ness, including 16 hours of rain. In this remarkable property, which is of immense value to a wood preserving compound, Carbolineum Avenarius in unique. Any one who doubts the correctness of Dr. Lingard's experi- ment can easily verify it by a similar one of his own. The following is a reprint of Dr. Lingard's report: CARBOLINEUM AVENARIUS, Showing its Action for Driving out Moisture fronn Wood. Trial Made Dec 1 S 88, Jan 1 S 89. Out of a Railway Sleeper, four pieces, 23 inch to 23% inch each, were cut, leaving two ends, one 3 inch and one I 2% inch. The four pieces, after the ends were stopped with neat cement, were immersed in Carbolineum Avenarius for 5, 7, Io and 12 Ininutes respectively, their weights being taken before immer- (9) sion, and after at repeated intervals, showing that these pieces con- tinually and gradually lost weight to a remarkable extent. This result is brought about by the action of the Carbolineum Avena- rius forcing out the water from the wood. Experiments as to this peculiar action have been continually made for years, and the re- sult of some have been published by us about three years ago. It will be seen from the figures below that the four pieces took in : 2% ounces labout 1-12 of a gallon of Carbolineum Avenarius, and they ultimately lost 14 pounds I }{ ounces. Up to January 18th these four pieces were kept in a room at mod- erate temperature, but we would particularly draw your atten- tion to the result when these pieces were subsequently exposed for 72 hours to a damp atmosphere, including 16 hours of rain, showing that in spite of this exposure the pieces together lost 4 Ounces more. The two end pieces referred to above were weighed at the same time as the four pieces, before the latter were immersed. They remained in the same room with the four pieces up to January 18th, when they were exposed to air and rain, together with the four pieces, and for the same period, the result being that they gained 8 ounces on their original weight of December 28th, thus taking further moisture on the already Saturated wood. All the trials have been made under the direction and Super- vision of J. E. LINGARD, Esq., C. E. of Derby. := c: ‘e January 21st, attº; i.rs. January 9th. January 18th. # ;: after 72 hours. 22 lbs. 9% oz. 21 lbs. 34 oz. 19 lbs. 8 oz ºf ºbs, 3.4% 22 “ 15% { % 21 ‘‘ 15 { % 20 “ 14 { { ºf £ X. 20 “ 12% C & 23 * { 3% & & 22 { { 3% { { 21 { { % * { % ſt: E 20 & 4 14% & C 22 { { 7% § { 21 { { 3 & 4 19 { % 14% { % 3.23 19 ( & 13% & £ a- --- - -- gº- - 90 15 86 8% 81 5 É 3 81 1 GAIN–12% oz. LOSS-1 lb. 12% 3%, 1 lb. 12% oz., –1b, 10% oz., 4 lbs. 6%.92.5 lbs. 3% oz. —lb. 4 OZ. #6'ſ A. E.6ssº it; ſº ) J º ; º * expose elast 72 hours December 28th. to open air, including e - 1/ . * s Tg. ends of) 3 in. x 9 in. x 4% in. 16 hours of rain. eepers. 12% in. x 9 in. x 4%. 3 lbs. 15% OZ. 4 lbs. 34 OZ. l % % 14 “ éſ. ( ſ. 14 “ 12% OZ, -- ** - 18 5% 18 134 TOTAL GATN—8 Oz.” (IO) In the Chemiker-Zeitung, No. 31, of April 18th, 1891, that most eminent practical chemist, Herr Dr. F. Filsinger, on the subject of Wood Preserving, presents a comparative analysis which he made of Carbolineum Avenarius and a 11u1nber of counterfeits of Carbolineurn. Carbolineum Avenarius. COUNTERFEITS. German Royal Patent. No. 1. NO. TI. NO. III. NO. IV. NO. W. NO. VI. NQ. VTL V, a lav Raoul Rh-i \var Reddish Reddish Reddish Yellowish Dark Brown (Jolor— Red Brown. Brown, Brown. Brown. Brown. Brown. ... "T." | Red Brown. Specific Gravity (62.6°Fahr.). 1.128 1.085 1,071 1,069 1.057 1.051 º 1.108 Viscosity at 62.6° F. (Water =1) 10.0 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.5 2.7 While, Solid 3.2 - matter is susp. Mineral Matter (Ash). . . . . . . . . 0.03% 0.22% 0.05% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% % 0.60% Flashing Point (Fahr.). . . . . . . . . 2689 1769 2030 190° 1939 1829 1879 230° Flashes of an Burning Point “ . . . . . . . . . 3749 2489 2669 2629 253° 2120 exºns. 275° l'II*62 3, Begins to distill at (F.). . . . . . . . . 446° 3569 3589 365° 3169 3569 2039 401° T * ###### From 320° up to 410° 4.8 Vols. 9% 15.0 Vol. 9% 8.0 Vol. 9% 21.0 “ “ 38.0 Vol. 9% # 8 #º 3 2.0 Vol. 9% - 2- an From 410° up to 446° 10.5 “ { { 19.0 “ “ 22.5 “ “ 30.1 “ “ 14.0 “ “ # # #3 6.2 “ “ Sº, ö;F 3.5 From 446° up to 518° 10.6 Vol. 9%|| 24.5 “ { { 27.0 “ “ 31.5 “ “ 20.8 “ “ 16.0 “ “ # § à : 28.0 “ “ .c. spºt From 518° up to 572° 12.0 “ “|| 26.8 “ & 4 18.5 “ “ 8.2 “ “ | Discontinued. 8.1 “ “ É # ### ă 19.0 “ “ (0. +2 >4 Phenol (accºrd'g to Seubert test). Trace. 0.4% 1.4% 1.5% 5.4% 3.3% Å; § *: Q) 0.7% - s - - - _| 2 º’s $– Heavy Naph- Naphthalin (410°–446°), None Separating. Not much N. Much N. *ś,” Much N. #. º à £ # § their precipe Residue after distillation: Thick with Thick with ºtiff owing to solid with | ##### # Thick with An. Clear, red brown, thick FLUID. ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' Anthracen. Anthracer. | Anthracen. Anthracen. 5': § ºf 3 thracen, al- #### H.3 most solid. The above table shows at the first glance how greatly, the counterfeits in all important points differ from the pat ented original manufacture ; and that the 1atter shows as great comparative advantage in regard to its fixed chemical qualities as it has done in its practical application. N. B.--This testimonial and analysis was given voluntarily and without charge for services. HOW OBTAINABLE. To protect consumers from counterfeit corbolineums the sole United States agents and importers of the genu- ine Carbolineum Avenarius number and register all original packages, and refuse to sell in large quantities except for direct shipment to consumers by themselves, from their own ware- houses, and all consumers, who buy through jobbers, brokers, traveling Salesmen, or agents, should see that their bills of lading come from the “Carbolineum Wood-Preserving Co.,” and that they receive barrels with registered numbers corresponding to those on the bill of lading. Shipments will be made from New York, (in bond to ſoreign countries), New Orleans, Milwaukee, Austin, Tex., San Francisco, and some other points, but all or-. ders and communications should be addressed to “Carbolineum Wood-Preserving Co., 21 Cliff street, New York City,” or “Nash- ville, Tenn.,” if from the Southern States. This company will furnish further information and testimonials on request. The names, “Carbolineum,” and “Carbolineum Avenarius,” are their registered property and cannot be lawfully used by others; and they will be thankful to receive evidence of any parties selling, or attempting to sell, counterfeit or imitation preparations under the names “Carbolineum” or “Carbolineum Avenarius.” (I.2) º *--sº tl g s 3. : \ \o UPON THE BLASTING OPERATIONS AT LIME POINT, CALIFORNIA, IN 1868 AND 1869. BY G. H. M.B N DE L L , LIEUT. COLONEL OF ENGINEERS, BVT. COLONEL, U. S. A. ©. ©. =º WASHING TO N : G. O. W. ERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1880. _-seasºta . . º s -.‘y --w- --•- .-- - ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, U. S. ARMY. REPORT UPON THE BLASTING ()PERATIONS AT LIME POINT, CALIFORNLA, IN 1868 AND 1869. BY G. H. M. EN DEL L., LIEUT. COLONEL OF ENGINEERS, BVT. COLONEL, U. S. A. sº «» W.A.S EIIIN G TO N : & O WIERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1880. REPORT UPON THE BLASTING OPERATIONS AT LIME POINT, CAL- IFORNIA, IN 1868 AND 1869. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., April 5, 1880. GENERAL: After the lapse of some years I review the blasting opera- tions by mines which took place at Lime Point in 1868 and 1869. There were three sets of mines exploded: the first, that of May, 1868, containing three charges, in gross 10,150 pounds of powder; the second, of October, 1868, in a series containing 24,000 pounds; the third in April, 1869, of 16,500 pounds in three mines. - At the time these explosions were made, this method of excavation was new in America. It had, however, been applied in Great Britain— at Holyhead to obtain material for the construction of a breakwater; near Dover in making a road-bed along the Chalk Cliffs, and at Furnace, Scotland, in quarrying. Since the dates of the Lime Point explosions, even larger charges have been fired for the purpose of breaking up the cemented auriferous gravel banks in California, into sizes capable of being handled by the processes of hydraulic mining. It is hoped that a history of the operations at Lime Point and an ac- count of the impressions which they created upon the minds of those best acquainted with the circumstances, may have some value to those who may at any future time be called upon to conduct similar operations. It is in this hope that a revision of the subject is undertaken. The details of the operations of preparing the mines for explosion, as hereafter to be described, were substantially the same in all of the cases. Successive Operations suggested no improvement of any importance in the preliminary process. In the later blasts, however, the charges were proportioned more liberally. The detritus of but one of these blasts was entirely cleared away. The second and third Were partially cleared up. Excavation was sus- pended in the spring of 1869 and has never been resumed. The foot of the talus of the last blast was well out in the sea at the base of the cliff. The storms and currents have broken down and carried away much of the finer detritus, and many thousand yards, reinforced by additions from the hill above, shaken by the explosion, remain as a monument Owing to this suspension of Work it has not been possible to ascer- tain accurately the results of these blasts, which if done would go far in helping to lay down a rule for the proportioning of charges more definite than is now possible. It is already, however, proved that mine 4 blasting is beyond comparison the cheapest way of breaking a great mass into shape for handling by ordinary appliances for removal. The detritus was thrown into the sea first by shovels, next by wheel- barrows, succeeded successively as the distance of removal became greater, by hand-carts holding 11 feet, and by horse-carts containing about 17 cubic feet. It was found that wheelbarrows were cheaper than Carts to a distance of about 75 feet, at which point hand-carts became £he cheapest, maintaining the advantage to about 130 feet, while for greater distances horse-carts were to be preferred. This method of re- moval does not correspond to the scale of making detritus. A single blast brings down and breaks up a quantity of material, the removal of Which will occupy for months all the men that can be crowded upon it. It was also found in clearing up, that the bank was stiff in places, and the material not well broken up. The stiffness of the bank admits of ex- planation on account of the dip of the strata, as will presently be noted, but there remains no doubt that better results would have been obtained by burning more powder. The advantage of using liberal charges, under the particular circumstances of this case, is not confined to a more thorough breaking of the mass. There is some advantage gained by the transporting power of the explosion, which saves handling by the slow and expensive process that has been mentioned. The proximity of the sea, into which all the detritus is to be thrown, accounts for the latter advantage in this case. Powder used in this way is believed to be a Cheaper agent than human muscle. EAST This sketch, a vertical section, illustrates the manner of explosion of the first blast. The strata dip to the west. The hill was entered from the east, and the charge was placed to throw to the east. The base of the hill on the east was cut away as represented by the dotted line to make the shortest line to the air, horizontal or nearly so. In spite of this precaution, the explosion broke out of the hill nearly along the line of the strata, and left the bank immediately in front of the charge shaken, but yet quite stiff. A charge placed to throw material to the west instead of the east would, with this direction of dip, give decidedly better results. This illustrates the importance of a proper location of the charge. In this particular case there was no choice open; want of accessibility of the west side of the hill compelled the attack on the east Side. 5 - . \, The lines of least resistance varied in different mines from 30 to 60 feet, and the mines were generally spaced at distances apart about equal to the lines of least resistance. These preliminary remarks of a general character seem to introduce a more detailed account. IDESCRIPTION OF LIME POINT, Lime Point is the site of a proposed casemated work for the defense of the Golden Gate, the throat of the harbor of San Francisco. The name of the point is supposed to have been given on account of the whitish appearance of some adjacent rocks, produced by deposits of bird-lime. The name is inappropriate to the chemical constitution of the rocks, which are not calcareous, as will be seen in the following description given by Prof. W. P. Blake and published in Vol. V., Pacific Railroad Reports: They are, to all appearance, a metamorphosed or changed portion of the sandstone formation. At Lime Point they exhibit regular stratifications with the planes near vertical or inclining westward. Portions of the strata are very finely stratified, the layers being not over one-half inch thick, and yet they are well defined and apparently very hard. On Lime Point there are beautiful flexures and fold of the strata, some of them of considerable extent, and others are local, showing many bends and short angles within the space of a square yard, resembling the compressed and crumpled leaves of a book in the number of their layers and their conformity through all the bends. The lithological character of these strata is very interesting. They are hard, flint- like and jaspery, and occur of various colors; the most common color is a dark red- dish-brown or chocolate, but this is often intermixed with yellow and green. Lime Point rises from the sea to the height of 250 feet with a very steep slope, not always the same in different places. It is composed almost entirely of rock, there being a thin deposit of soil on the top and here and there on the slope, where a slackening in the declivity gives a resting place to a little accumulation of soil. The strata of this red jaspery stone dip steeply to the west. t The hill was, at the beginning of our operations, almost inaccessible. A boat could, of course, land at the point in a sheltered place, but none but an expert climber could scale its slopes, even in the most favorable places. As a rule, a boat could not make a landing on the exposed side. The shore from the point extending northward to the wharf landing presented much the same characteristics of steep outlines. The rock, however, appears to vary in quality and hardness as you go along the shore. A good deal of an extremely hard blue sandstone occurs along the shore, and some is found at the point itself, alongside of the red rock. A wagon-road was made from the wharf to the Point, its level being a few feet above the sea. This was a slow and expensive work, and as it neared completion a system of operations was adopted for the excava- tion of the site, which was now rendered possible. The problem was the following : 6 THE PROBLEM. This rocky hill is to be cut down to the level of 20 feet above low- Water. The steep slopes of the faces terminate at the level of 250 feet in a narrow tongue which ascends less abruptly, rising within the lim- its of the excavation as at first proposed to a height of 290 feet. The Quantity of excavation thus proposed was over one and a quarter mill. ion cubic yards. This project was afterwards modified to reduce the excavation very materially, taking in no ground of greater original height than 250 feet. Thus modified, the area to be excavated became about three acres, taken up almost entirely in the existing slopes. This area was to be leveled at 20 feet above low-water, while the rear slopes resulting from the excavation were to be left as steep as they would Stand. - - Two Systems of excavation were possible. The usual system is for three men to sink a hole with a drill, as deep as may be convenient, per- haps 20 or 25 feet, charge it with a sufficient amount of powder, and fire it. Such an operation might throw down 50 or, perhaps, in some cases, 100 cubic yards; ordinarily the result would be less than either of these amounts. A hundred or more squads of men might be employed in drilling these holes. The great expense of this system lies in the quan- tity of labor required to place a charge of powder. Moreover, under this system One pound of powder does very well to throw down a cubic yard of rock. The other system, which for distinction is called the system of mines, is to excavate a tunnel, or it may be a shaft, to communicate with a series of chambers, each of which shall contain several thousand pounds of powder, and by one operation accomplish in a short time, with the labor of but few men, what could not be accomplished by any number of men in the same time. Inasmuch as the cliff had considerable alti- tude it was possible, under this system, to make the weight of the upper-lying masses the element of their own destruction. This was to be accomplished by blowing out the base of the cliff, which done, the superincumbent mass, being left unsupported, must fall, and under the fall become more or less disintegrated. The saving of cost under this system consists in substituting in excavation the use of explosives for steel and human muscle. One system was wearisome and costly; the other was speedy, grand, and cheap. Even the grandeur has a money value by its stimulating effect upon the efforts of the men. In illustration of the difference in labor, it may be said that a series of mines may, with the prices existing at that time, be prepared for 16,500 pounds of powder, as was done with the third blast, at a cost of considerably less than one cent for a pound of powder, whereas the cost of the system of small charges in hard rock generally costs in labor and material much more than the powder costs. Moreover, the result per pound of powder is much greater in the mine system than in the other. The projected operation was to excavate a heading from the face of 7 the hill, on the level of the terreplein of the fort, carrying it sufficiently far into the hill to place one or more charges of powder in an advan- tageous position for blowing out the base of the hill. THE WAY IN WIHICH THE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED. A tunnel was begun on the 7th March, 1868, and completed on the 11th May. It was 125 feet in length and had two powder chambers. The galleries afterwards used were 44 feet high by 3 feet wide. The first one was begun with the dimensions of 6 feet by 4 feet and was ex- cavated with black powder; but very shortly some nitro-glycerine was made at the work, which, mixed with saw-dust, gave a very good sub- stitute for dynamite, which at that time was not manufactured on the Pacific coast. Subsequently the manufacture was established, and dy- namite was afterwards used for the excavation of the tunnel. The use of this powerful explosive, dispensing with the striking hammer swung over the shoulder, permitted the heading to be reduced to 44 feet by 3 feet. With this explosive the drilling was by hand with a £ inch drill, to the depth usually of 18 inches. A piece of cartridge 5 inches to 8 inches in length was used in each drill-hole, and was exploded in the usual Way by the percussion of a copper cap charged with fulminate of mercury. The tunnel was excavated at the rate of 3 feet per day by three shifts, each working 8 hours. A man made one foot in 8 hours. In this time he drilled 6 to 64 lineal feet, in 4 or 5 holes. The first gallery was made with hired labor. Afterwards the galleries were let at the rate of $5.50 and $5.75 per lineal foot, the miner furnish- ing everything except the tools, which he kept in repair at the govern- ment Smith-shop. At present prices on the Pacific coast the same work could probably be done at $4 per foot, and perhaps for less. The floor of the tunnel at the outer end was placed at the level of the terreplein, and ascended for drainage at the rate of 1 inch in 10 feet. A Wooden box 2 inches square was laid along the side of the tunnel con- nected with the charges, for the purpose of holding the fuse and wires. The chambers were lined with rough boxes, raised from the floor where there Was any danger of dripping Water. In one case the box was in- closed in tarred canvas. Generally, however, the chambers were quite dry. The box being in place, a wall of sods was built up in front, so as to leave just room enough for convenient loading. The powder was placed by a chosen man, who received it from the porters. He worked by the light of a safety-lamp. Glass lanterns were used at other points to light the tunnel. - The powder used in the first explosion was ordinary nitrate of soda blasting-power, made in California. Afterwards the powder was salt- peter cannon and mortar powder, which had been in the government magazines for years, and which was more or less caked. The powder-men were required to repaqve their shoes. Wooden sabots, 8 such as are commonly used by French peasants, were supplied to take the place of hobnailed shoes. Some of the men preferred to bind their feet in gunny-bags, making a rough style of moccasin. The pow- der was supplied in 25-pound kegs. The kegs were emptied, each into a sack, and each of the powder-men took a sack and carried it to the chamber, where it was placed by the loader. About 1,600 to 1,800 pounds Were thus placed in an hour. During the loading the ends of the fuses and the different cartridges of the electric system were placed in the chamber, evenly spaced, so as to secure as good combustion as Was possible. The chamber being charged, the lid was placed on the box and the roof space filled as well as possible with sods. The wall of Sods in front of the charge was completed and communication with the tunnel was cut off. A sufficient quantity of Sods and earth had been hauled to the mouth of the tunnel for tamping, which was now begun. Ten men were em- ployed in this operation, eight of whom carried earth in powder kegs, while two placed and rammed. A wall of sod was laid up for a few inches, and the clay rammed behind it; then the wall was raised and the clay brought to its level, and so on until the tunnel was filled, the last filling against the roof being rammed horizontally. The charging and tamping Occupied two days. This was the system followed in all these explosions, and it was our good fortune to escape without an accident, and without injury either to men or to property. The chances for accident increase in what may perhaps be thought a paradoxical way; that is, the more experience the men have with any operation involving the use of powder the less careful they become. We had several illustrations of this. The first explosion occurred on the 14th May. A portion of the tun- nel being found unbroken, it was untamped and a chamber was exca. vated at the first bend. A charge of 2,650 pounds was placed in this chamber and exploded on the 28th May. This completed the first opera- tions, which consumed 10,150 pounds of powder, and brought down 50,000 cubic yards of detritus. MANNER OF FIRING. The charges were fired by electricity, using Beardslee's magnetic ex- ploder. The wires were laid in a wooden tube 2 inches square, which also carried the ordinary blasting fuse to be used in case of failure of the electric system. The latter has so many well-known advantages that it will always be preferred. In later charges, special arrangements were made for simultaneous ignition, the number of cartridges fired being made proportional to the volume of the charge. The Beardslee machine gives a current of high tension, requiring good insulation. The gutta- percha covering of the wire was carefully examined and repaired wher- ever it was broken. The arrangement of the gonduction was to lead branch wires from the © © © & • * * • * * * © e 9 main and return wires to each cartridge, making as many circuits as there were cartridges. The failure of any one cartridge could, therefore, affect only itself. If the cartridges are all placed on the same circuit, the instrument must generate force enough to explode all the cartridges simultaneously. If it fails to do this, and explodes at first but a part of the cartridges, it becomes impossible, the connection being destroyed, to fire the remaining cartridges. COST OF THE BLASTS OF MAY, 1868. Eacpenditures in gold. Labor ------------. ------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $831 00 Candles and matches ---------------------------------------------------- 24 35 Giant powder, nitro-glycerine, fuse, caps, &c.----------------------------- 183 03 Carpentry and lumber--------------------------------------------------- 57 00 Blacksmith's Work ------------------------------------------------------ 168 00 Blasting powder -------------------------------------------------------- 712 50 1,975 88 Add expenses of last blast ----------------------------------------------- 371 60 2, 347 48 THE CHARGES. The first series of mines was charged with nitrate of Soda powder, made in California. In the second and third blasts damaged saltpeter powder was used. It was obtained from the Ordnance Department without expense. The ratio of gases due to chemical constitution is 135 for nitrate of soda powder to 119 for saltpeter powder. The soda powder, although the stronger, is more apt to be damaged than the other by dampness. The circumstances of different blasts, varying in many ways, some of which are known and some unknown, forbid the formulation of any gen- eral rule for proportioning the charge applicable in all cases. The rela- tion of the dip of the strata to the size of the charge has already been pointed out. The purpose of the blast, whether intended to break the material finely for handling, or whether intended to give the maximum quantity of large pieces suitable, as an instance, for a breakwater, will go far to vary the proportion. The Weight and cohesive strength of the rock vary in each case. Although these variations demand different proportions in different cases, yet there is in each history something of valuable suggestion, if not of guidance, to the judgment. The rules for charges have generally been derived from military ex- perience, where mines are used to blow up an enemy or his works. The charge in pounds is found by multiplying the cube of the line of least resistance, expressed in feet, by a coefficent which varies, not only with the character of the material, but also with the size of the crater. The principle is to proportion the charge to the work to be done. Where the charge is placed at the base of a steep slope, for the pur. pose of blowing out the foot so that the šuperiºujºnt lmaSS may fall © e •,• * e o 1() of its own Weight, the shortest line connecting the Charge and the air Will be perpendicular to the slope. It is desirable that the line of least resistance should be horizontal. It has been mentioned that the foot of the slope was cut away before the explosion so as to weaken the resistance in a horizontal direction in front of the charge. Suppose that this desirable object be accomplished, then in order to force out the cone of explosion, we may suppose it to be necessary to lift the Weight which presses upon the conical solid, and resists its expulsion. This is indeed the first feature of the explosion. The hill seems to heave slowly as though an Atlas were straining to raise a weight ap- proaching the limits of his strength. After an instant of upheaval, the lower mass, relieved from the vertical pressure, begins a forward move- ment. It appears, under this statement, to be reasonable to make the ver- tical thickness above the charge an element in the proportion. Multi- plying this by the Square of the line of least resistance, and using a proper coefficient, seems to fulfill the natural conditions of the problem. This view is fortified by an analysis of several hundred small blasts, the records of which were kept with considerable accuracy. These examples were plotted, one co-ordinate being the charge in pounds, and the other successively the first, second, and third power of the line of least resistance; and lastly, the product of the height and the second power of the line of least resistance. The variations were so great in all of the cases that the results could hardly be held to demonstrate a proposition which could not prim fadcie be assumed as a probability, but the last Supposition named gave a decidedly more harmonious result than either of the others. Applying this principle to the charges of the first blast, they will be found to correspond with tolerable closeness to this rule, namely: square the line of least resistance in feet, multiply by the height in feet, and divide the product by 50 for the charge in pounds. The heights in these blasts varied from 60 to 80 feet, while the lines of least resistance were 45 and 50 feet. It has been explained that on clearing up this blast, which was the only one cleared up, a considerable portion of the material was found not to be well shattered. A better result would have followed if the divisor had been 30 or 40 instead of 50. In the later two explosions the charges were considerably increased, and although the detritus was never cleared up, the external evidences indicated better work. Another point of importance already mentioned to which particular attention was paid in the later blasts deserves to be specially noted. This relates to the number of points of ignition. The largest single charge exploded was 8,000 pounds. In this charge eight cartridges were placed and spaced so as to give each fire center about an equal amount of powder to burn; that is, there was point of ignition for each thou- sand pounds of Bºdº These arrangements for quick and thorough 11 combustion become more important as the charges are increased, so as not merely to move but to shatter. It follows as a deduction, that this system of frequent and simultane- ous ignition requires the use of electrical firing. The product of the first blast was at the rate of 5 cubic yards to one pound of powder, and the cost was 4; cents per yard. The later blasts probably gave something like 3 yards to a pound of powder, but the material was better broken and moved farther, so that the later operations are regarded as the more successful. Prices on the Pacific coast have been reduced perhaps 25 per cent. since these blasts were made. It is not probable that good results would follow the use of high ex- plosives in the mines. These explosives act too quickly. Their maximum effect occurs before the beginnings of motion are com- municated over the considerable distances which embrace the mass to be moved. These stronger powders are, however, the best for the pre- liminary excavations, particularly in hard rock. It is now known that the explosive power of common powder fired by detonation is several times greater than when fired by combustion. It remains to determine whether or no the newer method of firing impresses upon common powder the quality which we have regarded as unfavora- ble for operations of this kind, namely, too quick explosion. TEIE PEIENOMEN ON. I cannot do better than transcribe the description of the first blast, from the pen of my friend, now dead, General B. S. Alexander, of the Corps of Engineers. The scale of these operations was a delight to him. Here, then, we have two charges of powder, one of 4,000 pounds, the other of 3,500 pounds, placed 45 feet apart and 50 feet from the face of a rocky hill, the hill rising some 250 feet above the powder. We are going to explode them, at the same instant of time, and see what will happen. It has been our good fortune to have seen much heavy blasting in our lifetime. We have witnessed the construction of the Baltimore and Ohio and of the Hudson River Railroads, many portions of which roads were blasted out of the solid rock, and we have heard the artillery of the Central Pacific Railroad, in the Sierra Nevadas ; but never before had we seen a blast like the one now to be made. The subject had been fully investigated by Colonel Mendell, and the quantity of powder duly proportioned to the work to be done, but still, before the ex- plosion, the whole thing was looked upon as an experimental blast. Everything be- ing in readiness, the wires were connected with the little box, the machine set in motion, and the connections made, when lo! the mountain was seen to labor. There was no explosion in the popular sense of that term. A little smoke and flame was seen to escape through the moving mass of rock, and the whole face of the hill in front of the charges was seen to move outwards, falling down into the sea. And then was seen a sight rarely witnessed, a hill without a foundation giving away and tum- bling into the depths below. There was no noise from the powder, and not a stone was thrown 50 feet from its position by the force of the explosion. Yet the sight was grand, and being unaccom- panied by any visible cause, was awful from its very silence. For about half a min- ute of time the masses of rock above came rolling down:the. face Čt the hill to seek their 12 Watery grave below, presenting to the mind such a prolonged period of instability that one involuntarily looked beneath him to see if he too was not in motion. When the rock above had broken away to the height of about 175 feet above the water, the motion ceased, being renewed, however, from time to time for several hours, as still other masses above, finding themselves unsupported, broke away and rolled down into the deep. The result of this experimental blast, in an engineering view, was very satifactory. There was neither too much nor too little powder; the simultaneous explosions of the two charges were effected perfectly, and the work that was intended to be done was perfectly accomplished. CONCLUSION. A map is inclosed which exhibits the relief of the ground, the shore line, and the positions and sizes of the various charges. The broken line A B represents the foot of the rear slope, under the modified project of excavation. I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, G. H. MENDELL, Lieut. Col., Corps of Engineers. The CHIEF OF ENGINEERs, United States Army. O A& - SIKE TO || ^ X x *., , º, of positions of powder chambers at, - LIME POINT, CA. L. 1868 - 69. x x . S., S., & NS `s Nº. Nº N \, ', *, *. º, * *, * •. "& X & * NN SN *S. N\,\,\,\,\, , NNNN N NN ~. w < * `. • f & , N N ‘x & - Vº §N x \ S. X, N º S N º . N . . * , N N Nº. / SSºx N SN º, N. × º NºN x, º p Nº. ," & *****--- Ş, N Af N §§ Nº ºilº, / * , * X Nº .N. 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N v \ § ~\,\\ X, N N N S! > s * \ N \ *N \ 1’ N Nº. º * \ \\ \ \º is § s s \ \ \\ \ -\*\\ \\ \\ S\ ſ \ n -|º & º * - - \ * - § - * * * * - - * = * * *~ - - - - - sº = ** w -- =& - - - - - - -a. sº ... • * * > . s --> * --- * ~ * - - - - - *~ * * s _º - - - ~. * * * ~ * * ~ * = -- * 4 //r/ð , . . . . . . . . . * , t, zºº. # * * * ~ *. . . . . . . . .-- ", , . . . . • * *-* - - - * * * º …~~~ .." - #" - - “- 2 ---, . . - _2, 32%) ~~~~ …- PAPERS ON PRACTICAL ENGINEERING. 7 - • * # No. 5. —P AN ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION RESISTAN C E OF PILES SUPERINCUMBENT PRESSURE, DEDUCED FROM THE FORCE OF DRIVING ; WITH AN APPLICATION OF THE FoRMULA TO THE FOUNDATIONS OF FORT MONTGOMERY, ROUSE's POINT, N. Y. ; :' ; : 1 A •º- * £!. .# * , \ {2%-44% By - BREVET LIEUT. COLONEL JAMES L. MASON, CAPTAIN U. S. ENGINEERS. WASHINGTON: I850. Reprinted, 1881. PAPERS ON PRACTICAL ENGINEERING. No. 5. º, -, ,” .* AN ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE RESISTANCE OF PILES TO SUPERINCUMBENT PRESSURE, DEDUCED FROM THE FORCE OF DRIVING, WITH AN APPLICATION OF THE - FORMULA TO THE Foun DATIONS OF FORT MONTGOMERY, ROUSE's POINT, N. Y. . - BY 2 BREVET LIEUT. COLONEL JAMES L. MASON, CAPTAIN U. S. ENGINEERS. WASHING TO N : I850. Reprinted, 1881. No. 5. PAPERS ON PRACTICAL ENGINEERING. PUBLISHED BY THE ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, FOR THE USE of THE OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES CORPS OF ENGINEERS. BVT. BRIG. GEN. JOS. G. TOTTEN, CHIEF ENGINEER, Washington, D. C. ROUSE's POINT, CLINTON CO., N. Y., January 12%, 1850. SIR : I submit the following remarks on the timber foundation (of piles and gril- lage) of Fort Montgomery. Fort Montgomery is founded on a timber platform resting on 4383 piles driven into the ground. These piles were driven in 1844, 1845 and 1846, and the gril- lage laid on them in those years and in 1848. These piles, when the work is com- pleted, will bear an average load of seven cubic yards of masonry, and one and three-fourths cubic yards of earth each; or, estimating the masonry at 4200 lbs., and the earth at 2700 lbs. per cubic yard, the weight with which each pile will be loaded, will amount to 34125 pounds, in addition to its own weight and that of the grillage. These piles were all driven by two steam engines, one of six-horse, and the other of eight-horse power; the former requiring generally an engineer and three labor- ers to serve it, and the latter an engineer and four laborers. The original cost of engines was $4388.71 —the consumption of oil and rope, together with the repairs applied to them, has amounted to $1982.21;-making the total expended on the engines $6370.92 : I suppose they could now be sold for $IOOO, a sum not over one-third of their value as pile drivers, if they were further needed at this work for that purpose: deduct the $10OO, and it leaves the amount actually bestowed on the pile driving machinery for 4383 piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5370.92 or $1.22 pr. pile. The cost of the piles was . . . . . . . . . . . 612 I.42 “ I.4o “ The cost of driving was . . . . . . . . . . . I724.44 “ 4O “ The cost of measuring, hauling, securing for win- ter, and sharpening, was . . . . 792.24 “ I8 “ The cost of iron bands, to protect the head of the piles while driving, was - - * ... . . . . . . . . . . 439.29 “ IO “ The cost of cutting down and leveling the piles with axe and adze to receive the grillage, was . 495.2 I “ II “ The machinery other than steam pile drivers . . . 184. Io “ O4 “ The cost of contingent services and contingen- cies for this part of the work amounts to . . . 1890.05 “ 43 “ Making the total cost of piles and driving . . . $17017.67 or $3.88 pr. pile. The general arrangement of the piles aimed at, was to place their centres under the four angles of a square yard; the double pile driver having been so construct- ed as to drive two rows two yards apart from centre to centre, and on repassing the same track to insert an intermediate one together with one outside the two al- ready driven ; but the distance from pile to pile in each row, resulting generally from dividing a given length into a certain number of spaces, would vary an inch or two from three feet. The grillage was laid in two courses; the lower, of timber 1’ 3” wide and one foot thick, was generally laid perpendicular to the scarp, thus connecting together rows of piles parallel to the Scarp. It was notched down four inches on to the 6 - RESISTANCE OF PILES. Piles and pinned. The upper course, at right angles to the lower, was of 12” x 12” timber, across the piles, and of 12//X8” between them; the 12//X12// being notched 4’ down on the lower course, brought its top to the same level as the 12//X8’’— thus giving a level floor for the masonry. This arrangement is shown on the sketch herewith. - - The materials for the grillage, consisting of 45610 running feet of timber of the sizes, 12^X8’’, 12"X12’ and 12^X15”, and of 12147 hard wood pins COSt . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2.277.45 The cost of measuring, hauling and securing this timber for the win- ter, Was . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * e e a 235.8o The cost of preparing, laying and pinning it. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2318.02 The cost of machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O.OO The cost of contingent services and contingencies belonging to this part of the work, was . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6I 2.66 Making the total cost of the grillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $55 I3.93 The difference of level between the highest and lowest water in this part of Lake Champlain, is nearly 8 feet: according to our memoranda 7/ Io’. To prevent the decay of the wood, it was necessary to place the top of the grillage at least as low as the lowest level of the surface of the water;-the piles had to be accurately levelled I’ 4” below the top of the grillage. It thus became necessary, let the stage of water be what it would, to enclose the area with a coffer dam and dyke and to pump out the water. The cost of the coffer dam and dyke, together 1700 feet long, and enclosing an area of 2% acres, was . . . . . . tº e º e º 'º - © tº º - tº . . . . $1395.93 The cost of pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 504.2 I The cost of excavating for the platform for the piles and grillage . . . I 587.87 Contingent services and contingencies belonging to the last three items. 56I.OO Total cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5049.OI We have then— - For excavating, pumping and coffer dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5049.OI For grillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 I 3.93 For piles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17017.67 The sum total of expenses of every description, incurred in preparing the timber foundation of the fort—including contingent Services and Con- tingencies of all sorts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $27,580.61 To investigate the value of this foundation, or the amount of weight with which each pile may be loaded, let h be the height of the fall of the hammer at the last blow; g=32% feet, the force of gravity, or the volocity that gravity will generate in a second of time; then, omitting the inconsiderable resistance from the friction of the hammer against the slides, V2gh will be the velocity of the hammer at the moment it strikes the head of the pile. Calling this velocity V, and Aſ the mass of the hammer, the quantity of motion at the instant of impact will be VAZ, and the hammer and pile will move together. Calling V' the velocity of the joint mass of hammer and pile at the instant of im- pact, and P the mass of the pile, the quantity of motion will be l’ (A+P) = VA, OI’ , VA/ P-AEa () RESISTANCE OF PILES. 7 for the velocity of the pile at the instant the retarding force, due to the difficulty of penetrating the soil, begins to act. But the mass of the pile or hammer is equal to its weight divided by g; or call- / ing the weights h’ and Ž we have, Aſ- º and P-4 substituting these values in expression (1) and reducing by multiplying both numerator and denominator by g, we have - - / V7 = VA’ (2). h’ +? Let the joint mass (Aſ-HP) of the pile and hammer, be now taken as the unit of mass, and the variable t, the time that it is in motion under the influence of the retarding force;—let g represent this force, whether constant or variable. Let the variable z, represent the velocity destroyed by the retarding force, and we shall have - _ dz. q = d £, Or dz) = p. d ? and Z/ = ſo.de if the integral be taken to the end of the time during which the pile is in motion, zy, the velocity destroyed, becomes V and we have V7 = ſ ©. d ? (3). The velocity at any moment will be V’—w; let s be the distance to which the pile has penetrated at that moment, and we have # = 17–7 : (the differential of the space divided by that of the time being equal to the velocity :) integrating we have S E V’ -ſ v. dź (4) but v= ſo.de: Substituting this value of v in equation (4) we have - <> s = Pºz–ſ dº ſo.d4 (5). To integrate equations (3) and (5) it is necessary to know the form of the ex- pression f ; it may be constant, or variable, with the time t. Let us for a mo- ment, suppose it constant. Equation (3) becomes V = 0 t. (7) and equation (5), s= Pº-ſo. at Or º s = V #–% º. f*. (8) Substituting in the latter the value of WA 9, f*, deduced from equation (7) in which t represents the total time to the end of the motion, we have s = V/ t—% V’t-}4 V’t, OI’ 2 s Substituting this value of £ in equation (7) we have 172 q = -— (Io) 2 S for the retarding force on the unit of mass (the joint mass of pile and hammer.) 8 RESISTANCE OF PILES. .* - • * 2 2 Squaring equation (I) we have *=#, ; Substituting for V* its value Ay2 2 g h, V’” = (ZIP); × 2 g h : substituting this value of V* in expression (10) it becomes, A/2 g ſh *=TZTEFX*- multiplying both numerator and denominator by g, we have, Aſ gº /. *=TZTºgº; for the value of the retarding force acting on the assumed unit of mass; now to pass from this unit to whatever unit A and Pnay be expressed in (as cubic inch, cubic foot, cubic yard, of a particular density) we will multiply by (Aſ-LP) and we have for the total retarding force - Aſ gº /. *(FTF).” But the mass multiplied by gravity gives the weight; the first factor, therefore, is the product of the weight of the hammer, by the ratio of that weight to the joint weight of pile and hammer, and this must be multiplied by the ratio of the height of the fall to the distance that the pile is driven, to give the value of the retarding force in terms of the weight that it will hold in equilibrio.” Herewith are two sketches, the first giving the history of the driving of the piles, the second showing how the grillage was laid on them, in the only portion of the work where the entire load has been placed. It is the only part of the work where the parapet wall surmounting the scarp, has been built. (A+P), (O) S e *Note—The above expression (0) gives properly speaking that portion of the retarding force which is employed in destroying the motion resulting from the blow of the hammer. The total retarding force must not only do this, but must in addition, neutralize the action of gravity on the mass of pile and ham- mer during the operation. So much of the intensity of the retarding force, as is necessary to balance the weight of the pile, is always in requisition for that purpose, and entirely unavailable for the support of the superstructure with which the pile is loaded. To the above expression for the admissible load, the weight of the hammer might be added, but this is inconsiderable. - If the effect of gravity on the pile and hammer be introduced into thc foregoing calculations, equation (10) will become yzz @ –g= - (10) 2 S and equation (9) will remain as it is, 2s 1/ TV/ f t=7 or sz-3% V’t, (9'). Now if the hammer be merely laid on the pile, h = 0, V’= 0, and from equation (9) s = 0, equation (10) then becomes 0 © = g + 0’ This is as it should be ; the force has given no measure of its energy, such as the space or time in which it can destroy a given quantity of motion; it has borne the weight of the pile and hammer; how much - e - 0 - more it could have borne is uncertain, and the expression takes the indeterminate form of 0 ° Making y/2 q =g in equation (10) s must be infinite; if b be supposed less than g, then 2s becomes negative, and V7 (the square root of a negative quantity) imaginary. In this last case V” may be made positive, and V7 become real, by making s negative, which is equivalent to the supposition that the blow of the hammer is on the bottom of the pile, and drives it upwards. RESISTANCE OF PILES. 9 In the first sketch, the diameters of the butt and point (in inches) are written within the circle representing the pile—the red figure within the red curve, gives the length after it was cut off to receive the grillage, the red figure, without that curve, gives the length before it was cut off-the black figure without the red curve gives the fall of the hammer at the last blow, and the series of black figures within that curve, are, in inches, the penetrations of the pile into the soil under the corresponding final blows, the lower figure belonging to the last blow :—the wood of the pile is represented by the letters, A for ash, B for beech, Aſ for hemlock, S for spruce and 7 for tamarack.” The hammer with which these piles were driven, weighed 1630 pounds. The weight of the spruce piles was found to be 393 pounds to a cubic foot, but the piece weighed was rather more dry than the average of the piles;–they may be assumed to have averaged at least 40 pounds to a cubic foot. Now taking the central pile of the front row of the scarp, in the sketch, its vol- ume is 24 cubic feet, its weight 960 pounds; its joint weight with hammer 2590 : A . 36. § s IS # = 1.15% and we have, for the value of the retarding force 163OX ###3 × 1 I 5} = I 18175 pounds. This is about an average result of the calculation applied to the others. Now each pile, in the sketch, supports the average weight of six cubic yards of masonry and one and a fourth of earth; or taking 42OO pounds as the mean weight per cubic yard of our masonry, and 2700 pounds as that of the earth, the load on each pile amounts to 28575 pounds, besides its own weight and that of the grillage; about one fourth of that which the force of resistance is capable of holding in equilibrio. These piles have been loaded with 23800 pounds since the fall of 1846, (for three years,) and the addition to that load this season, makes the total per pile, 28575. In the case just calculated, the velocity of the hammer at the moment of impact will be V2 ×36×32}=48.125 feet per second, and the velocity of the joint mass of hammer and pile will be 48. I25)(#3 = 30.3 feet per second = V/, and 172 . the retarding force 2 sº will be (30.3)? 918 Tºyſ -- 7.7 - I468. 2 2 The velocity that the retarding force is capable of destroying in a second of time on the joint mass of the pile and hammer is then 1468 feet—but gravity is capable of generating on that mass a velocity of 32% feet; dividing 1468 by 32%, we have 454%, as the ratio between the retarding force and the force of gravity: that is, the retarding force is capable of holding in equilibrio 454% times the joint weight of the pile and hammer or 2590 pounds X 454% = 1 1818.1 pounds; within 6 pounds of the result given above, and this difference would not have appeared if the calculations had been extended to a greater number of places of decimals. The time f in this case will be 2 s 71.4// * = +} = -º- = # of a second. * Only one of the sketches referred to, is published. The information contained in the above paragraph, will be found in a table at the end of the article. I () RESISTANCE OF PILES. The same result may be obtained by dividing the velocity destroyed, viz.: 30'.3, by the velocity the force is capable of destroying in a second of time, viz.: 1468; Bastion A, the bastion nearest the channel, was finished in the fall of 1846 with the exception of the parapet wall surmounting the scarp. In that bastion, the piles were longer and heavier than those in the sketch herewith ; they also went further under the last blows. The above calculation applied to those in the neigh- borhood of the salient would give about 85000 pounds as the load they could sus- tain. They have sustained for three years 23700 pounds each ; the parapet wall will add about 4000 pounds to each pile. The above calculation has been made very easy, by the supposition that the re- tarding force is constant during the very short period that it takes to destroy the the motion of the pile. . In the case of the pile taken above as an example, the calculation gives ºr of a second on the supposition of a constant force. This time was not measured. To measure it, might be a difficult mechanical problem. Still I think an apparatus could be devised that would effect it. Suppose this time had been measured, and had not agreed with that given by equation (9): it would show that the assumption of a constant force was not cor- rect. Now the measured time might be either greater or less than #. ; if less, then the average intensity of the variable force must be greater than that of the constant force, and its greatest intensity must, a fortiori, be so.-If however, the e 2 S e g measured time should be found greater than 7. the variable force must still, at . - g º 2 S some moment of its progress, earlier than the lapse of time Tz' have become 72 greater than the constant force for if it were at every moment less, its effect at every moment to reduce the volocity of the pile must have been less, and the pile would at every moment move with a greater velocity than it would - IZ2 under the retarding influence of the Constant force 2 s” and of course at the & º ſº 2 S . - º expiration of the time Iz it would have penetrated a greater distance than S. Thus on the supposition of a variable force, let the total time that it takes to arrest the motion of the pile be either greater or less than that taken by the constant force, yet it must, at some moment, have a greater intensity than the constant force. Now the variation of the force may be according to a simple or a complex law. Its variations may be steadily in one direction, that is constantly (not uniform/W) to increase or constantly to diminish the intensity that the force had at the begin- ning of the motion—or they may be the reverse, tending during one portion of the time to increase and at another to diminish the value of the force at the commence- ment of the motion. Any law of variation that does not look to the continual in- crease or continual diminution of the force from the Commencement, seems to me highly improbable. If it be assumed that the variations of force are steadily in the same direction, that is continually increasing or continually diminishing it, its greatest intensity must be at either the commencement or the close of the motion of the pile. If at the close of the motion, it will be the resistance that the pressure, if at once ap- plied, would have to overcome to start the pile; and if at the commencement, it will be greater than the constant force determined by the data given by the next RESISTANCE OF PILES. I 1 blow. What penetration (s), another blow would have given, cannot be said with certainty; but as the piles were always driven until for several successive blows, there was a steady diminuution of (s), there is every probability that the constant force determined by another blow, would have been about the same as determined by the last one and perhaps a little greater. Thus it is certain that if the force be variable, it must at certain moments be greater than the constant force determined by equation (o); and that unless the va- riations are governed by some complex and improbable law, that among those moments must be the commencement or the termination of the motion. Then the assumption of no variation in the intensity of the force of resistance is either true, or it will give values less than the true ones and is therefore a safe supposition. There might be circumstances perhaps, to make the intensity of the retarding force greater at some intermediate moment than at the commencement or close of the motion ; as, for instance, a very f/ºn hard stratum just below the point of the pile; before the pile should reach it, the penetration would be easy; it would be difficult while passing through it, and again become easy. But there were no such circumstances in the cases spoken of above. The borings in Bastion A down to the depth of 35 feet gave a mixture of a very fine clay and sand, so fine that when dried and rubbed between the fingers it made an almost impalpable powder. The velocity of pile and hammer destroyed, gives us one equation (3). The space moved over while this destruction of velocity is being effected gives another (5). These equations are sufficient to determine two unknown quantities and no more. The time not having been measured constitutes one unknown quantity. If then we assume an expression for a variable force that shall contain not more than one unknown co-efficient, those equations will suffice to determine both it and the time. If the time had been measured, the equations would have been sufficient to determine the variable force if it contained two unknown co-efficients. Let us now suppose that the retarding force, having a certain intensity at the commencement of the motion, either increases or diminishes in proportion to the time t, we will begin with the case in which it diminishes, and assume the expres- sion = 4 (1–4) in which A is an unknown constant:—substituting this value in equation (5), we have. s=Pi—ſ at ſA (1–1) d=14–ſat (41–54 A*)=Pi—(44–%Ae). Substituting the above value of 9 in equation (3), we have, v= ſ.4 (1–2) d'âA #– }% A zº. (II) Substituting this value of l’ in the above expression for s, we have, s= A tº — A A tº— (% A tº-96 A #8), or, reducing, s = % At”— 94 At”. (12.) Dividing both members of equation (12) by those of equation (11) we have, s__34 tº-34 ° 37–2 tº VT # –% tº Té–37 Or 6s – 3 s = 3 # V’ — 2 tº V, Or 2 l’ tº — 3 V7 t—3s f = —6s. 12 RESISTANCE OF PILES. Consequently, • 3 S. s . This is a quadratic equation of the form *—?, r = —g, in which the roots are *=4=V(4)–2. Comparing this with the above, we have, t=x(-; )+\|x(-; )]–3}, Of these two values of f, it is evident that the one in which the radical is affected e º e - * S. with a negative sign, is the one belonging to the case; for J7 small, the positive sign of the radical would give t greater than unity; but p, the retarding force, being equal to A (I — ?), becomes negative when t is greater than unity and gives an accelerating instead of a retarding force. being always very To apply this expression to the case of the pile already referred to, in which we had W = 30/.3, and s = 334’’= O(.312, we have, S S 2 S. --- P = orogia, |x|[. ++)| =574163, 574163-372 =543221, V.54322. S > * =.737035, 34. (1+z) =.757735 and the difference f=.02O7 of a second. From equation (II) we have 4 == ; but V’-307.3 and #–.0207; apply- Iz 7–347? ing these values we have A = 1479; But j = 4 (I — t) : At the commencement of the motion, p = 1479, and at the close, j = 1479 (I-.O2O7) = 1448%. Thus in the case in which the supposition of a Constant force gave & of a sec- ond for the time, and 1468 feet as the velocity per second that the retarding force is capable of destroying on the mass of hammer and pile, the supposition of a force varying according to the above law, gives o2O7 of a second for the time, and 1479, and 14.48% as the velocity per second that it can destroy at the commencement and close of the motion. These results do not vary much from those of the sup- position of a constant force, but showing the force to be stronger at the commence- ment of the motion they tend to confirm the reasoning above as to the safety of that supposition. If we take the case of the force increasing as the time, and assume p = 4 (I-H #), the solution of the equations (3) and (5) with this value of 4 will give -- (-; )+\|x (1-#)]+. i. IZ t–H 9% tº The upper sign of the radical must be adopted, for the lower one would always give # negative. Applying these expressions to the case of the pile so often refer- red to, we shall find t = .02056 of a second, and j = 1459 at the beginning and And A = RESISTANCE OF PILES. I3 0 = 1489 at the close of the motion; one of these results being less and the other greater than that of the constant force. A- Towards the salient of Bastion A, the piles ought to be able to endure a weight of 85000 pounds; they have been loaded for three years with 23700 pounds and there has been no motion. Thus Fort Montgomery gives three years' experience in favor of a co-efficient of stability of 34%; when applied to the calculation under the supposition of a constant force. Many cases occurred in which, after a pile had been driven some days, another blow was struck, and the result was invariably a less motion than was to have been expected, if this blow had immediately succeeded the others. One of these cases occurred in the sketch herewith, in which a pile, that on the 18th of Septem- ber was driven from 4% to 5% inches under the last four blows, on being struck again on the 20th September was driven but 2 inches. - In stating the average weight with which the piles are loaded, no deduction has been made for the influence of the water (in the spring months) in reducing the weight of the masonry. In certain seasons and for a short time this might reduce the loads from four to five per cent. - I am very respectfully, Your obedient servant, - J. L. MASON, Captain Engineers Bºyz. Lt. Colone/. º 7ABLE showing the circumstances under which the several Žiles shown in the plate were driven. Diameter of Length of pile Length of pile Fall of Hammer Several penetrations of pile with a NO pile before after at the few of the last blows in cor- of Kind of Wood. in inches. cutting off. cutting off. last blow. responding order. Pile. Butt. Point. Feet. Inches. || Feet. Inches. || Feet. Inches. INCHES. I Spruce. I2% 9% 32 II 32 O 34 IO 5%–4%–3%–3%–3% 2 do. I7% I3 33 O 3 I 2 33 II 4%–3%–3%–2%–2% 3 do. I4. I I W. 32 Q 3 I 4. 35 I Io–6%–5%–4%–4%-3% 4. do. I4. 9% 33 O 3 I 8 34 5 5–4%–4–3%. 5 do. I3% IO)4 32 O 32 O 36 O 5%–4%–4%–4%-3% 6 do. I4% IO)4 32 O 32 O 35 IO 5–4%–4%–4%-3% 7 do. I4% IO 32 O 3 I IO 35 7 || 4%–4%–4%–4% 8 do. I4% | Io 33 O 32 I 34 IO 5%–4%–4%–4–3%. 9 do. 1.4% IO % 32 O 3 I 5 35 3 5%–5–5–4%. IO do. I4. I I 33 O 32 9 35 8 4–3%–3%–2%–2%. I I do. I 2 9% 33 O 33 O 35 9 5–4%–3%–3%–3%–3%–3–3. I 2 Hemlock. I4. I I 29 I I 29 2 35 I I 1–10%–9%–9%–7%–6%. I 3 Spruce I3% 9 3 I O 3O 2 35 I Io–8%–6%–5–4%–3%. I4. do. I4% I 2 3 I 3 3o 2 34 II 6–4%–3%–3%–3. I 5 do. I2% 9% 3 I 4 3 I O 35 8 9%–6%–5–4%-3%-3%. I6 do. I3% 9% 3O 9 3O 6 35 9 6–5–4%–4–4%. 17 Tamarack. I 5 II 2 29 I I 29 2 35 I 8–7–6–4%–4%. I8 Spruce. I5% II 34 32 I 28 7 32 6 5–4–3%–3%–3%-3–2%. I9 do. I6 I4% 3 I 9 28 I 32 I 5–3%-3%–3–3–3–3%. 2O do. I2% 9% 3 I 6 3I I 35 3 17-I I-7%–6%–5–5%. 2 I do. I3 9% 3 I O 3O 6 35 3 29–27–16–9%–6%–5. 22 do. I4% IO% 32 O 29 2 33 3 9%–7–5%–3%–3%–2%. 23 Hemlock I5% IO % 3 I IO 29 IO 34 I 6%–5%–4%–3%-3%. E. 24 Spruce 16 || 1 | 3 I 4. 29 II 34 5 5–%–4%–3%–3%-3%. 25 do. I 3 IO 32 5 3O 5 33 IO 7%–6%–5%–4%–3%. 26 do. I4% IO)4 32 O 29 9 33 8 5–4%–4–3%. 27 do. I4. IO)4 33 O 31 4. 34 5 5%–4%–4%–4–3%. 28 do. I3% 9 33 O 3 I 4 34 4. 5%–4%–4%–4–3%. 29 do. I 5 9% 33 O 32 6 35 5 3%–3%–3–3–3–3. 3O do. I6% IO 3O IO 3O 7 35 8 9%–7%–5%–4%–3%–3%. 3 I do. I 3 9 33 O 32 3 35 3 4%–4%–3%-3%. 32 do. I 3 I I 32 O 29 8 33 I I 5%–4%–3%-3%-3%. 33 do. I 3 IO 3O 2 29 9 35 7 I I }{–9–7%–5. 34 do. I 5 IO 32 O 28 9 33 4. 7–7%–5%–5%–4%–5–4%. 35 do. I 3 9% 3O 4 28 8 34 6 5–5–5–4%–5. 36 do. I 2 9% 3O 9 27 O 32 8 IO)4–7–5%–3%-3%. 37 do. I4% IO % 29 7 28 4 35 O 4%–4%–3%–3%–3%. 38 do. I4% IO)4 34 O 29 IO 3 I 7 7%–5%–4%–4. 39 Beech. I3% IO)4 32 7 3 I 3 34 6 4%–4–3%–3%–3%. 4O Tamarack. I 5 I I 32 O 27 3 3 I I 4%-3%-3-3%-3%. 4. I Spruce. I 2 9 3O 6 3O 3 35 8 20–19–6%–5%–4%. 42 do. I3% 9% 3 I 4 3O I 34 7 4%–4%–4%–4%–4–3%. 43 Hemlock. I 2 % IO 3O IO 28 5 34 O 6–4%–4%–4–4%–4–4. 44 Spruce I 3 IO 3O 8 26 8 3 I I I 12%–12%–18% broke bel.—rotten. 45 do. I 3 9 3O 9 3O O 35 2 12%–IO)4–8%–7%–6%. 46 do. I2% 9% 32 6 3 I IO 35 3 6%–6%–6%–6%–6%–6%–6–5%. 47 do. I 2 9% 32 O 3 I 5 35 4. 6%–3%–5–5%–6–67%–9–7–6. 48 do. I 2 IO% 3O 7 3O 7 35 IO 5%–5%–5%–5%–5. 49 do. I3% 9 3 I 5 27 4. 32 7 6%–4%–4–3%. 5O do. I3% IO)4 3 I O 27 I 32 2 6%–4%–3%–3–2%. 5 I do. I 3 9% 3 I O 27 O 32 4 I4%–9%–6–4–3%. 52 do. I 2 9% 3 I O 3O 7 35 7 3%–4–4–4%–4%–5–5%–5%. 53. do. I3% IO 3 I 9 29 O 35 IO 5%.4%-5% (crushed—sawed Off 2 —35%. 54 do. I5% I 2 3I O 26 IO 3 I 7 7–5%–3%–3%–2%. 55 do. I2% 9% 3O 6 29 I I 35 O September 18th: 4%–4%–5%–5% sawed off 6%—Sept 20th, 2. 56 do. 12% 9% 3I O 28 O 32 I IO-5%–4%–4–4–4%. 57 Hemlock. I4. Io94 28 8 26 IO 34 2 6%–7–5%–4%. 5. 7A BZE showing the circumstances under which the severa/ ?/es shown in the Žate were driven. Diameter of Length. of pile Length of pile Fall of Hammer Several penetrations of pile with a pile before after at the few of the last blows in cor- Nº. Kind of Wood in inches. cutting off. cutting off. last blow. responding order. Pile. --- --- Butt. Point. Feet. Inches. || Feet. Inches. | Feet. Inches. INCHES. 58 Spruce I4% 9% 32 O 27 3 3I 3 IO34–4–3%–2%–2%. 59 do. I2% 9 3 I 2 29 I I 34 7 5%–4%–4–3%–3%. 6O do. . I4. IO 3O 9 29 I 34 3 4%–3%–3%-3%. 6I Hemlock. I 3 IO 3O 8 27 II 33 3 7%–5%–4%. 62 Spruce. I3% IO % 3O 7 28 I I 34 I 4%–4–3%–3%–3. 63 Hemlock. I6% I 2 3I 3 25 9 3 I O 7%–7%–6–5%. 64 Spruce. I2% 9% 3 I O 28 O 32 IO 4%–4%–4–4–4–4. % Hººk. I 2.2 '3. 23 7 23 2 35 7 ::::::::3% SIl. I 2 4. 29 O 27 4. 34 3 5% —4%-3%. 67 Spruce. I2% 9% 3 I O 28 I 33 O 6–5%–5–5–5. 68 Hemlock. I 2 8% 3O 4. 27 O 32 7 7–5%–4%–4%. 69 do. I3% I 2 3O 4. 26 3 32 I IO}%–IO34 –IO}%–IO. 7o Spruce. I 5 II 34 32 O 29 O 33 I 4–3%–3%–2%. 7 I do. I4% II 24 3 I O 28 3 33 4. 5%–4%–3%–3. 72 Ash. 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NoTE.—This Society is not responsible, as a body, for the facts and opinions advanced in any of its publications. 417. (Vol. XX. —June, 1889.) LIME SULPHITE FIBER MANUFACTURE IN THE |UNITED STATES. By Major O. E. Michaelis, M. Am. Soc. C. E. WITH SOME REMARKS ON THE CHEMISTRY OF THE PROCESSES. By MARTIN L. GRIFFIN, M.A. W IT EI ID IS C U S S I O N . A brief account of a comparatively new industry in this country, an industry which in the near future may demand the time, attention, ap- plication and talent of hundreds of young American engineers, can hardly fail to possess some interest for the profession, and this consid- eration must be my apology for presenting a seemingly unscientific paper. It belongs exclusively to the domain of industrial engineering, yet I take it the scope of our Society is broad enough to embrace every- thing that pertains to material progress and development, not only in engineering Science, but also in the arts of manufacture. 264 MICHAELIS ON DIME SULPHITE FIBER. An engineer cannot be a school product. The ramifications of the profession, involving every application of scientific truth and mechanical invention to “the uses of man,” have in this nineteenth century become too numerous to be even mentioned, far less studied, in any possible technical curriculum. There is only one practical school training for the modern engineer; his education should be so broad, so exact, that, when unexpectedly called upon to enter upon any given unanticipated investigation, construction or manufacture, he can concentrate, crystal- lize and absorb experience in a minimum space of time; and in our very best engineering schools, this truth controls, perhaps not avowedly, the course of study. My object in broaching this view is to encourage our bright young graduates, to make them feel that even when foreign methods are in question, as in the manufacture concerning which I write, wherein virtually we are dependent upon cumbersome—I use the word advisedly —talent, a very little study, a very brief experience, will enable them to master the subject, and once mastered, “Improvements in the Manu- facture of Sulphite Fiber’ will become a familiar caption in the Patent Gazette. Last fall, some acquaintances of mine, desiring to obtain information concerning the manufacture of wood cellulose by the bisulphite process, asked me to make an investigation. Accompanied by Mr. M. L. Griffin, M.A., of Holyoke, Mass., an expert wood-pulp chemist, I visited Alpena and Detroit, Mich. ; Appleton and Monico, Wis.; Cornwall, Ontario ; Lawrence, Mass., and Birmingham, Conn., at which places the various methods of making sulphite fiber were in actual operation. Everywhere we were treated with courtesy and consideration, on Oc- casion with generous candor and unreserved openness ; indeed, it is not likely that two seekers for knowledge in this branch of manufacture, will ever again have such exceptional facilities extended to them. Reports were made by Mr. Griffin and myself, and the following is in the main the gist of what I reported; Mr. Griffin has kindly supple- mented this by some remarks upon the chemical aspects of the subject. As I have in view only the desire to attract the attention of those who may so soon make themselves competent experts, to this opportunity for the remunerative application of their skill, I shall not enter into much detail, but merely give my own impressions as simply and as briefly as possible. MICHAELIS ON LIME SU LPHITE FIBER. 265 Sulphite fiber, or pure wood cellulose, supersedes rag stock in paper making. The wood, in chips or discs, is boiled in great digesters with a solution of bisulphite of lime, and the main engineering problem lies in the construction of a suitable, economical and lasting digester. The processes examined, in alphabetical order, were the Graham, the Mit- - scherlich, the Partington, the Ritter-Kellner, and the Schenk. The investigator is at once struck by the astonishing difference in size and boiling pressure between the Mitscherlich and all the other di- gesters; the former is 14 x 40 feet, the largest of the latter 10 x 28 feet; the steam gauge on the former registers 40 to 45 pounds, while on all the others, 75 to 80 pounds. Why these differences? The reply to both these suggested questions develops an intrinsic difference of operation between the Mitscherlich and all the other systems. The boiling point of liquids rises with the pressure, and while in all these sulphite pro- cesses we have to do with a solution of greater specific gravity than Water, for purposes of comparison we can consider the temperature of the boiling point of water. According to Rankine, under a pressure of 40 to 45 pounds water boils at 267 to 275 degrees Fahr. ; at 75 to 80 pounds, at 308 to 312 degrees. Hence Mitscherlich boils at about 40 degrees Fahr. lower temperature than the others, consuming, of course, more time for complete conversion, and to compensate, he boils a greater quantity. Professor Mitscherlich claims that the slower boiling yields a better and surer output. His digester turns out from ten to fourteen tons, the others from one and a half to three tons, at a “boil.” He requires for cooking from forty-five to seventy-two hours; the others, from fifteen to twenty-four. Exteriorly all the digesters are of metal, all of open-hearth steel or iron plate, except the Schenk, which is of so-called deoxidized bronze. All are approximately cylindrical, except the Partington, which is spherical. The cylinders are upright in the Ritter-Kellner and Schenk processes; in the Mitscherlich and Graham they are horizontal. The digesters are fixed, with the exception of the Partington and Graham, which revolve, the Graham about its longer axis. Upon careful exterior survey of the digesters, I was struck by the fact that both the Partington and Ritter-Kellner were tapped at numer- ous points, and the holes closed by screw plugs. I learned that the purpose of these vents was to locate leaks; indeed, at Monico these 266 MICEIAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. holes were not closed, and the sulphite solution exuded in perceptible quantity. Considered merely as a vessel strong enough to stand a given pres- Sure, the only available substance of which the digester can be made, looking from an economical standpoint, is iron or steel. The majority of the digesters are made of rolled iron plates; the Detroit, of open- hearth steel. There is no reason why our gun iron, with a tensile strength approximating 40 000 pounds, should not be available for digesters. They could be turned out in sections ready for assembling ; the advantages of such a substitution for the complicated rivet-work shell are evident. At remote inland points the large digesters must be assembled in situ, and boilermakers must now be transported for the purpose. A properly handled wrench would suffice to set up the sec- tional cast-iron construction. A 14 x 40 feet cast-iron digester has been designed, with a factor of safety of 6, which will cost less than the riveted apparatus, to say nothing of the facility with which it can be transported, and the ease with which it can be assembled by unskilled labor. We come now to the inside of the digester. Owing to the well known affinity of the bisulphite solution for iron, all digesters made of this metal must be lined with a resistant, fluid-tight material, as a protection against the solvent action of the “acid " mixture. The Schenk digester, a uni-metal construction of deoxidized bronze, is assumed to be sufficiently resistant to the solution without protecting lining. The Graham, Partington and Ritter-Kellner digesters are all lead-lined, the Mitscherlich, fire-brick lined. I use the word “fire- brick ’’ for want of a better. The bricks used are of special form, and are made of a German refractory clay, which seems to me to be about the same as is used in the manufacture of the Nassau Seltzer jugs. DIGESTER LININGS. The vital point in these sulphite processes lies in the ability of the digester to resist the erosive action of the acid solution and its gaseous products. Lead has for centuries been used as a lining material in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, so that its application to the present sulphite fiber processes lay near at hand. It is used in the Graham, Partington and Ritter-Kellner digesters. MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. 267 LEAD IIINING. In speaking of the sulphite process, the Encyclopedia Britannica uses the following language : “The pulp or fiber produced by all these processes is of excellent quality, and can be prepared at a cost greatly lower than the Soda pro- cess. The strength of the fiber is maintained unimpaired even after bleaching, and white paper made solely from such fiber is in every respect superior to that manufactured solely from pulp prepared by boiling with caustic soda. “I)r. Mitscherlich's process has been extensively adopted in Germany, and there seems little doubt that these processes will in time supplant the use of soda in the case of wood. The great objection to them all is that, as they all depend on the use of bisulphite, which, being an acid salt, cannot be worked in an iron boiler, the boiler must be lined with lead, and great difficulty has been encountered in keeping the lead lin- ing of the boiler in repair.” The primary, indispensable condition in protecting iron sulphite boilers with lead, is that the lining must be continuous—that is, liquid-fight. Now, lead has a linear co-efficient of expansion much more than double that of iron ; in these processes it is subject to a change of tem- perature of at least 240 degrees Fahr. (300–60 degrees), and the una- voidable resulting flow of the metal cannot be compensated for by permitting sections to expand and to contract freely upon each other, for that would require open joints, a violation of our primary condition. The lead lining must in some way be attached to the iron shell, for otherwise it would soon collapse, or go to pieces in some other way. Only three practical ways offer themselves for the attachment of the lead lining to the iron. It may be bolted on at proper points; it may be, to borrow a plum- ber's phrase, “tacked on,” at appropriate places, or it may be com- pletely soldered on. The first two methods permit, as is evident, under Variations of temperature, changes in the superficial area of the lining ; the latter method forcibly resists this, and limits the flow of the lead during the life of the solder union to molecular expression Only. 268 MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER, PARTINGTON. This boiler, it will be remembered, is spherical ; the lead is applied in spherical lunes, clamped to the iron, and burned to each other. The theory is that it is an easy matter to replace an injured section, and thus to keep the lining intact at comparatively little cost. At Monico, the vents in the shell, already spoken of as “leak locators,” were all Open, and,-the descriptive aptness of the words would be appreciated by any eye witness, in eruption. Having had some experience in lead burning, I noticed at Monico extensive preparations for conducting it, and, in answer to my inquiries on the subject, the genial and capable Superintendent admitted that he had had great trouble with the lining. Indeed, the visible débris and the evident condition of the boilers Were cogent evidence. It is needless to make further comment ; “he who runs, may read '' is here applicable. I learn that since my visit these boilers have been destroyed by fire, and have been replaced by another construction. At Lawrence, where a battery of eight Parting: tons is in operation, the digesters were certainly more presentable; but there I observed that the usual hand apparatus for lead burning was apparently not considered sufficient, for the manager had applied an installation furnished with a power pump, and a system of conducting air and hydrogen pipes in situ at each boiler. * It is evident that in the Partington digester, the lunes must bulge from the iron under expansion, and must again be forced into con- tiguity under contraction and pressure. Hence, there is periodic “flapping,” which, it seems to me, must in time result in fissuring. Of course, constant watchfulness and timely burning would prevent destructive results upon the shell. The expense of this can only be inferred from the statements made in regard to the cost of the output. Neither at Monico, nor at Lawrence, was an opportunity offered to make an interior examination. At Monico, such examination would have been merely a work of Supererogation. THE RITTER-KELLNER. The digester, about 10 x 28 feet, is built up of cylindrical sections, 4 feet wide, a few inches apart, and fastened by heavy exterior bands. The object of this construction is to provide the means for attaching the lead lining peculiar to this process. MICHAELIs on LIME SULPHITE FIBER. - 269 The spaces between these sections form annular dovetail mortises thus: ſº % A—tº % % A.—Boiler Shell. C’ É's B B.–Ecterior Band. %N C.—Annular Tenon of Lead and Antimony Alloy. % % % These mortises are filled with an alloy of lead and antimony, and at the ends of a diameter meet similar vertical tenons, to which they are attached. The lining is burned fast to this semi-cylindrical frame. Here, again, under the irresistible force of expansion, these great sheets of lead, roughly speaking 16x4 feet, must theoretically, if the tacking holds, “pucker up,” and again be forced back against the shell under contraction and pressure. Again, it seems to me that this constant movement to and fro must, in the end, bring about fissuring. At Cornwall we were told no trouble of this kind has been experienced, and the digester we entered, more than half filled with chips, showed no evidence of degradation detect- able in the very brief time at our disposal. I asked two bright prominent officials, one of the parent, the other of the Canadian company, “What becomes of the increased superficial area due to the difference in the expansion of the iron and lead 2 ” One said he didn't know and had no theory on the subject, the other replied: “This is no longer a matter of theory, it is an accomplished success.” The digester is, however, provided with abundant vents, or leak locators, and in reply to my question regarding their practical value, the gentleman in charge explained to me that by using a pneumatic pump the noisy issue of the air through the nearest vent located the leak. This was so graphically told, that I was at once convinced the description was founded upon auricular observation. 270 MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER, THE GRAHAM. The Graham digester, 7} x 22 feet, is made of sheets of boiler plate, to which the lead lining is soldered before bending and assembling. The method of doing this is ingenious and simple. The sheet is cleansed, and smoothed by a radially traveling emery wheel; it is then firmly fixed for half its surface over a gas-jet heater. The rectangular frame that holds it down is packed with fire-proof packing where it rests upon the plate, thus actually forming a water- tight vessel, of which the iron to be leaded is the bottom. The plate is copiously doused with a solution of chloride of zinc, and when heated to the proper degree molten lead in sufficient quantity is poured upon it. - Although the promoters of this process do not so call it, it is, never- theless, soldering, which is authoritatively defined to be “the process of uniting two pieces of the same or of different metals by the interposi- tion of a metal or alloy, which, by fusion, combines with each.” a Here the metals to be united are lead and iron; the “metal or alloy” is zinc, or zinc and lead. I emphasize this simple matter because it is claimed that in the Graham process the two metals are united by a special alloy of lead and iron. I quote from the company’s courteous, well posted expert: “Our boiler obviates these defects and overcomes the difficulties and repairs and constant inspection to which ordinary lead lined boilers are liable. This is because the lead is united to the iron or steel uniformly by means of an alloy at the point of junction between the steel and lead, and the crystals of the two metals are intimately mixed at the point, so much so that it is impossible with a cold chisel to cut the lead away from the iron or steel without still leaving a thin surface of lead. The junction alloy of steel and lead has also a greater breaking strain than lead itself, it having been subjected to breaking tests.” A standard authority states that “an alloy is a combination by fusion of two or more metals, as brass and zinc, tin and lead, silver and copper, etc.” Hence to speak of “the junction alloy of steel and lead” is in- correct, for in the coating operation there is not even an approximation. to the melting point of iron. The alloy of lead and iron appears to be almost unknown in the arts; and that this so-called “junction alloy of steel and lead,” or, as I think, of zinc and lead, should possess a greater tensile strength than the lead, MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. 271 is not strange, it is not an unusual property of alloys; thus one con- sisting of 12 parts lead and 1 part zinc has six times the tenacity of lead. I must also put on record my lack of faith in the natural inference that would be drawn from the claim that the two metals (iron and lead) are intimately mixed at this point (the junction or cementation surface), “so much so that it is impossible with a cold chisel to cut away from the iron or steel without still leaving a thin surface of lead.” Under favorable circumstances the lead can be “peeled ” from the iron—I have done it myself. - I examined the Graham process after the Ritter-Kellner at Cornwall, and it struck me at once as a logical consequence that if “tacking ” the lead on in places only gave satisfactory results, then complete cementa- tion ought to do even better. Upon reflecting, however, I modified this hasty conclusion—for the governing conditions in the two processes are entirely different. In the Ritter-Kellner the lead is burned to the circular and vertical tenons. Burning is defined as “joining metals by melting their adjacent edges, or heating the adjacent edges and running into the interme- diate space some molten metal of the same kind.” A well known writer says: “The articles burned together being homogeneous, the parts expand and contract evenly by changes in temperature; the solders have a greater range of expansion by given changes of temperature than the metals they connect. “The solders oxidize more or less freely than the metals they connect, and establish galvanic circuits which destroy the integrity of the joint, especially in the presence of heat, moisture or acids.” One would almost suppose the author had sulphite digesters in mind. In the Ritter-Kellner there is little danger of the joints loosening. In the Graham, under periodic expansion and contraction and galvanic action, I should fear a sundering between the lead and iron; if this did take place the boiler would very soon become unserviceable. Even granting the claim that the lining and sheet are indissolubly connected by an alloy of lead and steel, and that the “lead, being the weaker metal, when fastened homogeneously to the iron or steel, has to obey the ex- pansion and contraction of the iron or steel,” there still remains an ap- parently insuperable difficulty. The lead lining is at least half an inch 272 MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. thick, and even supposing that the cylindrical laminae in homogeneous contact with the iron are docile, and move in military cadence with their inseparable stronger companion, yet the balance of the lead must be subjected to a recurring ebb and flow for which no compensation is provided. I quote from the Graham expert: “The explanation of the iron controlling the lead expansion is easy to understand. Lead is a very malleable metal, its crystals fitting loosely together, i. e., there is comparatively a large space between the crystals as against other metals, and if the crystals of lead were counted over 22 feet (the length of the digester), and the number divided into one-third of an inch (the linear expansion of lead for 90 degrees in 22 feet), it would be found that the fractional part of this one-third inch would be considerably less than the space between each crystal, and there is no chance of one crystal pushing another one, as in metals where crystals are closer together.” On this theory I do not understand why lead should expand measur- ably under ordinary increase of temperature. Further, the common experience of every plumber militates against the correctness of the assumption. Lead pipes for hot water will “creep ’’ under fluctuation of temper- ature without perceptible increase of length; this is very evident when the pipe under a metallic clamp is examined; a burnished band is seen protruding beyond the clamp. I have seen this in less than twenty-four hours after brand-new pipes were installed. It is a well known fact that in hotels, for instance, where a large quantity of hot water is used in the morning and very little during the rest of the day, the pipes being thus subjected to frequent and compara- tively great changes of temperature, this very movement of which I have spoken, to use plumbers' parlance, “kills '' them. That is, they lose all elasticity, become brittle and crack, showing a crystalline fracture. Now, I am inclined to think that there is danger of such a result with the lead lining of the Graham boiler, even if the cementation remain intact. The lead, under this constant, enormous molecular stress, will degrade, become brittle, porous, crack, even drop off. (See Note 1.) Then the boiler is ruined, for the lining, under such circumstances, can neither be repaired nor replaced. Although I have not seen the patents issued to the Graham Com- pany, yet I am of opinion that they can afford but slight protection. MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. 273 The lead coating of iron has long been well known in the arts, as seen in terne plates, and no modern patent can limit the amount of lead that may be applied. BRICK LINING.--THE MITSCHERLICH. The Mitscherlich digester, as already stated, is lined with an acid- proof brick of special design, laid in Portland cement. Apparently a startling innovation, reflection proves that this method follows out the direct line of modern progress. The manufacture of that almost indispensable article, sulphuric acid, has in comparatively late years been greatly improved and facilitated by the introduction of the Gay-Lussac and Glover towers, edifices lined, not with lead, but with acid-proof tiles or brick. It is a curious coincidence, in this con- nection, that about seven years ago one of the leading American sul- phuric acid makers told me that he had found that Seltzer jugs made the most resistant tower linings. The transition from brick-lined towers to brick-lined digesters must have been no difficult task for SO able a scientist as Dr. Mitscherlich. The ability of fire-clay to withstand enormous stresses is familiar to us all. The Bessemer Converter and the Open-hearth furnace are illus- trations in point. The co-efficient of expansion of fire-brick is only about 40 per cent. that of iron; in a length of 40 feet for a change of 180 degrees Fahr. a fire-brick construction would expand linearly less than one-quarter of an inch. Mortised and tenoned together, due to the special form of brick used, and laid in Portland cement, it constitutes a homogeneous mass, whose integrity is not jeoparded by usual fluctuations of temperature. I have examined, with the utmost care, digesters that have been in use for nearly two years, and have failed to discover any intrinsic defect in the lining. The best steam boiler imaginable is liable to blow up if not handled with Ordinary care, and so doubtless must an average de- gree of watchfulness be exercised in the use of the Mitscherlich, as well as of any other digester. An absolutely automatic digester, that fills, cooks, empties and cleans itself, is still an undiscovered desideratus). The cement joints are now and then superficially percolated by the acid solution; they give clear warning of this percolation by discoloration; a cold chisel to cut out the affected mortar, and a trowel to repoint with cement, afford a ready, inexpensive, efficacious remedy. 274 MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPEIITE FIBER. In one of the digesters I noticed a patch back of one of the upper man-holes. The cause of the corrosion was very apparent, and its oc- Currence inculcated a valuable lesson. The man-hole is lined with lead, this is “bent under,” flanging well back of the intersection of the man- hole cylinder with the digester. The brick lining comes up to this well, and, of course, has an open circular junction line, which must be kept Well pointed, as at present constructed. This was neglected, the liquid penetrated, followed the lead, and ate its way through the iron. Such an accident can only occur under long continued, persistent neglect. I know of no engineering objection to a brick or tile lining for a low pressure digester. Such constructions, as already stated, do withstand extremes of temperature ; indeed, on the Continent air-tight tile stoves are in general use. UNITNED TXIGESTERS.–THE SCHENK. The Schenk digester is a stationary, upright cylinder, 7 feet in diam- eter by 22 feet height, and is made in sectional castings of deoxidized bronze with planed flanges, which are bolted together and lead-jointed in assembling. This alloy the designer assumes is sufficiently acid- proof for the purpose, without the protection of other resistant liming. Absolutely homogeneous kalchoid alloys are not of usual occurrence in manufactures ; liquation, the presence of copper oxides, and the Oc- clusion of gas, militate against the production of constant results. I take it that “ deoxidized ” bronze is the outcome of a process that hopes for uniform, reliable castings. The value of phosphor-bronze in the arts is well established, and it is used in all the lead-lined digesters for the steam inlets that are im- mersed in the acid solution. In every case these inlet pipes are in time consumed. I am not prepared to admit, after such examination as I have been able to make, that deoxidized bronze is Superior as an acid resistant to phospor-bronze. From the little that I have gleaned, it is claimed that it casts more surely in large masses. Even from this standpoint, aluminium-bronze will probably be found to be more reliable. I mention phosphor and aluminium bronze because there is no pat- ent per se upon the Schenk digester ; the only protection claimed lies in the fact that the company enjoys the exclusive right of making digesters of deoxidized bronze ; hence, should any other copper alloy MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. 275. be found equally available for the purpose, no impediment exists to its free use. . It is acknowledged that the deoxidized bronze is acted upon by the acid solution, and observation confirms this conclusion. The upper portion of the digester, the only part that could be ex- amined on account of the chip filling, was coated with black oxide of copper, and both liquid and fiber hold it in solution or suspension. It is claimed that this erosion is so slight that the longevity of the digester is not threatened thereby ; this, of course, is a matter of indi- vidual opinion. * The digester we entered at Appleton showed extensive and deep. honeycombing in the throat ; we were told that this was due to bad casting. Without this information I should have come to a very differ- ent conclusion. - As I understood, one of the claimed valuable attributes of deoxi- dized bronze is that it makes sound castings. It hardly seems judicious to use so unsound a section in an entirely new apparatus, designed as the foundation of a great manufacture. The pittings looked to me like the usual erosions manifested when corroding liquids or gases move over bronze surfaces. Owing to liquation, more soluble alloys occur in spots, and the eat- ing-out of these produces the typical pitting. - The base section of this digester either had been, or was to be, re- placed ; the top section I would call in unserviceable condition ; at both. these places the bronze is exposed, in blowing-off, to moving liquid and gas. - Copper-tin alloys are “kittle-cattle,” all authorities agree in testify- ing to their sensitiveness. (See Note 2.) Fluctuations in temperature. affect their strength, and their constant exhibition under active circum- stances in the presence of sulphur compounds, cannot fail to produce deleterious effects. (See Note 3.) It certainly is not customary in permanent engineering construc- tions, built to withstand continuing, constant strains, to use material that is subject to uncontrolled, cumulative, indefinite wear or abrasion. ACID Process. The manufacture of the bisulphite solution may be classified under three heads: The Vacuum Process, the Modified Tower Process, the Tower Process. - 276 MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. I will dwell but briefly upon this matter, confining myself to evident features that would impress the average intelligent observer. The vacuum system is used in connection with the Partington, the Schenk and the Graham processes. It requires large exhaust pumps, a series of tanks arranged vertically in échelon, a lime mixer, etc., and undoubtedly yields with certainty the high solution required. It can unquestionably be used for all the processes. The best plant I saw Was at Birmingham, copied from the English Partington, and costing here about six thousand dollars for the entire installation. The modified tower system in use with the Ritter-Kellner process at Cornwall is a sort of cross between the Mitscherlich tower and vacuum method. The solution is pumped by a battery of pumps into a series of low towers under cover, filled with limestone. It did not strike us as possessing merits over the vacuum method. The Mitscherlich tower process is in a measure automatic and is cer- tainly the most economical. The sulphurous acid gas is drawn up the high towers, filled with limestone, by atmospheric draft, and therein meets water trickling through the filling. Its main disadvantage is the assurance of proper draft. It strikes me that the application of a little American engineer- ing skill would speedily bring about reliable and satisfactory results. The consumption of sulphur varies from 200 pounds per ton of fiber in the Mitscherlich, up to nearly 600 pounds in the others. In none of the others is it less than 350 to 400 pounds. MECHANICAL PREPARATION OF THE WOOD. All the processes, except the Mitscherlich, use chips. In this latter, discs cut from the log, 13 inches deep, are used. Dr. Mitscherlich claims that these discs afford a stronger fiber, and that more bulk can be put into the digester, than if loosely piled chips were used. One great disadvantage connected with the use of discs, is that even if the fines; cross-cut saws are used, circular or band, at least ten per cent. of the wood is wasted in sawdust. Further, more time must be consumed in charging the digester. All this is a mere question of dollars and cents. There is no absolute objection to using chips in the Mitscherlich process; wood would be saved, labor economized, and time of boiling probably shortened. But, it is claimed by the Professor, the output is not so good. Hence, if the better product earns more, MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. 277 even at the expense of material, labor and time, than the so-called infe- rior, why of course it would pay to follow Mitscherlich's recommenda- tions. It would not be a very significant item of expense to be prepared to use both discs and chips. COOKING. “Cooking,” or the treatment of the wood with calcic bisulphite to obtain cellulose, is fully explained by Mr. Griffin. I will merely dwell long enough upon this branch of the subject, therefore, to make my own impressions clear. There are two methods pursued, a quick and a slow process, apply- ing the words merely to time, and not to output. The first process, which is not under patent protection, is pursued in all the digesters except the Mitscherlich; the second, covered by an American patent, is peculiar to the Mitscherlich. The quick process requires for a boil strong liquor, high pressure, short time, and yields a small product. The slow process requires a weak liquor, low pressure, long time, but yields from four to eight times greater a product. The Mitscherlich, aside from every other consideration, appealed to me as being logical and precise ; the other struck me as inconsequent and unscientific. - In the Mitscherlich process, the cooking is done by indirect heat, steam pipes; in the other, by direct heat, the condensation of steam. Hence the former method uses a liquor of uniform, the latter one of constantly varying, strength. To illustrate, 2 600 gallons strong liquor entered the Graham digester, a “quick” boiler, 2 000 gallons of con- densed steam are added during cooking. At one quick method plant we learned that it was frequently neces- sary to add strong sulphite solution while the boiling was actually going on. - If warm baths were prescribed for a patient, I imagine he would protest vigorously against being immersed in boiling water, even if assured that the cold water had been turned on. The application is readily seen. The quick process, as we gleaned from inquiries at the various plants where it is carried on, requires from fifteen to twenty-four hours for boiling; the Mitscherlich, as shown by the Alpena experience, from 278 MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. forty-five to seventy-two hours. It will thus be observed that the range of Variation, 60 per cent., is precisely the same for both processes. It Was noticeable that in certain cases, the best possible conditions of time, temperature, etc., of the quick process were compared with the most unfavorable showing of the slow. This matter of time is apt to be misleading. The best claimed show- ing was made by the Graham expert, nine complete “turns” per week, or a single turn in about eighteen hours, producing 13 tons of fiber. The best figures for the Mitscherlich are a complete turn in seventy- two hours, producing nearly 10 tons of fiber, four times as long, with Over six times the output. - In the Mitscherlich procedure, one operation impressed me as gro- tesquely un-American. The cooked fiber is washed for ten hours in the digester. This great money-coining apparatus is compelled, for over one-tenth of its time-capacity, to function as an Ordinary washing engine. This is simply an accidental part, in my judgment an evidence of bad business management; yet the opponents are not slow in arguing, from the condition imposed by this ill-judged operation, against the whole method. - As cold water is used in this washing, they claim that the tempera- ture of the Mitscherlich digester fluctuates from 40 to 270 degrees Eahr., a range of 230 degrees, while in their process the temperature never falls below 150 degrees, thus giving a range of only 150 degrees. This objection is met by an obvious practical remedy, Saving time, and consequently money—the introduction of separate Washing en- gines. In confirmation of Dr. Mitscherlich's claim that slow boiling affords a better fiber, I have been told by an experienced soda pulp manufac- turer that it was a well-known fact that in this latter process slow boil- ing yielded a better output. It is singular that while the sulphite process was the invention of an American, Germany made it a practical success. We are now begin- ning to take hold of this American idea, but burdened with Germala methods, and incrusted with Teutonic barnacles. The most complete quick process plant I saw was at Cornwall; here everything, including even the assembled digesters and the gauges re- cording pressures in atmospheres, was imported. The superintendent told me that he thought the best course had been pursued, that they MICHAELIS ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER. 279 had the necessary experience abroad, and so on, and yet I noticed he was modifying his apparatus about as rapidly as he could. The German adjuncts and methods at Alpena had to be entirely thrown aside, and apparatus and operations developed in our own paper- making industry have been introduced. There is a reason for all this; in Germany labor is phlegmatic, inexpensive. I have been told that women sort and inspect chips for twelve and a half cents per day, and of course they have none but wooden ideas. As a consequence, the Ger- man manufacturer, absorbing the phlegm of his employees, has both perseverance and patience. We are quick-witted, we have abundance of perseverance in attain- ing our ends, but precious little patience in waiting for results. To this I ascribe, in a measure, the allurement which the quick process has for us. We hug the delusion to our hearts that we can produce ten tons just as quickly as one and a half, and mentally eliminate all intervening insurmountable difficulties. The most German of all the processes is the Mitscherlich, yet I firmly believe that with American business management and American engineering skill, it can be rehabilitated as a genuine American method. It is idle to catalogue the ponderous, painful steps that still charac- terize it; there is not one that could not be practically improved. The discs, for instance, are really fed, piece by piece, into the digester; they should be automatically shoveled in by the cart-load. . Astonishing as it may seem, the German engineers turned over the first completed plant and acquiesced in its being run by an energetic American, utterly without experience, who at the same time superin- tended two saw-mills producing annually some forty million feet! It recalls poor Colonel Sellers’ “little side speculations.” To attain the best results, the head of the plant should be a sterling business man, interested pecuniarily in its success, aided by competent assistants in the technical, chemical and engineering departments. Note 1.-It may be of interest briefly to investigate the stress to which the lead coating in the Graham digester is subjected by change of temperature. The linear co-efficient of expansion of lead is . . . .0.0000158 Its modulus of elasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 000 280 MICHAELIS ON LIMIE SULPHITE FIBER. A range of 200 degrees is a very moderate assumption for this pro- cess, for it boils at over 300 degrees. - We have, then, the stress p = .0000158 × 720 000 × 200 - == 2 275 pounds. The elastic limit of lead is given by Trautwine as 1 100 ; we see, therefore, that, even after making due allowance for the expansion of the iron shell, the fixed lead is strained beyond its elastic limit. Every plumber, from his own experience, can tell what will result. NoTE 2.-Mr. Griffin's analysis of the Schenk boiler metal gives: Copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 91.28 Tin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6S Zine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.89 In 1877 the British Admiralty determined the effect of heat upon the kalchoid alloys of copper (see Engineering, October 5th, 1877). “The metal was cast in the form of rods one inch in diameter, and composed of five different alloys as follows: “No. 2.-Copper, 91; Tin, 7; Zinc, 2. (The nearest approach to the Schenk mixture.) “The specimens were heated in an oil bath near the testing machine, and the operation of fixing and breaking was rapidly and carefully per- formed, so as to prevent, as far as possible, loss of heat by radiation. At 100 degrees Fahrenheit the strength and ductility of the above test piece was 525 pounds and 15.5 per cent. At 300 degrees Fahrenheit the strength was 265 pounds, the ductility nil.” I cite this as confirmatory of my statement regarding the sensitive- ness of these alloys. NOTE 3.—“It is but fair to add here that Professor Langley has observed that acids and the fumes of his laboratory will change the very structure of metals. He had in his laboratory a frame of the following form: : GRIFFIN ON CHEMISTRY OF LIME SULPHITE FIBER. 281 “The wires w, of copper, brass and German silver, were run through the crossbars a, which were of wood, about 2 inches wide. After three years he noticed the wires breaking, and upon examination he found them to be coarsely crystalline, brittle—in fact, rotten, and entirely changed in structure. He found also that the parts that were in the wood, and so protected from the fumes, were soft, ductile, and entirely unaffected. All of the exposed wires were affected similarly, and all the protected parts were equally unaffected, except the copper wire, which was stiffened, but not materially changed in structure.” SOME REMARKS ON THE CHEMISTRY OF THE PROCESSES OF IIME SULPHITE FIBER MANUFACTURE. By MARTIN L. GRIFFIN, M.A. I propose in this paper to give an outline simply of the chemistry of the sulphite fiber industry. This will be concerned only with the material for digesters, the bisulphite solution and the fiber. By sulphite fiber is meant, fiber manufactured from wood for paper making by the use of a solution of bisulphite of lime or magnesia. As you are doubtless aware, the chief difficulty to be overcome in this pro- . cess is the securing of a digester which will stand the action of the acid solution used to reduce the wood to fiber. I will first explain the com- position and nature of this acid liquid. Sulphurous acid gives two classes of salts, like carbonic, the bisulphite and the neutral or normal sulphite. The normal sulphite of calcium has this formula Ca SO3, while the bisulphite requires two molecules of the acid radical giving twice as much sulphur and expresses thus: #-s= 0, Ca <0 #~S = 02 The former is only soluble in 800 parts of water, though freely soluble in aqueous Sulphurous acid, thereby becoming the bisulphites. To * Steel; its Properties; its Use in Structures and in Heavy Guns. William Metcalf, MI. Am. Soc. C. E., Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XVI, p. 291, June, 1887. 282 GRIFFIN ON CHEMISTRY OF LIME SULPHITE FIBER, obtain the solution desired for the manufacture of sulphite fiber we should require for each part of calcium (the ratio of calcium to its oxide, lime, being as 5 to 7) 3.2 parts of sulphurous acid gas or 1.6 parts of sulphur. This acid solution is made in two principal ways and in all cases the sulphurous gas is produced from burning sulphur in retorts to Which only a limited supply of air is admitted. The gases are either received into tall towers, as in the Mitscherlich system, where it is absorbed by porous limestone over which water trickles downward, meeting the ascending gases; or it is absorbed directly into a solution of milk of lime by the aid of a vacuum pump. This is known as the Vacuum system. In the former case the sulphurous gas displaces the carbonic, thus: Ca CO3 + SO2 = Ca SO3 + CO2, and we have the bi- sulphite solution flowing off. In the latter there is no gas to be dis- placed, the reaction being Ca (O H)2 + SO2 = Ca SO3 + H. O. By this process a solution of any desired strength can be made. It may seem to be a very simple operation to burn sulphur to sul- phurous oxide; but in reality great care is required, since by the admission of too much air to the retorts sulphuric oxide may be formed. This uniting with the lime forms insoluble sulphate of lime, which in the Mitscherlich towers would form a coating over the lime- stone and cause a variety of troubles. In the vacuum system it would form an inert deposit, causing a waste of lime and sulphur. An excess of air will cause the sulphur to burn more rapidly, thus developing too much heat, which facilitates the formation of first lower, then higher, polythionic acids, then sublimed sulphur. These acids are all sulpho-acids having an increasing proportion of sulphur. They not only cause a waste of material, but exert injurious effects upon the quality of the fiber. They also cause a fictitious strength of the liquor which cannot be detected by the ordinary workman. When we reflect what a peculiar substance sulphur is, and how easily its chemical and physical properties are changed, we cannot wonder that it should cause difficulties in any process in which it is used. At the ordinary temperature sulphur is a light colored brittle solid; at 115 degrees C. it melts to a thin amber liquid; heated to 250 degrees it becomes dark colored and thick; at 450 degrees it boils and passes off as a dark colored vapor. These changes in its state of aggregation are due to changes in the molecule, which varies in the number GRIFFIN ON CHEMISTRY OF LIME SULPHITE FIBER. 283 of atoms it contains according to the temperature. At 1000 degrees and above it consists of two atoms, at 500 degrees it consists of six atoms, and at lower temperatures it probably contains a still greater number. This peculiarity makes possible a great variety of Sulpho- acids and salts. Sulphur is one of the most useful, powerful and peculiar elements with which chemistry deals. Its gases are pungent and penetrating, and its acids the most powerful and corrosive, forming a most stable class of salts. A very small fraction of one per cent. in metals renders them useless and it exerts injurious effects even in the Smallest proportions. Is it any wonder, then, that we should meet with difficulties in finding a material for sulphite digesters ? Practically there is only one metal yet discovered which withstands the action of sulpho-acids fairly well; it is lead. A substance very rich in silica is the only mineral. These two kinds of material are all that have accomplished much so far in the construction of sulphite digesters. There are, however, digesters of bronze in operation for which success is claimed. I will now briefly describe those which are doing a representative business. The Mitscherlich is 14 feet in diameter and 40 feet long, holding about twenty-five cords of wood when cut up into discs 1} inches thick and produces at each “turn" 123 tons of dry fiber. It is composed of a wrought-iron or steel shell # inch thick, which is first coated with pitch or tar within. Upon this is laid a continuous layer of very thin sheet lead; next comes a course of bricks specially made for this purpose, each having a tongue and groove, which are laid flatwise in the best Portland cement. Upon these is laid another course of bricks edgewise, having their tongues and grooves arranged accordingly. Each digester is stationary and placed horizontal. The Schenk, a bronze digester, has the following composition: Per Cent. Tin • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º e s e e e s e e º e s s a e e e a e s e s e e a e e e e 7.68 Copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.28 Zine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.89 The specific gravity of a small casting was 8.5579; the computed gravity is 8.76. The specific gravity of copper is 8.94. These figures will indicate the difficulty in making perfect castings of copper alloys free from combined and occluded oxygen. Hence it follows that the larger or more numerous the molecular interstices, the more surface is exposed and the more permeable is the metal by gases, and so more 284. GRIFFIN ON CHEMISTRY OF LIME SULPHITE FIBER. affected. All metals are susceptible to this influence to a greater or less extent. A very marked illustration of the absorption of gas by a metal is observed in the case of palladium, which absorbs 376 volumes of hydrogen at the ordinary temperature. According, therefore, to the nature of the gas, the metal and the temperature, will various results be observed. I am personally cog- nizant of a case where lead, under the influence of sulphurous acid gas, has been changed to a salt of this acid. Similar instances are recorded of copper and other metals. Copper when plunged into molten sulphur is immediately changed to the sulphide of the metal. At the present time we see several manufacturers of bronzes claiming that they have an acid-proof alloy, but no reputable chemist can enter- tain such an idea for a moment. Neither is any copper alloy proof against the action of sulphurous and sulphuric acids in any proportions. The effect of these acids on digesters of copper alloys is, first, to dis- Solve a little from the surface, which is immediately reduced to the oxide and Sulphide of the metal by the reducing power of the organic matter dissolving from the wood. This soon forms a black coating on the interior, which is continually crumbling off by the expansion and con- traction of the metal, thereby contaminating the fiber with black specks. As regards the life of such digesters, it is simply a question of the rapidity of the action of the chemicals and the thickness of the metal. It is not improbable, also, that the scale affords some slight protection to the metal. We have now left for our consideration digesters lead lined in dif- ferent ways and of different shapes. The Ritter-Kellner digester is vertical and stationary, about 10 feet in diameter and 28 feet high, made of wrought-iron or steel, 1 inch thick. The interior is lined with sheet lead half an inch thick. This is attached to horizontal and vertical tenons of lead and antimony dovetailed into the seams. This gives an opportunity for expansion of the lining in sections. The ratio of the expansion of iron to lead is a little less than 1 to 3. As the digester is repeatedly heated and cooled, there must be a recurring movement back and forth from the shell, or else the lining must “buckle.” This movement, in time, is sufficient to produce cracks, which then must be repaired. This coincides with experience. The Partington digester is spherical and rotates upon an axis. It is GRIFFIN ON CHEMISTRY OF LIME SULFHITE FIBER. 285 built of iron or steel, and the lining of lead is attached in lunes by the use of leaden headed bolts and clamps. This form of attachment has caused more trouble than the others, as the bolts and clamps have offered greater inducements for the liquor to penetrate to the shell, thus requiring more time for repairs by their frequency, and the extra exposure of the shell to injury. The remaining digester to be described is the Graham. It may be built of any shape or size, stationary or rotary. The chief difference Worthy of notice is in the attachment of the lining. In plain language, the lead is soldered to the iron or steel sheets by the aid of chloride of zinc. They are then rolled cold and assembled. The seams are polished and filled in with lead by means of an autogenic apparatus. The cellulose prepared by all the acid processes contains a consider- able quantity of incrustating matter and lime salts, and hence is harsh and brittle. When a magnesian base is used it is claimed that a softer fiber is produced; personally I cannot see much difference. When the pulp is first removed from the digesters it is beautifully transparent, owing largely to the powerful bleaching effect of the sulphurous gas which acts as a deoxidizing agent. Papers made for service for any length of time should be reoxidized and bleached with hypochlorite of calcium. If this is not done, the paper soon assumes as yellow color from exposure to light and air. - The conclusions, therefore, which we draw are : That from a scien- tific standpoint only two kinds of material are admissible for sulphite digesters. Each must be supported by means of an iron shell. In the one case the lead lining expands much more than its stronger companion, is therefore subject to a great stress, which in time will produce fissures and crystallization, and is permeable by the sulphurous gas, which has a tendency in addition to produce hardness and brittleness. In the other case the brick or tile lining expands much less than the iron shell, and so this is liable also to crack if a temperature above 118 degrees C is reached. A plant under either of these systems may be successful by good management, nevertheless, without which no enterprise can succeed. Sulphite fiber fills a much needed place in the manufacture of paper and is and will continue to be profitably made. 286 DISCUSSION ON LIME SULPHITE FIBER MANUFACTURE. D IS C U S S I O N . F. CoILINGwooD, M. Am. Soc. C. E.—The remarks of Major Mi- chaelis about joining of metals recalls to my mind an experience at one of the American Institute fairs. A substance called the “Cherry-heat Welding Compound” was brought for examination before a committee of which I was a member. It was claimed for it that it produced an absolute weld of steel as strong as could be produced by the ordinary methods, and at so low a temperature as to remove all danger of injury to the steel. As it contained some metallic fragments and also a flux, I asked what the fragments were, and was told they were iron. To the question whether the introduction of iron between steel sur- faces could possibly make a union equal to the steel in strength, the reply was that it certainly did. I then proposed a test. I was to obtain a weld of two pieces of steel by the old method, and the inventor was to furnish one made by his method from the same bar, this being a fine tool steel. Each specimen was then turned down to proper size for test in a Thurston's torsional machine, which was conveniently at hand. The old style of weld broke at the full strengh of the steel directly across the weld, through the solid bar; while that by the new process separated along the welded surfaces, and at about the strength of fair wrought-iron. The so-called weld was really a soldering with iron. 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No. 5.-SEPTEMBER, 1881. SUBMARINE NAVIGATION. BY P. P. F. Now that the subject of submarine navigation is again excit- ing the attention of inventors, as may be seen by some of the wild statements put forth by the public press, it may be well to give the readers of PROGRESS OF SCIENCE a brief history of the chief attempts that have been made in this direction, before offering any suggestions looking to the wished-for result. It should be understood at the outset that torpedoes, and like destructive contrivances, though acting under water, are not, strictly speaking, Submarine vessels, as they do not carry men or passengers. - According to the most reliable data we have, Cornelius Dre- bell appears to have been the first person in England who made a vessel to be rowed under water, which James I. caused to be tried on the Thames river. What was the exact nature of this invention does not seem to be now known. Boyle [supposed to be “the father of chemistry,”] said of it, that it comprised an arrangement whereby “the composition of a liquid speedily re- stored to the troubled air such a proportion of vital parts as would make it again, for a good while, fit for respiration.” Bishop Wilkins, in his Mathematical Magic, speculated con- cerning the possibility of framing an ark for submarine navi- gation. He spoke of the wonderful advantages of such a con- trivance, but, unfortunately, did not describe the contrivance itself. - In 1774 an inventor, named Day, lost his life during an ex- 242 PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. perimental descent in Plymouth Sound, England, in a vessel of fifty tons burden. He intended to make it rise after a submer- sion of considerable duration, but failed. Mr. Bushnell, of Con- necticut, contrived, in 1775, a submarine vessel, intended to have been used in warfare. It appears to have been propelled by some kind of Archimedean screws. Robert Fulton, while at Paris, in 1796, invented a box which, when filled with combus- tibles, might be propelled under water, and made to explode beneath the bottom of a ship, so as to blow it up; but the attempt was a failure. He also made a submarine boat for the same purpose, which was tried on several of the French rivers with partial success. Later in his life he really blew up an old ship's hulk by such means. Some of the suggestions for submarine navigation have de- pended on the ship or boat carrying store-vessels filled with Oxygen to replenish the air, the carbonic acid being absorbed either by cream of lime or a strong solution of ammonia. Attention was directed, in 1859, to a submarine boat, brought to Britain by Mr. Delaney of Chicago. According to his patent, the vessel was egg-shaped in transverse section, and diminished nearly to a point at each end. There was a rudder at one end of a hollow shaft; and the axis of a screw-propeller passed through the shaft. The boat was completely enclosed on all sides, except certain pipe openings. There were two iron tanks in the interior; one had air forced into it by an air-pump; a pipe, with a stopcock, communicated with the second tank, which contained water. The engineer of the boat by pumping water into or out of the second tank, through the action of the air in the first, could raise or lower the boat to different depths in the water. A steam-engine was to furnish the propelling power, and provision was made for purifying the respired air; but the details of operation are by no means clearly described. In our article on Aerial Navigation in the first number of PROGRESS OF SCIENCE, we alluded to submarine vessels as the true artificial analogues of buoyant aerial vessels. In Support of this statement we cannot do better than call attention to the views of the late C. B. Mansfield, the honored friend of Messrs. SUBMARINE NAVICATION. - 243 Charles Kingsley and Thomas Hughes: “This branch of human skill,” he says, “is yet to be developed. The diving-bell is to the future deep-sea boat what the balloon is to the air-craft. The few submarine boats which have yet been used (for such have been shown in successful action by more persons than one) represent the experimental eggoons which have crawled along in the air on one or two occasions. There can be no doubt that rapid motion is much more easy to be attained within the waters than upon their surface. There is not in all nature an animal that moves with rapidity at the top of the water, with a part of his body immersed. The water-beetles that dart about on the surface of ponds, rather run upon them than swim partially immersed in them. The so-called swimming of ducks and Swans and other surface water-fowl is scarcely locomo- tion at all, it is a mere aquatic creeping. But how different are the under-water movements of the diving birds, the true prototypical water-forms of the feathered circle ! The velocity with which they dash through the liquid is sufficiently shown by the ease with which they catch their finny prey within it. The gulls and terns, the aerial forms in the watery sub-circle, and the sea-eagles and ospreys, aquatic members of the proper air-group, obtain the speed requisite for their under-water chase by falling headlong from a height. The auks and grebes simply put their heads beneath the surface, strike out with their feet, and with outstretched neck cleave and thread their way through the liquid like the swifter of the fishes. Those who have seen the little grebe or ‘dab-chick’ dashing through the weeds in Some Swift clear river like any trout, and have wondered how a thing so slow in its movements on the surface could find new means of locomotion in the denser liquid which it had not when its body was partly in the rarer air, though its propelling feet are in the same favorable conditions in either case, – will be ready to believe that, for some reason or other, rapid movement is more easily accomplished within the waters than upon them. Such, at any rate, is the fact. One reason why the birds can proceed with greater velocity under water is that they stretch out their necks, and so present a form more favorable for speed 244 PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. than they do when floating at the top. Perhaps, too, they some- times use their wings for sub-aquatic propulsion. “But there are other agencies which oppose the attainment of a high velocity at the surface, but do not interfere with the desired result when the body is entirely immersed. In the first place, the irregularities of the surface are continually altering the amount of resistance offered to the propellers, as well as that which the advancing body meets with. In the next place, curvature of the fore-part of the ship's bottom, meeting the pressure of the resisting water, must resolve it partially in an upward direction; and so, even if the propelling force is applied in the most advantageous manner, that is, entirely in a direction parallel to the length of the vessel, a portion of it must be ex- pended in lifting the bows of the vessel slightly out of the water. Again, the forward pressure of the vessel, in displacing the water, tends to raise the liquid about its bows, and to leave a depression behind its stern; thus increasing both the actual resistance from before, and by withdrawing the hydrostatic pressure from the after surface, the negative resistance behind. “None of these opposing influences prevail beneath the sur- face. There, there are no storms, no waves, no adverse winds, no tendencies to misdirection of the available propelling power. The speed that we may attain in submarine boats is hinted to us by the velocity of many fishes, of seals, and of whales. But to compete with them we must imitate their forms, and improve upon them. Long arrow-shaped figures, similar to those that will be required for air-craft, must be made use of. The best form will be learned by experiments conducted, like those of Colonel Beaufoy, with bodies immersed beneath the surface of water. No doubt his results will be of Service to the future art, though they may be useless to the surface-sailors of the pres- ent day. “Contrivances will of course be necessary in the Submarine boat for maintaining the horizontal balance, because the pitch- ing and rolling of the vessel will not be limited by the mass of the displaced liquid, as it is with bodies floating at the surface. The fishes manage this with their fins. SUBMARINE NAVIGATION. 245 “Submarine boats intended for slow motion for under-water engineering, may be open to the water below like a diving-bell; and may derive their supply of air from the atmosphere above by a pipe running up to the surface, and having its mouth kept floating at a sufficient height above the water to prevent the liquid from getting access to it. Air would be drawn down the pipe by a pump worked within the boat. The foul air would be discharged from time to time by an appropriate pipe at the top of the vessel. - “But a totally different arrangement will be necessary in the rapid deep-sea craft. The whole vessel must be closed and air- tight, and must be dependent on resources within itself for its supply of air. The whole must be strong enough to resist the pressure of the water from without, which will not be balanced by the pressure from within, for the inner atmosphere must be maintained at the degree of rarity which may be most agreeable to the voyagers. The quantity and purity of the air within the boat may be regulated to the greatest nicety by supplying pure oxygen from sources carried in the vessel, the carbonic acid generated by respiration, and perhaps by combustion, being ab- sorbed by alkaline leys. The nitrogen of the air being unaf- fected, or nearly so, both in amount and in quantity, by the processes of combustion and respiration — serving only to di- lute the Oxygen that operates therein—is a constant quantity which will remain unaltered throughout the voyage. This is a natural fact which favors submarine navigation. A second is that the carbonic acid produced by the combination of oxygen with carbon, and which is exhaled from the lungs as oxygen is inhaled, occupies exactly the same bulk, equivalent for equiva- lent, as does the gas from which it is produced. Thus by its evolution no gaseous expansion, and therefore no increase of pressure beyond that which is effected by the heat generated in its formation, will result in the air enclosed within the boat. By causing the atmosphere of the boat to circulate slowly, and in its passage to be drawn through milk of lime, the whole carbonic acid will be removed; and by a regulated flow of oxygen from appropriate reservoirs, the bulk and quality of the air will be 246 PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. kept up continuously and together. The oxygen may either be prepared beforehand and condensed in strong metallic cyl- inders, from which it is allowed to escape gradually by small apertures, through which its flow is regulated according to the requirements of the voyagers, or may be generated within the boat from chlorate of potassium. A man's daily ration of oxy- gen material will be about six pounds of the chlorate. “The interior of the vessel will be lighted by the voltaic arc, to avoid the consumption of oxygen which would be entailed by any other source of illumination. One or two of these lights at head and stern, placed immediately behind strong glass bull's- eyes and furnished with reflectors, would shed through the waters at night, and when the course lies deep, light sufficient to warn other vessels of the danger of fouling, and to make rocks, bottom and other solid obstacles visible to the watchmen within. The watchman will of course be in a dark chamber im– mediately beside the light, and furnished with a thick glass win- dow, so that the only light that could reach the eye would be that reflected from objects without the boat. But when we have so far done our duty as to have conquered air and Sea as well as earth, we shall probably be permitted to profit by the other means of vision which are sleeping within us, of which the only uses at present seem to be for charlatans to cheat the credulous with, for savants to sneer at, and for philosophers to ponder on. “The submarine boat will be steered by a double rudder, combining the shapes of the tail of a fish and of a whale, formed of two flat plates intersecting each other at right angles. It and the propellers will of course be worked by spindles pass- ing through water-tight stuffing-boxes in the boat's shell. There will of course be no necessity for the boat diving to great depths; if it move just far enough below the surface to avoid the waves, it will obtain the full benefit of its powers. During the voyage occasional ventilation with fresh atmospheric air will be easily accomplished, and for comfort's sake will be resorted to. “The true principles of propulsion will no doubt be applied to the conduct of these vessels, and by the combination of ap- propriate forms of body and mechanism, results must be ob- SUBMARINE NAVIGATION. 247 tained before which the boldest efforts of our present navigation companies must sink into insignificance.” In the thirty years which have elapsed since the foregoing was first written, how little real progress has been made - º *T. . . … -º- .* º , ; = - > .2 * e e 2—sin.” . 2X=.6136 P3 ar. . . . (14) partial fractions. 2Z=.3432 P47tr° . . (15) Y=.3432 Płzrr” . . (16) #v/2di à –2|P º sin.” +1) di– / →X tºº. r ſ ( ) ſ A/2 + sin.? In this case the additional load due to the wind pressure is, .3432 P47trº, given 4 v2di — / 2 * *** tº e 15). ſ A/2-sin.” { similarly. (10) | by (15) ſ di 2 —1 | To FIND THE POINT OF APPLICATION OF X. Now, infº (2–1 tan. The moment of dx about A is equal to A/2+sin.i.T(2–1); dx multiplied by the distance of the center } w/2 (an gº) |=2 tan —1 of gravity of cde from co. 2 V2/ | ! (2-1)* s 2 . . 2 ... dim – d’Y.–CO=d X-rsin.” –– r cos. - 77 71. 77 |va (**)}. º 2 V2/ | | ? sin. ; d. N. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF WIND PRESSURE. b13 Hence, by (3) we have, M=2 Prº sin.” cos.” di 1 + cos.” & =/cos i (17) sin.” cos.” di Now ſ 1 + cos.” 2 cos.” (#; — COS. º)ai– 1 + cos.” - 2 cos.” & - ſ (2 cos.7 — cos.”?— ...)a. 1 + COs.” - ſ? cos.7—cos.’ī) di–2 d sin.” - 18 2—sin.” (18) ſ * s & | . . sin.” cos.” tº º = 3 2 sin.” – —% sin.? + | 3 3. w/2 ſlog. (A/2—sin. :)— [log. (A/2+sin.i)] - i # (19) _4 1 A/2+1 4 1 -ā-yº”yº-i-à-vº log. (3+2A/2)=.0868 ‘. M= .1736P/-3 M_1736Pr' X T.4321Prº log. (20) (21) NOW =.36017 =Z —1 Since .3601–sin. 21°6', the point is 21°6' from X on the arc XZ. In a similar manner we have for Z, dM'=dZr cos. i., which with (9) gives, Y — , /* cos.” & sin.” dº ...i.1, ; M’=2 P7. ſ 1+cos.” which is the same as (17). Hence M'-M=.1736 Prs (22) This follows, indeed, from element- ary principles; for, since the pressure on the dome is normal to the surface, the total moment about A is equal to zero; or the moment of X is equal to the mo- ment of Z. = .6440.7" M’ Now Z = 2; Ez- (23) The point is therefore 40°5'27% from Z on the arc ZX. * Dividing (11) by (7) gives, #=5901=tan. 29°12'20", the angle made by the resultant wind pressure with the horizon - .1736 P7.3 The moments of X and Z about the center of the base of the dome being equal, it follows that the excess of the moment of X over that of Z about the foot of the supports, is equal to Xh, h be- ing the height of the supports. This is the moment of the force that inclines the dome to the leeward. - Since the Y and Z components of the pressure on the part of the dome shown in the figures are equal, the resultant R. of the normal pressure is, R=(X*4-2Z") +2Pr" [(4821) + 2 (2695)*]%=.6145 Prº (24) Again, since the sum of the Y compo- nents on the whole dome is equal to zero, we have for the resultant of the whole normal pressure, R=[(2X) + (2Z)*]%=Pr"[(.9642) + (.5391)*]%=1.1047 Prº (25) The angle between the two partial re- Sultants is given by, R*,-2R’ X* cos. 6= 2R* TX* x 27”T .6154. ... 6=52°1'. The partial resultants there- fore, make an angle of 26°30' with the plane XZ. The pressure on the plane XZ is, there- fore, R sin. 26°30'E.6145 PR” X .4385 =.2695 PR", which is the pressure in the direction YA . . . . . . (26) This agrees with (11). Elig. 2 A O \ B * * * * *~ 2 SS N * Let ABCD represent a cylinder with 514 WAN NOSTRAND’S ENGINEERING MAGAZINE. the axis vertical; r=radius, l-length. Let KO be the direction of the wind, and P any point on the surface. Let KOB-a, BOP= ? and KOP=6. Now cos. KOP=cos. KOB cos. BOP; or cos 6–cos. a cos. i. Hence, 1 2 cos.” 6 1 + 3 tan.* 6T2cos.”6+sin.”6 _o_cos.’a cos.” "I H-cos.”a cos.” =2(1– ! º 1 + cos.”a cos.” =2(1-#; 1 5) sin.” + (1+cos.’a) cos” The area of an elementary strip adja- cent to the element PP' is equal to plai. Hence the normal pressure =2N=27. Pl tº dź —t- ſ(a- sin” + (1+ wº). 2 × 2 g 1 —1 =47' P: *-ūTºi". Tr 2 — — tan. 7 | (1+cos.”a)%” ſo 77 1. . 77 =47' P(; T(1+cosº);4 #) 2 If a=0, 2N=7tr Pl (2– A/2)= = .5858 P7, r) (28) The average normal pressure is, there- fore, .5858 on each unit. - The pressure in the direction BO is, evidently 2H=2|Pri/ ( cos.7 dº — cos.; d. ); ~ IELT2 . 2 2. J 2 × 2 sin” + (1 + cos.”a)cos”/o 1 =4Prº/(a sini-g *& d sin. 7 1+cos.”a 2 ) g— —SIn.” GOS. Q, 4Prſ(sini 1 =4Prſ sin.”—3. (1+ cos.”a)% log (1+cos.”a)%+cos.a j; (I-Ecos.’a)×-cos.asin.” O 1 T2 cosa(1+cos.”a)% log. (1 + cos.”a)% + cos.a. (1+cos.”a)%—cos.a. ' If a = 0,2H=4 Prl (1 –sºog. vº +1 A/2–1 This is equivalent to .7536 P on each unit of the meridian plane. The lateral pressure, normal to the plane ABCD, is evidently, Y=2 Pri/ (sini dº — =4Pr(1 . (29) =.7536P × 2.7 (30) sin. de 1+sinºa cos.” =2 Pri/ (sini *-ºſ, sin.? dº 1 2 * H-, + COS. * * COS. "O, COS. Cº. –2 Prº —cos. 7– —1 T tan. COS. a cos.7 | = . O (31) —1 = 2 Pr(I *-*-* tan. cosa) (32) OS. Ct. If a =o, Y= Pr(2–3)=4292 Prſ. (33) This is equivalent to a pressure of .4292 P on each unit of the plane OBD. The shearing strain is given by (30), and is, H=1.5072 Prl. The moment of H about the foot of the supports is H (#r + h), h being the height of the supports. If the axis of the cylinder is horizontal, N and H are given as before, and Z, which is the same as Y in the preceding case, is given, of course, by equations (32) and (33.) Let {}= the angle between the direc- tion of the wind and the horizon. This is equal to the angle between H and the horizon, or Z and the vertical plane through the axis of the cylinder. The moment of H about the foot of the supports is therefore, H (; r + h) cos. ft. Let us consider a right cone standing upon its base. Let 29–the vertical angle of the cone. Let a = the angle between the direction of the wind and the normal to the axis, the angle being considered positive down- ward. - GENERAL DISCUSSION OF WIND PRESSURE. 515 a + v-the angle between the direction of the wind and the normal to the element of the cone on the windward side. Substituting this for a, and the convex surface of the cone for that of the cylin- der in eqs. (27), (29) and (32), we have, 2 - = 1. - -– 2N=} Parſ(? (1+cos.” (a + v) w) (34) 2H =2|P77 (1 - 1. T2cos. (a + v)[1+cos.”(a + v)]% (1+cos.”(a + v))%+cos. (a + ...) log. (1+cos.”(a + v))%—cos.(a + v)/ (35) Y=|Pººl - I 1 (1– cos(a IV)* COS. (a + o). (36) If the wind is horizontal, a = o, and the above equations become, 2 e — 1 - 2N= Pr(? (1+ ãº) º (37) 1 2H = 2 P, (l Tcoso (IEcosº) ;: log. (1+cos.”v)%+cos.v.) (1+cos.”v)%—cos.v.) (38) —1 Y=(1– 1 tan. COs. w) . (39) COS. Q) If a= –v, the wind is normal to the element of the cone on the windward side, and equations (34), (35) and (36), become, - 2N=}rrPl (2–vº (40) ºn=2p*(·-sºlº) (41) Y= } Pr(2–3) (42) These equations are just one half of equations (28), (30), and (33), as they ought to be, since the surface of the cone is one-half that of the cylinder. The moment of H about the foot of the supports is evidently M=H (; l-i-h) cos. a (43) Which becomes, M'-H (; l-Lh) when the wind is horizontal • * e e (44) If the apex is downward, equations (34)..... (39) apply by putting —w for v. —w however, gives the same results as + v in equations (37), (38), and (39), as it |ought to do. The moment of H is the Same as when the apex is uppermost, with #! substituted for $1. If the axis of the cone is horizontal, the same equations apply, as sufficiently explained with reference to the cylinder. It is evident that the equations apply directly to a frustum of a cone, the con- vex surface of the frustum being substi- tuted for the convex surface of the cone in the preceding equations. II. Let us suppose the pressure upon a unit of area of surface to be, P cos.7– sec. 7' i being the angle of incidence as before. Let us consider a hemispherical dome. Then the pressure on the band cdee'e' in Fig. 1 is • 7% o . . . . d N = P cos.; . #r. sin. i di = =% P7t r* cos.7 sin.ā dò . (45) ‘. N= —# Prº cos.” #= =}| PX47r,” =.7854 Prº (46) On the whole dome, 2N=}Pxzr". (47) The average normal pressure is there- fore equal to 4 P. - To FIND X. From (45), dx=dN cos.7– 4 Pºtr” cos.” sin. i di ... X=; Pzrrº ſcos.” sin.” di- — 1 Töſ Par(cos.' i)== Pzr". (48) and 2X= (49) Hence the X component of the press- ure is equivalent to a pressure of #P on each unit of the meridian plane YAZ. =#P37trº = #Pzrr°. TO FIND THE MOMENT AND THE POINT OF APPLICATION OF X. The moment of d’Yabout the point X is dM=dx. “co-ax ºr sini– t 71. 77: =Prº cos.” sin.” di. (50) ... M=Prs / (sin.” di—sin.” a)=Prº } º sin.icos.i.42 sin.” COS.2 ) . " Ø — 2 - 8 }. 71. — — Po. 3 T 16 Prs. (51) 516 VAN NOSTRAND’S ENGINEERING MAGAZINE. - . MI —1 Now;=3 2. – Sin. 22°1'27’’ giving the point of application. TO FIND THE VERTICAL COMPONENT Z. From (45) and the equations preceding (9), the vertical component of the press- ure on the band (52) 2 . . e tº e = d. Z==sini X #127trºcos.7 sin.i di = ==Prºcos.7 sin.” di. (53) ... Z= P," ſ sin.”icos.; di-3 Prº & te Tr } sin. 3 & H=yer. 2. and 27– (55) TO FIND THE MOMENT AND THE POINT OF APPLICATION OF Z. Moment of d Z=d M':=d Z cos.7– Pr3 cos.” sin.” di, which is the same as (50). Hence, M-#prº. MZ 37: and Z=1: Now the resultant, R=(X* +2Z')% =Pr"[(.5236)*4-2 (...)"]=Prº (.274156964-.22222222)}=.70454Pr". Also R'-[(2X)* + (2Z)*]}= (1.09662784-1-.44444444)}=1.2414 Prº. The angle between the two partial re- sultants is given by, X* .27415696 |X* + 2 Zº .49637918 —1 7’—.5897 — Sin. 36°5'20". cos. 6= = .55231 ... 6–56°28'28" and #= 28°14/14'' the angle the partial resultants make with the plane XZ. The pressure on the plane XZ is, there- fore, R sin. 28°14'14"=.70454Prºx.47312=} Prº–Z=Y, as before found. From (54) and (48) we have, 4–4 =63662=tan. 32°28'54” which is |X T 7: the angle the resultant makes with the plane XY. As other results, in the light of the above, are easily found, it is not neces- sary to extend this part of the subject. It is probable, too, that the former results agree more nearly with experiments than the latter. The latter results are always greater than the former, as I will now show; and so probably err on the Safe side. (56) cos ? 1 1. We have, ITT sec, ; TOIL tan.*i); 1 1 and 1+} tan.” T(1+tan.” +}tan.*i); We see that the above formulas meet, in general, every practical demand in refer- ence to domes and their supports. They apply, also to the parts of bridges, includ- ing suspension cables, ropes and wires for the transmission of power, telegraph wires, etc. Also to water tanks, stand pipes, chimneys, towers, columns, etc. The writer expects to deal still further with the general subject in a future article. n 4-2. (Azºzo. 4 - 44 °. 2 3 4.3.3 3.... /?/ ? 24. 4… SEWERAGE AND WATER-SUPPLY. DISC U S S I O N AT A SANITARY CONVENTION HELD AT LANSING, MICH., MARCH 19 AND 20, 1885. By ERWIN F. SMITH, of Lansing. [Reprinted from a Supplement to the Annual Report of the Michigan State Board of Health for the: g year 1885.] - * [Föeprint No. 231.] WATER-SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE. Iºrwin F. Smith, of Lansing —The cost of Sewering a city and of furnishing its inhabitants with an abundance of pure water for drinking and culinary purposes is usually Very great. The neces- Sities of the city may be urgent, but there is no likelihood of action on the part of the common Council or of the tax-payers until they are convinced of this. It must be shown that the need of Sewers and Water-supply is imperative, and, until it is thus shown, they have a right to confront the Sanitarian with their “Cui bono 2'' Sometimes, however, When the answer has been given in the clearest language, it has required the sterner logic of events, as at Memphis, Tenn., to arouse citi- Zens from their apathy and bring about wholesome sanitary action. The objections to sewerage and drainage arise in part from a consideration of the cost of such public Works, in part from the ignorance and indifference of a certain class of citizens to all sani. tary measures, and in part from the self-assurance of another class of Citizens, who are well- meaning and more or less intelligent, but who having never noticed any evils resulting from CeSS-pools, Vaults, and shallow wells, at once leap from their limited experience to a broad gener. alization, and counsel to “let well enough alone.” The sanitary engineer and the Sanitarian have met and refuted these objections times without number, and still there is need of line upon line and precept upon precept before this “class knowledge ' shall have become universal and uni- versally acted upon. In towns like this, cess-pits and privy-vaults are often very near shallow wells, and yet there is a general feeling of Security arising from the belief (1) that the water is good because it presents a good appearance, and (2) the Soil is a barrier through which filth cannot pass. Neither belief rests on a Solid foundation. The soil is often quite permeable, and drinking-water may become Seriously contaminated and totally unfit to drink, without injury to its taste or appearance. The permeability of the soil may arise from its loose texture, if it is sand or gravel; or, if it be imper- meable clay, from seams or faults in the stratum, or by reason of an inclination of the whole layer of clay downward toward the well. The position and thickness of the various layers of sand, gravel, and clay in our drift formation is extremely variable and we cannot always, or even gen- erally, draw satisfactory conclusions as to the continuity or thickness of layers of clay in one part of a town from excavations made in another part. Excavations may have shown that an imper- vious stratum of clay underlies your premises, but it does not follow that the layer is continuous under your neighbor’s lot, or across the street. The evidence is incontrovertible that a shallow, open well often drains a surface many rods in diameter. If the soil is Sandy or gravelly and much water be drawn from the well it may even drain a territory having a radius of many hundred feet. A case in point occurred in St. Louis, Mo., last year (1884), and is related by the Health Com- missioner, Gen. J. D. Stevenson. In the northern part of the city an attempt was made to disin- fect a filthy pond, known as Hogan's Quarry, by throwing copperas into it. Following this attempt, copperas appeared in all the wells for two blocks around. Later in the season the pond was filled with earth, and the rise of the water in the pond caused a corresponding rise of water in the wells. A recent writer is authority for the statement that a quantity of bitter medicine which had been thrown into a low spot leached through the Soil, and soon after made its appearance in a neighbor- ing well, the water tasting perceptibly of it. In Rochester, N. Y., according to Prof. S. A. Latti- more, “instances bave not been infrequent * #: * X: : * Where the digging of a new sewer or the deepening of an old one has drained dry the wells of whole neighborhoods, much to the public indignation. Why such a thing should occur, was a question unasked, or, if asked, not followed to its logical con clusión. In such cases the usual remedy has proved efficacious, to retaliate by deepening the wells and draining the sewer!” In the last Annual Report of the State Board of Health of N. Y., (1884) a case is mentioned where the lowering or rise of the waters in a canal exerted a perceptible influence on the water in a well half a mile distant. In the northern part of this city, some years since, I am told, a number of wells became dry soon after the laying of the Franklin street drain, their waters having presumably been drawn off into the drain. Occurrences of this Sort are not uncommon. Admitting, then, the permeability of the soil, is there not some property in the earth itself whereby organic substances like sewage are disinfected and rendered harmless 2 Dry earth has WATER-SUPPLY OF CITIES. 105 great absorbent power, and is well known as a valuable deodorizer. We also bury decaying sub- stances to prevent atmospheric contamination and for the express purpose of getting the sanitary action of the soil. To what extent, then, does the disintegrating and oxidizing power of the soil protect our wells from infection by neighboring sources of filth ? The answer will obviously depend upon the character of the soil, the amount of the filth, and the nearness of the well. The best charcoal filters cease to act as filters after a few months, and thereafter, instead of improving the percolating water, may even add to it some of the unoxydized Organic matter gathered from previous filtrations. What cannot be got from a charcoal filter must not be expected from an inferior filter like the soil. The experiments of Pumpelly and Smith (Relation of Soils to Health. Nat. Board of Health Report, 1881) prove conclusively that germs will filter uninjured through coiled tubes containing 100 feet of sand, and render it probable that the soil itself exerts little or no action on micro-organisms in the water or in other liquid which filters through it. While on the other hand, the destruction of these micro-organisms is the very point to be aimed at, since they are the really dangerous element in the filth, and the one Which it is vitally important to keep -Out Of Our food and drink. - The surface soil may at first by oxidation destroy the leachings from vaults, barnyards, and other sources of filth, but, if the percolation of such substances is constant, the soil, like the charcoal filter, will, after a time, cease to act on them. It then becomes saturated with filth, and passive, allowing poisonous organic matters to creep farther and farther into the subsoil. The contamination of the well-water is only a matter of time. Given on the same premises, or in the Same neighborhood, a shallow, open well, enough filth and Sufficient time, the defilement of the drinking-water is certain. It Would appear, then, that most of the wells in cities and Villages must be more or less contam- 1nated, and such, the chemists tell us, is the case. “Why, then, are we not all sick 2 ” “Why can we drink such water for years together with no bad results 2 ” “Does not this theory break down when tested by experience 2 ” “We are not sick, our neighbors are not sick; we have used this Water since we were children, and our fathers used it before us.” Such statements and such queries are heard on all sides when the question of sewers and water-supply is broached, and it is well to ask whether there is really any evidence that drinking-water may be the cause of serious Sickness; and, again, whether this is a common and widely prevalent cause of sickness, or only an infrequent and local cause. The evidence is not far to seek; to be convinced we need not go beyond our own language. The medical and sanitary literature of this country and England for the past twenty years teems with striking instances of sickness traced unmistakably to the use of drinking-water contaminated by Sewage. I need not refer to specific instances. The testimony Of experts—chemists, physicians, health officers, and Sanitarians—is a unit on this point. All agree that contaminated drinking-water is a fruitful source of cholera, typhoid fever, and other danger- Ous Communicable diseases. No amount Of negative evidence can offset the direct observations and positive Statements of Scientific men qualified to judge, That we have used bad water for years without contracting typhoid or cholera proves, at most, only that the germs of typhoid and cholera have mot found their way into our cess-pits, and thence into our wells. The way is open and it is simply our good fortune that they have not found it. As long as the soil poli ution goes On, So long the danger exists. Once introduce the germs of cholera or typhoid into our vaults and Cess-pits, and the multiplication of the dangerous ferment may go on rapidly and indefinitely. If, then, there be any oozing from these sources of filth into the subsoil water these microscopic organisms will almost certainly find their way, Sooner or later, into the drinking-water, and as Certainly cause sickness and death. The only Safety in the necessarily crowded condition of cities and villages, is to abandon shallow wells, and to do away entirely with vaults, cess-pits, and other sources of filth. All filth should be burned or removed from the premises as speedily as possible. The soil should at all times be kept perfectly clean, and on no account should excreta of any sort be thrown into the door-yard, or Stored in any vault or pit, to ferment and poison the air and the Soil. Every city and Village of any size should endeavor to secure sewerage and a proper water- Supply, but in their absence wells may be partly protected by the introduction of dry-earth clos etS,-well cared ſo?", and by Scrupulous attention to the cleanliness of the soil. Will such a course result in greater freedom from sickness 2 Reasoning a priori such should be the result, but we are not forced to depend upon deductive reasoning. What has experience shown 2 If the evidence is strong that a filthy soil and a contaminated water-supply are the cause of sickness and death, the evidence is still stronger that a clean soil and a pure water-supply pro- mote the public health. Cholera and typhoid fever are the two diseases which thrive best on a filthy soil, and in places where the drinking-water is infected with sewage. They die out in any Community as Soon as the Soil is made Clean and the water-supply pure. To learn how true this is we have but to look at the evidence which has been accumulating during the last forty years. When cholera Visited Glasgow, in 1849, the Sewerage was in a wretched Condition, and the drink- ing-water of the city, taken from the river Clyde, was known to be contaminated by Sewage. The disease found a suitable soil and spread, 10.6 in 1,000 of the inhabitants dying. The cholera again Vº 106 LANSING SANITARY CONVENTION, MARCH, 1885. Visited Glasgow in 1854. There had been little sanitary improvement, and again the scourge spread, 11.9 in 1,000 dying. The iron logic of dire events was not without its lesson. The Sewerage and drainage of the city was improved, and a pure water-supply, protected from the oozings of vaults and sewers, was brought from the beautiful and pure Loch Katrine. When cholera again visited Glasgow, in 1866, the city was in a much better sanitary condition and the disease Scarcely gained a foothold, only 68 dying out of a population of 425,000. The Glasgow fever record is quite as strik- ing. In the years when there was no sewerage, and no pure water-supply, the sicknesses and deaths from fevers were very numerous. According to Mr. Weile, the fever deaths in Glasgow for the five years, ending 1840, were 4,788, and the cases in the same period amounted to 55,949, being eVery fifth person in the city. With a population nearly double that of 1840, the fever deaths in Glasgow last year (1884) were only 239. In 19 out of 25 large English towns in which there had been marked effort at Sanitary improvement, consisting for the most part in improved sewerage and drainage and a better water-supply, Dr. Buchanan found that on an average the annual death-rate had fallen off 10.5 per cent subsequent to the improvements; and in 21 of these towns the typhoid death-rate had diminished over 45 per cent. Dr. Buchanan believes these towns have been ren- dered practically secure from the ravages of cholera, and this conclusion seems borne out by the fact that in recent years cholera has visited England very lightly. Quite as striking testimony comes from the continent. In Paris, where the sewers carry off only the rain-fall and a limited amount of the liquid filth, and where there are great numbers of cess-pits and contaminated shal- low wells, the annual typhoid death-rate has not been lower than 4 per 10,000 living during the past 20 years, and occasionally in epidemic years has been as high as 10, 14, and 23 per 10,000. In the last decade there has also been an increase rather than a decline in this enormous death-rate. In Munich, on the contrary, the typhoid death-rate has gradually fallen from an annual average of 18 per 10,000 living, in the 17 years, 1851–67, when there was no sewerage and little effort to keep the soil clean, to 1.7 per 10,000, in the four years 1881–84, during which time, by sewers and otherwise, there has been a systematic and continued effort to keep the soil clean. At Dantzic, the average annual death-rate from 1825 to 1868, prior to the introduction of water-supply and Sewerage, was 36.5 per 1,000 inhabitants. The water-supply was introduced in the year 1869, and the sewers, mod- eled after the English system, were completed in the year 1872. The Dantzic death-rate, from 1869 to 1871, with a good water-supply and imperfect sewerage, was 34.6; during the period 1872–83, With both sewerage and water-supply, it fell still lower, the average for the 12 years being 28.6 per 1,000 inhabitants. The typhoid death-rate has decreased still more notably—from 9.9 per 10,000 living in the 9 years (1863–71), when there were cess-pools under most of the houses, to 2.9 per 10,000 in the 12 years (1872–83), when the systems of sewerage and water-supply were complete. The record of other European cities is equally instructive. * Estimating the average population of Dantzic during the 12 years, 1872–83, at 90,000, and comparing the death-rate of that period (28.6) with the older death-rate of 36.5, we find an annual Saving of 711 lives in a city with about the population of Detroit—a saving certainly Worth the outlay of some thousands in sewers and water-conduits. I have computed the Saving of human life in a number of the well-sewered English cities, and find it has been equally great, ranging from 200 to 700 or more lives per year. On the basis of wages, Dr. Farr estimated the money Value of the life of an English farm laborer, after deducting the cost of his maintainance, at about $1,200.00, and the aver- age value of the entire population of Great Britain at $795.00. Taking as a basis this Computation, which is believed by many to be too low, it is an easy problem to determine the money Value to a city of a saving of 700 lives per year, and this credit account Will go far to balance any debit caused by public sewers and water-works. Human life has, however, more than a money value; it 8 Worth cannot be estimated in dollars and cents. In every community there are persons Whose lives and service could not be spared at any price, and yet who are permitted to fall victims to diseases which a clean soil and pure water would banish forever. Such facts merit thoughtful considera- tion, and in their light the proper sewerage and water-supply of a city seems to be not only a mat- ter of civic economy, but also an obligation which every community OWes to itS CitizenS, Prof. Howell asked the best way of purifying water. Mr. Smith replied: “Boil it.” EXAMINATION OF | STATIONARY ENGINEERS IN PHILADELPHIA. FROM PROCEEDINGS OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE 1884. —PART FIRST- - JOHN W. NYSTROM, 256 S. Ioth Street. PHILADELPHIA : EXAMINATION O STATIONARY ENGINEERS IN PHILADELPHIA. FROM PROCEEDINGS OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE. 1884. —PART FIRST- JOHN W. NYSTROM, 256 S. Ioth Street. PHILADELPHIA : 3 TO THE MEMBERS OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE. GENTLEMEN:— At the meeting of the Franklin Institute December 19th, 1883, a resolution was passed to the effect that the two reports, preamble and the amended proposed Ordinance with discussions thereon, concerning exam- ination of stationary engineers, should be printed and distributed among members of the Institute before the next (January) meeting. The Secretary of the Institute, thereupon, collected the necessary data of discussion for publication in the Journal with the reports and Ordinance, in ac- cordance with the resolution. The committee on pub- lication, however, decided that only the reports should be published, and to republish the originally proposed Ordinance which appeared in the November number of the Journal. The report upon the original Ordi- nance was lost by vote of the Institute, and the two reports read at the December meeting were upon the amended Ordinance, and thus the subject will be a little mixed in the Journal. In order to represent the subject in a proper and intelligible form to the members of the Institute I have decided to have it printed under my own direc- tion and at my own expense. It is to be hoped that the progressive members of the Institute will give their aid in recommending to the City Councils the passage of the proposed Ordi- nance for Examination of Stationary Engineers. Yours Respectfully, JOHN W. NYSTROM. 4 EXAMINATION OF STATIONARY ENGI- NEERS IN PHILADELPHIA. At the October meeting of the Institute, Mr. Nys- trom read a preamble and resolution concerning com- pulsory examination of stationary engineers in Phil- adelphia, as published in the November number of the Journal. On motion of Mr. Nystrom, to appoint a Committee of five, to consider and report upon the resolution, which was carried, the President of the In- stitute appointed Messrs. Washington Jones, Coleman Sellers, Jr., Thomas Hockley, C. M. Cresson and John W. Nystrom, Chm. At the November meeting of the Institute, a ma- jority of the Committee reported as follows: November 12th, 1883. The Committee to whom was referred the matter of memoralizing City Councils, on the subject of com- pulsory Examination of Engineers and Firemen re- port: That in their opinion City Councils have not power under existing Acts of Assembly to pass the ordinance proposed. WASHINGTON JONES, COLEMAN SELLERS, THOMAS HOCKLEY. The Chairman of the Committee declined to sign this report, on the ground that a Committee of the Franklin Institute should not give an opinion on law, which should be decided by the City Solicitor. The City Councils, however, have the power to pass the pro- posed Ordinance under existing Acts of Assembly. JOHN W. NYSTROM, Chm. 5 Mr. M. Eldridge moved the adoption of the major- ity report, but was lost by a small majority. Mr. Nystrom then moved to increase the Committee from five to seven, which was carried, and the Presi- dent accordingly, appointed Messrs. W. A. Ingham and Wm. Helm, on the Committee. At the meetings of the Committee, two of its mem- bers were strongly opposed, and raised many objec- tions to compulsory examination of engineers, and in order to remove these objections the Chairman of the Committee considered it necessary to amend the pro- posed Ordinance as follows: - (Read at the Meeting of the Institute, Dec. 19th, 1883.) To the President and Members of the Franklin Institute. GENTLEMEN: PREAMBLE. Whereas, The City of Philadelphia has suffered a great many disastrous steam boiler explosions, which could have been prevented by proper precautions; and Whereas, There are now in use in the City of Phil- adelphia, some six hundred boilers, which have dan- gerous flat cast-iron heads and other defects; and Whereas, Any one of these boilers is liable to explode at any moment, if in charge of an incompe- tent attendant; and Whereas, Such a great number of dangerous steam boilers cannot reasonably be removed without great in- convenience and expense to the owners of these boilers; and - Whereas, It is known that the explosions of this class as well as of other classes of boilers, have been caused by incompetent attendants; and - 6 Whereas, It is of equal importance to examine stationary Engineers as it is to examine steamboat Engineers, for the reason that human life is as pre- cious on land as on water; and Whereas, It has been demonstrated by explosions, that the object of steam-boiler inspection cannot be rendered effective without competent attendants; and Whereas, It has been proven by experience, that it is necessary to examine steamboat Engineers in order to render steam-boiler inspection effective ; and Whereas, It would be of great advantage to the city of Philadelphia, as well as to the steam-users therein, in regard to safety and economy in the work- ing of steam-engines and boilers, to elevate stationary Engineers by examination and grade, to the level of steamboat Engineers; be it RESOLVED, That the Mayor and Councils of the city of Phila- delphia, be respectfully requested by the Franklin Institute, to pass an Ordinance to the following effect, viz: Supplement to an Ordinance of July 13th, 1868, enti- #/ed an Ordinance requilating the inspection of Steam- Boilers, in and for the city of Philadelphia, Pennsyl- vania. - Section I.-The Select and Common Councils of the city of Philadelphia, do ordain, That from and after the 1st day of January, 1884, all Engineers and Fire- men who have charge of stationary steam-engines, and steam-boilers, operated in the city of Philadel- phia, shall apply to the City Chief Boiler Inspector for certificate of competency as hereinafter provided. 7 Section 2–The City Chief Boiler Inspector is hereby authorized and required to designate the time and place when and where all applicants for certifi- cates shall be entitled to apply for examination, and shall receive certificates if found to be competent and of good standing. For this purpose, the said City Inspector shall sit at least once a month. Section 3.——That the said City Inspector shall have an assistant Examiner, whose duty shall also be to keep records of qualification and standing of each sta- tionary Engineer and Fireman who holds a certificate of competency, and that each candidate shall be exam- ined by both the said City Inspector and his assistant Examiner, and both sign the certificate if found to be competent. Section 4.—That the said City Inspector shall issue certificates of five different classes, namely as follows: First-class certificate shall be issued to any station- ary Engineer who has been continually in charge of the working of engines and boilers for a term of not less than ten years, and can pass a thorough exami- nation in the practical management and care of sta- stationary steam-engines and steam-boilers; in the rudiments of the sciences involved in his profession, such as elements of mechanics; properties of water and steam in relation to heat; properties of different kinds of coal in relation to combustion and its econ- omy; in the construction and properties of differenn kinds of stationary engines and boilers; in the prop- erties and uses of steam indicators and indicator dia- grams; and in the principal causes and prevention of steam-boiler explosions. Any candidate who is found by examination to be worthy of a first-class 8 certificate, shall be distinguished thereon as Chief Engineer. Second-class certificate shall be issued to any station- ary Engineer who has been continually in charge of the working of stationary steam-engines and steam- boilers for a term of not less than five years, and can pass a thorough examination in the practical manage- ment and care of stationary steam-engines and steam- boilers, including the taking of and working out indicator diagrams, and in the principal causes of steam-boiler explosions. Third-class certificate shall be issued to any station- ary Engineer who has been continually in charge of the working and care of stationary steam-engines and steam-boilers for a term of not less than two years, and can pass a thorough examination in the practical management and care of such engines and boilers, and in the principal causes of steam-boiler explosions. Fourth-class certificate shall be issued to any appli- cant whom the Examiners find competent to take charge of stationary engines and boilers, of horse- power not exceeding that which shall be stated on the certificate. Fifth-class certificate shall be issued to any Fireman whom the Examiners find competent to take charge of steam-boilers used for heating purposes in manufac- turing establishments where no steam-engine is used. Section 5.-For these certificates, each party receiv- ing the same, shall pay a fee, as follows: 9 First-class certificate, five dollars. Second-class certificate, four dollars. Third-class certificate, three dollars Fourth-class certificate, two dollars. Fifth-class certificate, one dollar. Section 6–All moneys collected as fees by said City Inspector for aforesaid certificates, shall be paid over to the City Treasurer, and the City Controller shall audit the accounts annually. : . Section 7–That during the first six months of the year 1884, the time in which this Ordinance shall be brought into full effect, those stationary Engineers and Firemen who are well known to the said City Inspector, or to his assistant Inspectors or Examiners, to be competent and of good standing, may receive a third, fourth or fifth-class certificate without examina- tion, but after the expiration of said six months, that is, on or after the first day of July, 1884, every appli- cant must be thoroughly examined as aforesaid, be- fore receiving a certificate of competency. - - Section 8–That on and after the first day of J uly, 1884, all stationary steam-engines and steam-boilers operated in the city of Philadelphia, shall be run, and in charge of only such stationary Engineers as shall be furnished with proper certificate of compe- tency as before provided. - - - Section 9.—That when any Engineer or Fireman who has received a certificate, is afterwards found to be incompetent or negligent in his duty, the said City Inspector may cancel and revoke such certificate, and he may, by re-examination, issue to such Engineer or Fireman another certificate, but of a lower class to an Engineer. 10 Section 10–That the said City Inspector shall re- fuse to grant certificate of inspection to any party who shall maintain or keep in use or in operation any stationary steam-engine or steam-boiler within said city of Philadelphia, which shall not be in charge of an Engineer duly furnished with a certificate of com- petency as aforesaid. Section 11–That whenever the said City Inspector shall learn of any stationary steam-engine or steam- boiler being operated within said city of Philadelphia, otherwise than by an Engineer duly qualified and fur- nished with a certificate as aforesaid, he shall forth- with cancel and revoke his certificate of inspection. Section 12–That the certificate of inspection held by any steam-user who shall attempt to operate a steam-engine or steam-boiler, without the care of an Engineer furnished with a proper certificate of com- petency, shall be deemed and adjudged forfeited, and such steam-user shall be subject to all the pains and penalties provided by the Act of Assembly of May 7th, 1864. Section 13.—That nothing in this. Ordinance shall be so construed as to render the city of Philadelphia responsible for any damage caused by steam-boiler explosion, or other accident occurring from neglect or incompetency of any Engineer or Fireman who may have passed his examination, and received a certifi- cate of competency from the proper authorities. Section 14.—All Ordinances or parts of Ordinances inconsistent herewith, are hereby repealed. 11 MAJORITY REPORT. To the President and Members of the Franklin Institute. GENTLEMEN:— Your Committee to whom was referred the resolu- tion, relating to the “Examining and licensing of Engineers, by a Board to be appointed by the City Authorities,” presented at the meeting held October 17th, 1883, respectfully report: It is not advisable to ask for the passage of an or- dinance, requiring persons who have charge of engines, to pass an examination, and be licensed by a Board. Such an Ordinance would be in restraint of liberty, and should never be enacted, unless a free system is intolerable, or unless the reasons for restraint are shown to be overwhelming. Every security possible should be extended to life and property, but the un- dersigned are of the opinion that the proposed ordi- nance would not tend to increase it, for the following I’ea,SOI).S. First. The qualifications of an engineer, as sobriety, watchfulness, application to his duties, and a know- ledge of the machine under his care, cannot be deter- mined by a Board of examiners, but can be as now - by his employer. Second. As the examinations must necessarily be upon the same few points, it might be possible for in- competent candidates to become possessed improperly, of the correct answers to the questions, and conse- quently receive a license without possessing the qual- ifications of an engineer. Third. The passage of such an ordinance would cre- 12 ate a privileged class of men with power to fix their Own Wages, regardless of the value of the service ren- dered, and as proprietors would be compelled by law to employ only those having a license, it would assist in extending an odious feature of Trade's unionism. Fourth. Should loss of life or damage to property be caused by an exploding boiler, whilst in charge of an engineer licensed by municipal authority, it is a question whether the responsibility would not be re- moved from the proprietors and placed upon the City, Fifth. It is not within the scope of an Institution, formed for the promotion of the Mechanic Arts, to recommend or induce legislation upon matters not re- lating to its purpose. - WASHINGTON JONES, WM. HELME, COLEMAN SELLERS, Jr., - - C. M. CRESSON, M. D. I concur in the above report except as to paragraphs, Nos. 4 and 5. THOMAS HOCKLEY. DISCUSSION ON THE MAJORITY REPORT By MR. NYSTROM. The preamble of the majority report says, that “the proposed Ordinance would be a restraint on liberty, and should not be enacted unless a free system is intolerable.” All laws and ordinances are restraints on liberty, like those of the steam-boiler inspection, and the examination of steamboat Engineers, which have pro- ven to be tolerable. - The five reasons given in the majority report for not examining Engineers, are weak and untenable. 13 First reason.--That the employer is the proper person to examine his Engineer, is equivalent to a Captain on a steamboat being the proper person to examine his Engineer. Most employers would be glad to be relieved from the responsibility of examining the competency of an applicant for position as Engineer. A stubborn employer who has reached perfection in steam-engineering, as is the case with one of the sign- ers of the majority report, who can take a farmer and make an Engineer of him in three hours, and who maintains that any Engineer is competent, without examination, to take charge of any engine under 5000 horse-power, should not be entrusted with authority to examine Engineers, but such pretenders should be governed by wholesome laws for the security of life and property. There is nothing in the proposed Ordinance which prevents an employer from examining his Engineer, nor from discharging him if not sober and watchful. . Second reason.—“That the examination must neces- sarily be upon the same few points, and that an incom- petent candidate may pass the examination.” This assertion proves that none of the signers of the majority report has ever passed an examination as steam-engineer, for if they had, they could never endorse such an irrational statement. Third reason.—“That the proposed Ordinance would create a privileged class who would fix their own wages, and make odious trade unions.” The locomotive Engineers are not licensed, but they form trade unions and strike. The steamboat Engin- eers are licensed, and do not form trade unions, nor do they strike. Stationary Engineers have formed themselves into an association without license of com- 14 petency, and they can strike without license, and even fix their wages without license. The Constitution of the National Association of Stationary Engineers of the United States of America, says:— “This Association shall at no time be used for the furtherance of strikes, or in any way interfering be- tween its members and their employers in regard to wages, recognizing the identity of interests between employer and employee; not countenancing any pro- ject or enterprise that will interfere with perfect har- mony between them ; neither shall it be used for political or religious purposes.” There has been no attempt of stationary Engineers to form trade unions, nor to strike, and their different positions and wages are too varied for that purpose. Fourth reason.—“Should loss of life or damage to property be caused by explosions, the city might be held responsible therefor.” This is provided for by Section 12 in the proposed Ordinance. The City, however, would be equally responsible for such losses by the Ordinance regula- ting steam-boiler inspection, and the United States for explosions on steamboats. Fifth reason.—“That it is not within the scope of the Franklin Institute, to recommend legislation in matters not relating to its purpose.” The Franklin Institute bears a Charter as an Insti- tution for the promotion of Mechanic Arts, and the examination of Engineers bears directly upon that subject. Some years ago, the Franklin Institute passed a resolution to influence Congress, in regard to strength of steam boilers, which was proper; but 15 at another time it passed a resolution to influence Congress to establish a colony near the North Pole, which had nothing to do with promotion of Mechanic Arts. The fact is, that the Franklin Institute is the most proper Body of authority for recommending the proposed Ordinance to the City Councils for its pas- Sage. The passage and enforcement of the proposed Ordi- nance would soon create a very intelligent and reli- able class of Stationary Engineers in Philadelphia, of whom steam users would reap the greatest benefit. The waste of fuel, wear and tear of engines and boilers, and risk of steam boiler explosions, are generally very great, when in charge of incompetent attendants, ex- amples of which are frequently published in periodi- cals, particularly in the “Locomotive.” One of the most eminent members of the Franklin Institute believes that the passage of the proposed ordinance would enable a schoolboy to pass the exam- ination as engineer! Those who oppose the passage of the Ordinance for examining Engineers, naturally do so, because they cannot see the utility of it. - It has been stated to the Chairman of this Com- mittee, by three or four eminent members of the Franklin Institute, each one being a steam-user, that “I have the most competent and reliable Engineer that can be found in Philadelphia, but he cannot pass an examination,” and that he (the steam-user) “can- not afford to lose such a good man, by the passage of the proposed Ordinance.” It is provided by Section 7 in the proposed Ordi- nance, that such a good Engineer may receive a cer- 16 tificate without examination, and we can expect that the examiners will be men of sound judgment who would not refuse a certificate to a competent man. MINORITY REPORT. PHILADELPHIA, Nov. 19, 1883. To the President and Members of the Franklin Institute. GENTLEMEN: The special Committee to whom was referred the preamble and resolution, in the matter of petitioning the Mayor and Councils of the City of Philadelphia, to pass an Ordinance for examining Stationary Engi- neers and Firemen, respectfully REPORT: That the Committee is of the opinion that it would be of great advantage to the City of Philadelphia, as well as to steam-users therein, in regard to safety and economy in the working of stationary steam engines and steam boilers, to create a spirit of emulation among Stationary Engineers and Firemen, by class- ing them into grades by strict examination. The Committee also believes that the examination of Stationary Engineers is of equal importance to that of steam boiler inspection, and to the examination of steamboat engineers, and that it would be expedient to enforce strict examinations of all Stationary Engi- neers in the State of Pennsylvania, by an Act of AS- sembly. - - - - - - 17 According to the Census Report of 1883, there are 7,913 steam engines, aggregating 512,408 horse-power, in the State of Pennsylvania. - There are about 1,700 Engineers in charge of sta- tionary steam engines and steam boilers, in the city of Philadelphia, of whom only 250 Engineers have certificates of competency. The originally proposed Ordinance, published in the November number of the Journal, was found to be defective, and incomplete for fully attaining its high purpose, and it has therefore been amended, in hope that the Institute will approve its recommendation to the City Councils for adoption. . The City Councils have full power under the exist- ing Act of Assembly, to pass the proposed Ordinance, as will be seen by the following: The Act of Assembly of May 7, 1864, for regulating steam boiler inspection, says on page 880, Pamphlet Laws. - - “Section 3.—The Councils of the city of Philadel- phia, shall have power to make all needful rules and regulations, for the purpose of carrying the foregoing provisions into effect, and shall provide such other regulations, as may be necessary to carry into effect the provisions of this Act, and they may provide for the performance of the duties hereinbefore enjoined, by deputies, or other assistants of said Inspector, as they may deem necessary.” - This section is very clear, namely, that the proposed Ordinance for examining Engineers, is one of “such other regulations which is found to be necessary for carrying steam boiler inspection into effect;” for, if the steam boiler is in charge of an incompetent attend- 18 ant, the inspection is of no use, as has been proven by explosions of inspected boilers. The City Councils have already passed an Ordi- nance similar to the proposed one, namely, that of July 13, 1868, for regulating steam boiler inspection, which says, page 331: Section 4.—If at any time the Inspector shall deem the Engine-driver incompetent or unreliable, he may withhold or withdraw his certificate (of inspection). The Inspector shall report to a Magistrate, and have bound over for trial, any person or persons who may have rendered themselves liable by infraction of any provision of this Ordinance, as provided in Section 4, of the Act of Assembly of May 7, 1864.” The question here arises, how can the Inspector find out if an Engineer is incompetent without having first examined him? Or, is the Inspector to wait until the Engineer has committed some blunder, and caused steam boiler explosions with destruction of life and property, before considering him incompetent? When the City Councils have power to pass the Or- dinance of July 13, 1868, with the section 11, then they have also power to pass the proposed Ordinance for examining Engineers. - The Committee object to the use of the term “Engine- driver” as improper, for the reason that it is the steam which drives the engine and not the Engineer. The question with the Franklin Institute in this matter, is not that of law, which is for the City Coun- cils to ask the City Solicitor, but whether or not it would be expedient for the City Councils to pass the proposed Ordinance, for in case they had not the 19 power to pass it, such could readily be obtained by an Act of Assembly. With the above considerations, the Committee re- spectfully recommend that the Franklin Institute will take this forward step in the advancement of steam Engineering, namely to adopt this report, and sub- mit it in full, with the preamble and resolution to the City Councils with recommendation for the passage of the proposed Ordinance for examining stationary Engineers and Firemen. - JOHN W. NYSTROM, Chm. The minority report was discussed pro and con, as follows: Remarks by Mr. Le Van. MR. PRESIDENT:— Before action is taken on the motion to adopt either of the reports, I would call the attention of the mem- bers to the fact that a recommendation to the Council of Philadelphia, similar in substance to the minority report was made in 1867, by a special committee ap- pointed by this Institute, and approved by the Insti- tute at large. Therefore I hope we will not stultify ourself by a hasty action this evening. MR. PRESIDENT:— I move that both reports be printed so that mem. bers can have an opportunity of examining them carefully so as to vote intelligently, and that this matter be made a special order at our January Meeting. The motion was not seconded. Remarks by Mr. N. W. Williams. 20 Mr. President, I hope that the majority report will not be accepted, as the move taken by the Committee is a Very important one, one that is calculated to do more for the prevention of boiler explosions and the educa- tion of engineers than has ever been introduced by the Franklin Institute for twenty years; and I think the Franklin Institute has a right to move in such an important matter, they have been the first movers in all that pertains to the inspection of boilers at the present time and they are the recognized authority on all such subjects, and stand at the head of the profess- ion to-day, and if they are not to suggest the improve- ments, what body of men are more capable; the in- spection of boilers is of no use without the qualifying of the engineer or fireman that has it in charge; all the inspection that can possibly be applied to a steam boiler will never prevent an explosion when handled ignorantly, and it is a well established fact that there never has been a boiler explosion that has occurred in the city of Philadelphia for twenty years, that has not been the result of mal-construction and ignorance; and I feel confident that if the minority report of the committee be adopted, it will accomplish more in a way of preventing boiler explosions, and the educa- tion of engineers than has ever yet been accomplished; and I know that it is the wish of the intelligent engi- neers of the country that they be classified, and the classifying of the engineer has the tendeney to edu- cate all engineers, and I know it is the wish of many of our largest manufacturers, I know it was so in my own case. Twenty years ago I passed an examination as a first class engineer, and after passing the exami- 21 nation I felt the deficiency, and I immediately com- menced to look around for some higher authority to educate myself, and there being nothing higher in au- thority on the subject I joined the Franklin Institute for no other reason but to perfect myself in steam en- gineering; but there is no inducement to-day for an engineer to educate himself, for any one can get a cer- tificate as an engineer without passing any examina- tion whatever, merely a recommendation from his em- ployer as an engineer; a man that has fired a boiler for six months can get the same certificate as the best the- oretical and practical engineer in the city, and I hope that the minority report of the Committee appointed by the Franklin Institute be accepted, and if adopted by the City Council will make the inspection of steam boilers and the prevention of steam boiler explosions as near perfection as human intelligence can devise. Remarks by Mr. Coleman Sellers, Jr. In reply to Mr. W. B. Levan, Mr Sellers said: “I think that the Institute could without inconsistency approve the law of 1868, governing Boiler Inspection, and yet refuse to countenance the proposed ordinance, for the reason that there is an essential difference be- tween the provisions of the two measures. One permits the granting of licenses to Engineers the other would compel every Engineer to have a li- cense. As the law now stands the Chief Inspector may grant a license or certificate to any suitable applicant, and in practice he does so, but only af. ter the applicant has passed a satisfactory examina- tion, and the Inspector has found by personal inquiry 22 from former employers and others, that the man bears a good character for honesty, industry and sobriety. And I maintain that a license or certificate thus awarded is of inore value than one based simply on an office examination.” - . - “As the law now stands any employer who desires it may require his engineers to produce the certificate of the Boiler Inspector; and in my judgment the pres- ent law covers the case so nearly that it would not be wolth while to tamper with it, and especially would it be injudicious to impose additional and onerous re- strictions upon steam users.” - Remarks by Mr. Wm. Heline. I, also, as a member of the committee like Mr. Jones endeavored to ascertain who it is that asks for the passage of such an ordinance, and have failed to find any one but Mr. Nystrom, and he denies being the originator of it and declines to say who is. If such an ordinance is passed and there is law to enforce it, a great wrong will be done every owner of a steam engine in the city, and many worthy men who are employed in running them thrown out of employment. - - Take for instance my own case, which is but one of hundreds like it. When we put in an engine there was in our employ a young man who had been raised on a farm. He was not a mechanic of any kind and worked for low wages, but was eminently trustworthy and reliable. - We put the engine and boiler into his charge with instructions how to manage them, keeping our eye 2 * O • D upon him, and thus to see how he would make out. In a short time we became satisfied he was as good a man as we wanted for that purpose, and raised his wages to two and a half dollars a day. We have never had cause to regret our action, and he is still with us, and yet, if this ordinance should go into effect, and there is law to enforce it, we would have to discharge him and put in his place a man of whom we know nothing, except that he has a license from a Board of Examiners that we know as little of as we do of him. Were it possible to carry out such an ordinance as asked for by Mr. Nystrom, it would place the running of all the steam engines of this vast city in the hands of a few men, creating the strongest trades union that ever existed—a thing which this Institute should have no part in establishing. The plea of “better security to life,’ ble reason given for asking this thing. I contend that the Boiler Inspection Law affords all the protection any reasonable person can ask, and if we have not availed ourselves of its features let us ask City Counsel to amend the ordinance and take them in. There is no reason why the engine should be in- cluded with the boiler, for in the latter only, does the danger centre and lie, and if the water is kept right and the safety valve not tampered with, and the Boiler Inspector's instructions followed, there is little danger to be apprehended and as an evidence of this would call your attention to the small number of Boiler explosions that have occurred since the Inspec- tion ordinance got into fair working order. I have no quarrel with Steam Engineers, and if 5 is the ostensi- 24 they think an Examining Board will improve them, I say, let them have one, but what I protest against is their compelling me to employ one of their members When I am perfectly satisfied with the man we have in the place which one of them would be entitled to under such an ordinance. Mr. Washington Jones remarked as follows. MR. PRESIDENT:— I will supplement the remarks of Mr. Sellers by stating that every one likely to be interested in this matter, Steam-users and makers of boilers and en- gines, to whom I have spoken, object to the passage of such an ordinance as being unnecessary and an unwarranted restriction upon them. Mr. Nystrom said that the fearful boiler explosion at Gaffney & Co’s dye-works, June 1st, 1881, was caused by an incompetent attendent throwing cold water on a hot flat cast-iron boilerhead, and there have been many such accidents which could have been pre- vented by licensed engineers. Mr. Jones replied as follows. MR. PRESIDENT: I ask but a few minutes to correct the remark of Mr. Nystrom. The engineer was out to dinner at the time of that explosion and the boiler was in charge of a substitute, and the circumstance has there- fore no bearing upon the advisability of licensing engineers. (The substitute which Mr. Jones refers to was Dennis Scully, who was the regular attendant to the 25 boilers and had no license of competency. The licensed engineer, Mr. Armstrong, who formerly had charge of the boiler was discharged from the Dye Works about a week before the explosion occurred, and Mr. Scully took his place. The circumstance has therefore a direct bearing upon the advisability of licening engineers.-NYSTROM.) - On motion by Mr. Le Van, the subject was made the special order for the next January Meeting of the Institute. - Mr. Nystrom moved that the two reports, preamble and the amended proposed Ordinance with discussions thereon, be printed for distribution to the members before the next meeting. Carrried. - KEYSTONE COUNCIL, NO. 1, STATIONARY ENGINEERS OF PENSYLVANIA PHILADELPHIA, January 5th, 1884. John W. NYSTROM, ESQ. - DEAR SIR:—I understand that the greatest opposition to Engineers being licensed is, that they will strike for high wages. By licensing Engineers, it will be to the contrary, for there is no set wages in this city, nor any other. I know there are Engineers getting $20.00 per week for running elevator-engines on Market Street, and others who run large engines, and burn 4, 5 and 6 tons of coal per day, receiving $12.00 and $14.00 per week. The only strike that there will be among Engineers, if there is a law passed licensing them, will be a grand strike after knowledge, which we all know we are greatly in need 26 of. We will then set our minds to work to find out what “Steam Engineering” is, which, to-day, we do not know ; and why, if we know how to start an engine, throw coal on a fire, and pour oil on bearings, We call ourselves Engineers, when really we do not know the first rudiments. Who has to decide all the improvements in steam-engineering, why the Engin- eer; and no matter how well a machine is constructed, if the Engineer has not got intelligence, he will de- stroy it in a short time. How many engines have been destroyed by Engineers being incapable? The most intelligent man in the manufactory should be the Engineer, for he holds the lives of all in his hands. How many Engineers to-day, favor Plain Slide Valve Engines to an Expansion Engine? I can answer fully eight-tenths, and simply because they do not know what an Expansion Engine is, nor what expansion means. They tell you they set a slide-valve once and it is set for years, and the Expansion Engine is too complicated, and they cannot understand it, nor will they ever learn, unless by compulsion. A few years back, the Indicator was only in the hands of experts; to-day, the intelligent Engineer buys one for himself, and we may thank City Councils for trying to pass a License Law, for the use so many Engineers have made of their spare time. There was not one in twenty who could calculate a safety-valve when City. Inspector Lovegrove took his office, and started licensing Engineers, which at the time he thought was lawful. Give us a License Law, and I am satisfied in five years' time, it will be a pleasure to visit Engineers and their engine-rooms. 27 Hoping you God-speed in your License Law, I Remain, Respectfully Yours, GEO. F. PEIFER. Before this form went to press, a letter was received from the Secretary of the Institute, stating in sub- stance that the Committee on Publication has upon reconsideration decided to publish the amended Or- dinance, and that it would not be necessary for me to publish the same. . As I have the matter ready for the press, and can- not depend upon the Committee on Publication to represent the subject fully and properly, this pamph- let is respectfully submitted to the members of the Institute. JOHN W. NYSTROM. 22. & * ~~ ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, U. S. ARMY. ON THE USE OF THE BAROMETER ON SURVEYS AND RECONNAISSANCES PEING A COMPENDIUM, WITHOUT PLATES, OF NO. 15 OF THE PROFESSIONAL PAPERS OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERs. BY LIEUT, GOL, R, S, WILLIAMSON, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, U. S. A. W A S H IN G T O N : Gov E R N M E N T P R IN TI N G of F 1 C E. 18 7 S. ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, U. S. ARMY. * …A . … - . * - : * ~, 2 . ~~~~ ON THE USE OF THE BAROMETER ON SURVEYS AND RECONNAISSANCES, BEING A COMPENDIUM, WITHOUT PLATES, OF NO. 15 OF THE PROFESSIONAL PAPERS OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS. BY . -** . -- * . . . *...* LIEUT, GOL, R, S, WILLIAMSON, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, U. S. A. W AS EI IN G T ON : “G O V E R N M E N T P R IN TI N G O FF I C E . 1878. OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS, Washington, D. C., August 7, 1878. SIR : Lieut. Col. R. S. Williamson, Corps of Engineers, has submitted to this office a compendium (without plates) of his paper “On the use of the Barometer,” &c., Professional Papers, Corps of Engineers, No. 15. This condensed work contains most of the information to be found in the larger one, with a few tables which are new, the result of further investigation of the subject. As this compendium will be very useful and convenient to officers conducting barometric reconnaissances, I have the honor to recommend that it be printed at the Government Printing Office, and copies furnished upon the usual requi- sition. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, H. G. WRIGHT, Acting Chief of Engineers. Hon. GEO. W. MCCRARY, Secretary of War. Approved. By order of the Secretary of War. H. T. CROSBY, Chief Clerk. WAR DEPARTMENT, August 10, 1878. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., April 30th, 1878. GENERAL : I have the honor to submit for your consid- eration a condensed copy of my work on meteorology and hypsometry, thinking that a small volume of this kind can easily be carried in the field and be usefully employed there, while the original work with its plates is not in a conven- ent form for that purpose. This little work contains most of the information to be found in the larger one, but I have added a few tables which are new, the result of further in- vestigation of the subject. - In the concluding remarks I have compared the methods of treating meteorological observations with that of Prof. J. D. Whitney as described in his work entitled “Contributions to Barometric Bypsometry,” and have shown conclusively that there are over forty per cent. more of maximum and mean errors by his method than by mine. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, R. S. WILLIAMSON, Lieutenant Colonel of Engineers. Brig. Gen. A. A. HUMPHREYs, Chief of Engineers, U. S. A. T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S . INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------ Instruments and methods for determining altitudes—The mel- curial and aneroid barometers compared—The barometric formula—The scales in plotting observations. HORARY AND ABNORMAL OSCILLATION -------------------------. Their periods—Horary corrections—Reduction to level—Re- duction to second level—Rules—Observations—Hourly and at intervals compared—Effect of season, altitude, and lati- tude on horary oscillation—Law of oscillation. VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE ---------------------------------- Comparison of barometric and thermometric oscillations— Elimination of effects of temperature—Mean daily temper- ature—Comparisons. HYPSOMETRICAL RESULTS FROM DAILY MEANS. . . . . . . . .----...--. CONCLUDING REMARKS ---------------------------------------- Professor J. D. Whitney's method—Comparison of Whitney's and Williamson's methods. 15 30 38 43 45 L I S T O H' T A B L E S. TABLE I.—Showing the difference between the mean barometrie pressure in the different months as obtained from the mean of 24 hourly observations, and observations at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m., the former being assumed as the standard -----. TABLE II.-Showing the difference between the daily mean baro- metric pressure as obtained from the mean of 24 hourly obser- vations, and from corrected observations at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., 9 p.m., and 7 a.m. the next morning; and also between the first and those obtained from observations at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m., the first being assumed as the standard - - - - - - - - - TABLE III.-Showing the difference between the monthly mean barometric pressure as computed from observations at 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m., and 6 a.m., noon, and 6 p.m., the former being used as a standard----------------------------------- TABLE IV.-Showing the difference between the mean tempera- ture in the different months as obtained from the mean of 24 hourly observations, and those taken at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m., the former being assumed as the standard. ... --- • * * * TABLE V.—Showing the difference between the monthly mean temperatures as computed from observations at 7 a.m., 2 p. m., and 9 p.m., and 6 a.m., noon, and 6 p.m., the former be- ing used as a standard------------------------------------- TABLE VI.-Consolidated table of maximum errors in computing differences of altitude from daily barometric and thermo- metric Imeans - - - - - -. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * > * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * © e º 'º º TABLE VII.-Consolidated table of mean errors in computing dif- ferences of altitude from daily barometric and thermometric DO €3 D S - - - - - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * º e & TABLE VIII.-Comparison of barometric results by Professor Whit- ney's and Colonel Williamson's methods, from observations taken at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m., during 10 days of Au- gust, 1860 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . . Page. 22 35. 37. 41 42. 49 INTRODUCTION. To the large number of engineers, surveyors, and others, who are and will be engaged in developing the geography of this country, so large a portion of which is almost un- known or but partially explored, the best method of treating observations of the barometer and thermometer, so as to obtain the most reliable results in determining differences of altitude, is a matter of the first importance. It is well known that the mercurial cistern barometer is the best in- Strument for that purpose, for the reason that the spirit- level is out of the question, except within very limited areas, the length of time and amount of labor required for its proper use being far greater than can be devoted to the determination of the vertical element on an ordinary sur- vey. The only instrument, that can be mentioned as at all to be compared with the cistern-barometer is the handy aneroid, the defects of which, however, as compared with the mercurial instrument, are so great as to preclude its being used as a substitute for the latter. Besides the fact that the aneroid is not susceptible of reading closer than one-hundredth of an inch, while the mercurial cistern can be read to one-thousandth, the great defect that it is liable at any time to change its zero, particularly in travelling, with- out there being any evidence to show that a change has Occurred, makes the instrument entirely unreliable on a survey of any extent. The mercurial cistern barometer is, then, the only instrument that can be used with any satisfac. tion for hypsometrical purposes, and the following few pages will be devoted to show the best method of using it with its accompanying Open air thermometer. 12 I may remark, in the first place, that whenever the read- ings of the barometer are referred to in the following pages, those of the barometer reduced to 320 Fahrenheit are meant. In the barometric formula of Iaplace and others, a term has been introduced to take into account the effect of the ex- pansion and contraction of the mercurial column by heat, in order to reduce the readings to what they would have been had the temperature of the instrument been always at the freezing point. But it is equally accurate and much more convenient to reduce each reading in the first place to the freezing point by the tables which have been pre- pared for the purpose. By adopting this course, the column so reduced, when plotted, shows the movements of a natural atmosphere, and their peculiarities can be studied with advantage; whereas the readings of the barometer not so reduced give so irregular a curve, the movements being Imasked by the ever-varying temperature of the instrument, that it is scarcely possible to discover any law guiding them, if such a law exists. I also wish to point out that, unless special mention is made to the contrary, the formula used in the computations is the one found in Professional Papers of the Corps of Engineers, No. 15, only omitting the special correction for the moisture in the atmosphere. It is a translation of the forumula of Plantamour. This formula differs from the one prepared by Guyot for the Smithsonian Institution, which is, in fact, the formula of Laplace, by a very small change in the barometric constant. Plantamour adopts the num- ber 60,384.3, while Guyot gives 60,158.6. This slight change causes the difference of altitude to be greater by the former formula than by the latter by a little less than four feet for each thousand feet of difference of altitude. I shall frequently have occasion to refer to the graphic representation of meteorological observations, which opera- tion is called plotting. In order to represent the various 13 movements of the atmosphere graphically, and in Such a way that the value of the changes can be measured, it is necessary to attach scales to the drawings. In all cases to which I shall refer, the vertical Scale is either a scale of inches of the barometrie column, or of degrees of the ther- mometer. The horizontal scale is a scale of hours, or days, or month, as the case may be. But as I do not propose to illustrate this paper by such drawings, I shall endeavor to give my descriptions in such a way that my remarks will be easily understood without them. OF THE HORARY AND ABNORMAL OSCILLATIONS OF THE BAROMETER, A study of barometric observations, extended over a sufficient period of time, will reveal the existence of two dis- tinct oscillations. These have been called respectively the horary and abnormal oscillations. The horary Oscillation has a period of 24 hours. Within this period it presents, except during barometric storms, two distinct maxima and two minima, easily recognizable. The abnormal oscil- lation, on the other hand, is the result of a steady progress- IVe movement of variable period, but usually it passes from one maximum to one minimum in from three to six days. When a series of hourly observations of the barometer, taken during ten or more days, is plotted, there appears dur- ing each day a regular movement, more or less marked, and indicating two maxima and two minima in the twenty-four hours. If a table is made by taking separately the mean of the observations at the same hour of each day, thus obtain- ing twenty-four mean readings when the observations are taken hourly and uninterruptedly, and this mean table is plotted, the mean curve so developed shows this double os- cillation very decidedly. If we were to make a grand meau by adding up the twenty-four mean hourly results, and dividing by twenty-four, and if we then subtract each mean result from the grand mean, we have a table in which some of the numbers would be greater and some less than the grand mean, and therefore some would be affected with a 16 plus and some with a minus sign. This table can be used as a table of corrections, to be applied to the mean results at each hour separately, in order to reduce each reading to the mean value. This table would represent approximately a true table of horary corrections, but only approximately, un- less the readings of the barometer at the beginning and end of the series happen to be the same, as will become appa- rent further on. Finally, if we apply these corrections to the original observations, we will have what has been called the “observations reduced.” These, when plotted, show a Wave-like movement in which no trace, or but a very slight trace, of the double horary oscillation appears. This curve represents very nearly the abnormal oscillation. It is very apparent, from the study of such curves plotted from observations reduced to 320 Fahrenheit, that there are two separate forces in action, one producing an oscillation of regular period, and the other an irregular but slowly pro- gressing movement of variable period. It is apparent, also, that during any twenty-four hours, the forces being in ac- tion together, the horary oscillation will appear more or less distorted or masked by the action of the abnormal move- ment. But inasmuch as the portion of the abnormal move- ment during one day often shows approximately a uniform rise or fall, the two coexisting movements can be easily sepa- rated. Let us suppose that the barometer during the day had been rising, and that it read two hundred and forty thousandths higher at the end of the day than at the be- ginning. If the abnormal oscillation during that day had been such that it could be represented by a right line, then that portion of the movement due to it would show a uni- form rise for each hour. In the case I am supposing, the rise in one hour would be ten thousandths of an inch ; in the first two hours twenty thousandths, etc. Now, if we were to apply a correction of ten thousandths to the reading of the barometer at one hour after the initial hour, one of 17 twenty thousandths to that at two hours after the initial hour; etc., the table so resulting would be one representing the movement of the barometer freed (entirely in this case) from the effects of the abnormal movement. But it is very rare that the abnormal movement during the twenty-four hours can be represented strictly by a right line. It is usually, when plotted, more or less curved, being a section of a sweeping curve which requires several days to pass from its maximum to its minimum. Moreover, if it so happens that the time when the abnormal wave reaches its maximum or its minimum in the middle of the day, a portion of that wave must be deeply concave and the remaining portion convex, and during that day the plotted observations, which represent the combination of the two movements, will show an irregular line different from the normal horary curve, though traces of that will probably be apparent. But it is exceedingly probable that during a se- ries of ten days another day will be found in which a similar movement of the abnormal oscillation will occur, but of such a character that a portion of it will show a concave curve when the observations during a similar portion of the other day showed a convex one, and that the reverse will occur during the remaining portions of those two days. That is to say, the abnormal line will be a convex curve during one day and a concave one during the other. The combination of the observations during two such days would produce a curve approaching to a right line. It has been found from experience that observations taken for ten days, when treated in this way, generally produce a truthful and characteristic CUITVé. This method of treating observations, thereby eliminating the abnormal movements, has been called the “reduction to level.” The difference between the reading of the barom- eter at the initial hour of two consecutive days is evidently the correction to level for twenty-four hours, which must be 2 U B 18 Called minus when the barometer during the day has been rising, and plus in the reverse case, and the one twenty- fourth part of that is the correction to level for one hour. The correction to level for two hours is twice that for one hour, etc. When the correction to level for twenty-four hours is a multiple of twenty-four, the correction for each hour can be written down without difficulty, but when that is not the case it requires a little calculation to show at what hours the additions or subtractions shall be made. For example, if the correction to level for one hour were three- thousandths of an inch, the correction for the succeeding hours would be 6, 9, 12, etc., thousandths; but if it were a whole number of thousandths and a fraction, as, for example, three and fifteen twenty-fourths, as all the frac. tions less than half are to be thrown away, and all greater than half are to increase the whole number by one, we should have 4, 7, 11, 14, 18, 22, 25, etc., for the number of thousandths to be added or subtracted at 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 1, 2, etc., hours, the barometric day beginning at 7 a. m. Table B of Professional Papers of the Corps of Engineers, No. 15, is intended to facilitate the calculations of the reduc- tion to level by showing at what hours .001 is to be added on account of the fractional part of the Correction for one hour. This table I have found convenient, but it is so sim- ple of construction that any one can make it in a few min- uteS. When the observations reduced to level are continued during several days, and are plotted, they show a series of curves occupying different parts of the paper, because the observations at the initial hour on different days will be different. When it is desirable, as is often the case in prac- tice, to place them as nearly as possible in a horizontal row, it is best to subtract from each observation so reduced a cer- tain number, which is the same for all the hours of one day, but differs in different days, so as to make the observations 19 at 7 a.m. all alike. This second reduction, called “the reduc- tion to second level,” does not change in the slightest degree the character of the oscillation, but simply has the effect that, when plotted, the curves are found in a convenient part of the paper. It has been found best to adopt such a subtrahend for each day as will make the observations at 7 a. m. a little less than any one in the Series. In California. 29.500 is usually used near the sea-level, as the barometer seldom falls as low as that. The following may then be given as a rule for obtaining a table of horary corrections of the barometer and one of the abnormal oscillations freed from the horary movement: The observations (reduced to 320 F.) are to be copied in such a way that all at the same hour shall be placed in the Same vertical column. - Each vertical column is to be added up and divided by the number of days in the series. If hourly observations during the series are continuous, the grand mean is to be obtained by adding up the twenty- four mean results at each hour, and dividing the sum by twenty-four. If observations are not taken during the night hours, then an approximate grand mean is to be obtained by taking the mean of the observations at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m. Subtract the grand mean from the mean at each hour in succession, and we have a table of horary corrections, in which all those greater than the grand mean are to be called minus (–), and those less than the grand mean, plus (+). The table of horary corrections being applied to the ob- servations at 32° F., produces the table of observations reduced, which represents the abnormal oscillation. It is of great importance, particularly when the series is not long, that the observations should be plotted, in order that any days' observations that are so erratic that they would evidently vitiate the result if they were combined 20 With the others can be detected and rejected. The reason for this rejection is that we cannot expect the movements of the atmosphere during barometric storms to show its regular normal oscillation. Another advantage in plotting the observations is to afford the means of detecting errors in observations. - Any hour of the twenty-four may be taken as the initial hour of the barometric day, but it has been found expedient, for several reasons, to adopt 7 a.m. for that hour. Midnight is certainly an inconvenient hour, as observations are sel- dom taken at that time. When observations are taken but three times daily, the Smithsonian hours of 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m. are almost invariably adopted in this country. Full observations taken during all of the twenty-four hours are of great value for certain scientific purposes, particularly in deducing the laws which cause the horary oscillation to be different in different latitudes, altitudes, and climates. But as barometric observations for hypsometrical purposes are seldom taken during the night, the practical engineer or surveyor seldom cares for them later than 9 p.m., even. though he does not obtain the night maximum and morning minimum, the first of which occurs not far from midnight, and the latter or second between four and five in the morning. When the series is a short one and the horary table is made with the hope of obtaining a type curve, or when it is suspected that the observations, as usually treated, will not give a result fully freed from the abnormal movement, another horary table may be made by treating the observa- tions in the same way, but adopting 7 p.m. as the initial hour instead of 7 a. m. If the series be of ten days’ dura- tion, the new table with the new initial hour will produce a nine days' series. A combination of the two mean tables is more likely to produce a good horary curve than either one separately. This would be naturally the case, for, from the very principle of the reduction to level, it is assumed that 21 | the portion of the abnormal wave during each day is a right line, whereas it is only approximately so, and is in reality a curve more or less convex or concave. Now, by adopting another initial hour an additional horary table can be made, and it is more than likely that by the combination of the two the abnormal movement is more thoroughly eliminated When the series of hourly observations is not continuous as, for instance, when the night observations are not taken, We cannot use the method just given, but we must adopt Some method of obtaining approximately a grand mean, and it has been found that the mean of 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m., gives a close approximation to the mean of the twenty-four hourly observations. It is important to know how close the agreement is. Although the number of sta- tions where I have been able to collect observations is quite small, still they have been sufficient to prove, not only that the difference in obtaining the daily mean pressure by the two methods is not great, but that it varies by a regular . law during the months of the year. This is shown by the following table : 22 100 · — | 300 ° + | I00 - -|-| 000 º100 * — | 900 ‘ – | 800 ‘ – || 800 · — || 800 ‘ – || 800 ‘ – || 000 ºI00 - + | g00 · –||–|- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - upę JMI g00 · — | 910 · + | LIO · +|000 - || 310 · — | 320 · — | LEO · — | ſg0 · — | 930 · — | 630 · — | 300 ‘ – || 900 ° + | 980 ' + | ~~~~ · · · · · · · · · · * * * * * * tum S 000 º000 - || 200 · + | 100 · — | 100 ‘ – | z00 · — | 100 · — | 100 · — | I00 --|-| 800 · — || 800 ‘ – | 100 * + | 800 - -|-|.* * * * * * * * * * * * * * qoȚAt(0019 I00 - — | IOO · + | IOO · — | 100 * — | 100 ‘ – | 300 · — | 100 ‘ – || 100 · — | 300 ‘ – | 300 ‘ – | 100 * - || 000 ºI00 ° + | ~ ~ ~ ~ p.18ųIJOgſ ļūļēS puſēIÐ I00 · — | 100 ° + | I00 - -|-|| 100 · — | 300 ‘ – | 900 ‘ – | 100 * — | 300 ‘ – | 100 * — | 800 ° — | 300 ‘ – || 000 'J00 - -|-| - - - - - -· · · · · · · · · · · · ·:Aøuoſ) 000 º900 · — | #0.0 ° +| I00 --+ | 200 · — | Þ00 · — || 700 · — | 500 ‘ – || 800 · — | 300 ‘ – || 300 ° +| 800 ° + | 900 ' + | ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~• • • • • 950'LIOQ p.ſe.Ipſ) 100 · — | 500 - + | 200 - -|-| I00 - -|-| 900 · — | #00’ - | †00 ‘ – || 900 ‘ – | y00 ‘ – || 1.00 ‘ – | 100° - || 100 º -l- | 900 ° + | ~ ~ ° ******- - - - - - - oquo IoJL ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، – – I • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • ! • • • • • • • • • • • • • •- - - - - - - - - - { go() · –• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •- - - » • • • I • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • | * * * = * * * * *------ KųO(IOS）It3{) - - - - ） ！= = = 1 • • • • • • • •- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - || &OO · — | g00 ‘ – | 200 · — | - - - - - - - -- - - - • • • • • H • • • • • • • • + • • • • • • •- - - s ae → • •£00 * +- … … ：- - - -• • • • • • Kø[[e A 9đoEI • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • •--------|-------- | - - - ----- | goo · — | #0.0 · — | - - - - - - - -« — • • • • • •- - - - - - -| - - - - - - - -| - - - - - - - -| +00 - -|-|------ Koſtu A KIIoqAAęIQS • - - - - - - - † • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • •I00 * —900 * —... „ „ „ … - - - || • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • | • • • • • • • •£00 * —|-- • • • • • - - -· · · · · OLIVAJO013|&T 000 ºz00 ' + | 900 ° + | 100 ‘ – || 600 ° + 1 000 ºÞ00 · — | g00 · — | 900 · — | 900 ‘ – | 300 ‘ – | 300 ‘ – | 300 ° +| * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0}U(ºu eJOBS 100 · — | 010 · + | 200 · — | 200 · + | 260 · — || 4:00 ‘ – | †00 · — | 500 ‘ – || 700 · — | 300 · — || 600 ' + | 900 - -|-| 900 ' + | ~ ~ ° ******* 008ļotibuſ ubS I00 * — | ¡00 ° + | I00 ° + 1 000 'I00 · — | 200 ‘ – | g00 · — | †00 ‘ – | 900 · — || 900 ‘ – || 800 '-|-| 800 ' — | 800 ° + | ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~-------- - eļtoņsy ºtteøuu | ‘Jºq*Jºq'Jºcſ· Kuten J | ‘Áttaen ÁĽleº x| -tuooºOI|-UI@AON|''[|(10400-utøqđøşjºſsmºtiv | :Áſm ſº | roum p | ‘KUIN*[ĹĻĀV | ''[[O IBW || -qøJI|-ut， ſººstroņu ļS ‘p.wp.pwpņ8 ønų so pºnungsø ffuqoq lovu,moſ ønſ, ºnu ºd 6 pup ºnu ‘ae gºnų ºp №. 1) suoſ, patºsq0 pup su0ņpa.198ņ0 fil-moll wnoſ-fiņu0014 ſo upºw. 9 ſq woup pouyoqqo go ‘squow quº ląſįp 0\} u} 0.1m889.， 94.40\u0400 uwow 0\} \!000-100 00\，0,0）\} 0\! ffw!0!!0!!S'-'I GITGIVJ, 23 By examining the table, it will be seen that out of the 107 differences in the monthly results by the two methods there is one amounting to ten thousandths of an inch of the barometric column in the stormy month of December, One of seven thousandths, six of six thousandths, four of five thousandths, sixteen of four thousandths, and all the rest are less than that amount. In fact, Out of the 107 results there are only twelve in which the differences are so great as five thousandths. The mean results show that the mean of observations at 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m. is less than the mean of twenty-four hourly observations in the months of November, December, January, and February, the January results giving a difference of three thousandths of an inch, and that in the midsummer months it is greater by the same amount. In March and October there is no difference. The yearly mean difference by the two methods is less than one-thousandth of an inch. The above table can be used as a table of corrections to be applied to observations taken in any month in order to reduce them to the yearly mean. This table has been deduced from monthly means, and it is not to be supposed that observations taken in a single day, or even a series of a few days' duration, will afford so close an accord by the two methods. There is, however, a method, when the observations are taken at the Smithso- nian hours, which affords a very good value for the daily mean, as compared With the mean of twenty-four observations in a day beginning at 7 a. m. It is to take the mean of 7 a.m., 2 p.m., 9 p.m., and 7 a.m. of the succeeding day and apply to it a correction, so as to reduce it to what it would have been had the observations been taken strictly at eight hours apart. From 7 a.m. to 2 p. m. is an interval of but Seven hours, and from 7 a. m. to 9 p. m. is 14 hours. Hence the sum of these four observations is too small by the rise, or too great by the fall, between 2 p. m. and 3 p. m., together with the rise or fall between 9 p.m. and 11 p. m.; that is to say, during three hours. But 3 hours is one- eighth of a day, in which day the barometer had an average 24. rise or fall measured by the amount which has been called “the correction to level for twenty-four hours,” and which is the difference in the readings of the barometer at 7 a.m. on one day and 7 a.m. on the next. Therefore one-eighth of that amount should be applied as a correction to the Sum of the four observations in question, so as to increase that sum when the barometer for the day had been rising and diminish it when falling. It must be borne in mind, however, that this correction is to be applied to the “ob- Servations reduced,” or, in other words, to the observations after the horary correction had been applied. We may therefore have the following rule for obtaining the mean daily pressure from four such “observations re- duced,” the barometric day commencing at 7 a. m. Take the sum of the observations so reduced at 7 a.m., 2 p.m., 9 p.m., and 7 a.m. the next morning and apply to it one- eighth of the difference between the observations at the beginning of the two consecutive days, calling the difference plus (+) when the barometer for the day had been rising and minus (—) in the reverse case, then divide the result by four, and we have the required daily mean. As it is desirable to have a definite idea of the difference between the daily barometric means as computed from twenty-four hourly observations and that given by the last described method, and also between the former and that from observations taken at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m., I present a table from ten days’ observations at Sacramento, Placerville, Strawberry Valley, and Hope Valley, taken during August, 1860. The upper line of each group gives the difference between the daily mean as calculated from twenty-four hourly observations and the mean of 7 a.m., 2 p. m., 9 p. m., and 7 a.m. the next morning, corrected as above described. The lower line gives the difference between the first and the mean of 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m. It will be seen that the amount of variation from the mean of twenty- four hourly observations is nearly three times greater by the last mentioned method than by the first. § TABLE II.-Showing the difference between the daily mean barometric pressure, as obtained from the mean of twenty- four hourly observations and from corrected observations at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., 9 p. m., and 7 a. m. the next morning, and also between the first and those obtained from observations at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m., the first being assumed as the 8tandard. August, 1860. 11th. 12th. 13th. 14th. 15th. 16th. 17th. | 18th. 19th. 20th. Sum. STATIONS. . 007 | . 002 | . 001 | . 003 | . 003 | . 002 | . 001 | . 001 | . 005 | . 002 | . 027 Sacramento ------------------------------------------. } , 010 | . 008 | . 023 . 001 | . 004 | . 006 | . 001 | . 020 | . () 18 . 000 | . (.91 - g , 014 | . 001 | . 001 | . 001 | . 005 | . 005 . 000 | . 004 | . 004 | . 004 | . 039 Placerville -------------------------------------------. } . 018 . 014 |. 016 |. 002 | . 012 | .002 | . 007 | . 004 | .017 | . 004 | . 096 Strawberry Valley.----...--------------------------- … .008 |. 001 |.004 |.000 || 006 | .000 | . 010 | . 011 | . 005 |.005 | .050 º . 022 , 008 | . 009 | . 006 | . 014 | . 005 | . 018 , 010 | . 012 | . 006 | . 110 . 008 | . 004 | . 001 | . 003 | . 002 | . 004 | . 003 | . 006 | . 003 | . 004 | . 038 Hope Walley ------------------------------------------ } . 030 . 009 | . 007 | . 012 | . 013 | . 005 , 007 | . 008 | . 008 || , 005 || , 104 26 In almost every instance it is shown that the second method gives results much nearer the mean of twenty-four hourly observations than the third, which is a simple mean of the observations at 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m. Taking the mean of twenty-four hourly observations as the stand. ard, and taking the difference between this standard and the results given by the other two methods, we find that the sum of these differences in a ten days' series by the method of four observations so reduced is only 38 per cent. of the Corresponding amount obtained from a simple mean of the observations taken at 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m.; and the maximum errors are in proportion, they being at Sac- ramento .007 in. and .032 in., and at Hope Valley .008 in. and .030 in. As this method of obtaining the barometrie mean involves very little additional trouble after the obser- Vations have been actually taken, it appears to me worthy of being adopted. For, in the field, we cannot tell when the atmospheric conditions which cause the difference between the two methods are in operation, and when the maximum difference will occur; hence the results are apt to be considered untrustworthy up to the limit of the maxi- mum error. On the other hand, if that maximum error can be reduced two-thirds or one-half, the resuits can Surely be relied upon within the smaller limit. Although observations at the Smithsonian hours have been shown to give a close approximation to the mean of twenty-four hourly observations, still other hours have been adopted that give, also, very good results. The Coast Sur- vey adopted long ago the mean of 6 a. m., noon, and 6 p. m. as a good barometric mean, though latterly they have adopted the hours of 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m. I have obtained from Louis Wilson, tidal observer at Astoria, Oregon, the following table, which explains itself: 27 I00 * +| 900 · —| 100 * —| I00 - -| 800 * +| 900 ' +| Þ00 º+g00 - -|-| 900 - +| 200 - -|-| I'00’ – †00 · —| 100 * +| + · · · · · · · · · · · · ūbº VĮ 100 - +| 300 · – z00 - +| 100 · —| 100 * +| ç00 - +| 900 : +1 900 ° +| 900 : +|000 - | †00 ' --| 900' —| 100 * +|********************* [18] 100 - +| 100 · —| 900 · —| 000 - || zoo : +| 900 : +| 900 : +1 900 : +| +00° – g00' +| 100' +| +00° —| 100’ —|-~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ‘’’ 0.181 300' +|000" | 2007 –| 100“ – 900' +| +00° +| 900°+900 • +| #0.0 ° +| + 00 * +| 000 * | 900 · —| 300 ° + | ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~* * * * 698 ſ �*Jeq'Jºcſ*Jºq'JocſQR *ÁJºe | * ÁIng ueºIN I-tuāššot ļºtnēKÖN | -5}öö -tuğåęglºſsnēmw] . Kinº | 'ounſ | 'KeyN | 'Iſid V | TorºIN|-maqºq | -mue º**, ºpaeopums v so pºsm ffuqºq mºvuaoſ øſ, ºu ºd 9 puo'uoov ºw ºp 9 puo ºvu ºd 6 pup ºnu ºd 3 ºu ºp 2 ſo swoņņa,tø9qo woup pºqºndw00 ºp ‘9.ųnssa.） o!,ųºwo,ſoq wpaw fiņņwow 0ų u000149q 90^(0.40 (ſſp. 0\! ffuqſmo'||S-III ĀTĶĪVJ, 28 This table shows nearly as good results as from observa. tions at the Smithsonian hours, but as the latter hours have been SO universally adopted, and it is very desirable to have uniformity in the hours of observation, so that comparisons can be easily made, I would recommend that the Smith- Sonian hours be adhered to in future observations where they are taken but three times a day. Having explained how the horary correction of the barom- eter can be obtained from a short series of observation, I now Wish to point out certain facts concerning this oscilla- tion. It has been found that when the stations are near the Sea level, the curves for each month at different localities are of the same character, the critical hours occurring at the same times, but varying in range or amplitude, the Warmest localities giving the largest curves. Hence, as a general rule, the curves are smaller as the latitude increases. But in the same latitude and climate the curves for the dif. ferent months are different. They vary in the hours of maxima and minima, and also in the amplitude of the oscil- lation. While the hour of the morning maximum does not materially vary during the different months, that of the afternoon varies with the seasons, being usually between 2 and 3 p. m. in midwinter and between 5 and 6 p. m. In midsummer. The consequence of this is, that if the tables representing the hourly observations taken in Jan- uary and July are subtracted the one from the other and this difference plotted, it gives a curve nearly as great as is produced from either set of observations. But as soon as the element of altitude enters into consideration, the curve changes materially, and according to a law which has not yet been discovered. As a general rule, the curves for high altitudes are quite small. At the Grand Saint Ber- nard, that portion of the midsummer curve for the hours when the sun is above the horizon is exceedingly minute, while the night portion of the curve presents an oscillation 29 of about 0.040 inch. Near the summit of the Sierra Nevada in July and August, the morning maximum is at 7 a.m., while in the valley below it is at 11 a. m. There is no sim- ilarity between the Grand Saint Bernard curves and those of the Sierra Nevada, though the altitudes of the two sta- tions do not differ materially. If we had a series of stations one thousand feet apart, vertically, from the sea level to the summit of the mountain, we would find that the curves at all the stations would be different. The amplitude of this oscillation in the temperate zone usually varies from 0.040 in. to 0.080 in. Near the equator the oscillation is greater, amounting to nearly 0.120 in., and the abnormal oscillation being there very small, the horary oscillation is so regular, that the hour of the day can be ascertained, at least approximately, from the reading of the barometer. But the abnormal oscillation seems to in- crease with the latitude, while the horary movement becomes less, and in high latitudes the latter is so masked by the former, that a long series of observations is required to ob- tain a reliable horary curve. From the above facts it becomes apparent that the effects of this horary oscillation ought to be neutralized in some way. The computed differences of altitude from observa- tions taken at different hours are different on account of the oscillations at the lower and upper stations being so entirely different. Now, as a change of 0.001 in. in the barometer at one station will affect the result about a foot, unless a corresponding change occurs at the other station, it is apparent that we should correct the observations before they are used in the determination of altitudes, so as to eliminate the effect of the horary movement. The follow- ing general conclusions are given in Professional Papers of the Corps of Engineers, No. 15, together with a large num- ber of horary tables and curves: 1st. As the Value of the principal term of the barometric 30 .* formula depends upon the difference between the readings of the barometers at an upper and lower station, and as the horary oscillation of the barometer is quite different at the two stations when the difference of altitude is at all considerable, and as its amount is often sufficient to cause considerable error in hypsometrical calculations if neglected, even When the observations at the two stations are simul- taneous, it is important to eliminate it as far as practicable. 2d. As the horary curves and tables for any two days, even in a short series, are not identical, the best way to eliminate the effect of this oscillation is to use the mean of observations taken at short intervals, as, for instance, hourly, for one day, or for a number of whole days, the day com- mencing at any convenient hour. 3d. When this is impracticable, and when the horary tables for the station and month are previously known, and the observations are for a portion of a day only, or for por- tions of several days, the horary correction should be applied to them before they are used in estimating differ- ences of altitudes. 4th. When the horary tables for one or both stations are unknown, and hourly observations cannot be taken, the aim should be to obtain the nearest approximation to a daily mean. For this purpose, the mean of observations taken at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m., or of 6 a. m., 2 p.m., and 10 p.m., or 6 a. m., noon, and 6 p.m. have been found to afford quite good results. ON THE WARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE. While the horary barometric oscillation, when freed from the abnormal movement, does not vary much from day to day at the same station during a short series, it is very dif- ferent with the corresponding thermometric oscillation. In the one case it is small as compared with the abnormal one, and so nearly uniform in character that a mean of a few days' 31 observations, properly treated, will give a characteristic horary table and curve for that station and month; and, by elimination, the abnormal wave can be represented. In the case of the temperature, the horary movement is very large as compared with the other, and varies so much from day to day that no characteristic horary table can be used in elimi- nating this movement, and obtaining an abnormal ther- mometric wave; though the curve is a simple one, having but one maximum and one minimum in 24 hours, still the range, or vertical amplitude, may be several times as great in one day as in another during a series of ten days. The consequence is that the method of separating the two move- ments, which we have found practicable with the baromet- ric observations, is not applicable to those with the ther- mometer. While the barometer gives us a measure of the weight of the whole column of air over the place of observation, the thermometer is local in its character and affected by every puff of wind that blows over it. It is true that there is one paramount influence which produces a horary thermometric oscillation with one decided maximum and one minimum, the former usually occurring between 2 and 4 p.m. and the latter about one hour before sunrise; but the amount of variation during the day is greatly modified by many acci- dental causes, such as the clearness or cloudiness of the atmosphere, the direction and force of the wind, the rapid- ity or slowness of the evaporation or condensation of aqueous vapor, and many other local meteorological phe- Imomena. For these reasons the amount of this oscillation must Vary greatly from day to day, and this experience shows us to be the case. If, in a series of ten days' observations, the horary ther. mometric oscillations are plotted, it will almost always be found, in temperate latitudes, that the vertical range in the curve for Some one day will be twice as great as for another 32 in that short series, and it is not unusual to find that the difference is three and even four times as great. It is this great difference in range from day to day which prevents us from using advantageously a mean horary thermometric table for hypsometrical purposes. The same reason which makes it necessary to eliminate the effects of the horary Oscillation of the barometer applies with still greater force to the varying temperature. It is principally by means of the pressure at the two stations, in connection with the corresponding temperature, that we are to obtain the dif- ference of altitude between them. If the change in temper- ature from hour to hour caused a proper corresponding change in the height of the barometer, we could disregard the effects of the horary oscillations altogether and use the observed pressure and temperature at the two stations. but this is not so. When we take twenty-four hourly ob- servations of the barometer and thermometer at stations of considerable difference of altitude, and estimate the verti- cal distance between these stations by the formula, using successively each pair of corresponding observations, We have a series of twenty-four numbers far from being alike. Again, when we do the same with the next two sets of twenty-four observations taken during the next day, we have another series differing from the first, and it would be very materially different if the horary the mometric oscilla- tions for the two days are quite different, as they are apt to be. For these reasons it is evident that the horary oscilla- tions of both the barometer and thermometer must be elim- inated before the observations can be properly used in esti- mating differences of altitude. Yet I believe it is a common practice with computers to use the observed air tempera- ture. When hourly observations of the thermometer are taken, and the monthly mean for the different months are obtained, it has been found that the range of the horary thermomet- 33 ric oscillation varies from month to month, the same be- ing greatest in the hottest months and least in the coldest. The difference in these ranges seems to be greatest when the difference between the mean temperatures of the hottest and coldest month is greatest. The range is usually great- er in arid districts than in the more humid ones near the sea. It has been found from observations at stations vary- ing in altitude from the sea level to the summit of the Sierra Nevada, that in August the range at Sacramento, near sea level, was 17 degrees; at Placerville, about 2,000 feet high, it was 31 degrees; at Strawberry Valley, about 5,700 feet high, it was 33 degrees; and at Hope Valley, 7,000 feet high, it was 17 degrees. In January, at the same stations, the range was 11 degrees at Sacramento, 173 de- grees at Placerville, 16% degrees at Strawberry Valley, and 17 degrees at Hope Valley. It therefore by no means fol. lows that the range of this oscillation diminishes with the altitude, though it is doubtless small at exceedingly high places. It is evident from the preceding remarks that the ques- tion of how best to obtain the daily mean temperature, in order to secure good hypsometrical results, is of great im- portance. Fortunately, this is not difficult. With the ba- rometer the daily mean Can Only be ascertained from obser- vations taken during that day at the precise locality, or approximately so, by applying a horary correction But with the thermometer the case is different. As the tempera- ture during a day is nearly the same over a large area in a level country, observations can usually be taken in the field at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m., and a good mean value to the temperature of the day thus obtained, although the party has been in motion. If the party has been in an un- even or mountainous region, then the only way is to assume that the mean daily temperature varies three degrees with each thousand feet of difference of altitude. I am aware 3 U B 34 that this rule gives but a very rude approximation to the truth, but, except when the change in altitude from camp to camp is very great, the error from adopting it will be small. The following table gives a comparison between monthly mean temperatures obtained by twenty-four hourly obser- vations and the mean of those taken at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m. : 35 Lſ: 'O —’063 '0 - || 89 ’0 —99 "O — | 9L ’0 ---| 9:8 （0 — | OL '0 — | Çſ ’0 –! I º ‘0 –‘Ogg ºo — | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - utøJN 9Þ "ſ; L –'LL8 ‘6 — | #9 º II –$)/, 'L I — | {:}; '{;&— | &# '08−| Þſ) '{;&---| 80 'ſ, I — | 49 °{} —'9go 3 —|- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - vums 08 ’0 _"0£[ '0 +-|| #8 '0 +63 "() - || Lț, '0 ----| 89 '0 - || 18 °0 - || && '063 '0 —’0og ’0 + | ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Jetſ.S uſyſ iſsoqe JN 63 '0 _"09.I. '0 —| Þ0 ‘0 –|-"0II ’0 — | 88, ’0 — | 6ff; *() — | 99 ’0 - | 06 '099 '0 –'()L0 （0 –|.* * · · · · · · · · ·}.\，\;XI JO $'}{t}.IQS þ9 '0 _’0Lºſ ’0 — | #8 "() –"0Þ6 '0 –- || 86 '0 —| GI * I - || 18 °() - || 0:1, '018 "0 ----’0gI :O ---|' + · · · · · ·· · · · · · · uuļotſ \rio.IOI 89 '0 →"0Iſ: "O — | £I 70 –"031. ‘O — | 88 ’0 — | 9 || ' || — || 3 || ' | __| 39 ’0| [ '() —'()La 'O ----|' + · · · · · · ·* - - - - - eļu eļņ84.1 qÇ) 88 '0 →"0Lý "() — | g9 ’0 –"0«I "I —| gſ, 'I —| 69 - || — | g[ '[ _ | 06 '()89 '0 ---"0gg -0 - |· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ȘIoſu ¡sſo II 98 "0 ----"0þ0 ’0 — | Ç& ’0 –°06ſ ’0 — | (}}} '0 —| 99 '0 →| 8). '0 - || #8 "()63 "() ----’0gg -0 - || ~ ~ · · · · · · · · · -• • 73, iuq ºjºſº. I 9; ſy ’0 ----"003 '0 - || 0 & ’0 –"0LÞ ’0 - || L6 '0 - || 8.8 ° L — | 66 '0 - || Lý "()0ſ; '0 –’099 "O --|' + · · · · · · · -3.In quouſ, ſeqqt:yI 69 "0 ----"098 "0 - | Çy ‘0 –'()0), '() — | 9). '0 - _ | 90 ' [ — ] ©6 '0 ----} {}{} ''()88 "() –"03 I'0 — || ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~- - - - - - operuody !, ſº '0 →‘O8I. '0 - || 18 °C) —’099 "() — | 06 °C) … | [8 '() — | Ç8 ’0 - || 8 ſº '063 '0 –’063 '0 ---| + · · · · · · · ·æ æ ， æ ææ æ ， º- = *Il ſ')?'04Ş 99 '0 →"0þÇ ’0 - || 69 '0 –"0[4) '() — | 19) *() - | f(; ’0 - || 88 ’0 --- | † 8 ’08%; "() --"0ºg ’0 — || ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~• • • • • • • •* * (10 guz[8Ş 89 "0 ----"088 ’0 - || 98 °C) —’088. ’() - || I 8 ’() - || 0 || ' [ — ] !)， “I — | 8 y '0| ſy "() —‘003 '0 — || ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~«• • • • • • • •！， *） ≤ ∞, ∞, ∞[I] [1991 89 '0 →"0Lõ ’0 - || 39 ’0 –’090 * I - || 6 || ''[ ___ | 89 ”I – Į (56 '0 → | Iſº '08{, '0 –’099 '0 —| ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~· · · · · · uoſuņņņſ) I8 ’0 –"0Çý ’0 - || 99 ′() –'()()[ ' [ °~ || 0 þ * I - || 1.9 ° || — | 09 ' [ — || L.), '()| ſy ‘0 –’0gg -o --|---------------· · · · · · 9II1; II 99 '0 –"0ȘI ’0 - || 6g ’0 –‘ILL ’() - || 9() ` I — | 98 ºſ — | 98 '0 —| 39 ’088 ’0 ----"06& '0 –::::...]ºUſosant; [[ųņJAI $ſ; '0 –’0] ] ’0 - || Lºſ "0 –*()19 "() - || 10 '0 →| ()(5 ‘0 — || 99 ’0 —| 9F '088 ’0 --’0La. '0 — || ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~* (tunțžių991) § 1088 m.,19|| Lý ’0 –"0Çț '0 - || 69 ’0 –"0Lſ) ’() - || 66 '0 →| && '0 ----| 98 ’0 ----| p8, ’098, ’0 ----‘O63 '0 –|， * · · · · · · · -(ețuuoŲoşI) 38.I.-I. 99 '0 –’088 ’0 - | $9 ’0 –*()$1, "0 - || 0:1. '0 →| LI ' [ — | 36 °0 — | 13 '0(5?） '() ----"0Lg ºo — | - - - - - - - - - - -Joņşuņiųstuoli XI Lý ’0 –"098 ’0 - || (33 '0 –"0! 9 °C) ~ | ¡， “I ----| 88 ’0 — | 88 ’0 — || 9 || '0&() ’() –|-"091 （0 — | — • • • • • • • • •· · · (Åpen I) enpe. I I I "0 ----‘OLºſ ’0 - || #8 "0 –'()L0 （0 - || 63 '0 -|-| II ’0 -|-| '-0°0 +| 1.0 °O30 ‘0 –'()ſg :O –| ~ ~ ~ ~ ~º ， • • • • • •(Á[\;QI) ou ſoºſ 93 "0 –'()I ſy ’0 — | 9 | （() –"0Lºſ ’0 - || 8 ſy ’() — | 9%; '0 ----| |-3 *0 — | 63 '0RI ’0 –‘O# I ’0 —|' + · · · · · · · ·(pvieņ00$) ([qț0"I 0%; "|0 –‘O0{,} "() — | 03 '0 –’0OL '0 - | 08 '() — | 0% * [ — | 06 °C) — | 09 '0()， º(ſ) ----‘0og ºo — | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -UſoļA (100，0 83; '0 –’063 '0 — || 6& ’0 —'()I Þ '0 - || 0 L () –| 69; '() –| 89 ’0 —| 9 ſy '()Lºſ ’0 ----"0# 1 -o --|----- · · · · · · ----º q\notIIKIGI IȘ '0 –°069 "O -- I LË, ’0 –"08:8 "() — | 8，4 ° || — | ($(' ' [ — ] 18: * I - || 9 L '099 '0 —"093 '0 —| ~ ~ ~ ~ ~• • • • • • • • • • • • • •[neuit!!! | I ’0 –°08I ‘O – Į į Į '0 –'()8I "() – į 0， '0 — || 9 || '0 — | 0，3 °() –| 90 '0(50 °() —'()+ I （0 — | - - - - - - - - - - -± & æ æ æ æ æÁt; quoķI {}; ’0 –°088 ’0 — ¡ ¿ſ; 'O --‘08ff; *() — | 8ç ’0 — || 69 ’0 — || gſ. '0 —| 89 '06# *() –"0gg -0 --|---- · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·seJpt:IN && （() –"0L& ’0 — | && '0 —'0L& '0 ~ | ¡№, '() ~–| 1õ ’0 — | Þ8 '() — | 88, ’0&& '0 –"0og ºo — | - - - - - - - - - - - - -tunipu BA0IJI, 98: "O –"088 ’0 — | 39; *() —°038 '() – į Lſj ’() – į 63 '0 — | {&# '0 – į Lºſ ’04:6 （0 —"0gg -o --|---- - - - - ------ou ſouſe ſº oņI | Þ "ſ) –"0&{; *() — | }, }, '() —’09) I "() – į ſºſ; ’() ----| &g ’0 – į 99 ’() — | g º 'O{{{:'() —"0gg -0 —|' + · · · · · · · · ·(9AOCI) ohuo.IOJ, {:}; "() – į 6I "() ----| (5， '0 — | 86 ’() —| 9ý ’() — | g9 ’() – į 9)(5 ‘0 --- | $:'. '0 — | 08 '0 — | 88 ()(50 ’0 — | IO "O — | 0ý "() — || ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~(KOJŲºrI) OļULO IOT, ! !) ’() —'()ſºſ: ‘O – Į į Ł '0 —’0($1 '() — | 30 ‘I —| 00 ‘ſ — | (}), （0 — | (5， '00%; ') —’0Gº. '0 ---| + · · · · · ·ļºtiºs.I V 4.LoJx|rig.1）{ 68: '() —"08õ ’0 — | {{:'() —## '0 —| 19 ’0 —| LL ’0 - || !g ’0 — || 99 "O9: [ '0 —93 "O – į · · · · · · · · · · ·ožjº (IOC) p.ſe,ipſ) ºut}^]\[（100 || ;(1040O· Ismºn y | 'KĻm p | roun fº | 'Ku JN | ''{{,1€l V|×*ÁIºsuoſqeņS • ` ， ** *- *، ، ، ، ، ،;：| vaev-unue ſº• - tulo AON ')).lppupys onſ) so povumssp 6u\ºq aºnų,tof 0\} ºnu ºd 6 pump ºnu ‘ſ gºnų ºp Z \ºp woºp) 0&0\! pwp swoņpą./08ą0 fiņaenoq wnoſºfijuºmų fo upºut 0\} \\u04f pºuņņņqo 8) º8 [] wow ) w.),(0{|\p 0 || u \ 0,1 m)).t9ſſutº) u ponų omų ſtø00m)0ą 00：10, tºſip 0\! ffuqſmo'||Sº–'AI TIT™I VI, 36 It will be seen that the mean temperature of 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m., at almost every station, gives a result too great, in every month, as compared with the mean of twenty-four hourly observations; but the difference is not great, seldom exceed. ing in any one month one and one-half degrees. The mean results show that the mean temperature thus obtained by the two methods most nearly agrees in December, where the difference is less than one-quarter of a degree, and that the difference is greatest in June. From December to June the difference increases with much uniformity, and from June to December it decreases in the same manner; so that if the table were plotted it would show a smooth curve. This table can be used as a table of corrections, to be applied to observations taken at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m., in order to reduce them to the mean of twenty-four hourly observa- tions. I next present a table of comparison between the means of thermometric observations taken at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., and 9 p.m. and that of those taken at 6 a.m., noon, and 6 p. m. They were furnished me by Louis Wilson, tidal obser- ver at Astoria, Oreg., and are for three years. 37 ！ | & '0 — | I ’0 — | I ’0 - || I ’0 — | 3，0 — | 0:0 — | 3，0 — | L :O ––g （() –y ‘0 –g ’0 –0 （0 –O ‘O – 4: "O — | 0 0 - || 0 （0 — | I ’0 –0·0 − | 6:0 –O ‘I — || L. '0 –ºg ’0 –y ‘0 –& '0 –I ’0 –g to -|- | - - - - - - - -[18]{ & ’0 — || I ’0 — | 3，0 — | I ’0 — | g （0 — | & ’0 — || L. '0 — | g （0 ----I ’0 –g :O –I ’0 –[ '0 ----I ’0 — || ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ OL8|| W '0 — || 1:0 – | 3，0 — | 3，0 — || || 0 — | 0 0 — | 3，0 — | 3:0 –G '0 –# '0 –g :O –I ’0 -|-0 （0 – į · · · · · · · ·698.[ * tle 0}\!ºu，Inëön¿aes‘) sudu. W | 'Kpup'0'un Q'Á'， IN[[Id V·ųout? JN | K.Ibu Iq0\} | 'Kremue º ‘)),topu)18 ) $) pośm ffuqoq tout,tof 0\} ºnu ºd 9 pup ºu00ų ºut ºp 9 pup ºnu ºd 6 pup ºnu ºdſ & ºw ºp Z \} suoņvą.0840 w0,\,f poſnelw00 so ‘0.wm1).tºdųº, w)^\tſ fiņņwow 0\} \to00ųoq 0} u^.to[]\p 9ų) ſuņ0m0[Sſ —'A GI'IſIVI, 38 It appears from this table that while the winter months give results which agree almost exactly by the two methods, the results in the summer months differ by about three. quarters of a degree, the mean of 6 a.m., noon, and 6 p.m. being the greater. As in those months the mean of 7 a.m., 2 p. m., and 9 p. m. gives results too great by about that amount as compared with the mean of twenty-four hourly observations, it follows that the other method must be con- sidered decidedly inferior. From an examination of the monthly mean temperatures from year to year at Geneva and the Grand St. Bernard it has been found that when at one station the monthly mean temperature departs considerably from that determined by the mean of a long series, it is not local, for the same depart- ure is found at the other station. OF HYPSOMETRICAL RESULTS FROM DAILY MEANS. It is presumed that the reader understands the barometric formula, and therefore but few remarks concerning it are Inecessary here. The most important parts of it are the pressure and temperature terms. The first consists of a constant, multiplied by the difference between the logarithms of two numbers, which are the readings of the barometer at a lower and an upper station. The second term is the pro- duct of the former divided by 900 and multiplied by the sum of two numbers, which sum, when the Fahrenheit scale is used, is the sum of the readings of the open-air thermom- eter at the two stations, diminished by 64, which is twice the temperature at the freezing-point. The other terms of the formula are usually comparatively small, though by no means to be disregarded in the com- putations. When the formula is applied to observations taken for some time at the same two stations (in which case the true difference of altitude between them will, of course, be constant), the values of these terms should be constant. ºte 39 With such a series, the mean readings of the barometers and thermometers can be used to compute the mean differ- ence of altitude between them. When this is done, and the value of those small terms is once determined, if separate computations are made to obtain the difference of altitude from each day’s observations, the same value for the sum of these small terms can be used, thus avoiding much use- less labor in computing. When the pairs of stations are different, separate calculations must be made to obtain the values of these terms, which can be conveniently done by the aid of the tables in the appendix to Professional Papers of the Corps of Engineers, No. 15, before mentioned. If computations are made from the daily means of Ob- servations during every day in a month at the same two stations, each result will vary more or less from the monthly mean. If a table of Wanderings from the mean is made, some of the numbers will, of course, be greater and some less than the mean, and should be written, some with a plus (+) and some with a minus (—) sign. If all these errors or wanderings are added together, without regard to sign, and divided by the number of days in the month, the resulting number will give the mean error; and it may be Confidently assumed that if similar observations at those two stations are taken during the same month of another year, very similar results will be obtained. But it can be shown from a large number of computed differences of alti- tude from daily means that the amounts of the maximum and mean errors in different months at the same two stations vary considerably, being least in mid-summer and greatest in mid-winter. As a general rule, when the difference of altitude between the two stations is at all considerable, the amounts of the maximum and mean errors vary with the difference of alti- tude. This is quite natural, for, in the first place, when the difference of altitude is great the horizontal distance between 40 them must also be comparatively great, and the errors are apt to be greater than when the stations are close together; but, in the Second place, the temperature term of the form- ula is the product of the approximate difference of altitude given by the pressure term multiplied by a variable depend- ing upon the temperature. Now, the value of this variable being different from day to day, the wanderings from the mean value of the temperature term are inevitable, and must be proportional to the value of this variable, as well as to the difference of altitude. This last cause of error, however, does not materially affect the result when the difference of altitude is quite small, in which case the errors are apt to vary with the horizontal distance between the stations. The following tables of maximum and mean errors in com- puting differences of altitude from daily means are now presented. They are the result of great labor, as every two corresponding numbers are the result of as many different computations as there were days in the month ; but they give a clear idea of the probable amount of error to which such results are liable. t TABLE VI.-Consolidated table of marimum errors in computing differences of altitude from daily barometric and thermo- nvctric means. - Genova and Grand Saint Beynard, 1862. . . Geneva and (; rand Saint J3ernard, 1863. . . San Francisco and Sacramento. . . . . . . . . . . San Francisco and IIope Valley. . . . . . . . . . Sacramento and Fort Churchill Sacramento and Hope Valley Sacramento and Hope, with intermediate - - - - * * * * * * s • * * * * * * * * * * stations.------------------------------- Placervillé and Strawberry Valley Strawberry Valley and Hope Valley. . . . . Sacramento and Placerville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sacramento and Fort Crook . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fort Crook and Hope Valley. . . . . . . . . . . . . Hope Valley and Aurora. . . . . . . . . -------. Carson City and Hope Valley Sacramento and Aurora. ----------------. - - # I'eet. 6, 792 6, 792 81 7,072 4, 238 6,962 6,901 3, 742 1, 365 1, 834 3, 292 3, 670 403 2, 335 7, 365 i Miles. 60 74 i I'eet. 136 i - I'eof. 120 - - - - * * - - * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - # I'oeſ. 70 * sº sº a tº - * * * - - - a sº as ºn tº wº s as tº ºn tº - Maximum orrors. 2. à ** º : HS Iſleet, Feet. 75 9.4 1 {2 108 | 6 | 124) '' ----. 88 177 * - - - - - * - - a s = i s m - - - - 82 -- s - - +. º # à | # E | * | 3 * | } | 3 I'eet, I'got, I'eet 55 106 1 || 4 165 145 194 31 || -----|- - - - - - - - - - ºn tº 178 . . . . . . - - - - * * * * * - - - - 220 109 17 | | . . . . . . 84 . . . . . . . . ----. 46 . . . . . . . ----. 41 ------|-----. 30 l. -----|----. 120 9| |------ 86 I. . . . . . .----- 149 184 183 | | | Feet. Feet. 184 223 116 11 (5 | 262 275 - - - - - - ------ - - - - - ! - - - - - - tº ºn | 400 188 § TABLE VII.-Consolidated table of mean errors in computing differences of altitude from daily barometric and thermo- metric means. Geneva and Grand Saint Bernard, 1862. . . Geneva and Grand Saint Bernard, 1863. . . San Francisco and Sacramento . . . . . . . . . . . San Francisco and Hope Valley Sacramento and Fort Churchill Sacramento and Hope Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . Sacramento and Hope Valloy, with inter- mediate stations ------. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I’lacerville and Strawberry Valley. . . . . . . Strawberry Valley and IIope Valley Sacramento and Placerville Sacramento and Aurora Fort Crook and IIope Valley. . . . . . . . . . . . . Hope Valley and Aurora................. Carson City and Hope Valley ------------------ - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - # - --- I'eet. 6, 792 6, 792 81 7, 07.2 4, 238 6,962 6,991 3, 742 1,365 1,884 7, 365 3, 292 3, 670 403 2,335 | Miles. 6() (30 74 148 128 85 - 2. : § 5 || 3 HS ºr. I'eet. I'eet, 44 49 59 32 72 1 1() 99 . . . . . . 78 : - - - - - 36 - - - - - 33 ----. 15 .… 70 60 95. ſ 81 … gº º ſº E * * 35 - - - - - - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , sº ºn sº es sº * * * * * * gº º sº tº a * - gº º sº * Mean errors. * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * à # # 5 || 8 c 24 * | }. I'eet. I'eet. 18 36 35 32 11 || ----- * * * * * * 88 37 78 33 ----. 14 - - - - -. 14 ----. 9 |. ----- 55 54 39 38 27 . . . . . . * * * * * ºn , 4 gº º ºs º gº • * * * * * : * * * * * * i Feet, * * **, * is s a tºp º gº tº gº # * * * * s is sº gº tº º tº & ſº º sº, º ſº. * = gº tº ºr º --- --- --- - - - # 5 , ſº ~ 3. F. Q) Q1) § 3 2. C I'eet. I'eet. 55 59 41 44 • * * * * * - - - - - - 76 143 94 72 65 60 43 From the examination of a large number of observations and computed results from daily means, I have come to the conclusion that there is no relation between the height of the barometer at the lower or upper station and the value of the differences of altitude. That is to say, the Wandering from the monthly mean may be a maximum or a minimum with either a high or a low barometer. The cause of erratic results from daily means must be attributed to the fact that the atmosphere is seldom, if ever, in a state of equilibrium, and hence the wanderings cannot be controlled by any law, and must be incident to all measurements of this kind. OF THE WARIATIONS IN HYPSOMETRICAL RESULTS FROM MONTHLY MEANS. When observations of the barometer and thermometer have been continued for a number of years at two stations, and the mean monthly readings are used in computing the difference of altitude between them, it has been ascer- tained that these computed results from observations taken in the different months differ. If we take the series of 25 years at Geneva and the Grand St. Bernard as affording us the best type series available, we find that the computed differ- ence of altitude for the month of December and July differ by 101 feet, and that those for the different months vary by a definite law, so that when plotted they show a smooth curve. We can only ascertain what this law is by compar- ing results from observations taken in different latitudes, altitudes, and climates. Unfortunately, extensive series of reliable observations at high and low altitudes are seldom to be found. But I shall make use of such as I have had access to, and from which some important facts can be de- duced. Going back to the observations at Geneva and the Grand St. Bernard, the first fact of importance is, that while the 44 25 years' Series gives a good curve, the observations taken in any one year do not, and the plotted results from monthly means of observations taken during a single year are so irregular that it would be difficult to develop from them a law in this variation. This fact shows that even with these Stations, if a table of corrections were made to reduce the results taken during each of the months to the mean for the year, and if that table of corrections were applied to Observations taken in any year, the correction would not With certainty be applied advantageously, though of course the chances are that they would be so applied. It is now necessary to ascertain if this variation in hypso. metrical results is peculiar to the climate of Switzerland, or Whether it is applicable to other countries. The observa- tions taken in the Sierra Nevada, though not as numerous as are desirable, at least indicate that the same general law holds good in California; but while observations in mid- winter give the least results, and those in midsummer the greatest, the range is twice as great, which may be attrib- uted to the higher temperature of this country. The mean temperatures in the hottest and coldest months at Geneva and the Grand St. Bernard are respectively 640 and 310 at the former, and 43° and 15° at the latter. In the Sierra Nevada we have, in July, at Sacramento, 700.0, and at the summit, about 7,000 feet high, 552.5, and in January they are 482.9 and 260.3, respectively. But unfortunately for the development of any law of practical importance that can be of use in making a table of corrections to be applied to results obtained in different months so as to reduce them to the yearly mean, the range in the variation of these results seems to depend more upon the temperatures of the stations than upon the difference of altitude between them. For example, the range between the winter and summer results, as developed from observa- tions taken at Sacramento and Fort Churchill, is 200 feet, 45 while the difference of altitude is about 4,200 feef, and that from observations at Sacramento and summit of the Sierra Nevada at Hope Valley, about 7,000 feet, is 118 feet. This last result, however, is from observations in the single months of July of 1860 and January of 1864. From all that has been previously pointed out on this subject, we are certain that hypsometrical results generally give results which are considered greater in midsummer than in midwinter, but the amplitude of this variation de- pends so much upon the climate of the two stations that no definite rule can be given concerning it. ('0NCLUDING REMARKS, In the previous pages I have explained the method which I have recommended to be adopted in producing the best hypsometrical results, the essential points of which are to prepare the barometric observations beforehand by correct- ing them for the horary oscillation of the barometer, and then to use the mean daily temperature during the period in which the Observations were taken, whether it be short or long. - Prof. J. D. Whitney, formerly the State geologist for the State of California, with a full knowledge of my method as explained in No. 15 of the Professional Papers of the Corps of Engineers, has adopted another method, and has explained it in a work entitled “Contributions to Barometric Hypsom- etry, with tables for use in California.” In the first chapter the distinguished professor gives an able and learned dis- cussion of the various forms of the barometric formula which have been used, and comes to the conclusion that no change in any of the constants is advisable. He says, in the beginning of his third chapter, that my formula, or that of Guyot (which is almost identical with it, and one or the other of which was used by him and his assistants during the geological survey of California), “is the one which leads 46 most directly to practical results, and upon which the chief dependence is to be placed.” - The third and last chapter of this work is also interesting, but the Second one is the only one which explains his method of treating barometric and thermometric observations. He had obtained observations during three years at Sacra- mento, near the sea-level; at Colfax, on the slope of the Sierra Nevada, at an altitude of 2,414 feet; and at Summit Station, at an altitude of 6,951 feet. The altitudes were as, Certained during the leveling for the railroad. The obser. Vations were taken at 7 a.m., 2 p. m., and 9 p. m. From the monthly means of the barometer and thermometer at those three hours, he ascertains how much the mean hypso. metrical results at each of those hours in each month at each of the three stations differ from their altitudes as given by the level. He then forms a table of corrections to be ap- plied to Such results from observations taken in the field during those months and at those hours, and by a simple interpolation assumes corrections for the intermediate hours between 7 a. in. and 9 p. m. He uses the actual observa- tions of the barometer and thermometer without other cor- rection than that of reducing the barometer to 320 F. From the monthly mean pressure and temperature at each of the three hours, he deduces his table of corrections to be ap- plied to each hour of the day and month of the year. My method is to eliminate beforehand all causes of error, as far as possible, by first applying a correction to the bar- ometric readings so as to get rid of the effects of the horary oscillation, and then to eliminate the effects of the horary movement by using, instead of the observed tem- perature, the mean daily air temperature for the period during which the barometric observations were taken. It is evident to me that Professor Whitney’s method must produce more “maximum errors” than mine; because the periods of the barometric and thermometric observations, in 47 the field are not the same as the monthly periods of Obser- vations used by him in preparing his table of corrections. Observations in the field are usually for a short period; his table of corrections is from the monthly means. During a barometric reconnaissance, the altitudes of most of the Sta- tions on the line are approximately determined from Single observations. In forming his table he has used the monthly mean of the thermometer at the three observed hours. Now it is well known that during a month the range of the thermometer during the twenty-four hours may be twice, three times, and even four times as great in one day as in another. If observations of the barometer had been taken during one day only, it might have happened that the ther- mometric curve (if the observations had been plotted) for that day was a maximum or a minimum, and the horary thermometric curve from the actual observations would be quite different from that obtained from the thermometric monthly mean. With regard to the barometer, its horary oscillations from day to day during a month at the same place are So nearly alike that no material error is made by adopting either the horary oscillation for the month or that for the period of observation. Within the limits of the State of California almost every Variety of climate is to be found. There is the moist and uniform climate of the coast, and the arid and tropical cli. mate of the Mohave and Colorado deserts. There are vast plains near the sea level, and a number of mountain peaks between fourteen and fifteen thousand feet above it. When we consider the great change of temperature during twenty. four hours in a considerable portion of the State, the great variation in the range of that temperature in different days and in different localities, and the totally different character of the horary oscillations of the barometer at an upper and lower station, varying as these do with altitude, latitude, and climate, and, more than all, local peculiarities of climate, it 48 can be easily understood that it is impossible to adopt, with good results, a table of corrections suitable to every part of such a State as California, or even to a considerable portion of it. My method is quite as easy of application as that of Pro- fessor Whitney, except that it requires a certain amount of intelligence in the computer, who has to prepare the obser- Vations and apply the corrections before the numbers are used in computing the difference of altitude. This might be considered by some to be a disadvantage, for with his method any ignorant man, possessed of a small amount of knowledge of arithmetic, can become a barometric compu- ter, by following certain prescribed rules. But I take it for granted that all persons engaged in barometric reconnais- sances of any importance are endowed with quite enough intelligence to properly prepare barometric and thermo- metric observations for computation by my method. It is of the utmost ilmportance on a barometric reconnais- sance that we should know as nearly as possible the probable maximum error, because the results are only to be fully trusted up to that limit. The method which produces the least maximum error must then be considered the best. I wish now to show, from the computed results of observa- tions at my command, that the method adopted by Pro- fessor Whitney does actually produce more maximum error than mille. - For that purpose I have used ten days’ observations at Sacramento, Placerville, Strawberry Valley, and Hope Val- ley, in August. Observations at those four stations are the only ones at my command which are suitable for the purpose where full hourly observations Were taken. I calculated for each of the three hours during the ten days the differ- ence of altitude by the two methods, I then made from them a table of maximum and mean errors, which is here- with submitted. 49 It will be seen that the amount of error in hypsometrical results is over forty per cent. more by Professor Whitney’s method than by mine, and any intelligent man who has carefully studied the two methods can easily appreciate the T62,SOIl. TABLE VIII.-Comparison of barometric results by Professor Whitney's and Colonel Williamson's methods, from observations taken at 7 a. m., 2 p.m., and 9 p. m., during ten days of August, 1860. SACRAMENTO AND HOPE WALLEY. Max. error. Max, error. Mean error. Grand mean. | - - | i Whitney's method . . . . . . . . . + 249, 7 | – 214.5 61. 6 ; 6,976. Williamson's method - - - - - + 155. 7 — 144. 2 54. 5 | 6, 96t. 7 Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . ITI Go TTT to T. 1, 13 . . . . .--------- | | SACRAMENTO AND PILACERVIL LE. Whitney's method . . . . . . . . . + 37.9 — 36.8 13. 5 1, 897. 0 Williamson's method ... --. + 27.9 — 24.6 13. 0 1, 918.4 Ratio - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + 1.36 — 1. 50 1.04 ||... ... ..... PLACERV ILLE AND STRAWBERRY WALH.E. Y. Whitney's method . . . . . . . -- 194.4 — 94.1 42.1 3, 715. 0 Williamson's method . . . . . . + 143.0 — 51.5 20. 1 3, 731. 6 Ratio . . . . . . --- - - - - * * + i. 36 — 1. 66 2.09 || ------ - - - - - - - Whitney's method ...... . . . + 64.5 — 45.3 21. 3 1, 362. 3 Williamson's method ... -- - - + 49.2 — 41.0 | 21. 0 1, 368. 6 Ratio - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ! -- 1.31 — 1. 10 1. 01 * - - - - - - - - - - - - - s: . "w ~ * N. - - - * -- `-- -- º - - - - - - * - - - - ~ - * - :-. - - - - - * *- * - * - - = - - - - ...” - 4. *- - - * * - -- :i - - - - . º - º - . Tuniversity OF MICHIGAN { t --- - - -- - z UN - * - - - -- - * - - - • - w * . . . 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