GARRETT'S
CLASSICAL
DICTIONARY
OF
INDIA.
WITH
SUPPLEMENT
A
CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF INDIA
ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE
MYTHOLOGY PHILOSOPHY
LITERATURE ANTIQUITIES ARTS
MANNERS CUSTOMS &c.
ΟΣ
THE HINDUS
BY JOHN GARRETT
DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MYSORE
EDITOR OF THE BHAGAVAT GITA, IN SANSKRIT AND CANARESE
PANCHA TANTRA, KATHA MANJARI, SHABDA MANI DARPANA, ETC,

MADRAS
HIGGINBOTHAM AND CO
1871
[All rights reserved.]
DS
405
624
DS
405
624
REGISTERED UNDER ACT XXV OF 1867.
PRINTED AT THE ASYLUM PRESS, BY WM. THOMAS-1871.
PREFACE.
No STUDENT of Indian Literature, whether he has studied
it in its ancient classic tongue, the Sanskrit, in which its
earliest and most original works are written; or has derived
his acquaintance with it from the scantier range of some
modern Indian vernacular, but has felt the difficulties that
arise from the frequent mention of mythical personages,
places, and objects, whose very names are so utterly
unknown to him that he often even fails to recognise that
they are proper names (oriental characters having no capital
letters to indicate this) while of the facts concerning them
he has little or no means of information. Hence he has to
trust to such information as he can obtain from his Múnshi
-information mostly very imperfect and often quite
incorrect. The course of many years' reading gives the
desired knowledge, but it is acquired at the cost of much
time, labour, and research-nearly all of which might be
saved did any such work exist for the Indian student, as
the classical learner has long had in his "Lempriere," and
now has in the well-known and far superior Dictionaries of
Dr. WILLIAM SMITH.
The Universities in India have placed the Sanskrit and
some of the vernacular languages, in the same position as
IV
PREFACE.
the Universities of Europe have assigned to the languages
of ancient Greece and Rome. A knowledge of ancient
Hindu Literature is therefore now necessary to the attain-
ment of University honours. At present there is no work
in existence in the form of a Classical Dictionary, designed
to afford direct aid to a student in acquiring a knowledge.
of the Mythology and Antiquities of India.
To supply in some measure these wants is the object of
the present work. It contains an account of all the Hindu
deities, and all the mythical personages and objects, that
are likely to be met with in the study of Hindu Literature,
whether Sanskrit or vernacular. The various terms of
Brahmanical and Buddhistical theology and ritual, and of
the schools of Indian philosophy, will be found briefly
explained. Such information as can be obtained on the
subject of ancient Indian Geography has been given. It
may be thought that many names of comparatively obscure
persons and places have been included. But the Hindus.
attach great importance to their genealogical lists, and the
present work was intended to contain every name occurring
in their ancient books, though nothing is recorded of them
but the line or family to which they belonged. No doubt
many names, some probably of importance, have been
omitted; but this is only what might be expected in the
first edition of a book of this nature.
The work was commenced about twenty years ago, and
most of the legends were at first taken from the vernacular
writings current in Southern India; but when the valuable
PREFACE.
V
work of Dr. JOHN MUIR,* came under the writer's notice, he
felt it his duty to exclude all the traditionary and imperfect
accounts previously collected, and to substitute for them
extracts from the authentic writings of the Hindus, which
alone can furnish a reliable knowledge of their religion,
mythology, and historical traditions. As however the
materials of the work have been picked up at intervals, and
put together as opportunities occurred, it is possible that
the critical reader will discover many defects; though it is
doubtless very much more trustworthy than it could have
been had it been published before the appearance of Dr.
MUIR'S volumes.
The writer has also been greatly indebted to Professor
WILSON'S Translation of the Vishnu Purána, as well as to
the Essays on Sanskrit Literature, and on the Religion of the
Hindus, of the same distinguished scholar. The editions of
the Mahábhárata and Rámáyana published by Mr. TALBOYS
WHEELER, have also been laid under contribution, The
Poetical Translation of the Rámáyana by Mr. GRIFFITH,
Professor of Sanskrit at the Benares College, the 'Idylls
from the Sanskrit,' and 'Scenes from the Rámáyan' by the
same author, have served to enrich and enliven the volume
with many passages of great beauty; while Mr. GRIFFITH'S
own Notes, and others selected by him from SCHLEGEL,
GORRESIO, and others, have thrown light on several difficult
points.
"Original Sanskrit Texts, on the Origin and History of the People of
India, their Religion and Institutions. "
VI
PREFACE.
1
Professor MAX MULLER'S History of Ancient Sanskrit
Literature, and his Chips from a German Workshop, have
supplied much information, and many extracts of great
value have been taken from those works. The articles on
Hinduism contributed by Professor GOLDSTUCKER to the
English Cyclopædia, and more especially to CHAMBERS'
Encyclopædia, and the few parts of the Sanskrit Dictionary
issued by the same learned author, have given to the world
the fruits of great research, and the writer has availed
himself of much new matter in the above publications.
Many other works might be specified which have added
to the interest and utility of the present volume. Among
others the following should not be omitted. Ancient and
Medieval India, by Mrs. MANNING. Indian Epic Poetry,
by Professor MONIER WILLIAMS. Handbook of Sanskrit
ZIEGENBALG'S Manual
Literature, by G. SMALL, M. A.
of the Mythology of Southern India. TOD's Annals and
Antiquities of Rajasthan. COLEBROOKE'S Essays, &c., &c.
A complete list of the editions used will be found on another
page.
In the Prospectus of this work published a year ago, the
writer, in acknowledging that the Mythological legends of
India had never commanded the attention accorded to those
of Greece and Rome, expressed an opinion that this has arisen
not only from the extravagant oriental imagination by
which they are characterized, but chiefly from the fact that
they have never yet been studied by Europeans in youth.
There is no doubt that much of the charm of early Greck
PREFACE.
VII
and Roman story belongs to the associations in the midst of
which a knowledge of it was first acquired. The interest
that educated Europeans feel in the classic tales of Greece
and Rome may be traced to the familiarity acquired with
them in the enthusiasm of youth, amid scenes and circum-
stances which stand out through life as bright phases of their
existence.
*
The beauty, however, as well as the value, of the two
great Epics of India, is now acknowledged. They are no
longer regarded as worthless fictions or mere idle flights of
imagination. It is now admitted that these two heroic.
poems, the Rámáyana and the Mahábhárata, contain “all
that we can ever know of India's early history;" and that
notwithstanding their exaggerations, they bring before us a
state of society, and a condition of thought and feeling,
through which mankind has had to pass in pre-historic
times. The people who figured in these early tales were
men and women of like passions with ourselves'-animated
by the same joys and hopes-depressed by the same sorrows
and disappointments. It is consequently interesting to
observe the traces they have left behind them-" their foot-
*
"In the Rámayana all is pure measureless raving. An imagination
which seems to combine the advantages of mania, superstition, and drunken-
ness, is put a-going, makes a set of what it names worlds, of its own, and
fills them with all sorts of agents; gods, sages, demi-gods, monkeys, and a
numberless diversity of fantastic entities, at once magnified and distorted
to the last transcendent madness of extravagance,—some additional monster
still striding and bellowing into the hurly-burly, whenever the poet thinks it
not sufficiently turbulent and chaotic."-JOHN FOSTER, Eclectic Review,
Sept. 1810,
VIII
PREFACE.
prints on the sands of time"-to glean all we can from the
records they have left us of what people used to think and
say and do at a period so remote as to take our thoughts to
very infancy of the human race.
the very
Greatly as our times are distinguished by discovery and
progress, we are yet continually reminded, amidst its changes,
of that world of the Past out of which the Present is born.
The century which has witnessed such onward strides of
physical and political science, has also unlocked the secrets
of the hieroglyphics of Egypt. Major RAWLINSON is now
giving a voice to dumb inscriptions upon Persian rocks; and
in the same way, in India's mythic poetry, we become con-
temporaries with Greece's earliest history. The heroic times
and youth of the race thus rise up in earth's later days, in
startling contrast with our science and commerce, as if nature
would expressly teach us that there lies a romance in the
past which can never grow obsolete to man; and howsoever
our civilization may change us, and under all the new develop-
ments of the human race, the memories of old ages will still
survive and come back to us, like the stories of childhood
among the sterner realities of manhood.”*
BANGALORE,
August 15, 1871.
}
S
J. GARRETT.
* Westminster Review, Vol. L, p. 62.
LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED OR REFERRED TO IN THE
FOLLOWING PAGES.
ADELUNG'S Historical Sketch of Sanskrit Literature, Oxford, 1832.
ASIATIC Researches, 11 vols., London, 1812.
AINSLIE'S Materia Indica, 2 vols., London, 1826.
BALFOUR'S Cyclopædia of India, Madras, 1862.
BALLANTYNE'S Aphorisms of the Sankya Philosophy.
BALLANTYNE'S Aphorisms of the Nyáya Philosophy.
BALLANTYNE's Lecture on the Vedánta.
BALLANTYNE'S Tarka Sangraha.
Benares and
Allahabad,
1849 to 1852.
BALLANTYNE'S Christianity and Hindu Philosophy, London, 1859.
BENARES Magazine, 1851.
BUCHANAN'S (F.) Journey through Mysore, &c., 3 vols., London, 1807.
BRANDE'S Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art, 3 vols., London, 1867
BERNIER'S Travels in India, 2 vols., Svo., London, 1826.
BOWER'S Chintamani, Madras, 1868.
COLEBROOKE'S (H. T.) Miscellaneous Essays, 2 vols., 8vo., London, 1837.
CAREY'S Rámáyana, Serampore, 1806.
Cox's Mythology of the Aryan Nations, 2 vols., Svo., London, 1870.
CALCUTTA Review, 35 volumes.
CUDWORTH'S Intellectual System of the Universe, 3 vols., Svo., London.
CHAMBERS' Encyclopædia, 10 vols.
DUBOIS' Manners and Customs of People of India, quarto, London, 1817.
Durr's India and Indian Missions, Edinburgh, 1841.
ELLIOT'S (H. M.) Memoir of the IIistory, &c., of the Races of N. W. P.
of India, by BEAMES, 2 vols., 1869.
ELPHINSTONE'S History of India, 2 vols., London, 1843.
ERSKINE'S History of India, 2 vols., 1854.
ELPHINSTONE'S Caubul, Account of, quarto, London, 1815.
ENGLISH Cyclopædia.
FORBES' Oriental Memoirs, 2 vols., 8vo., London, 1834.
FRERE'S Old Deccan Days, London, 1870.
GOLDSTUCKER'S Sanskrit Dictionary, 6 parts.
GROTE'S History of Greece, 12 vols., 8vo., London, 1846-56.
GRIFFITH'S Idylls from the Sanskrit, London, 1866.
GRIFFITH'S Scenes from the Rámáyan, Benares, 1870.
GRIFFITH'S Rámáyan of Valmíki, vols, 1 and 11, Benares, 1870-71
I
AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.
HAUG's, Dr. Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rig Veda, 2 vols., Bombay, 1863.
HALHED'S Code of Gentoo Laws, London, 1777.
HARDY'S (SPENCE) Eastern Monachism, London, 1850.
HARDY'S (SPENCE) Manual of Buddhism.
HEBER'S Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, 3 vols., 8vo.,
London, 1828.
HUNTER'S Comparative Dictionary of the Non-Aryan Languages of
India, quarto, 1869.
HUNTER'S Annals of Rural Bengal, London, 1868.
JONES', (Sir W.) Works, 13 vols., 8vo., London, 1807.
JOURNAL of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1835-45.
KENNEDY, VANS, Col., Researches into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient
and Hindu Mythology, London, 1831.
MARSHMAN'S History of India, 3 vols., London, 1867.
MILL'S History of India, by Wilson, 9 vols., London, 1858.
MANNING'S, Mrs., Ancient and Mediæval India, 2 vols., London, 1869..
MOOR's Hindu Pantheon, London, 1810.
MUIR'S Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the
People of India, their Religion and Institutions, London, 1868,
vol. i, 2d edition, vol. iii, 2d edition, 1868, vol. iv, 1863, vol. v, 1870,
MULLER'S (Max) History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, 1859.
MULLER'S (Max) Chips from a German Workshop, 3 vols., 1868-70.
MULLER'S (Max) Lectures on the Science of Language, 2 vols., 1860●
MULLER'S (Max) Rig Veda Sanhita, London, 1869.
ORIENTAL Astronomer, a complete System of Hindu Astronomy,
Jaffna, 1848.
SHERRING'S Sacred City of the Hindus, London, 1868.
SMALL'S Handbook of Sanskrit Literature, London, 1866.
THOMSON'S Translation of the Bhagavad-Gita, Hertford, 1855.
WARD's View of the History, Literature and Mythology of the Hindus,
3 vols., London, 1822.
WHEELER'S History of India from the Earliest Times, 2 vols., London,
1867-69.
WILSON'S (H. H.) Vishnu Purána, quarto, London, 1840.
WILSON'S Works, by Dr. ROST and others, 10 vols., London, 1862-70.
WILSON'S Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus, 2 vols.,
London, 1835.
WILSON'S Sanskrit and English Dictionary, Calcutta, 1840.
WILLIAMS' Indian Epic Poetry, London, 1863.
WILLIAMS' English and Sanskrit Dictionary, London, 1851.
ABBREVIATIONS.
A. S. L.
Muller's Ancient Sanskrit Literature.
A. & M. I. Mrs. Manning's Ancient and Medieval India.
H. P.
Moor's Hindu Pantheon.
H. S. L.
Handbook of Sanskrit Literature.
I. E. P.
Williams' Indian Epic Poetry.
O. S. T.
Muir's Original Sanskrit Texts.
V. P.
Wilson's Vishnu Purána, the quarto edition
unless where the 8vo. edition is specified.
ERRATA.
At page 218, line 19, for Glendoveer's read Glendoveers.
At page 688, line 13, for assist read assert.
At page 518, line 6, for Griffiths', read Griffith's.
This mistake has occurred several times in connection
with this name,
+
A
CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF INDIA.
Akara-The first letter in the Sanskrit and all Indian Alphabets.
A name claimed by Krishna as the Supreme Being, (Bhagavat
Gita, Chapter X, verse 33) similar to the name Alpha given in the
Book of Revelation to the Lord Jesus Christ.
Abhasara-The name of the thirteenth heaven of Buddhism.
Abhaya-(Fearlessness) one of the sons of Dharma, see Vishnu
Purána, p. 55.
Abhidhana Chintamani-A vocabulary of the Jain doctrines
written by Hemachandra, and described by Professor Wilson as
one of great utility that may be relied on.
Abhidharmma.-The third class of the sacred books of the
Buddhists, which are called in Páli, the language in which they are
written, Pittakattyan, from Pittakan, a basket or chest, and táyo,
three, the text being divided into three great classes. The Abhi-
darmma contain instructions which the Buddhists imagine to be
addressed to the inhabitants of the celestial worlds. This is
accordingly accounted the highest class of sacred books, and the
expounders of it are to be held in the highest honor, for it contains
pre-eminent truths, as the word itself implies. The books of which
it consists are not in the form of sermons, but specify terms and
doctrines, with definitions and explanations. The work contains
seven sections.- Gardiner.
Abhijit-A Yádava Chief, V. P., p. 436.
Abhimani-The eldest son of Brahma: he was an Agui, and
by his wife Swábá had three sons of surpassing brilliancy, Pávaka,
Pavamana, and Súchi. They had forty-five sons, who, with them-
selves and Abhimani, constitute the forty-nine fires. V. P.
2
АВН-АВО
Abhimana-In Hindu philosophy means 'selfish conviction.'
See Colebrooke's Essays, Vol. I, p. 242.
Abhimanyu-1, A son of Arjúna and Subhadra, renowned
for his strength and valour. He was married to Uttara, the
daughter of Rája Viráta. He fought with distinguished valour
on the first day of the great war; cutting down the ensign in
Bhishma's chariot. On the second day he slew a son of Duryód-
hana, and when attacked by the latter was rescued by Arjúna. On
the thirteenth day of the war, he was commanded by Yudhishthira
to charge the Kauravas who were drawn up in the form of a
spider's web; he drove his chariot into the enemy's ranks and per-
formed prodigies of valour, but was finally overpowered by six
warriors and slain. His posterity through the line of his son
Parikshit, were the royal race of the lunar line at Hastinapura,
(old Delhi); 2, A son of Chákshusha. V. P., 98.
Abhiras-1, An ancient race of people inhabiting the North-
West of India: they are mentioned in the Mahá Bhárata, the
Rámáyana, and in the V. P., but nothing is known of their history;
2, The name of a dynasty referred to in the V. P. supposed to
have reigned in Magadha, E. c. 200.
Abhutarajasas-A class of gods of the fifth Manwantara. •
Abhyudaya Offerings to the progenitors of an individual and
of mankind, which form part of a religious ceremony on an occasion
of rejoicing or an accession of prosperity. See Vriddi Srádda.
Abja-The father of Vísala who became incarnate as Nárayana.
Aborigines-In all the large jungles and hilly tracts of country
throughout India there exist thousands of human beings in a state
not very different from that of the Germans as described by Tacitus
nearly two thousand years ago. These primitive races are the
ancient heritors of the whole soil, from all the rich and open parts
of which they were expelled by the Hindu.
These non-Aryan races have always been misrepresented and
oppressed. The carly Sanscrit writers depicted "the forest tribes
as black noseless demons, of small stature and inarticulate speech."
In the two great epics and in the Puránas they are termed
Rákshakas.
!
66
ABO
'During the struggle between the worn-out Sanscrit civilization
and the impetuous prime of Islam, the Hindus discovered the value
of the aboriginal races. Many chiefs of noble Áryan blood main-
tained their independence by such alliances; others founded new
kingdoms amongst the forest peoples. To this day some of the
tribes exhibit a black original section living side by side with a fair-
skinned composite kindred, sprung from the refugees ; and the most
exalted Hindu princes have to submit to a curious aboriginal rite
on their accession to the throne. It was stated before the Royal
Asiatic Society in 1852 that the investiture of the Rájput Rájah of
Nerwar is not complete till one of his purely aboriginal subjects,
a Mina, paints a round spot on his forehead with blood freshly
drawn from the toe of another Mina. Without this formal recog-
nition his non-Aryan subjects could not be depended upon; when
once it has been performed their fidelity has never been known to
waver. They form the treasury and palace guards, hold the per-
sonal safety of the prince entirely in their hands, and supply the
sole escort to whom he entrusts the honor of his daughters when
they go abroad. The Ranah of Udayapur, cited by General
Briggs as the highest in rank of all the sovereigns in India, renders
the same homage, however ill it may comport with his caste and
personal diguity, to the traditions of his aboriginal subjects.
Before he ascends the throne his forehead must first be marked
with the blood of a Bhíl. The Hinduized chieftains of Central
India, receive investiture by the blood of a pure Kol; and so
strong a hold has this ceremony on the minds of the people, that
amongst the Cheris-once a great tribe, who defended themselves
with honor against Shere Shah and the imperial army, now reduced
to five or six families,-the head of the little community is still
installed under the title of Rájah, with the token of the round spot
of warm aborigiual blood.
"But it is not the Hindus alone that have proved the loyalty of
these neglected races. Scarcely a single administrator has ruled
over them for any length of time, without finding his prejudices
conquered, and his heart softened, and leaving on record his sorrow
for their present condition, and his belief in their capabilities for
4
ABO
good.
*
*
*
'They
are faithful, truthful and attached to their superiors, writes
General Briggs, ready at all times to lay down their lives for
those they serve, and remarkable for their indomitable courage.
These qualities have been always displayed in our service. The
aborigines of the Carnatic were the sepoys of Clive and of Coote.
A few companies of the same stock joined the former great Captain
from Bombay, fought the battle of Plassey in Bengal, and laid the
foundation of our Indian empire. They have since distinguished
themselves in the corps of Pioneers and Engineers, not only in
India, but in Ava and Afghanistan, and in the celebrated defence
of Jelalabad. An unjust prejudice has grown up against them in
the armies of Madras and Bombay, where they have done best
service, produced by the feelings of contempt for them, existing
among the Hindu and Mahomedan troops. They have no pre-
judices themselves, are always ready to serve abroad, and embark
on board ship, and I believe no instance of mutiny has ever occur-
red among them." Other testimonies are quoted by the same
writer from equally high authorities all showing that the truth-
fulness and fidelity of these despised races are most satisfactorily
established.
" '*
Their condition, after many centuries of suffering, is now likely
to be improved. Their character and claims are beginning to be
understood. It is seen too how they may be utilized by being
made to take the place of English soldiers. "In interest, in race,
in religion, in habits of life, they are cut off from the Hindus and
Mussulmans by a gulf of whose breadth the people of Christian
States can form no idea; and their ethnical repugnance is kept in a
constant glow by the remembrance of ancient wars and recent
wrongs." By extensively employing these tribes as a military
police and as soldiers, we should not only relieve the English popu-
lation of a burden, but we should offer a livelihood to brave
predatory peoples whom the stern order of British rule has
deprived of an important source of subsistence.' See Bhíls,
Bhúteeas, Gonds, Ghúrkas, etc.
* W. W. Hunter, Preface to Non-Aryan Dictionary.
ACH-ADH
Achara-A name of Siva. A name of Vishnu. BRAHM, the
Supreme BEING, (in this sense it is sometimes Mas.) The word
also means eternal beatitude, or exemption from further transmi-
gration. Also religious austerity or moral merit.
Acharas-Observances of caste and order. The V. P. cou-
tains a complete and systematic description of the Ácháras, or
personal and social customs and obligations of the Hindus.
Chapter VIII et seq.
See
Acharya-The term Achárya sometimes means a priest; but
its most usual meaning is a spiritual guide or preceptor, one who
invests the student with the sacred thread, and who instructs him
in the law of sacrifices, and the mysteries of religion.
Achyuta-A common name of Vishnu : meaning
imperishable."
"the
Achyuta-Krishnánanda Níthi, author of a commentary on
the Siddhanta Kalpataru, called Krishualankára.
Adbhuta-The Indra of the ninth Manwantara.
Adharma-A sou of Brahma-the husband of Falsehood
(Mrisha) and the father of Hypocrisy and Deceit; (Dambha and
Máyá). From them descended Covetousness, Wrath, Slander,
Fear, &c.
Adharma-1. Unrighteousness; all behaviour contrary to
the Sruti and Smriti, or religious and legal institutions.
2. In philosophy, according to the Nyáya and Vaiṣeshika :
moral demerit, the result of doing what is forbidden, the peculiar
cause of pain, one of the twenty-four qualities united with sub-
stance. According to the Sánkhya, one of the changeable dispo-
sitions of the mind, which being the efficient cause, makes the
soul migrate into an animal, a deer, a bird, a reptile, a vegetable, a
mineral. According to the Buddhistic doctrine it is the conse-
quence of upádána or exertion of body or speech. According to
the Jains it is that which causes the soul in general to continue
embarrassed with body, notwithstanding its capacity for ascent and
natural tendency to soar.
3. As a personification, Adharma occurs in the Puránas as one
of the Prajapatis or mind-born sons of Brahmá; his wife is
6
ADH-ADHY
Hinsá (mischief) on whom he begot Anrita (falsehood) and Nik-
riti (immorality) or according to others, Mrishá (falsehood) and
his children Dambha (hypocrisy) and Máyá (deceit) who were
adopted by Nirriti (misfortune). Adharma is also mentioned as one
of the eighteen servants of the sun. V. P.
1. Adhidaiwata-" The Supreme Being in his personality,
considered as a deity, and therefore the Supreme Being in his
relation to the gods. This includes the two parts, the essence of
spirit, and matter, called
(a) Adhyatma, the essence of spirit, the origin of souls,
and the Supreme Being in his relation to man or individual soul;
(b) Adhibhuta, the material essence, or the Supreme Being
in his relation to matter.
2. The one indivisible (akshara); that is, the universal energy
called indivisible, as contrasted with individual souls (kshara).
3. Adhiyajna, the Supreme Being as Vishuu or Krishna, a
manifest object of worship, and therefore the Supreme Being in
his relation to religion."-J. C. Thomson.
Adhipurusha-The presiding spirit of the Universe-descend-
ed from Vishnu.
Adhiratha-A son of Satyakarman, one of the kings of Anga.
He found Karna in a basket on the banks of the Ganges, where he
had been exposed by his mother Pritha.
Adhogati-The Jains believe that below this world there is a
world called Adhogati, the Abyss, the nethermost hell, above
which there are seven infernal worlds; and above these again are
ten Pavanalokas, purifying worlds, (Purgatories) above which is
this world of earth.
Adhosiras-One of the divisions of the Hindu Hell (or Nara-
ka) in which persons are punished for bribery. V. P.
Adhyaropa-A technical term used in the Vedanta system of
Hindu Philosophy, meaning " erroneous imputation"-an allega-
tion that the Unreal is the Real. One of the four Requisites to
the study of the Vedánta is, "the discrimination of the eternal
substance from the transient." This is the discerning that God is
ADHY
7
the eternal substance, and that all else is non-eternal. To under-
stand this fully the Adhyáropa or erroneous imputation must be
refuted.
Adhyatma-The ministers of the Soul. A technical phrase
in the Sankhya philosophy. Thirteen instruments or ministers of
the soul are enumerated, each of which has a province" and
"presiding deity," viz :-
1-Intellect is a minister of the soul,
CC
"Whatever is to be understood" is its province;
Brahma is its presiding deity.
2-Self-consciousness is a minister of soul;
Whatever is to be believed is its province,
Rudra is its presiding deity.
3-Mind is a minister of soul;
Whatever is to be resolved on is its province,
The moon is its presiding deity.
4-The hearing is a minister of soul,
Whatever is to be heard is its province;
The Ether is its supernatural presiding power.
5-The touch is a minister of soul,
Whatever is to be touched is its province;
The air is its supernatural presiding power.
6—The sight is a minister of soul,
Whatever is to be seen is its province;
The sun is its presiding deity.
7-The taste is a minister of soul,
Whatever is to be tasted is its province;
Varuna (the god of waters) is its presiding deity.
8-The smell is a minister of soul,
Whatever is to be smelled is its province;
The earth is its supernatural presiding power.
9- The voice is a minister of soul,
Whatever is to be uttered is its province;
Saraswati (or Fire) is its presiding deity.
00
ADHY-ADI
10-The hands are ministers of soul,
Whatever is to be grasped is their province;
Indra is their presiding deity.
11-The feet are ministers of soul,
Whatever is to be gone over is their province;
Vishnu is their presiding deity.
12-The organ of excretion is a minister of soul,
Whatever is to be excreted is its province;
Mitra is its presiding deity.
13-The organ of generation is a minister of soul,
What is to be enjoyed is its province;
Prajapati is its presiding deity.—Ballantyne.
Adhyatma Ramayana-A spiritualized version of the Rámá-
yana, being an abridgment of the story, the authorship of which
is attributed to the mythical Vyása, in which the whole has been
spiritualized, and every conflicting incident either explained or
omitted, whilst the greatest stress has been laid upon the character
of Ráma as a— "saviour and deliverer.”— Wheeler.
Adhyatmika-In the Sánkhya philosophy. The pain which
arises from any of the Adhyatma or instruments of soul.
Adhvarya priests-The third class of priests at sacrifices,
who had to prepare the sacrificial ground, to adjust the vessels, to
procure the animals, and other sacrificial oblations, to light the fire,
to kill the animal, and do all the manual labor.
Adi-The first. A name given to the Bramha Purána, con-
taining ten thousand stanzas.
Adina-The son of Sahadeva, celebrated in the wars between
the demons and the gods.
Aditi-A daughter of Daksha, wife of Kásyapa, and mother
of the gods. At the churning of the ocean, Adití received
the ear-rings then produced, which were given her by Krishna.
Her history, with that of the other daughters of Daksha,
is regarded by Professor Wilson as an allegorical personifi-
cation of Astronomical phenomena. "The thoughts of primitive
humanity were not only different from our thoughts, but
ADI
9
different also from what we think their thoughts ought to have
been. The poets of the Veda indulged freely in theogonic specula-
tions without being frightened by any contradictions. They knew
of Indra as the greatest of gods, they knew of Agui as the god of
gods, they knew of Varuna as the ruler of all; but they were by
no means startled at the idea that their Indra had a mother, or that
their Agni was born like a babe from the friction of two fire-sticks,
or that Varuna and his brother Mitra were nursed in the lap of
Adití." (Max Müller). "Adití is an object of frequent celebra-
tion in the Rig-veda, where she is supplicated for blessings on
children and cattle, for protection and for forgiveness." (Muir.)
'Adití, an ancient god or goddess, is in reality the earliest name
invented to express the Infinite; not the Infinite as the result of a
long process of abstract reasoning, but the visible Infinite, visible
by the naked eye, the endless expanse, beyond the earth, beyond
the clouds, beyond the sky. If we keep this original conception of
Adití clearly before us, the various forms which Adití assumes,
even in the hymns of the Véda, will not seem incoherent.".
(Müller.)
Dr. Muir, in an elaborate article, discusses the following points :
“Adití as the mother of the Ádityas.” "Is Adití ever identified
"Adití may be a
with the sky ?" "Adití seems to be distinguished from the earth."
personification of universal nature.” “Adití as a
"Adití's position sometimes subordinate."
forgiver of sin."
In the two epics, and in the Bhagavata Purána, Adití is
described as the wife of Kasyapa, and the mother of Vishnu in his
dwarf incarnation : "An older authority however, the Vaj-
sanhitá, gives quite a different account of the relation of Adití to
Vishnu, as it represents her to be his wife. In the following
passage of the Tattiríya-sanhitá also she is similarly described.
"Supporter of the sky, sustainer of the earth, sovereign of this
world, wife of Vishnu, may the all-embracing and powerful Adití,
filling us with vigour, be auspicious to us (abiding) in her lap.”—
Muir, O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 53.
Aditya-The Sun, called also Súrya, (and Vivaswat) the chief
of the gods at a very early period. The twelve solar dynasties, or
2
10
ADO-ADR
personifications of the sun under a different name and sign of the
zodiac in each month of the year, are called Ádityas. They belong
to a period before the time of the Vedas, when the worship of the
elements, particularly of the sun, was first enriched and extended
by fancy. The name, Ádityas, is a matronymic from Adití. The
various stories related of the sun, or of the Adityas, will be given
in connection with the histories of the demi-gods to which they
refer. Vishnu is called chief of the Ádityas.-See Appendix.
Adoption-If a married brahman is without male issue he
is required to procure a son by means of adoption. He must have
a son to perform his obsequies, or believes he would be excluded
from happiness after death. So prevalent is this notion amongst
the Hindus that women who have only daughters will themselves
find their husbands a second wife, notwithstanding all the incon-
veniences involved. "The adopted son wholly renounces all claim
on the property of his natural father, and acquires an unlimited
right of succession to all that belongs to his adopted father. From
him he is entitled to maintenance and education, as if he were his
own son; and to receive, through his means, the advantages of the
Triple cord, and of being settled in marriage. The adopted son is
obliged, on his part, to take care of his acquired parents in their
old age, and attend to their funeral when they die. He farther
enters into the Gótra or lineage of him by whom he is adopted;
and is considered as descended from the same ancient stock. When
the ceremonies of adoption commence the new parents perform one
which is held to be the most important and essential of any, by
tying round the loius of the youth that little string which every
male child in India (not an outcast) is ceremoniously invested with
at the age of two or three years. If the ceremony has been pre-
viously performed by the natural parents, the adopting ones break
the cord, in token of dissolving the Gótra from which the child
descended; and put in a new one in sign of being called to theirs.
On this, as in all other solemn occasions, their first care is to select
an auspicious day, by the help of astrology. The child adopted
may be a relative or not, but must be of the same caste."-Dubois.
Adrika-The mother of Vyása. "The muni Parásara, hav-
ing occasion to cross over from one side of the Ganges to the other
ADR-ADV
11
bank, employed a ferry boat, rowed by a fisherman's daughter,
towards whom he felt an attraction; the consequence of which was
the birth of a son. A Tamil version of the Bharatam enigmatizes
the matter, by stating that Vyasa was born from a fish; but the
Sanskrit original, not remarkable for fastidiousness, states the case
with all simplicity.”—Taylor.
Adrisyanti-The wife of Sakti, and mother of Parásara,
which see.
Advaita-The name of a school of philosophy and theology,
established by Sankaráchárya, founder of the monasterium of Srin-
géri, near the Túmbúdra river. The system regards the Supreme
spirit and the human spirit as one; in degradation through ignor-
ance, and re-absorbed on obtaining true wisdom. It regards the
world as an illusion; all external objects as different forms of the
one deity, besides whom there exists nothing else. As gold is one,
though in various forms, as money, ear-rings and other ornaments,
so the one sole existent deity is found in all the various forms that
appear to exist around us. “The Vedanta of Vyása, which con-
sidered all existing beings and things to be an evolution of deity,
and the deity in and throughout all beings and things, was, by
Sankaráchárya, drawn out to the full consequence; which is, that
the soul of man is a part of deity, not different; the body is a tem-
porary prison; on its decease the soul flows into deity, as air in a
closed earthen vessel, when this is broken, flows into the common
atmosphere. It does not, however, appear that the idea of deity,
on this system, philosophically includes personality; but means the
supreme universe. It leans towards the female energy system ; of
matter (or nature) being the great spontaneous mother. Sankará-
chárya discoursed freely of Siva and Parvati, and wrote hymns to
both; maintaining, besides, the oneness of Bramha, Vishnu and
There are many treatises in Tamil, Telugu and Canarese,
on the Adwaita philosophy, which seems to have been made a
special study in the south more than the north of India.
Advaitananda-The author of a commentary on the Védánta;
and preceptor of Sadananda who wrote the Védánta Sára. Nothing
certain is known as to the time when he lived.
12
ADY-AGA
Adyas-One of the five classes of gods prevailing in the sixth
Manwantara, of which period Chákshusha was the Manu.
Agada-One of the eight branches into which medical science.
is divided by the Hindus. A gada treats of the best antidotes to
Poisons.
Agama-A divine system of doctrine.
Agastya-A great sage whose hermitage was situated in a
beautiful locality, on the borders of a forest near the Vindhya
mountains. Ráma, with his wife Síta and brother Lakshmana,
paid the sage a visit, which is thus narrated in the Rámáyana; “As
they went they beheld the trees of the forest in full flower, sur-
rounded by climbing plants, broken by the trunks of sportive
elephants, enlivened with playful monkeys, and vocal with joyous
birds. Ráma, as he viewed the beautiful wilderness, said to his
brother Lakshmana :-" The hermitage of Agastya appears in
view; this is the abode of that sage who freed the southern
quarter from the Rákshasas; at whose command the Vindhya
mountain forbore to rise higher in the sky; who drank up the sea
abounding in crocodiles and great fishes; who was entreated by
the gods, with Indra at their head, to destroy the Dánavas: 0
Lakshmana, here will I spend the remainder of my exile: Here
the perfect men, the great sages, cast off their old bodies, and
ascend in new bodies to heaven on chariots as resplendent as the
sun."
Agastya presented Ráma with the bow of Vishnu, the arrow of
Brahma, two inexhaustible quivers and a scimitar; also with a
superb coat of mail which had been given to the sage by Indra.
The Rámáyana gives the following legend of Vátápi and Ilwala
who were destroyed by Agastya :-" In former times, two cruel
Rákshasas, the devourers of Bráhmans, resided here, and their
names were Vátápi and Ilwala, and Ilwala was accustomed to
assume the form of a Bráhman, and speak the sacred tongue, and
invite the Brahmans under pretence of solemnizing a Śraddha:
Then his brother Vátápi assumed the form of a ram, and was con-
secrated for the sacrifice by Ilwala; and when the Brahmans had
AGA-AGH
13
eaten the ram, Ilwala called to his brother to come forth, and
Vátápi came forth out of the stomachs of the Bráhmans, bleating
like a sheep, and tearing his way through their bodies. Thousands
of Brahmans were thus destroyed, when Agastya came to this
spot, and accepted the invitation to a Śráddha; and Agastya had
not eaten for many years, and he devoured the whole of Vátápi in
the form of a ram, and then prayed to Ganga; and the goddess
appeared in his alms dish, and he touched the water, and pro-
nounced her divine name: Then when Ilwala called on his brother
to come forth, Agastya laughed and said :-'Your brother has
been eaten by me in the form of a ram and has now gone to the
abode of Yama, and for him there is no coming forth :' Ilwala in a
rage began to assail Agastya, but was immediately consumed by
the fire which flashed from the eyes of the sage: This hermitage,
which formerly belonged to the two Rákshasas, is now inhabited
by the brother of Agastya." Goldstucker writes, "Agastya was
the reputed author of several hymns of the Rig Veda. He is
represented as of short stature, and is said by some to have been
born in a water jar. He is also mentioned as one of the oldest
medical authors, considered as the civilizer of the south and as the
regent of the star Canopus."
Agastya-A celebrated Tamil author, who is considered by
Dr. Caldwell to have lived in the 6th century, B. C., but the
Tamulians assign a much earlier date.
Agathamma-One of the tutelary goddesses of Madras.
Aghorahanta-The Priest of Chamundá, a terrific goddess
in the drama of Málati and Mádhava.
Aghori, or Aghorapanthi-The original Aghori worship
seems to have been that of Devi in some of her terrific forms, and
to have required even human victims for its performance. In
imitation of the formidable aspect under which the goddess was
worshipped, the appearance of her votary was rendered as hideous
as possible, and his wand and water-pot were a staff set with bones
and the upper half of a skull: the practices were of a similar
nature, and flesh and spirituous liquors constituted, at will, the
diet of the adept.
14
AGN-AGNI
"The regular worship of this sect has long since been suppressed,
and the only traces of it now left are presented by a few disgust-
ing wretches, who, whilst they profess to have adopted its tenets,
make them a mere plea for extorting alms. In proof of their indif-
ference to worldly objects, they eat and drink whatever is given to
them, even ordure and carrion. They smear their bodies also with
excrement, and carry it about with them in a wooden cup, or skull,
either to swallow it, if by so doing they can get a few pice; or to
throw it upon the persons, or into the houses of those who refuse
to comply with their demands. They also for the same purpose
inflict gashes on their limbs, that the crime of blood may rest upon
the head of the recusants; and they have a variety of similar dis-
gusting devices to extort money from the timid and credulous
Hindu. They are fortunately not numerous, and are universally
detested and feared.”—Wilson, Vol. I, p. 234.
Agneya-The name of one of the eighteen Puránas. [See
Agni Purána.]
Agneyastram-The name of the fiery weapon given by Aurva
to Sagara, and with which he conquered the barbarians who had
invaded his patrimonial possessions.
Agneyi-The wife of Uru, a descendant of Dhruva, and mother
of six excellent sons, Anga, Sumanas, Swati, Kratu, Angiras and
Śiva.
Agni-" The deity of Fire, one of the most ancient and most
sacred objects of Hindu worship. As such, Agni is considered as
the mediator between men and gods, as protector of mankind and
their home, and as witness of their actions; hence his invocation
in all solemn occasions, at the nuptial ceremony, &c. He is one of
the eight Lókapálas, or guardians of the world, and especially the
Lord of the south-east quarter. He appears in the progress of
mythological personification as a son of Angiras, as a king of the
Pitris or Manes, as a Marut, as a grandson of Sandila, as one of the
seven sages during the reign of Tamasa, or the fourth Manu, as a
star, and as a Rishi or inspired author of several Vaidic hymns.
*Goldstücker.
***
AGNI
15
He is generally described as having two faces, three legs and
seven arms, of a red or flame color, and riding on a ram. Before
him is a swallow-tailed banner on which a ram is also represented.
He is described by others as a corpulent man of a red complexion,
with eyes, eyebrows, head and hair, of a tawny color, riding on a
goat. From his body issue seven streams of glory, and in his right
band he holds a spear. Agni is the son of Kásyapa and Adití. His
consort or Sakti is Swaha, a daughter of Kásyapa. Brahman priests
are ordered to maintain a perpetual fire; and in the numerous
religious ceremonies of the Hindus Agni is commonly invoked.
The god is sometimes figured with a forked representation of fire
issuing from his mouth; and sometimes with seven tongues of fire.
(See Colebrooke's Essays.)
Agui, like Indra, is sometimes addressed as the one great god
who makes all things, sometimes as the light which fills the heavens,
sometimes as the blazing lightning, or as the clear flame of earthly
fire. The poets pass from one application of the word to another
with perfect ease, as conscious that in each case they are using a
mere name which may denote similar qualities in many objects.
There is no rivalry or antagonism between these deities. Agni is
greatest, Varuna is greatest, and Indra is greatest: but when the
one is so described, the others are for the time unnoticed, or else
are placed in a subordinate position. Thus Agui is said to com-
prehend all other gods within himself, as the circumference of a
wheel embraces its spokes ;* and not unfrequently Indra is said to
be Agni, and Agui is said to be Indra; while both alike are Skam-
bha, the supporter of the world.
.*
Hence the character of the god is almost wholly physical. The
blessings which his worshippers pray for are commonly temporal.
In the earlier hymns he is generally addressed as the fire, which to
mortal meu is an indispensable boon; in the more developed cere-
monialism of later times he is chiefly concerned with the ordering
of the sacrifice.
***** “As the special guardian and regulator of sacrifices
Agni assumes the character of the Hellenic Hestra, and almost
* Muir,
16
AGNI-AGNIH
attains the majesty of the Latin Vesta. He is the lord and protector
of every house, and the father, mother, brother and son of every
one of the worshippers. During life he shields men from harm,
and at death he becomes the Psycho pompos, as conveying the
'unborn part of the dead to the unseen world."*
2. Agni is also the name of a star in the tail of the planetary
porpoise.
Agni Purana-This Purána derives its name from its having
been communicated originally by Agui, the god of Fire, to the
Muni Vasishtha, for the purpose of instructing him in the two-fold
knowledge of Brahma. By him it was taught to Vyása, who
imparted it to Súta ; and the latter is represented as repeating it to
the Rishis at Naimisháranya. The contents of different copies vary
from fourteen to sixteen thousand stanzas. The early chapters of
the work describe the Avatáras, and in those of Ráma and Krishna
avowedly follow the Ramayana and Mahábhárata. Other portions
contain instructions for the performance of religious ceremonies-
chiefly mystical forms of Saiva worship. There are also chapters
descriptive of the earth and the universe, the duties of kings, &c.,
much of which has obviously been taken from the Vishnu and other
Puránas. On these accounts Professor Wilson regards it as a com-
paratively modern work, without "legitimate claims to be regarded
as a Purána," and only "valuable as embodying and preserving
relics of antiquity."
Agnibahu-One of the ten sons of Príyavrata and Kamya,
famous for strength and prowess. It is said of him in the V. P.,
that when he adopted a religious life, he remembered the occur-
rences of a prior existence, and did not covet dominion, but dili-
gently practised the rites of devotion, wholly disinterested, and
looking for no reward.
Agnidhra-The brother of the above, was made by his father
king of Jambudwipa, and had nine sons who are enumerated and
more or less celebrated in the Puránas.
Agnihotra-A burnt offering, or libation of clarified butter on
sacred fire.
* Cox, Mythology of Aryan Nations,
AGN-AHA
17
Agnishtoma-1, A son of the Mauu Chakshusha; 2, the
name of a sacrifice produced from the eastern mouth of Brahma,
along with the Gayatri, and the Rig Véda. V. P., 42.
Agnishwattas-A class of Pitris, a divine race inhabiting
celestial regions of their own. This class consists of those house-
holders who when alive did not maintain their domestic fires, nor
offer burnt sacrifices. Some of the Puránas identify the Agnishwat-
tas with the seasons. V. P., p. 239.
Agnivarchas-One of Súta's scholars, who became a celebrated
teacher of the Puránas.
Agnivarna-A prince whose name occurs in various Puránas ;
but little more is known of him beyond his being a descendant of
Ráma.
Agrahara-A village granted to brahmans by government free,
or at a favorable assessment; there are three kinds, viz :—
1. Sarvamánya-rent free.
2. Jódi-partially rent free.
3. Trishvéga-one-third part of the produce is given for rent.
Agrahayana-The name of one of the lunar months.
Agrasya―The first day of the Hindu year which falls on the
new moon in March. A feast goes on for three days at this period
-the new year's day festival.
Ahalya-The wife of the rishi Gautama, of whom the following
legend is related: One day when the sage was absent from his dwell-
ing, the mighty Indra passed by, and burned with an impure passion
for the wife of Gautama; he entered the hut in the disguise of
the sage, and began to entreat Ahalyá; and Ahalyá, knowing him
to be the Rája of the celestials, in the wantonness of her heart
yielded to his desires. Then the sovereign of the gods left the
hermitage, but at that moment Gautama entered, and he was invin-
cible even to the gods, through the power of his austerities. Perceiv-
ing him, Indra was overwhelmed with sadness; and the sage,
beholding the profligate lord of gods in his disguise, thus addressed
him in words of dreadful anger :-O depraved wretch, assuming
my form you have perpetrated this great crime! Therefore from
3
18
AHAN-AHAR
this moment do you become a eunuch! The great sage then pro-
nounced this curse upon his wife Ahalyá :-'O sinful wretch, 'for
thousands of years shall you remain in the forest, abandoned by all
and invisible to all, until Ráma, the son of Dasaratha, shall enter
here, and you from beholding him shall be cleansed from all sin,
and again approach me without fear.' With these words the illus-
trious Gautama abandoned this hermitage, and performed religious
austerities on the summit of the Himálaya mountains.
Having heard this holy legend, Ráma entered the hermitage,
preceded by Viswámitra ; and at that moment, Ahalyá was released
from her curse, and became visible to all; and a shower of flowers
fell from heaven, and divine music was heard in the sky. Then
the illustrious Gautama, beholding with divine eye that his consort
was cleansed from all sin, repaired again to his hermitage; and
having paid due honors to Ráma, he engaged in sacred austerities
with his purified spouse. And Ráma proceeded to Mithilá with his
brother and Viswamitra.-It is said that Indra means the sun, and
Ahalya, the night; and as the night is seduced and ruined by the
sun of the morning therefore is Indra called the paramour of Ahalyá.
Ahankara-Consciousness, or Egotism. The sense of Ahan-
kára, says Professor Wilson, cannot be very well rendered by any
European term. It means the principle of individual existence,
that which appropriates perceptions, and on which depend the
notions, I think, I feel, I am. It might be expressed by the pro-
prosition of Descartes reversed. Sum, ergo cotigo, sentio,' &c. The
equivalent employed by Mr. Colebrooke, egotism, has the advantage
of an analogous etymology. In the Sáukya Kárika three varieties
of Ahankara are described. From the first kind proceed the senses;
from the third the unconscious elements; both kinds being equally
inert of themselves, are rendered productive by the co-operation of
the second, the energetic modification of Ahankára, which is there-
fore said to be the origin both of the senses and the elements.
Colloquially “Ahankára” is still in common use throughout India
in the sense of pride, or great conceit.
Ahar-Day. One of the forms of Bramha during the work of
Creation. V. P., p. 40.
AHI-AJA
19
Ahikshetra-The capital of the northern portion of Pánchála,
supposed to be the same as Adisathrus in Ptolemy.
Airavata—The king of elephants, produced from the churning
of the ocean, and taken by Indra, who subsequently used it as his
vehicle. The name has been derived from Iravat "watery," and
supposed to allude to the north, as the quarter whence rain comes, or
to the original idea of a cloud, in which Indra as the king of clouds,
is mounted, and therefore called his elephant. Professor Wilson
refers it to the fact of his being produced from the watery ocean;
2, Airavata is also the name of the north portion of the sun's path
among the lunar asterisms; 3, The name of a celebrated serpent
with many heads, one of the progeny of Kadru.
Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rig Veda: this work contains
the earliest speculations of the Brahmans on the meaning of the
Sacrificial Prayers, and on the origin, performance, and meaning of
the Rites of the Vedic Religion. It consists of forty Adyhayas.
Translated and edited by Dr. Martin Haug, 2 vols. 12 mo., Bom-
bay, 1863.
Aitareya-aranyaka-A commentary on the beginning of the
Rig Veda. It is ascribed to Mahidasu the son of Itará.
Aja―The unborn. A name of Bramha; of Siva ; of Vishnu ;
also of Káma, or Cupid. Aja is also the proper name of a mythical
prince, the son of Raghu, and father of Dasaratha. This prince
forms the subject of the first and longest of Mr. Griffiths' beautiful
Idylls from the Sanscrit. The story is taken from the Raghu-
vansa of Kálidása. (See Raghu.) The childhood and youth of
Aja are described in glowing terms, and in due course he was sent
by his father to the Swayamvara of the princess Indumati Dévi,
daughter of the Raja of Vidarbha. On his way thither while
resting in the heat of the day, the encampment was disturbed by a
wild elephant which Aja ordered to be shot. On being pierced
by an arrow a figure of great splendour issued from the body of
the elephant; and standing in mid-air thus spoke: "Aja Maháráya,
I was formerly a gandharva, but for mocking a holy rishi was
cursed to be born in an insane elephant; but on my begging for
20
AJAG-AJAN
mercy was told I should be released by the son of Raghu Mahárája,
called Aja, when on his way to be married." He then gave Aja
the arrows used by the gandharvas and instructed him in the use
of them.
On arriving at the capital of Vidarbharáya he was treated with.
great respect, and was selected from amongst all the assembled
princes by the fair Indumati Dévi, who intimated her choice by
herself placing the garland on the neck of Aja. In the contests
that ensued with the other disappointed suitors Aja obtained a com-
plete victory by means of the arrows received from the gandharva.
He then returned to his father's kingdom, with his lovely bride;
succeeded to the throne, and reigned wisely and well for many
years.
After the birth of his distinguished son Dasaratha (father of
Ráma) his beloved wife Indumati Dévi was killed by the fall of
Nárada's garland, when asleep in an arbor of the summer palace.
On Dasaratha's attaining his majority Aja is said to have ascended
to Indra's paradise, leaving his body between the rivers Ganges
and Sarayu.
Ajagava-The bow of Mahádéva which fell from the sky, at
the birth of Prithu, with celestial arrows and panoply from heaven.
Ajaka-1, A descendant of Purúravas, the son of Sumanta
(or according to others of Sunaha) and grandson of Jahnu; 2, A
king of Magadha of the line of Pradyota.
Ajamadha—1, A son of Suhotra and author of vaidic hymns;
2, The twenty-sixth king of the lunar dynasty; 3, A surname
of Yudhishthira, the friend of Aja.
Ajamidha-A son of Hastin, the founder of the celebrated
city of Hastinapura, finally ruined by the encroachments of the
Ganges, but vestiges of which were lately to be traced along the
river nearly in a line with Delhi, about 60 miles to the east.
Ajanta-A river in the hills below the river Tapti, to the
north of Bombay. "In this ravine, somewhere about the first
century of our era, Buddhists began to excavate architectural
AJA-AJI
21
caves. There are twenty-six in all, and of these twenty-two are
conventual abodes, whilst the remaining four are Chaitya halls or
places of worship." A. and M. I., p. 401. A full description of
these caves is given in Fergusson's History of Architecture. It is
seen from the costume carefully represented in the pictures at
Ajanta, that the Hindus still dress in the fashion that then pre-
vailed; and which was described by the Greeks who accompanied
Alexander the Great to India, as consisting of two cloths, one
reaching to the middle of the leg, whilst another is folded around
the shoulders. The cloth is described as being made from wool
which grows in trees.
Ajapas-Sons of Kardama, Pitris of the Vaisyas, called also
Kávyas and Suswadhas.
Ajapashya-A surname of Rájívalóchana, the son of Swéta-
karna; his sides were black like the skin of certain goats, when he
was drawn out of the water, after having been found exposed by
his mother and purified by two sons of Sravishta.
Ajavithi― A division of the lunar mansions.
Ajigarta-A Rishi mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana. He
lived in the forests with his three sons Sunapuchha, Sunahṣepha
and Sunolángúla. He sold his son Sunahṣepha to be offered as a
sacrifice, showing that the Brahmans at that early period were
familiar with the idea of human sacrifices. "If we accept the
Áryan origin of Ajigarta, the seller and butcher of his own son, it
is important to remark how great a difference there must have been
between the various Áryan settlers in India
*
*
*
Yet there remains the fact that, with all the vaunted civilization
of the higher Áryan classes, there were Áryan people in India to
whom not only a young prince could make the offer of buying their
children, but where the father offered himself to bind and kill the
son whom he had sold for a hundred cows."*
Ajita-A form of Vishnu. "The unequalled energy of Vishnu
combining with the quality of goodness, and effecting the preserva-
tion of created things, presides over all the Manwantaras, in the
form of a divinity." V. P., p. 264.
*Max Müller, A. S. L., p. 415.
22
AJI—AKR
Ajita-Unconquered; unexcelled.-1, The proper name of
several gods and persons, viz., Vishnu, Siva; 2, One of the seven
Rishis who preside during the reigu of the fourteenth Manu
2, A name of Maitreya or a future Buddha; 4, The second of
the Arhats or Jaina saints of the present Avasarpini; 5, The
attendant of the ninth Jaina Arhat; 6, A descendant of Iksh-
wáku and a son of Jitasatru by Vijaya.
Ajitas-A class of deities whose history is thus given. In the
beginning of the Kalpa twelve gods named Jayas were created by
Brahma, as his deputies and assistants in the creation. They, lost
in meditation, neglected his commands; on which he cursed them
to be repeatedly born in each Manwantara till the seventh. In
the first they became Ajitas.
Ajnana-A technical term used in the Védánta system,
meaning "ignorance," which the Vedántists declare is a somewhat
that is not to be called positively either entity or non-entity--
not a mere negation but the opponent of knowledge, consisting of
the three fetters. According to the Naiyáyikas ajnána is merely
the non-existence, or negation, (abháva) of jnána. To deny this
the writer calls it bháva, implying that it is not abháva.
Akali-(Immortals). Zealots of the Sikh religion, soldiers of
God, who with their blue dress and bracelets of steel, claimed for
themselves a direct institution by Govindh Singh. They combined
warlike activity with the relinquishment of the world, and became
the armed guardians of Amritsir. It cost Ranjit Singh much time
and trouble to reduce them to order.
Akanithaka-The name of the twenty-second heaven of
Buddhism.
Akasa-Ether, the medium of sound. A very important
'element' in the philosophy of the Puránas. See V. P., p. 16, 17.
Akasavani-A divine manifestation, in which the deity is
heard but not seen.
Akrura-The son of Swaphalka and Gandíní who took charge
of the celebrated Syamantaka jewel from Satadhanwan, when he
AKS-AKU
23
was pursued by Krishna; and through the virtue of that gem
there was no dearth nor pestilence in the whole country. When
Krishna discovered that the precious jewel was in Akrúra's pos-
session he desired him to retain it; Akrúra, thus urged, afterwards
wore it publicly round his neck, where it shone with dazzling
brightness; and he moved about like the sun, wearing a garland of
light. Akrúra conveyed Krishna and Rama, when youths, to
Mathura, where Krishna performed some of his great exploits.
Aksha-A son of the great giant Rávana, who was slain by
Hanuman.
Akshata-Grains of rice tinged with a reddish hue, placed
by the husband on the head of the infant after the ceremony of
Arati, and after the women have retired.
Akshohini-An Army consisting of 109,350 infantry; 65,610
cavalry; 21,870 chariots; and 21,870 elephants.
Akuli-The name of one of the priests of the Asuras. It was
he who with another priest of the same class called Kiláta, obtained
permission from Manu to sacrifice for him, and took for the victim
first a bull of Manu's into which an Asura-slaying voice had entered.
When it had been slaughtered the voice departed out of it and
entered into Manu's wife Manávi. "Wherever they hear her
speaking, the Asuras and Rákshasas continue to be destroyed in
The Asuras said: 'She does us yet
consequence of her voice.
more mischief; for the human voice speaks more.' Kiláta and
Akuli said, 'Manu is a devout believer: let us make trial of him!'
They came and said to him 'Manu, let us sacrifice for thee !' With
what (victim)?' he asked. With this (thy) wife,' they replied.
'Be it so,' he answered. When she had been slaughtered the
voice departed out of her and entered into the sacrifice and the
sacrificial vessels. Thence they were unable to expel it. This is
the Asura-slaying voice which speaks out (when the two stones
are struck with the samyá, as a part of the ceremonial). Wretched
become the enemies of that man for whom, when he knows this,
they cause this voice here to reverberate.”*
Muir's O. S. T., vol. 1, p. 189,
24
AKU-ALL
Akuti-1, The second daughter of Sváyámbhuva Manu and
his wife Saturúpa, the first pair. She was 'graced with loveliness
and exalted merit.' She was married to Rúchi, and had twins.
Yajna and Dakshiná, who afterwards became husband and wife,
and had twelve sons, the deities called Yamas. Dr. Muir remarks
that the word is found in the Rig Veda with the signification of
"will" or design;" but appears to be personified in a passage of
the Taittiriya Brahmana, where it is said. "Ira was the wife of
the creators. Akúti kueaded the oblation." O. S. T., Vol. 1,
p. 73. 2, Also the name of the wife of Chakshush.
Alaka-King over the earth for sixty thousand and sixty
hundred years; this protracted existence was enjoyed through the
favor of Lópamudra, and having lived till the period at which the
curse on Kási terminated, he killed the Rákshasa Kshemaka by
whom the city had been occupied after it was abandoned by
Divodásu, and caused the city to be re-inhabited.
Alaka-The Himalayan residence of Kuvera the god of riches.
It is termed in the "Cloud Messenger" the City of the Blessed ;
and is described as unmatched for lovely girls, who learn to choose
the flowers that suit them best.
"The amaranth, bright glory of the spring;
The lotus gathered from the summer flood;
Acacias taught around their brows to cling;
The jasmine's fragrant white their locks to stud;
And bursting at thy rain the young Kadamba bud."*
Alakananda-One of the four great branches of the river
Ganges, which was carried by Siva upon his head for a hundred
years; and was the river which raised to heaven the sinful sons of
Sagara, by washing their ashes.
Alambana-The exercise of the Yógi while endeavouring to
bring before his thoughts the gross form of the Supreme Being.
It also means the silent repetition of prayer.
Allama Prabhu-Among the Vira Saivas a lesser incarna-
Griffiths' Translation.
ALL-ALU
25
tion, or form of Siva. He appears to have been a Brahman, who
acted in close concert with the elder Basava; whether as a primary
instigator, or subsequent accomplice, is not clear. But he became
Basava's guru or spiritual adviser, and, as such, was concerned in
the revolution at Kalyánapuri, in which the king Bijala was slain,
and a new religion established. The Prabhu linga lila is a popular
poem, in Telugu, and composed expressly in order to magnify the
great excellencies of Allamá prabhu as a form of Siva, and
especially his chastity, that resisted all the fascinations of the
támasa guna or evil portion of Parvati; which became incarnate
"In the
as a woman, Máya or Frans, in order to tempt him.
Basava puránam, Allamá prabhu is stated to have travelled
about, and especially to Sri Sailam in Telingana, performing
various wonders, and possessed of a body invulnerable. No
record of the manner of his death has been observed."-(Taylor.)
There is a good abstract of Prabhu-linga líla, by C. P. Brown, in
the Catalogue Raisonné, vol. 2, p. 838.
Alloo-A raw hide used by the Rájputs to cover themselves
when they assert their claim to a disputed piece of land.
Aluvar-Rulers; twelve heads and original leaders of the
Vaishnava faith in the Peninsula only. They were born in various
places, and lived in different times. To understand their office and
importance the reader must be apprized that the Saiva system first
obtained a hold and influence in the Peninsula; and, in some
instances, by exterminating the Buddhists or Jains who preceded
them. The Vaishnavas, on their coming, had not only to deal with
a rude and savage people, following superstitious customs, some of
which continue to the present day, but also had to contend with
the astute and powerful Saivas already in possession; and some-
times in the way of public disputation-as at Villiputtúr in the
Pandya kingdom, at Uriyur in the Chola kingdom, and at Srí
Permattúr in the Tondamandalam. These, or others, were engag-
ed in translating portions of the Vedas into Tamil poetry, now
known as the Tiru-morhi or sacred word. Different books exist,
containing in all many thousand stanzas, said to indicate the idiom
of foreigners. Twelve individuals, distinguished in these or other
4
26
AMARA-AMARAV
ways in the first establishment of Vaishnavism, were named Aluvar;
and are regarded with high veneration by modern votaries. An
approximation towards deification has been assigned, by metaphori-
cally viewing them as incarnations of Vishnu's arms, ornaments, or
attendants. Their names in order are-1, Poyálvār; 2, Puthatál-
vār; 3, Péyálvár; 4, Tirumal Péyálvár; 5, Namálvár; 6, Kula-
sec'harálvár; 7, Periyálvar; 8, Tirupanálvár; 9, Tirumangayal-
vár; 10, Tondamálvár; 11, Yempramanár, or Yetirája, or Rāmá-
nujáchárya; 12, Kurattálvár.- Taylor.
Amara Kosha-A celebrated Sauscrit Vocabulary which is
found in a more or less perfect state in all Indian languages. Like
most other Sanscrit Dictionaries it is arranged in verse to aid the
memory. Synonymous words are collected into one or more verses,
and placed in fifteen different chapters, which treat of as many
different subjects. The sixteenth contains a few homonymous
terms arranged alphabetically, in the Indian manner, by the final
consonants. The seventeenth chapter is a pretty full catalogue of
indeclinables, which European philologists would call adverbs, pre-
positions, conjunctions, and interjections, but which Sanscrit gram-
marians consider as indeclinable nouns. The last chapter of the
Amara Kósha is a treatise on the gender of nouns. See Cole-
brooke's Essay on the Sanscrit and Prácrit Languages.
Amara Sinha-The author of the Amara Kósha. He was
also an eminent poet, and one of the nine gems, as these poets
were termed, who were the ornaments of Vicramaditya's court.
Unfortunately he held the tenets of a heterodox sect, and his
poems perished in the persecutions fomented by intolerant
philosophers against the persons and writings of both Jainas and
Buddhists.
Amaravati-The capital of Indra, built by Visvakarma, the
architect of the gods. It is described as 800 miles in circumfer-
ence, and 40 miles high. Its pillars are composed of diamonds; its
thrones of pure gold; it is surrounded with gardens and fountains,
while music and dancing entertain the celestial inhabitants. There
is a ruined town called Amarávati on the banks of the river Kistna
containing numerous antiquities in the form of sculptures, all of
AMA-AMB
27
Buddhist origin. Sir Walter Elliot and Mr. Fergusson made consi-
derable explorations there. The ruined Dágoba whence the relics.
were taken was on a mound of 150 feet diameter, now converted
into a tank. It is called Dípaldiuna, the Mound of Light.
6
Amavasya-The day of conjunction,' just before new-moon
—a fast day for all brahmans.
Amba-The eldest daughter of the Rája of Kási. She was
taken with her two sisters by Bhishma, when he conveyed them
away from the Swayamvara to be the wives of Rája Vichitravírya.
But on the day when the marriage was to be performed, Amba
said that her father had already betrothed her to the Rája of Salwa,
and prayed that she might be sent to him. Bhishma accordingly
sent her under a safe conduct, to the Rája of Salwa, and Ambá
related how she had been carried away, and had now come to fulfil
her betrothal; but the Rája of Salwa said, "You have entered the
dwelling of a strange man and I will not take you to be my wife
and ordered his servants to drive her from the city she went into
the jungle and perished miserably. (Malá bhárata) Another
legend says she was born again as a man named Sikhandin and slew
Bhishma the author of all her misfortunes.
:
•
Amba and Ambika-Names of Parvati, the Sakti of Siva.
Ambi and Ambalika-The sisters of Ambá, who became the
two widowed wives of Vichitravírya, on whom the Muni Vyása
begot Dritarashtra and Pándu. See Vyása.
Ambarisha-1, The son of the great monarch Mándhatri.
He had fifty sisters, all of whom were married to the sage Saub-
hari; 2, The name of several other princes mentioned in the
Puránic histories.
Ambhansi--A mystic term for the four classes of beings, gods,
demons, men, and pitris. It means literally waters.'
6
Ambha Matha, a Jaina goddess, still worshipped in various
parts of India. The ruins of many beautiful temples erected to
her may be seen in the high hills of Marwar.
Ambea-The mother of the Kurus, a race of heroes or demi-
gods related to the Pandus.
28
AMI-AMR
Amitabha-The Lord of the Munis, a deity in the Buddhist
Pantheon.
Amogavarsha-The Jain king of Kánchi, or Tondamanda-
lam, at the end of the ninth century of the Christian era. The
principal Jain Puránas are supposed to have been written in his
reign, by the king's spiritual preceptor Jina Séna Achárya.
Amogha Siddha-The remover of the ills of the Kali age; a
deity in the Buddhist Pantheon to whom prayers are made and
offerings addressed.― Wilson.
Amrita Ambrosia. The beverage of immortality. It was
produced at the churning of the ocean, a legend with which all
Hindus are familiar, and is said to have occurred in the following
way; When the gods were overcome by the Dánavas, they fled
for refuge to Vishnu and sought his protection and advice. Hari,
the creator of the universe, being thus prayed to by the prostrate
divinities, smiled, and thus spake with renovated energy, "Oh gods,
I will restore your strength. Do you act as I enjoin? Let all the
gods, associated with the Asuras, cast all sorts of medicinal herbs
into the sea of milk; and then taking the mountain Mandara for
the churning-stick, the serpent Vásuki for the rope, churn the
ocean together for Ambrosia; depending upon my aid. To secure
the assistance of the Daityas, you must be at peace with them, and
engage to give them an equal portion of the fruit of your associat-
ed toil; promising them that by drinking the Amrita that shall be
produced from the agitated ocean, they shall become mighty and
immortal. I will take care that the enemies of the gods shall not
partake of the precious draught; that they shall share in the labor
alone."
66
Being thus instructed by the god of gods, the divinities entered
into alliance with the demons, and they jointly undertook the
acquirement of the beverage of immortality. They collected
various kinds of medicinal herbs, and cast them into the sea of
milk, the waters of which were radiant as the shining clouds of
autumn. They then took the mountain Mandara for the staff;
the serpent Vásuki [see Ananta] for the cord; and commenced
to churn the ocean for the Amrita. The assembled gods were
AMR
29
stationed by Vishnu at the tail of the serpent; the Daityas and
Dánavas at its head and neck. Scorched by the flames emitted from
his inflated hood, the demons were shorn of their glory; whilst
the clouds driven towards his tail by the breath of his mouth,
refreshed the gods with revivifying showers. In the midst of the
milky sea, Hari himself, in the form of a tortoise; served as a
pivot for the mountain, as it was whirled around. The holder of
the mace and discus was present in other forms amongst the gods
and demons, and assisted to drag the monarch of the serpent race :
and in another vast body he sat upon the summit of the mountain.
With one portion of his energy, unseen by gods or demous, he
sustained the serpent king; and with another infused vigour into
the gods.
"From the ocean, thus churned by the gods and dánavas, first up-
rose the cow Surabha, the fountain of milk, and curds, worshipped
by the divinities, and beheld by them and their associates with
minds disturbed, and eyes glistening with delight. Then, as the
holy Siddhas in the sky wondered what this could be, appeared
the goddess Váruní [the deity of wine,] her eyes rolling with
intoxication. Next, from the whirlpool of the deep, sprang the
celestial Párijáta tree, the delight of the nymphs of heaven, per-
fuming the world with its blossoms. The troop of Apsarasas, the
nymphs of heaver, were then produced, of surprising loveliness,
endowed with beauty and with taste. The cool-rayed moon next
rose, and was seized by Mahádéva: and then poison was engendered
from the sea, of which the snake gods (Nágas) took possession.
Dhanwantari, robed in white, and bearing in his hand the cup of
Amrita, next came forth; beholding which, the sons of Diti and
of Danu, as well as the Munis, were filled with satisfaction and
delight. Then, seated on a full-blown lotus, and holding a water-
lily in her hand, the goddess Srí, radiant with beauty, rose from
the waves. The great sages, enraptured, hymned her with the
song dedicated to her praise. Viswavasu and other heavenly quiris-
ters sang, and Ghirtachí and other celestial nymphs danced before
her. Gangá and other holy streams attended for her ablutions ;
and the elephants of the skies, taking up their pure waters in
vases of gold, poured them over the goddess, the queen of the
30
ANA
universal world. The sea of milk in person presented her with
a wreath of never-fading flowers; and the artist of the gods (Vis-
wakarmá) decorated her person with heavenly ornaments. Thus
bathed, attired, and adorned, the goddess, in the view of the celes-
tials, cast herself upon the breast of Hari, and there reclining,
turned her eyes upon the deities, who were inspired with rapture
by her gaze. Not so the Daityas, who, with Viprachitti at their
head, were filled with indignation, as Vishnu turned away from
them, and they were abandoned by the goddess of prosperity
(Lakshmí).
"The powerful and indignant Daityas then forcibly seized the
Amrita-cup that was in the hand of Dhanwantarí: but Vishnu,
assuming a female form, fascinated and deluded them; and recov-
ering the Amrita from them, delivered it to the gods. Sakra and
the other deities quaffed the Ambrosia. The incensed demons,
grasping their weapons, fell upon them; but the gods, into whom
the Ambrosial draught had infused new vigour, defeated and put
their host to flight, and they fled through the regions of space, and
plunged into the subterraneous realms of Pátála. The gods thereat
greatly rejoiced, did homage to the holder of the discus and mace,
and resumed their reign in heaven. The sun shone with renovated
splendour, and again discharged his appointed task; and the celes-
tial luminaries again circled, in their respective orbits. Fire once
more blazed aloft, beautiful in splendour; and the minds of all
beings were animated by devotion. The three worlds again were
rendered happy by prosperity; and Indra the chief of the gods, was
restored to power." (V. P., p. 77.) The legend as given in the
Rámáyana may be found in Carey's Translation, Vol. I, p. 410-
and that of the Mahá Bhárata in Sir C. Wilkins' Bhagavat Gíta--
Bangalore edit., p. 105.
Anabhitra-A proper name of; 1, A prince of the solar race,
a descendant of Sagara, son of Nighna and brother of Raghu, the
fifty-second king of Ayodhyá; 2, a son of the king Kroshtu or
Kroshtri by Gándhári and father of Sini or, according to others, a
grandson of Vrishni, son of Sumitra by Mádri and brother to Sini;
or, again, a grandson of Dhrishta, son of Sumitra, &c.
ANA-ANAR
31
Anadi-chitta-para-meshti-Eternal intellectual heavenly
dweller; the Jain name of the Supreme Being, the Lord of all,
who dwells in Móksha-lóka, the world of bliss.
Ananganu-A name of Cupid, the Hindu god of love.
Ananta-Infinite. Called also Sésha or Vásuki. The king of
the Nágas, a race of serpents which inhabit Pátála. He belongs
purely to the Puránic period, and is described as having a thou-
sand hooded-heads, on the foreheads of which was inscribed the
sign called Swastika, the mystic cross which betokens good for-
tune. He is clothed in purple and wears a white necklace. In one
hand he holds a plough, in the other a pestle. At the end of each
kalpa he vomits a venomous fire which destroys all creation. He
bears the universe on his head and produces earthquakes whenever
he yawns. On his body Vishnu reposes, during the intervals of
creation, and is sheltered by his hoods which stretch out above
him like a canopy. He proved a very useful personage at the
churning of the ocean; the gods seizing his tail and the demons.
his head, they twisted him round Mount Meru, and thus formed a
churn on a large scale.-J. C. Thomson.
Ananta-1, A name of Vishnu or Krishna; 2, a name of
Baladeva, the elder brother of Krishna; 3, a name of Siva ; 4, a
name of Rudra, in an Upanishad of the Atharvana veda; 5, a name
of Sésha, the chief of the Nágas or serpent race as described
above the couch and constant attendant of Vishnu ; 6, a
name of Vásuki, another king of the serpents, the brother of the
former; 7, a name of one of the Viswadevas; 8, the name of the
fourteenth of the twenty-four Arhats or Jaina deified saints of the
present Avasarpini; 9, the name of a king of Kashmír ; 10, a pro-
per name common to several authors, &c.
Ananda Giri—A Sanscrit author who lived about the 10th
century and wrote several works which are still extant and of
some value: among them are the Sankara Dig Vijaya, the Life of
Sankaracharya, &c.
Anaranya-A venerable patriarch whose daughter Pushka-
rani, was mother of the Manu Chakshusa.
32
ANA-AND
Anasuya Charity. The daughter of Daksha and wife of
Atri, celebrated for her piety and virtue. Atri introduced her to
Síta, to whom she gave an ointment to render her "beautiful for
ever."
Andakataha-The shell of the mundane egg. Beyond the
sea of fresh water is a region of twice its extent, where the land is
of gold, and where no living beings reside. Thence extends the
Lóká-lóka mountain, which is 10,000 yojanas in breadth, and as
many in height; and beyond it perpetual darkness invests the
mountain all around; which darkness is again encompassed by the
shell of the egg.
Andhaka-A proper name of: 1, a demon, a son of Kasyapa
and Diti with a thousand arms and heads, two thousand eyes and
feet, and called Andhaka, because he walked like a blind man
although he saw very well; in his attempt to take away the Pári-
játa tree of Swarga he was slain by Siva; 2, a grandson of Krosh-
tri, and son of Yuddhájita, who together with his brother Vrishni
is the ancestor of the celebrated family of the Andhaka-Vrishnis ;
3, a grandson of Vrishni (the brother of Andhaka), and son of
Swaphalka by Gándiní; 4, a son of Sattwat, belonging to the same
family, by Kausalya; 5, a son of Bhima (of the same family) and
father of Revata. [The foregoing lineage, 2-5, is taken from the
Harivansa. In the Linga Purána an Andhaka is a son of Nahusha
who, according to other Puránas, is the ancestor of Kroshtri; in
the Kúrma Purána an Andhaka is a son of Ansa and father of
Sáttwata, while in the Vishnu P. a prince of that name is men-
tioned as the son of Sáttwata who is apparently the same as the
Sáttwat of the Hariv.]; 6, The name of a Muni (in the Padma
Purána.)
Andhra kings, dynasty of, celebrated in the south of India
from a very early period. Professor Wilson makes it commence
about 20 years B.C., though they might not have established their
authority in Magadhá until the first centuries of the Christian era.
They are noticed by Pliny.
Andhra Dipaca-An old and very good Dictionary of the
Telugu language, by Mámidi Vencaya.
AND-ANG
33
Andhra-The Sanscrit name for the Telugu language. Andhra
is the ancient name of Telingana, the Telugu country.
Andrajatias--The same as Andhras, the Telugu people, or
inhabitants of Telingana, formerly called Gentoos.
Anga-1, A name of a minor Dwipa, peopled by Mlechchhas
who worship Hindu divinities; 2, A country in the neighbourhood
of Bhagulpur. It is the scene of several of the legends of the
Rámáyana. A dynasty of Buddhist Rajas reigned at Anga about
the second century of the Christian era under the name of Karnas;
and it is thought that the Brahmanical compilers of the Mahábhá-
rata wished to establish a mythical connection between the Karna
who fought in the great war, and the Karna Rajas of Anga who
flourished at a much later period.
Anga-The eldest of the six sons of Uru, a descendant of
Dhruva, of the famlly of Atri. Anga who had by his wife Sunitha,
only one son named Vena, whose right arm was rubbed by the
Rishis for the purpose of producing from it progeny. (See Prithu.)
Angada-A son of Lackshmana, king of Angadí, and brother
of Ráma; 2, the son of Vali, who was installed Yuvaraja of Kish-
kindha ; 3, a son of Gada by Vrihati.
Anganyasa karanyasa-The mantras used in the early
morning by Brahmans, with certain motions of their fingers, and
touching various parts of their bodies.
Angaja―(Lust). A son of Brahma. The virtues and vices are
represented as the progeny of Bramha.
Angaraka-A Rudra. There are eleven well-known Rudras,
lords of the three worlds; but each one of the eleven has many
appellations in the different Puranas.
Angaras-One of the peoples enumerated in the V. P.
Angas-There are six Angas, or subsidiary portions of the
Vedas, viz :-Śiksha, rules for reciting the prayers, the accents and
tones to be observed; Kalpa, ritual; Vyakarana, grammar; Nirukta,
glossarial comment; Chhandas, metre; and Jyotish, astronomy.
The four Vedas, the six Angas, with Mimánsa, theology; Nyáya,
logic; Dharma, the institutes of law, and the Puránas, constitute
the fourteen principal branches of knowledge.
5
10
34
ANG-ANGI
Angiras-A Prajapati who married Smriti (memory) one of
the daughters of Daksha. He is the reputed author of many
vaidik hymns, but is mentioned also in a subsequent period as one
of the inspired legislators of India, and as the author of an astrono-
mical work. "The various legends connected with his life seem
to have been occasioned by the word Angiras coming from the
same radical as, and its sound recalling that of Agui, fire (q. v.)
Hence we find Angiras sometimes either as an epithet or as the
father of Agni, and the saint himself connected chiefly with such
hymns as are addressed to Agni, to Indra or to deities of a kindred
description: a portion of the fourth Veda, the Atharvan, reports
him also as an expounder of the Bramhavidyá (q. v.) or the sacred
knowledge that had been imparted to him by Satyavaha, a descend-
ant of Bharadvaja. Though Angiras, as may be concluded from
his name being connected with the authorship of a great portion of
the sacred Hindu literature, appears to have been one of the oldest
civilizers of India, no historical date is to be obtained from the
epic or puránic literature where the vaidik legends of his life are
merely amplified; there he is named as one of the Prajápatis or
progenitors of mankind, engendered, according to some by Manu,
according to others by Brahmá himself, either with the female half
of his body or from his mouth, or from the space between his eye-
brows. As such he is considered also as one of the seven Rishis
who preside over the reign of the first Manu, or Svayambhuva.
He is called, besides, the priest of the Gods, the Lord of the Sacri-
fice, &c. Sometimes he is considered as a son of Uru by Agnéyí,
the daughter of Agni. His daughters are the Richas (or vaidik
hymns) and also Sasvati, Sinívali, Kuhú, Raka, Anumati; his sons
are Samvarta, the manes called Havishmats, Utathaya, Brihaspati,
Markandeya; his wives, Smriti (traditional science), two daugh-
ters of Daksha, Swadha and Satí, and Sraddha, the daughter of
the sage Kardama. As an astronomical personification he is Bri-
haspati himself, or the regent of the planet Jupiter and presides
over the sixtli year of the cycle of sixty years."— Goldstücker.
Angirasas-Warrior priests. These who were kshatryas by
birth, the heads of the family of Rathinara, were called Angirasas
(sons of Angiras) and were brahmans as well as kshatryas. "This
ANIL-ANIR
35
affords an instance of a mixture of character, of which several
similar cases occur. Kshatryas by birth become brahmans by pro-
fession, and such persons are usually considered as Angirasas,
descendants or followers of Augiras, who may have founded a
school of warrior priests."-Wilson.
Anila-(Wind) Vasu. The deities called Vasus, because, pre-
ceded by fire, they abound in splendour and might, are severally
named Apa, Dhruva, Soma, Dhava (fire), Anila (wind), Anala (fire),
Pratúsha (daybreak) and Prabhása, (eight); 2, The son of Tansu
and father of Dushyanta; 3, A Rákshasa.
Anima-A superhuman faculty, or the possession of a divine
influence to be attained by austere devotion; or the faculty of
assuming an atomic, subtle, invisible, supreme condition of existence,
supposed to be attainable by men through a course of austerities,
attended with magical rites, in honor of Śiva and Párvati.
66 a
Aniruddha-The son of Pradyumna. He is described as
powerful and gallant prince, who was fierce in fight, au ocean of
prowess, and the tamer of his foes." He was beloved by Usha,
daughter of Bána. Her companion Chitralékha, being endowed
with magic power, set off through the air to Dwáraká, and returned
bringing Aniruddha along with her to the palace of Bána. The
guards discovering him there with Usha reported it to the king,
who sent a body of his followers to seize the prince; but the valiant
youth slew his assailants, on which Bána advanced against him
and endeavoured to kill him. Finding however that Aniruddha
was not to be subdued by prowess, he brought his magical faculties
into the conflict, by which he succeeded in capturing the Yadu
prince and binding him in serpent bonds. When Aniruddha was
missed from Dwáraka, and the Yádavas were enquiring of one
another whither he had gone, Nárada came to them and told them
he was the prisoner of Bána. Krishna immediately summoned
Garuda, who came with a wish, and mounting upon him, along with
Bala and Pradyumna, he set off for the city of Bána. A great battle
then took place in which Krishna with his discuss lopped away the
thousand arms of Bána, and would have killed him but for the
36
ANJ-ANT
Krishna then went to the place
The fetters that bound him were
interference of Śiva on his behalf.
where Aniruddha was confined.
destroyed, being blasted by the breath of Garuda; and Krishna,
placing him, along with his wife Usha, on the celestial bird, returned
with Pradyumna and Ráma to Dwaraka." V. P. Professor Wilson
thinks that the legend describes a serious struggle between the
Saivas and Vaishnavas in which the latter were victorious.
Anjaka-One of the Dánavas, a son of Viprachitti, of the
families of the Daityas.
Anjan-The second elephant of Indra.
Anjana-A serpent with many heads, one of the progeny of
Kadru, V. P., V. I., c. 21.
Anrita-Falsehood, son of Adharma, (vice) married to Nikriti,
they had two sons, Bhaya (fear) and Naraka (hell), and twins to
them two daughters, Máya (deceit) and Vedanú (torture), who
became their wives. In the Rámáyana, Anrita is the name of one
of the mystical weapons delivered by Ráma to Viswámitra.
Ansa-One of the twelve Ádityás. V. P., p. 122.
Ansuman-A mythical rája of the solar race, the son of
Asamanj, and father of Dilípa. He was the grandson of Sagara,
who was sent by him to recover the sacrificial steed, Ansumat
having arrived at the place of the great Rishi, Kapila, prayed to
him and so propitiated him, that the saint gave up the horse and
predicted his future greatness. Sagara on recovering the steed.
completed his sacrifice.
"Prince Anṣumán, the strong and brave
Followed the rede Suparna gave,
The glorious hero took the horse,
And homeward quickly bent his course."-Griffiths.
Ansaumti-A river mentioned in the Rig Veda, on the banks.
of which Krishna the Dasyu was conquered by Rája Rigiswan.
Antacharas-A class of Border tribes, mentioned in the V. P.
Antariksha-A Vyasa, son of Kinnara, the arranger of the
Védas in the thirteenth Dwápara. The great Rishis are said in the
ANU-ANUK
37
V. P. to have arranged the Védas twenty-eight times, a list is
given of the twenty-eight Vyásas of the present Manwantara ; 2,
A king of the family of Ikshwáku, a son of Kinnara and father of
Suvarna.
Anu-A son of Yayáti who was made by his father king of
the North to govern as viceroy under his younger brother Puru,
whom he appointed supreme monarch of the earth.
Anubhavamrita—A vairágya treatise, which exists only in
the Dravidian languages, and appears to be entirely unknown in other
parts of India. Dr. Ballantyne informed the writer in 1852 that
none of the pandits in the Benares College knew of the work : it
contains a treatise on the Upanishads,—a sort of exposition of
Pantheism-shows that the existence of a material world cannot be
proved--that all is Máya-recommends retirement from domestic life
and meditation, in order to the soul's purification and final beatitude.
Anugraha-The eighth creation, which possesses both the
qualities of goodness and darkness. This seems to have been taken
from the Sánkya philosophy, and is described in the Padma, Linga,
and Matsya Puránas. It is the creation of which we have a notion,
or to which we give assent (anugraha) in contradiction to organic
creation, or that existence of which we have sensible perception.
Anugraha-sarga—A technical phrase meaning "Benevolent
Nature," one of the Aphorisms of the Sánkhya Philosophy as stated
in the Compendium of Principles. "Benevolent creation" it is said
consists of the production of external objects from the five subtile
elements, viz., of sound, tangibility, colour, savour, odour. Bramha
perceiving these (the senses) to be destitute of a sphere of action,
created external objects, or "benevolent nature."
Anuhlada-Son of Hiranyakasipu, and brother of the wise
Práhlada, the augmenter of the Daitya race [Práhlada.]
Anukramanis-Systematic indices to various portions of the
ancient Vaidic literature. The most perfect Anukramaní is that of
the Sanhita of the Rig Véda. It is ascribed to Kátyáyaná, an
author chiefly known by his works in the Yajur Veda and Sáma
Veda. Its name is Sarvanukramani, i. e., the index of all things.
38
ANUL-ANY
It gives the first words of each hymn, the number of verses, the
name and family of the poets, the names of the deities and the
metres of every verse. Max Müller fixes the date of Kátyáyaná's
writing in the latter half of the fourth century, B. C.
Anula-A female Buddhistic Arhat or saint who is renowned
for having introduced the Buddhistic religion into Lanká or Ceylon
in the time of the king Asóka; she was the wife of Mahánága, the
younger brother of Mahéndra and received the dignity of a female
Arhat from Sanghamitra, the sister of Mahéndra; 2, A queen of
Ceylon renowned for her profligacy. She was the wife of Koránga,
the brother of Mahákúla-mahátishya, whom she killed by poison as
well as his son Tishya and four paramours whom she married in
succession. A second son of Mahákúla, Kálakanatishya, revolted
at last against her and caused her death in the year 41 B. C.—
Goldstücker.
Anumati-One of the four daughters of Angiras; the first day
of the moon's wane. The four daughters are the four phases of the
moon, V. P., p. 83. The goddess of the day when the moon is in
the third and fourth quarters.
Anuradha-A lunar mansion in Járadgaví. For an explana-
tion of the divisions of the celestial sphere, see V. P., p. 226.
Anushtubh-1, A metre from the northern mouth of
Brahma, along with the Sáma Véda, &c., V. P., p. 42; 2, A name
of Saraswati.
Fifteen days of thirty
Anuvatsara-Fourth cyclic year.
Muhúrttas, each is called a Paksha (a lunar fortnight); two of
these make a month, two months a solar season, three seasons a
northern or southern declination (Ayana); and these two compose
a year. Years, made up of four kinds of months, are distinguished
into five kinds; and an aggregate of all the varieties of time is
termed a Yuga or cycle. The years are severally called Samvatsara,
Parivatsara, Id vatsara, Anuvatsara and Vatsara. This is the time
called a yuga.
Anyadesya-The name given to words derived from foreign
languages.
APA--APR
39
Apa-One of the deities called Vasus. (See Anila.)
Apamurtti-One of the sinless sons of Atri.
Apana-One of the ten winds which brahmans believe to be
lodged in the body; this one resides in the region of the navel,
and forces out the solid and liquid secretions.
Apara-A technical term in the Sánkhya philosophy, denot-
ing that kind of mental acquiescence or indifference which arises
from the reflection that sensual objects perish in consequence of
enjoyment, and that there is a feeling of pain or trouble when they
perish.
Aparagodana-(In Buddhistic Cosmogony.) One of the
four dwípas or continents, in shape like a round mirror, and seven
thousand Yojanas in breadth, to the west of the Mahámeru which
is in the centre of the earth.
Aparajita-1, One of the eleven Rudras; 2, A name of
Siva and of Vishnu ; 3, A name of Dúrgá.
Aparna-A name of Uma, a daughter of Himavat and Mena,
so called because she did not even eat a leaf during her perform-
ance of religious austerities.
Apaspati-A son of Uttanapada, and brother of Dhruva, q. v.
Apastamba-A celebrated writer, author of the Sámaya-
chárica sutras. The precise period at which he lived is not known,
but his writings are much valued.—A. S. L., p. 206.
Apava-A name of the Prajapati Vasishtha. "As" says
Professor Wilson, "he performs the office of Brahma, he should be
regarded as that divinity, but this is not exactly the case. Apava
becomes two-fold, and in the capacity of his male half begets
offspring by the female." V, P., p. 52.
Appamanabha-The name of the twelfth heaven of Bud-
dhism.
Appamana Subha-The fifteenth heaven of Buddhism,
Apratisht'ha-One of the Narakas or hells, of which twenty-
eight are enumerated. They are called the awful provinces of the
kingdom of Yama, terrible with instruments of torture.
40
APS-APT
:
Apsarasas-The name given to the nymphs of heaven
created by Brahma in the commencement of the Kalpa. They are
also said to have been produced from the whirlpool of the deep, of
surprising loveliness. In some of the Puránas they are called
the daughters of Kasyapa and Muni. The Apsarasas are of two
kinds Laukíka, "worldly," of whom thirty-four are specified;
and Daivika or divine, teu in number; the latter furnish the indivi-
duals most frequently engaged in the interruption of the penances of
holy sages. There are also fourteen Ganas-or troops of Apsarasas,
bearing peculiar designations as Ahutas, &c. "Originally these
deities seem to have been personifications of the vapours which are
attracted by the sun, and form into mist or clouds: their character
may be thus interpreted in the few hymns of the Rig Veda where
mention is made of them. At a subsequent period when the Gand-
harva of the Rig Veda, who personifies there especially the fire of
the Sun, expanded into the Fire of Lightning, the rays of the moon
and other attributes of the elementary life of heaven, as well as
into pious acts referring to it, the Apsarasas become divinities-
which represent phenomena or objects both of a physical and ethi-
cal kind, closely associated with that life; thus in the Yajurveda
sunbeams are called the Apsarasas, associated with the Gandharva
who is the sun; Planets are termed the Apsarasas connected with
the Gandharva Fire; Constellations are the Apsarasas of the Gan-
dharva Wind, &c., &c. In the last Mythological epoch when the
Gandharvas have saved from their elementary nature merely so
much as to be musicians in the paradise of Indra, the Apsarasas
appear among other subordinate deities which share in the merry
life of Indra's heaven, as the wives of the Gandharvas, but more
especially as wives of a licentious sort, and they are promised there-
fore, too, as a reward to heroes fallen in battle when they are
received in the paradise of Indra; and while, in the Rig Veda, they
assist Soma to pour down his floods, they descend in the epic liter-
ature on earth merely to shake the virtue of penitent sages, and to
deprive them of the power they would otherwise have acquired
through unbroken austerities."— Goldstücker, Sans. Dict.
Aptoryama-A sacrificial rite produced from Bramha's
northern mouth, V. P. "The Aptoryam is the seventh or last
ARAD-ARAN
41
part of the Jyotishtoma, for the performance of which it is not
essentially necessary, but a voluntary sacrifice instituted for the
attainment of a specific desire. The literal meaning of the word would
be in conformity with the Praudhamanoramá ‘a sacrifice which
procures the attainment of the desired object." — Goldstücker.
Aradhya-The name of a class of Brahmans who recede
somewhat from the extreme tenets of the Vira Saivas, and tend
somewhat towards the Vaishnavas. Basava was originally an
Aradhya brahman, though in the Purana bearing his name the sect
is spoken of very contemptuously.
Araga-A Sun. When Vishnu assumes the character of
Rudra, the destroyer, and descends to reunite all creatures with
himself, he enters into the seven solar rays which dilate into seven
suns—the name of the first is Araga.
Aranyakas—“ The Treatises of the Forest." So named, as
Sáyana informs us, because they had to be read in the Forest.
"It might almost seem," says Max Müller, "as if they were
intended for the Vanaprasthas only, people who, after having per-
formed all the duties of students and householders, retire from the
world to the forest, to end their days in the contemplation of the
deity." In some instances the Aranyakas form part of the
Brahmanas and thus share the authority of Sruti or revelation.
Part of one however is ascribed to a human author Asvalanyaka.
Another part is quoted by Sáyana as being a Sútra work of
Saunakas. The Aranyakas pre-suppose the existence of the
Brahmanas, and may be regarded as an enlargement upon them.
The chief interest which they possess at the present moment con-
sists in their philosophy. The philosophical chapters, termed
Upanishads, are almost the only portion of Vedic literature exten-
sively read to this day. The Vedánta, the Sánkya, the Vaiséshika,
the Nyaya and Yoga philosophers, all appeal to the Upanishads in
support of their tenets. "Traces of modern ideas are not wanting
in the Aranyakas, and the very fact that they are destined for a
class of men who had retired from the world in order to give them-
selves up to the highest problems, shows an advanced, and an
6
42
ARA
already declining and decaying society, not unlike the monastic
age of the Christian world."-Max Müller, A. S. L., Chap. II.
Arati, Alati-A ceremony on the birth of a brahman child.
The Abbé DuBois thus describes it: "Upon a plate of copper they
place a lamp, made of a paste from rice-flour. It is supplied with
oil and lighted. The married women, but not widows, for their
presence would be unlucky, take hold of the plate with both hands,
and raising it as high as the head of the person for whom the cere-
mony is performed, describe in that position a number of circles
with the plate and the burning lamp.
Sometimes, in place of the rice lamp, they fill the plate with
water, colored red with a mixture of saffron and other ingredients ;
and with this describe their circle, raising it as high as the head of
the person who is the object of the ceremony.
The intention of this ceremony is to avert fascination by the eyes
and to prevent the accidents which arise out of I know not what
evil impression occasioned by the jealous looks of certain persons.
The credulity of the Hindus respecting this sort of injury is carried
to excess and it is for that reason that the ceremony of the άrati,
which is considered to have the virtue of preventing the effect of
those glances, is so common and so universal among the Hindus,
and especially among persons of high rank, who, being more
observed and having more enemies than private individuals, are
more exposed to the evil influence of malevolent or jealous looks.
When such persons therefore appear in public, the first thing that
is done on their return home, is to perform this ceremony of the
árati over them, as an antidote to the ill-desigued looks which may
have been cast upon them. For the same reason princes have the
ceremony repeated several times in a day.
This sort of superstition or idle observance is by no means
peculiar to the Hindus. I have seen cantons in France, (and I
suppose it is not different in many other countries,) where the
people were scarcely less infatuated. I have known decent villagers
who would not have dared to show their young children to people
they did not know, or to persons of bad appearance, lest their
invidious or ill-boding look should occasion some mischief to befall
them."-Manners and Customs of the Hindus.
ARB-ARJ
43
Arbudas-The people about Mount Abu in Guzerat-called
Arbuda in the Puránas.
Archish-(Flame). The wife of Krisáswa, and mother of Dhú-
maketu (comet).
Ardra-A lunar mansion in Gajavithi. The path of the sun
and other planets amongst the lunar asterisms is divided into three
portions or Avasthanas, northern, southern and central, called
severally Airá vata, Jaradgava and Vaiswánara. Each of these
again is divided into three parts or Vithis. Each of these Vithis
contains three asterisms.
Argha-A gift indicating great respect, such as fruit and
flowers, or milk and honey, which are offered to an idol, or to a
brahman, or to a bridegroom on his wedding day.
Ahrat-1, A king of southern Karnataka who was converted
by Rishabha ; 2, A name of a deified sage among the Jainas.
Arhatas-A name applied to the Jains, q. v.
Arishta--1, A demon who in the form of a savage bull came
one evening to the spot where Krishna and the Gopís were dancing
together. His color was that of a cloud charged with rain, he had
vast horns; and his eyes were like two fiery suns, his tail was
erect, his dewlap hung low, and he was a terror to the herds. The
herdsmen and their women were exceedingly frightened, and call-
ed aloud on Krishna, who came to their succour, without any fear.
He waited the near approach of the bull, when he seized him by
the horns and pressed his sides with his knees. Tearing off one
of the horns he beat the fierce demon with it till he died, vomiting
blood from his mouth. The herdsmen then praised Krishna; 2, A
daughter of Daksha, and wife of Kasyapa. V.P.
Arishtanemi-1, A Prájapati, who married four daughters
of Daksha; 2, A name of Kasyapa. His daughter Kesini became
the wife of Sagara.
Arjuna--The third of the five sons of Pándu by his wife
Kunti or Pritha, who, however, received amatory visits from the
gods Dharma, Váyu and Indra, who are therefore put forward as
the real fathers of Yudhishthira, Bhíma and Arjuna, in order to
44
ᎪᎡᎫ
give these heroes a divine origin. Arjuna is therefore called the
son of Indra.
He was taught the use of the bow by Dróna, and
was his best loved pupil: this excited the jealousy of his cousin
Duryodhana, and ultimately led to the banishment of the Pándavas
from Court. Arjuna appeared at the exhibition of arms at Hastiná-
pura, where he performed marvellous feats in archery, sword-
playing, whirling the chakra, and throwing the noose. At the
Swayamvara of Draupadí, Arjuna was disguised as a brahman, and
succeeded in hitting the golden fish after all the Rájas had failed;
he was at once acknowledged by Draupadí as the victor; she
threw the garland round his neck, and permitted him to lead her
away according to the rule of the Swayamvara. Draupadí became
the wife of the five brothers; each had a house and garden of his
own, and Draupadí dwelt with each of them in turn for two days
at a time; and it was a law amongst them that if a brother entered
the house of another brother, whilst Draupadí was dwelling there,
he should depart out of the city and go into exile for twelve years.
It happened that this rule was inadvertently violated by Arjuna,
who went into exile in consequence. He was accompanied by
many brahmans, and visited many sacred places. At Hurdwar a
damsel named Ulúpi, the daughter of Vásukí, the Rája of the Nágás,
saw Arjuna and besought him to espouse her, and he abode with
her many days.
After this he visited the countries of the south, and in the
Mahéndra mountain saw Parasu Ráma from whom he obtained
some excellent weapons. In the city of Manipura, Chitrangada
the daughter of the Rája, saw Arjuna and desired him for her
husband. They were married on the condition that any son she
might have should remain to succeed to the Ráj of Manipura. She
gave birth to a son who was named Babhru-váhaua. After a
residence there of three years Arjuna took leave of his wife and
son and proceeded on his travels.
The next place to which he went was Prabhása near Dwáraka.
Here he was met by Krishna, who gave orders that the city of
Dwaraka should be dressed out with flowers and banners and every
sign of rejoicing. Krishna gave a great entertainment to all the
chieftains and their ladies, on the beautiful hill of Raivataka,
ᎪᎡᎫ
45
Arjuna was smitten with the charms of Subhadra, the sister of
Krishna. In a few days they were married by the contrivance of
Krishna, and when the twelve years of exile were accomplished
Arjuna departed with his wife Subhadra for the city of Indrapras-
tha. His brothers received him with gladness and Draupadi was
soon reconciled to Subhadra.
Arjuna's elder brother, the Rája Yudhishthira, determined to
perform the great sacrifice called the Rájasúya. This was success-
fully accomplished, but it revived the old feud between the
Kauravas and Pándavas. Duryodhana invited his kinsmen to a
gambling match, seeking by under-haud means to deprive Yud-
hishthira of his Ráj.-[See Yudhishthira.]
In the course of the second exile of the Pándavas, Arjuna "by
the advice of his mythical grandfather Vyása, for the sake of per-
forming such penauces as should propitiate the gods, and induce
them to grant him celestial weapons which would ensure him the
victory over Duryodhana and the Kauravas. On reaching the
Mandara mountain he heard a voice in the sky calling upon him
to stop; and Indra appeared in all his glory, and promised to give
him the divine weapons provided he succeeded in propitiating the
god Śiva. Arjuna then entered upon a course of austerities so
severe that Śiva was perfectly gratified, but proved the valour of
his worshipper by taking upon himself the form of a mountaineer
and engaging Arjuna in single combat. Arjuna, unable to make
any impression upon his enemy, at length discovered the deity,
and prostrated himself at the feet of Siva; upon which Śiva gave
him one of his most powerful weapons. Subsequently the gods of
the four quarters of the universe-Indra, Yama, Varuna, and
Kuvéra-presented themselves to Arjuna, and respectively fur-
nished him with their own peculiar weapons. Arjuna was then
carried away in Indra's chariot to the city of Amarávatí, which is
the heaven of Indra. There he spent many years in practising the
use of arms; and at length was sent by Indra to make war against
the Daityas of the sea.
The mythic account of Arjuna's wars against the Daityas of the
sea, is also worthy of notice if only as a creation of the imagina-
tion. On approaching the coast in a chariot which flew through
46
ᎪᎡᎫ
the air, Arjuna beheld the sea rising in vast heaps, and saw ships
laden with rubies, and fishes and tortoises as large as mountains.
He blew his war shell and the Daityas trembled with fear, but
in return they sounded their drums aud trumpets so loudly that
the monsters of the deep leaped above the waves. Thousands of
Daityas rushed upon him, but he uttered powerful mantras as he
discharged his arrows, and kept them all at bay. They rained
fire, water, and mountains upon him, but he triumphed in the end
and slew them all. Then the women came out screaming like.
cranes, but Arjuna passed them by and entered the city, where he
saw chariots with ten thousand horses of the colour of peacocks.
Meantime the women were terrified at the rolling of his chariot,
and fled to their houses, whilst the noise of their ornaments
resembled the falling of stones upon a mountain. After this victory
Arjuna returned to Indra, and was rewarded with great praises ;
and the sovereign of the gods presented him with a chain of gold
and a diadem, and with a war-shell which sounded like thunder."
After these extravagant myths Arjuna is said to have been in
the service of Rája Viráta, as teacher of music and dancing, until
the expiration of the thirteen years of exile. When negotiations
took place for the restoration of the Pándavas, Arjuna exerted
himself to win over Krishna to their side; and Krishna promised
to drive his chariot in the war which ensued. It was then that
the celebrated dialogue known as the Bhagavat Gíta, took place.
On the first day of the war Arjuna fought with Bhishma: on the
following day he rallied the Pándavas after they had been repulsed
by Bhishma, and the latter reluctantly engaged in a second combat
with him. He also rescued his son Abhimanyu from Duryodhana.
In another terrible conflict with Bhishma the latter was mortally
wounded. Arjuna was afterwards challenged by Susarma and
his four brethren: contrary to the advice of Yudhishthira he
accepted the challenge, defeated Susarma and his brethren ;
fought Susarma a second time in another locality; and during his
absence his son Abhimanyu was slain by six of the Kaurava chief-
tains. Arjuna was overpowered with grief when he heard this,
and vowed to take the life of Jayadratha before the setting of the
morrow's sun. This he accomplished, and not long after killed
ARS-ART
47
Karna with a crescent-shaped arrow. The armies stopped fighting,
and the gods descended from heaven to witness the battle between
Arjuna and Karna.
The Mahabharata next relates Arjuna's adventures with the
horse that was captured and then let loose for a year, previous to
the great Asvamédha which Yudhishthira had resolved to perform.
These adventures constitute twelve legends connected with the
countries into which the horse is said to have wandered. In the
seventh of them Arjuna is slain and beheaded by his own son
Babhru-váhana in the city of Manipura, but restored to life by the
application of a jewel brought from the city of serpents in the
under world. After the massacre at Prabhása, Arjuna was sum-
moned to Dwaraka by Krishna, and on his arrival he directed the
residue of the people to leave the city. His strength now depart-
ed from him; he was advised by Vyása to abandon worldly con-
cerns, and died with the other Pándavas on the Himálaya moun-
taius. His grandson Parikshit (son of Abhimanyu) succeeded to
the Ráj of Hastinapura.
Arshabhu-The first division of the central portion of the
lunar mansions.
Arsha marriage-One of the eight modes of marriage des-
cribed by Manu; in which a father receives from a bridegroom one
pair of kine, (a bull and a cow) or two pairs, for religious pur-
poses, and then gives away his daughter in due form. This is the
ceremony of the Rishis and probably prevailed amongst all the
Vedic Aryans. It furnishes proof of the distinction between the
marriage rite of the Rishis and that of the Brahmans. No reli-
gious qualification was required in the bridegroom, and the young
man simply obtained a damsel by presenting her father with &
pair or two of kine.— Wheeler.
Art'ha Brahmans-According to the Kerala Ulpatti, when
Parasu Rama had recovered a large strip of territory from the
ocean, on the Malayalam coast, he set apart certain fishermen to
officiate as Brahmans to the rest of the people, and promised to
come at their call. They, however, acted so as to displease him;
whereupon he disfranchised them, and called in a colony of purc
48
ART-ARY
Brahmans from Hai Kshetram, to whom he delivered charge of
the people, in matters of rites and ceremonies. The fishermen had
the title of "half-brahmans.”—Taylor.
Art'hanesvari-A form of Siva, and, on the left-hand half, is
Párvati. This is doubtless an early hieroglyphic to convey a
chaste notion of the union of the active deity, with passive matter;
whence creation.
Arthasadhak-The finance minister of Rája Dasaratha.
Arthasastra-One of the eighteen principal branches of
knowledge, viz., the science of Government as laid down first by
Vrihaspati.
Arugan-The name given by the Jains to the Supreme Being.
The popular name of God is Jinan, or Jainan; hence the appella-
tion Jains. To this God one thousand and eight sacred names are
ascribed. The attributes of omnipotence and omniscience, of omni-
presence and infinite benevolence, are given to this deity. See
Jains.
:
Aruna-A celebrated son of Kasyapa and Vinata and brother
of Garuda the destroyer of serpents.
Arundhati-Daughter of Kardama, wife of Vasistha, evident-
ly an allegorical personification of a religious rite. "One of the
Pleiades and generally regarded as the model of wifely excellence;"
it is a small star close to the middle one in the tail of Ursa Major:
and is said to have been the wife of Vasistha. A newly-married
couple, amongst brahmans, have this star pointed out to them by the
Purohita, or Astrologer, and are directed to pay it obeisance.
Arvarivat-One of the seven Rishis of the second Mauwan-
tara. By the seven Rishis we may often understand the constel-
lation, Ursa Major.
Arvavasu-One of the seven principal solar rays, that which
supplies heat to the planet Jupiter.
Aryabhatta-A celebrated ancient Hindu astronomer. It is
difficult to determine with accuracy when he lived, but Mr.
Colebrooke thinks he flourished soon after the commencement of the
Christian era, or not later than the third or fourth century.
ARYA
49
Aryaka—A cowherd in the Sanscrit drama of the Toy-cart.
He conspired against the weak and unpopular king then upon the
throne at Ananti or Ougein. Aryaka is described as a man with
arms like elephants, vast tusks, his breast and shoulders brawny
as the lion's, his eyes a coppery red.' He succeeded in obtaining
possession of the throne.
6
Aryayhichita-A celebrated Dravida Brahman who lived at
Agrahara in the 16th century of Sáliváhaua; his contemporaries
considered him as an emanation of Śiva, on account of his devotion
for this god, and his great learning. He is said to be the author
of 84 books on theology, rhetoric and philosophy; he died at Chil-
lumbrum at the age of ninety.
Aryaman-One of the twelve Ádityas in the Manwantara of
Vaivaswata.
Aryan Race, Aryan Languages-Aryavarta was the holy
land of the brahmans, .the country lying between the Himá-
Jaya and the Vindhya mountains, which was the ancient abode of
the Hindus. In the north-western part of that region, in countries
watered by the Saraswati, the earliest traditions of the brahmans
place the ancestors of the Indian race. The name Aryan is now
generally used to designate that ethnological division of mankind
otherwise called Indo-European or Indo-Germanic. No one now
doubts that the brahmans of India belong to the same family, the
Aryan or Indo-European family, which civilized the whole of
Europe. The Aryan race consists of two branches, an eastern and
The western branch comprehends the inhabitants of
Europe, with the exception of the Turks, Magyars, and Finns :
the eastern comprehends the inhabitants of Armenia, of Persia,
of Afghanistan and Hindustan. The evidence on which a family
relation has been established among these nations is that of
language.
a western.
"At the first dawn of traditional history," says Max Müller,
<< we
see these Aryan tribes migrating across the snow of the Himalaya
southward toward the Seven Rivers' (the Indus, the five rivers
of the Punjâb and the Sarasvatî), and ever since India has been
called their home. That before that time they had been living in
7
50
ARYA
more northern regions, within the same precincts with the ances-
tors of the Greeks, the Italians, Slavonians, Germans and Celts, is
a fact as firmly established as that the Normans of William the
Conqueror were the northmen of Scandinavia. The evidence of
language is irrefragable, and it is the only evidence worth listening
to with regard to ante-historical periods. It would have been next
to impossible to discover any traces of relationship between the
swarthy natives of India and their conquerors, whether Alexander
or Clive, but for the testimony borne by language. What other ·
evidence could have reached back to times when Greece was not
peopled by Greeks, nor India by Hindus? Yet these are the times
of which we are speaking. What authority would have been strong
enough to persuade the Grecian army, that their gods and their
hero ancestors were the same as those of King Porus, or to con-
vince the English soldier that the same blood was running in his
veins and in the veins of the dark Bengalese? And yet there is
not an English jury now-a-days, which, after examining the hoary
documents of language, would reject the claim of a common descent
and a legitimate relationship between Hindu, Greek and Teuton.
Many words still live in India and in England, that have witnessed
the first separation of the northern and southern Aryans, and these
are witnesses not to be shaken by cross-examination. The terms
for God, for house, for father, mother, son, daughter, for dog and
cow, for heart and tears, for axe and tree, identical in all the Indo-
We chal-
European idioms, are like the watchwords of soldiers.
lenge the seeming stranger; and whether he answer with the lips
of a Greek, or German, or an Indian, we recognise him as one of
ourselves. Though the historian may shake his head, though the
physiologist may doubt, and the poet scorn the idea, all must yield
before the facts furnished by language. There was a time when
the ancestors of the Celts, the Germans, the Slavonians, the Greeks
and Italians, the Persians and Hindus, were living together within
the same fences, separate from the ancestors of the Semitic and
Turanian races.
It is more difficult to prove that the Hindu was the last to leave
this common home, that he saw his brothers all depart towards the
setting sun, and that then, turning towards the south and the
ARYA
51
east, he started alone in search of a new world. But as in his lan-
guage and in his grammar he has preserved something of what
seems peculiar to each of the northern dialects singly, as he agrees
with the Greek and the German where the Greek and the Ger-
man seem to differ from all the rest, and as no other language
has carried off so large a share of the common Aryan heirloom-
whether roots, grammar, words, myths, or legends-it is natural
to suppose that, though perhaps the eldest brother, the Hindu was
the last to leave the central home of the Aryan family.
The Aryan nations who pursued a north-westerly direction,
stand before us in history as the principal nations of north-western
Asia and Europe. They have been the prominent actors in the
great drama of history, and have carried to their fullest growth all
the elements of active life with which our nature is endowed.
They have perfected society and morals, and we learn from their
literature and works of art the elements of science, the laws of art,
and the principles of philosophy. In continual struggle with each
other and with Semitic and Turanian races, these Aryan nations
have become the rulers of history, and it seems to be their mission.
to link all parts of the world together by the chains of civilization,
commerce and religion. In a word, they represent the Aryan man
in his historical character.
But while most of the members of the Aryan family followed
this glorious path, the southern tribes were slowly migrating
towards the mountains which gird the north of India. After cross-
ing the narrow passes of the Hindu kush or the Himálaya, they
conquered or drove before them, as it seems without much effort,
the aboriginal inhabitants of the Trans-Himálayan countries. They
took for their guides the principal rivers of northern India, and
were led by them to new homes in their beautiful and fertile val-
leys. It seems as if the great mountains in the north had after-
wards closed for centuries their Cyclopean gates against new
immigrations, while, at the same time, the waves of the Indian
Ocean kept watch over the southern borders of the peninsula.
None of the great conquerors of antiquity-Sesostris, Semiramis,
Nebuchadnezzar, or Cyrus, who waged a kind of half-nomadic war-
52
ASAM-ASAN
fare over Asia, Africa and Europe, aud whose names, traced in
characters of blood, are still legible on the threshold of history,
disturbed the peaceful seats of these Aryan settlers. Left to them-
selves in a world of their own, without a past, and without a
future before them, they had nothing but themselves to ponder on.
Struggles there must have been in India also. Old dynasties were
destroyed, whole families annihilated, and new empires founded.
Yet the inward life of the Hindu was not changed by these con-
vulsions. His mind was like the lotus leaf after a shower of rain
has passed over it; his character remained the same, passive, medi-
tative, quiet and full of faith.”—A Sanscrit Lit, p. 16.
Asamanj-The son and successor of Sagara; he is thus
described in the Rámáyana:
"Prince Asamanj brought up with care,
Scourge of his foes was made the heir.
But liegemen's boys he used to cast,
To Sarju's waves that hurried past,
Laughing the while in cruel glee
Their dying agonies to see.
This wicked prince who aye withstood
The counsel of the wise and good,
Who plagued the people in his hate,
His father banished from the State;
His son, kind-spoken, brave and tall,
Was Ansumán, beloved of all."-Griffiths.
Asampricshana-The title of the fifth section of the Pan-
cha Tantra; meaning Inconsiderateness.
Asamprajnata-Contemplation, in which reason is lost sight
of; a complete restraint of the action of thought; the last stage of
mental abstraction; in which even the reflection of his individual
existence is lost sight of, and he is mentally one with the Supreme
Being.
Asana-The third stage of Yoga.
There are various postures
in which the Yogi is directed to sit when he engages in meditation,
Asana is that in which he crosses his legs underneath him, and
lays hold of his feet on each side with his hands.
ASH-ASO
53
Ashadha-The name of a constellation.
Ashahra-The name of one of the lunar months in the Vedas.
Ashtavakra-A brahman, who by a long course of religious.
penance, standing in water, and meditating on the eternal spirit,
became a celebrated sage or Muni. He was deformed from his
birth, and on one occasion he was laughed at by the Apsarasas, or
divine nymphs, on whom in consequence he denounced impreca-
tions. The nymphs then endeavoured to appease him, and so far
succeeded that he promised they should finally return to the sphere.
of the gods.
Asikni-The daughter of the patriarch Vírana, wife of Dak-
sha, the great father of mankind.
Asipatravana-Sins punished in one of the Narakas or hells,
of which twenty-eight are enumerated.
Asit-The son of Rája Dhruvasandhi, of the solar race; his
career is thus described in the Rámáyana :
"Asit had warfare, fierce and hot,
With rival kings in many a spot,
Haihayas, Talajanghas styled,
And Sasivaindhus, strong and wild,
Long time he strove, but forced to yield,
Fled from his kingdom and the field.
With his two wives away he fled
Where high Himálaya lifts his head,
And, all his wealth and glory past,
He paid the dues of Fate at last."-Griffiths.
Asitanga-The name of one of the eight Bhairavas, or inferior
manifestations of some portion of Siva.
Aslesha-A lunar mansion in Airávati, the third vithí of the
northern Avashtana.
Asmita-Selfishness, one of the five afflictions of the Pátan-
julu philosophy.
Asoka-A king of Magadha, patron of Buddhism. This king,
is the most celebrated of any in the annals of the Buddhists. In
54
ASO-AST
the commencement of his reign he followed the Brahmanical faith,
but became a convert to that of Buddha, and a zealous encourager
of it. "He is said to have maintained in his palace 64,000 Bud-
dhist priests, and to have erected 84,000 columns or topes through-
out India. A great convocation of Buddhist priests was held in
the eighteenth year of his reign which was followed by missions
to Ceylon and other places. According to Buddhist chronology
he ascended the throne 218 years after the death of Buddha,
B. C., 325. As the grandson of Chandragupta, however, he must
have been sometime subsequent to this. The duration of his
reign was 36 years, bringing it down to B. C. 230. A number of
very curious inscriptions in columns and rocks, by a Buddhist
prince, in an ancient form of letter, and the Páli language, exist
in India, and some of them refer to Greek princes, who can
be no other than members of the Seleucidan and Ptolemaic
dynasties, and are probably Antiochus the Great, and Ptolemy
Energetes, Kings of Syria and Egypt in the latter part of the
third century before Christ.”—Professor Wilson.
Asokavarddhana-Another name for Asóka.
Asramas-A condition of life; "orders;" when the youth has
been invested with the sacred thread, he is diligently to prosecute
the study of the Vedas in the house of his preceptor, with an atten-
tive spirit and leading a life of continence.
Asti-The wife of Kansa, and daughter of Jarasandha, king of
Magadha.
Astika- A brahman whose father had practised great auste-
rities, bathed in all the holy tanks, and abstained from matrimony,
with his body dried up by fasting, he wandered hither and thither,
till he accidentally came to a hollow place in which he perceived
men hanging over an abyss. Their heads were downwards and
suspended by a straw at which a rat was gnawing. Inquiring who
they were he discovered that they were his own ancestors. These
wretched men tell him that they are thus suspended because their
posterity, who should have been the means of ensuring their bliss,
had perished; and the one living descendant, whose son might
have done so, was entirely given up to austerities, and did not
ASU
55
marry. The ascetic tells them that he is that one descendant.
The ancestors entreat him to marry and have a son who would
release them. He promises to do what they desire, but will only
marry a girl whose parents give her to him willingly. At length
in the forest, Vasuki, king of serpents, offered him his sister, a
young girl of lovely form. To her he was married, and the child
born to them was Astíka. Of him we are told that he had a noble
spirit, was well read in the Vedas, and became powerful through
austerities.*
Asuras-Demons, born from the thigh of Brahma while the
quality of darkness pervaded his body. Asura is a general name
for all the giants and demons who composed the enemies of the
gods, and the inhabitants of Pátála ; and a special designation for a
class of these of the first order. They belong, in the wider sense,
to the Epic; in the more special sense, to the Puránic period. In
the latter they are fabled to be sprung from Brahma's thigh
(Vishnu, P., p. 40), and to be the sons of Kasyapa, by Diti and
Danáyu. As in the earliest period the Suras were personifications
of light, so the Asuras were probably those of darkness; and the
original idea of the existence of maliguant and terrible beings may
thus be traced to the fear that man experiences in darkness, from
the conviction that he is surrounded by creatures which he cannot
see, in short, ghosts or goblins. (The word is derived from ɑ,
privative, or rather negative, and sura, a deity.') XI, 22.”—J. C.
Thompson. In the Puránas the aborigines are described under the
names of Asuras and Rákshasas; as being giants and cannibals,
and of course very repulsive. "The word Asura has a very interest-
ing history. In classical Sauscrit it only means a demon ; and this
meaning occurs occasionally even in the early books of the Rig
Veda, and often in the later tenth. In the Atharva Veda it occurs.
very often in this sense, and the Brahmanas are never tired of
beginning their legends with the phrase 'devásura va eshu lokeshu
samayatanta,' the gods and asuras contended in these worlds.'
But generally in the 'Rig Veda' the word has no such evil meaning,
and it appears to have been originally derived from as to be' with
66
* Mrs. Manning, from Fragments du Mahábhárata, Par. T. Pavie.
56
ASU-ASV
the affix ura (a-sura), and to have meant 'living,' 'spiritual.' But
in later times asura acquired a malevolent meaning, just as the
Greek saiμov; and even in the great epics, the Rámáyana and the
Mahabharata, we find a new word sura, coined to express the good
deities, Henceforth sura and asura play the same parts in the
legends which had once been played by deva and asura; and a
new legend is invented for an etymology, the suras being those
heavenly beings who shared the liquor of immortality, (sura) while
those who were excluded became the asuras."-Quarterly Review,
July 1870, p. 202.
Asura-marriage-The fifth mode of marriage mentioned by
Manu, in which the bridegroom gives as much wealth as he can
afford to the damsel and her kinsmen, and then takes her according
to his own pleasure.
Asvalayana-A distinguished author, who lived about 350
B. C. He was the pupil of Saunaka and the predecessor of Kát-
yayana. He was one of the writers of the Kalpa-sutras which teach
the mode of performance of sacrifices enjoined by the Vedas : and
the author of the Grihya Sutras, or rules for household rites.
Asvamedha-The Sacrifice of a Horse. This forms the sub-
ject of the Bhárata of Jaimini. The sacrifice was an affair of great
importance. It was of a politico-religious character. Any one claim-
ing to be a supreme ruler, announced his intention of celebrating a
horse sacrifice. A horse was selected and then turned loose to go
whither it pleased only being followed by armed men. If any
other potentate contested the claim, he endeavoured to seize the
horse ; and there is much of Romance on this topic. If the armed
men came back unconquered, and the horse with them, the sacrifice
was conducted on a great, and most expensive scale. The flesh of
the sacrifice was eaten, or burnt: the latter is the usual statement.
The Aswamedha, performed a hundred times, raised the sacrificer
to a level with Indra.
Asvapati-(Lord of Horses). 1, The Rája of Kekaya, and
father of Maharaja Dasaratha's wife Kaikeyi; 2, An ancient rája,
the father of Sávitrí, q. v.
ASVI
57
Asvini-A lunar asterism in Nagavithi, the first vithi in the
northern Avasthána.
Asvins-"The Asvins seem to have been a puzzle even to the
oldest Indian commentators." (Muir.) Professor Roth says "they
are the earliest bringers of light in the morning sky, who in their
chariot hasten onward before the dawn, and prepare the way for
her."
"It may seem unaccountable that two deities of a character so
little defined, and so difficult to identify, as the Asvins, should
have been the objects of so enthusiastic a worship as appears from
the numerous hymns dedicated to them in the Rig Veda, to have
been paid to them in ancient times. The reason may have been
that they were hailed as the precursors of returning day, after
the darkness and dangers of the night. In some passages they are
represented as being, like Agni, the chasers away of evil spirits.
"The Aṣvins are said to be young ancient, beautiful, honey-
hued, lords of lustre, bright, of a golden brilliancy, agile, fleet as
thought, swift as young falcons, possessing many forms, wearing
lotus garlands, strong, mighty, terrible, possessed of wondrous
powers, and profound in wisdom.”—Muir, O. S. T., vol. v., p. 240,
"The following are a few of the modes in which the divine
power of the Aşvins is declared in different hymns to have been
manifested for the deliverance of their votaries.
"When the sage Chyavána had grown old and had been forsaken,
they divested him of his decrepit body, prolonged his life and
restored him to youth.
"In the same way they renewed the youth of Kali after he had
grown old; and when Vispala's leg had been cut off in battle like
the wing of a bird, the Aṣvins are said to have given her an iron
one instead.
"They restored Parávjir (or an outcast), who was blind and
lame, to sight and the power of walking.
(C
Finally to say nothing of the succours rendered to numerous
other persons, the Așvins did not confine their benevolence to
human beings, but are also celebrated as having rescued from
the jaws of a wolf a quail by which they were invoked,
8
58
ASVI
"The Aṣvins are worshipped with uplifted hands, and supplicated
for a variety of blessings, for long life, and for deliverance from
calamities, for offspring, wealth, victory, destruction of enemies,
preservation of the worshippers themselves, of their houses and
cattle. No calamity or alarm from any quarter can touch the man
whose chariot they place in the van."-Ibid, p. 249.
Professor Goldstücker writes, "The myth of the Aṣvins is, in
my opinion, one of that class of myths in which two distinct
elements, the cosmical and the human or historical, have gradually
become blended into one. It seems necessary, therefore, to sepa-
rate these two elements in order to arrive at an understanding
of the myth. The historical or human element in it, I believe, is
represented by those legends which refer to the wonderful cures
effected by the Aṣvins, and to their performances of a kindred
sort; the cosmical element is, that relating to their luminous
nature. The link which connects both seems to be the mysterious-
ness of the nature and effects of the phenomena of light, and of
the healing art at a remote antiquity. That there might have
been some horsemen or warriors of great renown who inspired
their contemporaries with awe by their wonderful deeds, and more
especially by their medical skill, appears to have been also the
opinion of some old commentators mentioned by Yaska, for some
legendary writers,' he says, took them for two kings, per-
formers of holy acts;' and this view seems likewise borne out by
the legend in which it is narrated that the gods refused the
Aşvins admittance to a sacrifice on the ground that they had been
on too familiar terms with men. It would appear then that these
Aşvins, like the Ribhus, were originally renowned mortals, who,
in the course of time, were translated into the companionship of
the gods; and it may be a matter of importance to investigate
whether, besides this a priori view, there are further grounds of a
linguistic or grammatical character for assuming that the hymns
containing the legends relating to these human Aṣvins are pos-
terior or otherwise to those descriptive of the cosmical gods of the
<
same name.
"The luminous character of the latter can scarcely be matter of
doubt, for the view of some commentators-recorded by Yáska,-
ASVI
59
C
according to which they were identified with 'heaven and earth,'
appears not to be countenanced by any of the passages known to
us. Their very name, it would seem, settles this point, since asva,
the horse, literally, the pervader,' is always the symbol of the
luminous deities, especially of the sun. The difficulty, however, is
to determine their position amongst these deities and to harmonize
with it the other myths connected with them. I may here, how-
ever, first observe that, though Yáska records opinions which
identify the Aṣvins with day and night,' and 'sun and moon,'
the passage relied upon by Professor Roth to prove that Yáska
himself identified them with Indra and Áditya (the sun), does not
bear out any such conclusion. For the passage in question, as I
understand it, means: their time is after the (latter) half of the
night when the (spaces) becoming light is resisted (by darkness);
for the middlemost Aṣvin (between darkness and light) shares in
darkness, whilst (the other), who is of a solar nature (Áditya),
shares in light.' There is this verse relating to them: 'In
nights,' etc. Nor does Durga, the commentator on Yáska,
attribute to the latter the view which Professor Roth ascribes to
him. His words, as I interpret them, are: their time is after the
(latter) half of the night when the (spaces) becoming light is
resisted,' (means) when, after the (latter) half of the night,
darkness intersected by light makes an effort against light, that is
the time of the Asvins......Then the nature of the middlemost
(between them) is a share in that darkness which penetrates into
light; and the solar one (aditya) assumes that nature which is a
share in the light penetrating into darkness. These two are the
middlemost and the uppermost this is the teacher's (¿. e., Yāska's)
own opinion, for, in order to substantiate it, he gives as an instance
the verse Vasātishu sma,
," etc.
"To judge, therefore, from these words, it is the opinion of Yāska
that the Aşvins represent the transition from darkness to light,
when the intermingling of both produces that inseparable duality
expressed by the twin nature of these deities. And this interpre-
tation, I hold, is the best that can be given of the character of the
cosmical Aṣvins. It agrees with the epithets by which they are
invoked, and with the relationship in which they are placed. They
60
ATA-ATH
are young, yet also ancient, beautiful, bright, swift, etc.; and their
negative character-the result of the alliance of light with dark-
ness—is, I believe, expressed by dasra, the destroyer, and also by
the two negatives in the compound nasatya (na+a-satya), though
their positive character is again redeemed by the ellipsis of
"enemies, or diseases, to dasra, and by the sense of nasatya, not
un-true, ¿. e., truthful. They are the parents of Púshan, the sun;
for they precede the rise of the sun; they are the sons of the sky,
and again the sons of Vivasvat and Saranyu. Vivasvat, I believe,
here implies the firmament expanding' to the sight through the
approaching light; and though Saraṇyū is to Professor Müller one
of the deities which are forced by him to support his dawn-theory,
it seems to me that the etymology of the word, and the character
of the myths relating to it, rather point to the moving air, or the
dark and cool air, heated, and therefore set in motion, by the
approach of the rising sun. The Asvins are also the husbands or
the friends of Surya, whom I take for the representative of the
weakest manifestation of the sun; and I believe that Sayaṇa is
right when, by the sister of the Aṣvins, he understands Ushas, the
dawn. The mysterious phenomenon of the intermingling of dark-
ness-which is no longer complete night-and of light-which is
not yet dawn-seems to agree with all these conceptions, and with
the further details of a cosmical nature, which are so fully given
in the preceding paper."-Ibid, p. 255-7.
Atala-The first of the seven regions of Pátála,-below the
carth-ten thousand yojanas in extent-the soil of Atala is white,
and the place is embellished with magnificent palaces.
Atarva-One of the fifteen teachers of the school of Vajasa-
neyi or white Yajush.
Atharva Veda-The name of the fourth of the four Vedas,
created from the northern mouth of Brahma. It was arranged by
Vyása. The illustrious sage Sumanta taught this Veda to his
pupil Kabandha, who made it two-fold. The principal subjects of
difference in the Sanhitas of the Atharva Veda, are the five
Kalpas or ceremonials. "As to the internal character of the
Atharva hymas, it may be said of them, as of the tenth book of the
ATH
61
9
Rík, that they are the productions of another and a later period,
and the expressions of a different spirit, from that of the earlier
hymns in the other Veda. In the latter, the gods are approached
with reverential awe, indeed, but with love and confidence also
a worship is paid them that exalts the offerer of it; the demons,
embraced under the general name Rákshasas, are objects of horror,
whom the gods ward off and destroy; the divinities of the Atharva
are regarded rather with a kind of cringing fear, as powers whose
wrath is to be deprecated and whose favour curried, for it knows
a whole host of imps and hobgoblins, in ranks and classes, and
addresses itself to them directly, offering them homage to induce
them to abstain from doing harm. The mantra, prayer, which in
the older Veda is the instrument of devotion, is here rather the
tool of superstition; it wrings from the unwilling hands of the
gods the favours which of old their good-will to men induced them
to grant, or by simple magical power obtains the fulfilment of the
utterer's wishes. The most prominent characteristic feature of
the Atharva is the multitude of incantations which it contains ;
these are pronounced either by the person who is himself to be
benefited, or, more often, by the sorcerer for him, and are directed
to the procuring of the greatest variety of desirable ends; most
frequently, perhaps, long life, or recovery from grievous sickness,
is the object sought; then a talisman, such as a necklace, is some-
times given, or in very numerous cases some plant endowed with
marvellous virtues is to be the immediate external means of the
cure; farther, the attainment of wealth or power is aimed at, the
downfall of enemies, success in love or in play, the removal of
petty pests, and so on, even down to the growth of hair on a bald
pate. There are hymns, too, in which a single rite or ceremony
is taken up and exalted, somewhat in the same strain as the Soma
in the Pávámanya hymns of the Rík. Others of a speculative
mystical character are not wanting; yet their number is not so
great as might naturally be expected, considering the develop-
ment which the Hindu religion received in the periods follow-
ing after that of the primitive Veda. It seems in the main that the
Atharva is of popular rather than of priestly origin; that in
making the transition from the Vedic to modern times, it forms an
•
62
ATH
intermediate step, rather to the gross idolatries and superstitions
of the ignorant mass, than to the sublimated pantheism of the
Brahmans."-Whitney.
"It has been surmised (Müller's Ancient Sanscrit Literature,
p. 447, ff.) that the hymns of the Atharva Veda 'formed an addi-
tional part of the sacrifice from a very early time, and that they
were chiefly intended to counteract the influence of any untoward
event that might happen during the sacrifice.' This is possible ;
but the great importance which the adherents of this Veda them-
selves attach to it, is founded on other considerations than these.
They argue, as appears from the treatise Atharvanarahasya,
mentioned above, that the three other Vedas enable a mau to fulfil
the dharma, or religious law, but that the Atharva helps him to
attain mókshu, or eternal bliss. This doctrine is laid down, for
instance, in the Chulika Upanishad of this Veda, when it says:
'Those Brâhmans and others who know the science of the (neuter)
Brahman continued in the Brahma Veda, became merged in
Brâhman ;' and it is likewise inferred from other passages in the
Sáunaka Brâhmaná. The name of Brahma Veda itself, by which
this Veda is also frequently called, is therefore explained by them,
not as implying the Veda which belongs to the province of the
priest Brahman, but the Veda which contains the mysterious
doctrine of Brahman, the supreme spirit, into which the human
soul becomes finally absorbed. It is probable, therefore, that the
very uselessness of the Atharva Veda for sacrificial purposes, and
the reluctance which was felt to base its sanctity merely on its
incantations and spells, invested it, in the mind of its followers,
with a spiritual character, which was then fully developed in the
numerous Upanishads (q. v.) now connected with it."-Muir.
Professor Müller, in his Ancient Sanscrit Literature, has given
the following hymn from the Atharva Veda, of which the Quar-
terly Review says, we know of no passage in Vedic literature
which approaches its simple sublimity :"-
66
"The Great one who rules over these worlds beholds all as if he
were close by. When any one thinks that he cloaks a thing, the
Gods know it all.
ATH-ATI
63
They know every one who stands or walks or glides along
secretly or withdraws into his house or into any hiding place. What-
ever two persons sitting together devise, Varuna the king knows it
as the third.
'This earth too is Varuna the king's, and that vast sky whose
ends are far off. The two oceans are Varuna's loins; he resides too
in this little pool.
'He who should flee far beyond the sky, would not there escape
from Varuna the king; his messengers from heaven traverse this
world, thousand-eyed they look beyond this earth.
'King Varuna sees all,-what is within and beyond heaven and
earth; the winkings of men's eyes are all numbered by him; he
moves all these things as a gamester his dice.
May all thy destructive nooses, O Varuna, which are cast
sevenfold and threefold, bind him who speaks falsehood, and pass
by him who speaks truth.'"
Atharvan-A priest who is considered to have obtained the
fire from heaven, and who in the course of Mythological personifi-
cation appears as a Prajapati or father of all beings, as the inspired
author of the fourth or Atharva Veda, as the eldest son of Brahma
to whom Brahma revealed the Brahma vidya, or knowledge of
God; and at a later period as the same as Angiras.
Atharvan-A distinguished sage, the generator of fire, and
producer of Agni. Atharvan is mentioned as the earliest institutor
of sacrifice. Atharvan was the first who by sacrifices opened up
paths; then the friendly Sun, the upholder of ordinances, was
produced.*
Atharvas-A class or even caste of priests, who had secrets
which they were prohibited from divulging; they were the
spiritual guides of their nation, and none but the son of a priest
could become a priest-a rule which the Parsís still maintain.f
Atiratra-A form of sacrifice created from the western mouth
of Brahma, along with the Sáma Veda. It is a division of the
* Muir, O. S. T., vol. 1, p. 169.
Muir, O. S. T., vol. 1, p. 293.
64
ATI-AUR
service of the Jyotishtoma, the fifth part, or Somasamtha, and
means literally, lasting through the night.
Atiratra-One of the ten noble sons of Chakshusha, V. P.,
p. 98.
Atma-A name of Vishnu, who has many appellations.
Atma-Soul, living soul, animating nature and existing before.
it "the highest object of their religion was to restore that bond
by which their own self, (átma) was linked to the eternal self
(paramátman); to recover that unity which had been clouded and
obscured by the magical illusions of reality; by the so called
Máya of creation."-Max Müller.
Atri-A prajapati, one of the mind-engendered progeny of
Brahma, with a form and faculties derived from his corporeal
nature. One of the nine brahmans celebrated in the Puránas.
He was married to Anusúya (charity), one of the twenty-four
daughters of Daksha. When Atri was plunged, by the malice
and arts of evil spirits, into a gloomy and burning abyss, the Aşvins
"speedily came to his assistance, mitigated the heat with cold, and
supplied him with nutriment, so that his situation became tolerable,
if not agreeable, till they eventually extricated him from his peril-
ous position." (O. S. T., vol. v, p. 247.) The son of Atri was
Soma (the moon), whom Brahma installed as the sovereign of
plants, of brahmans, and of the stars.
Attapa―The name of the nineteenth heaven of Buddhism.
Aurva-A sage, the grandson of Bhrigu. When the sons of king
Kritavírya persecuted and slew the children of Bhrigu, to recover
the wealth which their father had lavished upon them, they destroy-
ed even the children in the womb. One of the women, of the race of
Bhrigu, in order to preserve her embryo, secreted it in her thigh
(uru), whence the child in his birth was named Aurva; from his
wrath proceeded a flame that threatened to destroy the world;
but at the persuasion of his ancestors he cast it into the ocean, where
it abode with the face of a horse. Aurva was afterwards religious
preceptor to Sagara, and bestowed upon him the Agneyástram, or
fiery weapon with which he conquered the tribes of barbarians, who
;
1
AVA
65
had invaded his patrimonial possessions. The duties and ceremonies
of various castes and classes were explained by Aurva to Sagara and
may be seen in the V. P., Book III, Chapters VIII to XVI
inclusive. It is said that Aurva earnestly longed for a son, and
that Atri gave his children to him, but afterwards felt very lonely
and weak.
Avanti-The ancient name of Ujein in Central] India, where
the scene is laid of the popular domestic drama named Mrich-
chhakato, or Toy Cart.
Auttama, or Attumi-The name of the third Manu, a
descendant from Priyavrata.
Avalokita-A disciple of Kamandaki in the drama of the
Toy Cart.
Avantyas-One of the five great divisions of the Haikaya tribe.
The Avantyas were in Ujein, and preceded the Rajput tribes by
whom that country is now occupied. There are still vestiges of
them.-Tod's Rajasthan, I, 39.
56
Avarant-From Avarana, screening or surrounding; the
name of a division of the sect of Rámánujas who prepare their
own meals and eat in the strictest privacy : they must not eat in
cotton garments, but having bathed must put on woollen or silk;
all the Rámánujas cook for themselves, and should the meal during
this process, or whilst they are eating, attract even the looks of a
stranger, the operation is instantly stopped and the viands buried
in the ground."-H. H. Wilson, Vol. I, p. 39. In the Jain system
the five Avaranas mean the difficulties in acquiring as many grada-
tions of holy or divine wisdom.
Avasarpini-The Jains divide time into two cycles or ages,
viz., the Utasarpini and the Avasarpini time. The Avasarpini time,
has six stages, viz., super-good time, good time, good-bad time, bad-
good time, bad-time, and super-bad time. The stage in which we
now live is the fifth, the bad time. Avasarpini means the age of
decrease.
Avasthanas-The name of the divisions of the sun's course,
which are three, viz., Airavata (northern), Jaradgavu (southern),
and Vaiswanara (central).
9
66
AVA-AVV
Avatar-A descent, especially of a deity from heaven; an incar-
nation, or birth. Professor Wilson states that the Vedas allude
occasionally to the avatars of Vishuu. The story of the Rámáyana
and Mahábhárata turns wholly upon the doctrine of incarnations.
All the chief dramatis personce of the poems being impersonations
of gods and demi-gods and celestial spirits. In the Puránas, Siva
and Vishnu, under one or other form, are almost the sole objects
that claim the homage of the Hindus. In native books the most
frequent references are to the ten avatars of Vishnu, viz :-
1.-The Matsya, or Fish avatar, under which form Vishnu
preserved Manu the ancestor of the present human race, during a
universal deluge.
2.-The Kúrma or Tortoise avatar.
3.-The Varáhu or Boar avatar.
4.-The Nara Simha or Man-lion avatar.
5. The Vámana or Dwarf avatar.
6.-The Bhargava or Parasu Ráma.
7.-The Ráma Chendra or Kódanda Ráma.
8.-As Krishna; this is the most celebrated of his avatars,
in which he is supposed to have been completely incarnate.
9.-As Buddha. The brahmans consider Buddha to have
been a delusive incarnation of Vishnu, assumed by him to induce
the Asuras to abandon the Vedas, by which they lost their
supremacy.
10.—The White Horse, (yet future) an account of each will be
found under the separate heads.
Avichi-One of the twenty-eight Narakas or hells enumerated
in the V. P. They are all said to be situated beneath the earth and
beneath the waters.
Avidya-Ignorance. One of the five afflictions of the Pátan-
jalu philosophy.
Avveyar-In former times, there existed among the Tamil
people seven distinguished sages, of whom four were women and
three men.
Among them Avveyar and Tiruvalluvar were the
most celebrated. Respecting the other five, but little is known
either of their lives or their writings.
AVV
67
"The particulars given respecting Avveyar too, are so fabulous
and so variously related in different books, that it is quite impos-
sible to come to any true and satisfactory results. I shall attempt
to state such results as far as I can, and refer the reader for speci-
mens of the native biography to the history of Kabilar, and to the
extract translated from the Scanda Puránam as given in the Asiatic
Researches.
"Avveyar most probably flourished in the reigns of the three cele-
brated kings, Ukkiraperuvarithi Pándian and the monarchs of the
Seran and Sorhan kingdoms who were his contemporaries. In her
history as still transmitted by oral tradition, there are many refer-
ences to these kings, and to the fabulous miracles she performed
before them. Her father seems to have been a Brahman and her
mother an outcast, who were united to each other without being
aware of the wide difference in their cast. Afterwards however,
on finding it out, the Brahman determined as the only condition on
which they should live together, that any children who might be
born to them should be deserted immediately on their birth.
Avveyar was their second female child, and was born, reared, and
educated at a village inhabited by Panars. (The business of the
Panars was to attend on kings and celebrate their praises. But
the race is now almost extinct.)
•
"If we may judge from her character and writings, Avveyar was
educated by a Panar with great care and talent. One thing is very
evident, she must have possessed eminent natural abilities. From
the numerous fables respecting her, we may gather that she was
not only clever but that she exerted herself to do good. The
excellent moral maxims she has left, tend for the most part to
the promotion of good sentiments and good conduct.
"Her principal productions now extant are as follows: Átthi-
chuvadi Kondre-Vénthan, Muthuré (or Vakkundán), Nal-Vali, Kalvi-
Orluk-kam, Avvé-Kérao, Avvé-Kovl, Pilaiyar-Agaval, Ganapathi-
Asiria-Virutham, and a number of detached verses: but probably
some of her productions have been lost: she is reputed to have
been very clever in chemistry and medicine, and to have discovered
the fabled panacca (or Kalpa) by eating which she lived to the age
of 240 years.
68
AVY-AYO
"Her fame became widely spread abroad, and wherever she went,
kings and nobles, the learned and the ignorant, alike showed her
the highest respect.
"Her productions are universally read. Some of them are not
only among the very first reading books put into the hands of
children in almost every Tamil school, but are also greatly and
deservedly esteemed."-Sugden.
Avyaya-A name of Purusha or spirit, it means inconsumable.
Awiha-The name of the eighteenth heaven of Buddhism.
Ayana-A period of six months, two Ayanas compose a year.
The southern Ayana is a night and the northern a day of the gods.
Twelve thousand divine years, each composed of such days, con-
stitute the period of four Yugas, or ages. The word is also used
in the sense of hemisphere; the uttara-ayana is the apparent course
of the sun through the northern signs, and the dakshanayana is the
southerly course; hence the northern and southern hemispheres
appear to correspond with the two ayanas.
Ayatayama-Texts of the Yajur-veda, revealed to Yajnawal-
kya by the sun in the form of a horse: the Texts thus imparted
were unknown to Vaisampayana.
Ayati-One of the descendants of the daughters of Daksha
who were married to the Rishis. Lakshmi the bride of Vishnu
was the daughter of Bhrigu by Káyati. They had also two sons,
Dhátri and Vidhátri, who married the two daughters of the illus-
trious Meru, Ayati and Niryati; and had by them each a son
named Prana and Mrikanda.
Ayodhya-" The modern Oude, which is situated on the river
Sarayu, the modern Gogra, about three hundred and fifty miles to
the south-east of Delhi. In the present day the city of Ayodhyá
has disappeared, and little is to be seen of the ancient site beyond
a shapeless heap of ruins, a mass of rubbish and jungle which
stretches along the southern bank of the Gogra river. But in
olden time this city was one of the largest and most magnificent in
Hindustan, and its memory is still preserved in every quarter of
AYO
69
the Indian peninsula. Its geographical position is highly signifi-
cant of the progress of Aryan invasion between two great epochs,
namely, that of the war of Bhárata, and that of the birth of Ráma.
In the Mahá Bhárata the Aryans had apparently advanced no
further towards the south-east than the neighbourhood of Delhi;
but in the Rámáyana they seem to have established a large and
substantial Ráj iu the very centre of Hindustan, and to have
founded a metropolis which must ever be famous in the ancient
History of India."— Wheeler.
The Rúmáyana gives the following description of Ayodhyá:
"The city of Ayodhya was full of people, and every one was
healthy and happy, and every one was well fed upon the best of
rice; and every merchant in that city had storehouses filled with
jewels from every quarter of the earth. The Brahmans constantly
kept alive the sacrificial fire, and were deeply read in the Vedas
and Vedángas, and were endowed with every excellent quality;
they were profusely generous, and were filled with truth, zeal and
compassion, equal to the great sages, and their minds and passions
were under perfect control. All these Brahman sages had three
classes of disciples; first, the youths who served them as servants
serve their masters; then the students who were receiving instruc-
tion; and then the Brahmácháris who maintained themselves and
their preceptors by collecting alms. Next to the Brahmans were
the Kshatriyas, who were all warriors, aud were constantly exer-
cised in the practice of arms in the presence of the Mahárája.
After these were the Vaisyas, or merchants, who sold goods of
every description, and who came from every corner of the earth.
Last of all were the Súdras, who were ever engaged in devotion to
the gods, and in the service of the Brahmans. Besides these there
were jewellers and artificers, singing men and dancing women,
charioteers and footmen, potters and smiths, painters and oilmen,
sellers of flowers, and sellers of betelnut. In all that city of well-
fed and happy people, no man was without learning, or practised a
calling that did not belong to his family or caste, or dwelt in a
mean habitation, or was without kinsmen. There were no misers,
nor liars, nor thieves, nor tale-bearers, nor swindlers, nor boasters;
none that were arrogant, malevolent, mean, or who lived at
70
AYO AYU
another's expense; and no man who had not abundance of children,
or who lived less than a thousand years."
Ayomukha-One of the sons of Kasyapa by Danu, hence
termed a Dánava.
Ayuaveda-Medical science, as taught by Dhanwantari.
Ayus-The eldest son of Vikrama and Urvasi; Vikramorvasi,
or the Hero and the Nymphs, is the title of a second drama attri-
buted to Kálidása. Urvasi was one of the nymphs of heaven, and
when love for the king induced her to dwell on earth, she had
been warned that so soon as the king should see a son of hers she
must return. From fear of this she kept her infant's birth con-
cealed. Ayus was not seen by his father until he had grown up
and was brought from the hermitage of the Rishi Chyavana.
His inauguration as vice king then took place in circumstances of
great splendour. The rite being concluded a chorus was heard
without, invoking blessings upon Ayus-
"Son of the monarch the universe filling,
Son of the god of the mist-shedding night,
Son of the sage, whom the great Brahma; willing,
Called, with creation, to life and to light."
A. and M. I., p. 205.
Ayutayus-A descendant of the Kuru princes: also a king
of Magadha, the name of one of the future kings of Magadha as
enumerated in the V. P., p. 465.
B
Babhru-vahana-The son of Arjuna by his wife Chitrangada,
daughter of the Rája of Manipura. Arjuna dwelt at Manipura
for three years, and then according to previous arrangements took
leave of his wife and son. When Babhru-váhana came of age and
ascended the throne he is described as without an equal in prowess
and manhood. His country was rich and prosperous; his subjects
virtuous, contented and happy. In the seventh adventure of the
horse of Arjuna it is said that the horse was seized by Babhru-
váhana when it approached the city of Manipura, but on discover-
ing that it belonged to his father Arjuna he restored the horse
with many demonstrations of affection and respect. Arjuna how-
ever considered that his son should not have restored the horse
without a battle, and attributed it to cowardice, which led to a
contest in which Arjuna was slain: when the tidings reached
Chitrangada she wished to ascend a funeral pile. Arjuna was how-
ever restored to life again.
66
Badari-An extensive forest near Benares, celebrated as the
scene of many mythical austerities. Krishna is said to have stood
on the spacious Badari a hundred years with his arms aloft, on
one foot, subsisting on air." (O. S. T., Vol. IV). Of Arjuna it is
said, "Thou wast Nara in a former body, and with Nárayana for
thy companion didst perform dreadful austerity at Badari for many
myriads of years." (O. S. T., Vol. iv, p. 196).
Badravati-A city about fifty miles from Hastinápúr, from
which Bhíma forcibly brought away the horse for the great
Aswamedha sacrifice performed by Yudhishthira, after the great
war.
Badhas-There are twenty-eight kinds of badhas, which in the
Sánkya system mean imperfections or disabilities, as defects of the
senses, blindness, deafness, &c., defects of intellect, as incapacity,
ignorance, &c., and moral defects, as stubbornness, discontent, &c.
72
BAH-BAL
Bahkali, Bahkala, Bashkali-One of the arrangers of the
Vedas. Paila divided the Rig Veda, and gave the two Sanhitas,
or collections of hymns, to Indrapramati and to Bashkali. Bash-
kali sub-divided his Sanhita into four, which he gave to his
disciples Baudha, Aguimáthara, Yajnawalka and Parásara; and
they taught these secondary shoots from the primitive branch.
Bahugara-A descendant of Puru, son of Sudyumna: called
Bahuvidha in the Agui and Matsya Puránas.
Bahula-1, The name of one of the Prajapatis, V. P., p. 50;
2, the name of a Prince killed by Abhimanyu, (Liuga. Purana);
and 3, the name of one of the rivers enumerated in the V. P., p. 183.
Bahulaswa-The last but one of the kings of Mithila. His
son was Kriti, with whom terminated the family of Janaka.
Bahuputra-A Prajapati who married two daughters of
Daksha, their children were the four lightnings, enumerated in
Astrological works as brown, red, yellow and white; portending
severally, wind, heat, rain, famine.
Bahurupa-One of the eleven Rudras, or lords of the three
worlds.
Bahwaswa-Son of Mudgala, and father of Divodasa and
Ahalya.
Bajiarana-One of the eight branches of Medical Science
which treats of the use of aphrodisiacs.
Balabhadra--See Balaráma.
Balakhilyas-Pigmy sages, no bigger than a joint of the
thumb, chaste, pious, resplendent as the sun, whose chariot they
constantly surround. The wife of the sage Kratu Sannati, brought
forth the sixty thousand Bálakhilyas; another account says they
were produced from the hair of Brahma. V. P.
Balarama-An incarnation of a white hair of Brahma, born as
the son of Vasudeva; by Devaki, but was transferred from the latter
to the womb of Rohini, the other wife of Vasudeva; hence he was
the half-brother of Krishna. He was brought up by Nanda,
and is the patron of Agriculture; the Yádavas, his tribe, being
BAL
73
properly herdsmen and shepherds. He is often represented as
armed with a ploughshare, and sometimes as carrying a pestle-
like club. By some he is regarded as the eighth avatar of Vishnu ;
by others as an incarnation of the great serpent Ananta. He was
of great strength and irascible temper. He diverted the course
of the river Yamuna, and compelled it to attend him. The fierce
and malignant demon Dhenuka, in the form of an ass, attacked
Bala Ráma.when he was a mere boy playing with Krishna; Ráma
seized him by both hind legs and whirled him round till he expired.
On another occasion the Asura Pralamba came to the boys and
attempted to carry off Ráma, who however, so squeezed and beat
the powerful demon that he fell upon the ground and expired.
Many other exploits are related of him. Bala Ráma was married
to Révati, to whom he was attached and faithful. When Arjuna,
by the connivance and help of Krishna, stole away his sister
Subadhra, Ráma collected his retainers and set out in pursuit ;
but the matter was made up by the intervention of Krishna. One
of the last feats of his prowess was the destruction of the dreadful
Asura Dwivida, in the form of an ape. Shortly aftewards Bala
Ráma resumed the form of Sésha. V. P.
Bali-A celebrated Daitya, the son of Virochana, who rose to
such an eminence in power that Indra and the other gods had to
apply for the interference of Vishnu to protect them from the
destructive effects of Bali's rule. The Mahábhárata gives the
following legend respecting Bali, as related by Viswamitra to the
two young princes, Ráma and Lakshmana, when they visited his
hermitage :-
"In ancient days, before the glorious Vishnu became incarnate
as the Dwarf, this was his holy hermitage, and here he practised
sacred austerities as an example to all others. And it came to
pass that Bali, the mighty Rája of the Asuras, conquered Indra
and the gods; and the gods came to this hermitage and prayed to
Vishnu for succour: And Vishnu was born on earth in the form
of a Dwarf, and he assumed the dress of a mendicant, and went to
the abode of Bali, and prayed Bali to give him as much earth as
he could step over in three steps: And Bali granted his request :
10
74
BAL-BAN
then Vishnu took upon himself a mighty form, and took three
steps; and the first step covered the earth, and the second covered
the heavens, and the third was on the head of Bali: And Vishņu
bound Bali, and sent him and all his legions to the realms below
the earth, and once more restored the universe to the rule of Indra."
The meaning of this myth is rot very obvious. It is said to have
originated in an obscure Vedic idea that Vishnu as the Sun took
three steps; viz., first, on the earth at his rising; secondly, in the
heavens at noonday; and thirdly, on the under-world at his setting.
(See Wilson's Rig Veda, Vol. I, p. 53, note.) The legend however
is exceedingly popular, probably on account of the successful trick
played against the giant ; and a festival is still celebrated in memory
of the so-called event.
Bali then became the Sovereign of Pátála. He is said to have
had a hundred sons.
Bali-The monkey chieftain of Kishkindyá; he had treated his
brother Sugriva with great cruelty, and on the latter securing the
friendship of Ráma they both proceeded to Kishkindya, where Báli
was killed by Ráma, and Sugríva installed as sovereign of Kish-
kindyá.
Bana-The eldest of the hundred sons of Báli. He had a
thousand arms. His daughter Usha having seen Párvati sporting
with her lord Śambhu, was inspired with a wish for similar dalli-
ance. Párvati promised her a husband, who should appear to her
in a dream on a certain night. This came to pass, and by the
magic power of her companion Chitralekka, the person she had
beheld in her dream, Aniruddha, (q. v.) was conveyed from
Dwaraka to her apartments in the palace. This led to the contest
narrated in the article Aniruddha, when Báņa wounded Krishna,
but afterwards lost his thousand arms and was nearly killed by
Krishna.
Banddhas-Those who take nothing upon authority and admit
nothing that cannot be proved; or it is explained, those who by
argument cast a doubt upon the efficacy of acts of devotion.
Bandhayanas-Followers of a branch of the Vajasaneiyi, or
white Yajush.
BAN-BAS
75
Bandhya-A disciple of Bashkala, who made him a teacher of
a portion of the Sanhita of the Rig Véda.
Basava-The name of a bull in the Canarese and Telugu
languages, and applied to Nandi the vehicle of Śiva.
Basava-The founder of the Lingait sect. He was originally
au Aradhya brahman, and evidently a man of great independency of
mind and possessed of great moral courage. He was born about
the middle of the eleventh century, in a village to the east of
Bijapur in the Collectorate of Kalladighee. "Having become prime
minister at the Court of Kaláyana, the capital of a great empire,
which then stretched from ocean to ocean, he succeeded gradually
in founding a new sect, called the Lingait, from its votaries wear-
ing the Linga, which they consider to be the true symbol of the
Creative divine power. This great success may be attributed to
two, perhaps three causes, Basava had great power, popularity and
influence, from his high station in life. Converts from Jainism to
Lingaitism were unduly favored, though Basava's master, king
Bajal, still remained a Jain. Basava is said to have connived at
the intercourse the king had with a beautiful sister, and had great
power over him. Pecuniary assistance was largely given to itinerant
priests of the sect who went about preaching to the people.
The second cause of Basava's success was that he addressed
himself chiefly to the lower classes. These were flattered by the
prospect of their social position being improved if they embraced
the new religion. And indeed taking the Linga and becoming
a Lingait, was according to the ideas of the Hindus, a step in
advance. For the great privilege of wearing this sacred symbol on
the body had been to that time confined exclusively to the
brahmaus. In fact Basava at first merely introduced the peculiar
Linga worship, as it was performed by the Aradhya brahmans, to
whom he himself belonged, among the different classes of Śudras.
"The spread of the sect was wide and rapid, so that even in the
neighbouring Telugu and Tamil countries, many became the wor-
shippers of Basava; and books regarded as sacred, still extant,
were written in those tongues in honor of him. The king however
disapproved of this great change. He hated and persecuted
76
BAS
the Lingaits. This led to his assassination in his own palace, by
two fanatic Lingaits, who it is said were encouraged by Basava.
A civil war then broke out, and the empire of Kalyána fell to
pieces. Basava was thus the cause of great revolutions in the
Deccan. It was to be expected that such a man would, after the
lapse of sometime, be deified by credulous men, and the real facts
of his history obscured by a mass of legendary lore."-IFöerth.
Basava Purana-The Purána that narrates the life of Basava,
the founder or restorer of the Jangama sect. Professor H. H.
Wilson places the date of the events it records in the early part of
the eleventh century.
Basava's parents were both devout worshippers of Śiva. In
recompense of their piety, Nandi, the bull of Śiva, was born on
earth as their son, becoming incarnate by command of Śiva, on
his learning from Narada the decline of the Saiva faith and
prevalence of other less orthodox systems of religion. The child
was denominated after the Basva or Basava, the bull of the deity,
On his arriving at the age of investiture he refused to assume the
thread ordinarily worn by brahmans, or to acknowledge any Guru
except ISWARA or ŚIVA. He then departed to the town of
Kalyán, the capital of Bijala or Vijala Ráya, and obtained in
marriage Gangámbá, the daughter of the Dandanayak, or minister
of police. From thence he repaired to Sangameśvara, where he
received from Sangameśvara Svámí initiation in the tenets of the
Vira Saiva faith. He was invited back from this place to succeed
his father-in-law upon his decease in the office he had held.
After his return to Kalyán, his sister, who was one of his first
disciples, was delivered of a son, Chenna Basava, who is not unfre-
quently confounded with his uncle, and regarded, perhaps more
correctly, as the founder of the sect.
After recording these events the work enumerates various
marvellous actions performed by Basava and several of his disciples,
such as converting grains of corn to pearls-discovering hidden
treasures-feeding multitudes-healing the sick and restoring the
dead to life. The following are some of the anecdotes narrated in
the Purána :—
Basava having made himself remarkable for the profuse bounties
BAS
77
he bestowed upon the Jangamas, helping himself from the Royal
Treasury for that purpose, the other ministers reported his conduct
to Bijala, who called upon him to account for the money in his
charge. Basava smiled, and giving the keys of the Treasury tọ
the king, requested him to examine it, which being done, the
amount was found wholly undiminished. Bijala thereupon caused
it to be proclaimed, that whoever calumniated Basava should have
his tongue cut out.
A Jangama, who cohabited with a dancing girl, sent a slave for
his allowance of rice to the house of Basava, where the messenger
saw the wife of the latter, and on his return reported to the dancing
girl the magnificence of her attire. The mistress of the Jangama
was filled with a longing for a similar dress, and the Jangama
having no other means of gratifying her, repaired to Basava, to beg
of him his wife's garment. Basava immediately stripped Gangám bá,
his wife, and other dresses springing from her body, he gave them
all to the Jangama.
A person of the name of Kanapa, who regularly worshipped the
image of EKAMRESVARA, imagining the eyes of the deity were
affected, plucked out his own, and placed them in the sockets of
the figure. ŚIVA, pleased with his devotion, restored his worship-
per his eyes.
A devout Saiva named Mahadevala Machaya, who engaged to
wash for all the Jangamas, having killed a child, the Rája ordered
Basava to have him secured and punished; but Basava declined
undertaking the duty, as it would be unavailing to offer any harm to
the worshippers of SIVA. Bijala persisting, sent his servants to
seize and tie him to the legs of an elephant, but Machaya caught
the elephant by the trunk, and dashed him and his attendants to
pieces. He then proceeded to attack the Rája, who being alarmed
applied to Basava, and by his advice humbled himself before
the offended Jangama. Basava also deprecated his wrath, and
Machaya being appeased, forgave the king and restored the
elephant and the guards to life.
A poor Jangama having solicited alms of Kinnarayu, one of
78
BAS
Basava's chief disciples, the latter touched the stones about them
with his staff, and converting them into gold, told the Jangama to
help himself.
The work is also in many places addressed to the Jainas in the
shape of a dialogue between some of the Jangama saints, and the
members of that faith, in which the former narrate to the latter
instances of the superiority of the Saiva religion, and the falsehood
of the Jain faith, which appears to have been that of Bijala Ráya
and the great part of the population of Kalyána. In order to con-
vert them, Ekánta Ramáya, one of Basava's disciples, cut off his
head in their presence, and then marched five days in solemn pro-
cession through and round the city, and on the fifth day replaced
his head upon his shoulders. The Jain Pagodas were thereupon,
it is said, destroyed by the Jangamas. It does not appear, how-
ever, that the king was made a convert, or that he approved of the
principles and conduct of his minister. He seems, on the contrary,
to have incurred his death by attempting to repress the extension
of the Vira Saiva belief. Different authorities, although they
disagree as to the manner in which Bijala was destroyed, concur
in stating the fact: the following account of the transaction is from
the Basava Purána :-
“In the city of Kalyána were two devout worshippers of ŚIVA,
named Allaya and Madhuvaya. They fixed their faith firmly on
the divinity they adored, and assiduously reverenced their spiritual
preceptor, attending upon Basava whithersoever he went. The
king, Bijala, well knew their merits, but closed his eyes to their
superiority, and listening to the calumnious accusations of their
enemies, commanded the eyes of Allaya and Madhuvaya to be
plucked out. The disciples of Basava, as well as himself, were
highly indignant at the cruel treatment of these holy men, and
leaving to Jagaddeva the task of putting Bijala to death, and
denouncing imprecations upon the city, they departed from Kalyána.
Basava fixed his residence at Sangamesvara.
Macháya, Bommidevaya, Kinnara, Kannatha, Bommadeva,
Kakaya, Masanaya, Kolakila Bommadeva, Kesirajaya, Mathira-
jaya, and others, announced to the people that the fortunes of
Bijala had passed away, as indicated by portentous signs; and
BAS
79
accordingly the crows crowed in the night, jackals howled by day;
the sun was eclipsed, storms of wind and rain came on, the earth
shook, and darkness overspread the heavens. The inhabitants of
Kalyana were filled with terror.
When Jagaddeva repaired home, his mother met him, and told
him that when any injury had been done to a disciple of the Saiva
When Daksha treated
faith, his fellow should avenge him or die.
ŚIVA with contumely, PÁRVATÍ threw herself into the flames, and
so, under the wrong offered to the saints, he should not sit down
contented: thus saying, she gave him food at the door of his man-
sion. Thither also came Mallaya and Bommaya, two others of the
saints, and they partook of Jagaddeva's meal. Then smearing
their bodies with holy ashes, they took up the spear, and sword,
and shield, and marched together against Bijala. On their way a
bull appeared, whom they knew to be a form of Basava, came to
their aid, and the bull went first even to the court of the king,
goring any one that came in their way, and opening a clear path
for them. Thus they reached the court, and put Bijala to death
in the midst of all his courtiers, and then they danced, and pro-
claimed the cause why they had put the king to death. Jagaddeva
on his way back, recalling the words of his mother, stabbed himself.
Then arose dissension in the city, and the people fought amongst
themselves, and horses with horses, and elephants with elephants,
until, agreeably to the curse denounced upon it by Basava and his
disciples, Kalyana was utterly destroyed.
Basava continued to reside at Sangamesvara, conversing with
his disciples, and communing with the divine Essence, and he
expostulated with SIVA saying: 'By thy command have I, and
thy attendant train, come upon earth, and thou hast promised to
recall us to thy presence when our task was accomplished.' Then
ŚIVA and PÁRVATÍ came forth from the Sangamesvara Lingam,
and were visible to Basava, who fell on the ground before them.
They raised him, and led him to the sanctuary, and all three dis-
appeared in the presence of the disciples, and they praised their
master, and flowers fell from the sky, and then the disciplos spread
themselves abroad, and made known the absorption of Basava into
80
BEE-BHA
the emblem of ŚIVA.”—Mackenzie's Collect., Vol. 2nd; Hálakanara
MSS. [pp. 3-12.]; Wilson's Works, Vol. 1, p. 225.
I,
Beerbhoom-Properly Vir-bhúmi, the hero-land.
On the
frontier of Lower Bengal, between the lofty plateau of Central
India, and the valley of the Ganges. This country was the theatre
of one of the primitive struggles of Indian history. It stood as
the outpost of the Sanscrit race, on the west of Lower Bengal, and
had to bear the sharp collisions of Aryan civilization, with the
ruder types prevailing among the aborigines. On its inhabitants
devolved, during three thousand years, the duty of holding the
passes between the highlands and the valley of the Ganges. To
this day they are a manlier race than their kinsmen of the plains,
and from the beginning of history, one of the two kingdoms has
borne the name of Mala-bhúmi, the country of the Wrestlers,-
the other the appellation of Vir-bhúmi, the Hero-land.-Hunter,
Rural Bengal.
Benares-The sacred city of the Hindus. It is called Káşi,
Váranási, Atimukta. It was once destroyed by the discus of
Krishna. "The whole of a city that was inaccessible to gods,
was wrapped in flames by the discus of Hari, and was totally
destroyed." V. P., Chap. xxxiv. "The term Kási, denomi-
nating, if not a city, a people and its chieftains, occurs repeatedly
in Sanscrit works of all but the highest antiquity.....
The
kingdom of the Kásis and its rulers, as is evinced by the frequency
of reference to them, enjoyed from distant ages, more or less of
notoriety; and this is substantially all that the Hindu memorials
teach us.
The Puránas specify but one dynasty of Kási kings; a
goodly catalogue, beginning in the most authoritative of those
works, with the son of Kása. To Kása, by a lapse of perhaps two
centuries, succeeded Divodása, in whose reign Buddhism seems
still to have been acting on the aggressive. In this synchronism
there is no discernible improbability; and with some likelihood it
embodies an historic fact. A reflection of actual events may
likewise be afforded in the story of the burning of Váránasí by the
discus of Vishnu."-Hall.
Bhadra-The name of one of the many wives of Vasudeva.
BHAD BHAG
81
Bhadrabahu-A son of Vasudeva by his wife Róhiní.
Bhadrabahu-The author of the Kalpa Sútra, the most sacred
religious work of the Jainas. He lived in the early part of the
fifth century of the Christian era, but nothing is kuown of his
personal history, though his work is held in such reverence.
Bhadrachara-A son of Krishna by his wife Rukmini.
Bhadradeah-A son of Vasudeva by his wife Devaki. He
and his five brothers were killed by Kansa.
Bhadrakali-A Rudra sprung from the anger of Deví, and
sent by Śiva to destroy the sacrifice of Daksha, V. P., Chap. viii.
Bhadrasana―The posture in which the Yógi is directed to
sit when engaged in meditation: viz., to cross his legs underneath
him and to lay hold of his feet on each side with his hands.
Bhadrasena-One of the six sons of Vasudeva, who were
killed by Kansa.
.Bhadrasrenya-A Yádava prince, the son of Mahishmat. He
is said to have had a hundred sons, all of whom but one, Durdama,
were slain by Divodása, the Rája of Benares. Durdama was spared,
being an infant; and he lived to recover his patrimonial possessions.
Bhadraswa—A country to the east of Meru, and Ketumala
on the west; and between these two is the region of Ilavrita.
Four great lakes are near, the waters of which are partaken of by
the gods. Bhadraswas is one of the eight varshas or countries
described as places of perfect enjoyment, where happiness is
spontaneous and uninterrupted. In them there is no vicissitude, no
dread of decrepitude or death, there is no distinction of virtue
or vice, no difference of degree as better or worse, nor any of the
effects produced in this region by the revolutions of ages.
Bhadravinda-A son of Krishna, who is said to have had in
all one hundred and eighty thousand.
Bhaga-One of the twelve Ádityas; in the Manwantara of
Vaivaswata.
Bhaga-An Aditya; the fifth of the eight sons of Aditi.
His eyes were knocked out by Rudra (Śiva).
"Rudra of dreadful
11
82
BHAG
power then ran up to the gods, and in his rage knocked out the
eyes of Bhaga with a blow, and incensed, assaulted Púshan with
his foot, and knocked out his teeth as he was eating the puroḍáṣa
offering."* See Savitri.
Bhagavat-Vishnu. The Supreme Being. The letter Bh
implies the cherisher and supporter of the universe. By ga is
understood the leader, impeller, or creator. The dissyllable Bhaga
indicates the six properties, dominion, might, glory, splendour,
wisdom and dispassion. The purport of the letter va is, that
elemental spirit in which all beings exist, and which exists in all
beings. And thus this great word Bhagavat is the name of
Vasudeva, who is one with the Supreme Brahma, and of no one
else. V. P., Book vi, Chapter 5,
Bhagavata-The name of a Purána, generally placed the fifth
in all the lists, but the Padma Purána ranks it as the eighteenth,
as the extracted substance of all the rest. According to the usual
specification it consists of eighteen thousand slókas distributed
amongst three hundred and thirty-two chapters, divided into twelve
skandas or books. The Bhágavata is a work of great celebrity in
India, and exercises a more direct and powerful influence on the
opinions and feelings of the people than perhaps any other of the
Puránas. For an analysis of its contents, see Professor Wilson's
Preface to the V. P.
Bhagavat Gita-The Bhagavat Gita is an episode of the
Mahábhárata, the great epic poem of India, which, from its popu-
larity and extent, corresponds with the Iliad among the Greeks.
The leading story occupies only about a fourth part of the entire
work; numerous episodes and legends, chiefly didactic, and believed
to be interpolations of a later date, make up the other three-fourths
of the poem.
The whole forms a collection of the traditions of
the early history of the Aryan people during their first settlement
in India.
According to the legendary history of India two dynasties were
originally dominant in the north, called Solar and Lunar, under
* Muir, O. S. T., Vol, iv, p. 168.
BHAG
83
whom numerous petty princes held authority, and to whom they
acknowledged fealty. The most famous Rája of the Lunar race,
who reigned in Hastinapura or ancient Delhi, was Bharata, who is
designated a Mahá Rája, and whose Ráj is said to have included all
the kingdoms of the earth. To this day the whole continent of
• India is known to the Hindus by the name of Bharata-varsha, or
the country of Bharata.
The Kauravas and Pándavas were descendants of Bharata.
Duryodhana and his brothers were the leaders of the Kauravas or
elder branch of the tribe; and the five Pándava princes, Yudhish-
thira, Bhíma, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadéva, those of the Pándava
or younger branch. The latter had been banished from their
country, and after long wanderings and many hardships, they
collected their friends around them, and with the help of the
neighbouring Rájas mustered a great army, and prepared to
attack their oppressors, who had also assembled their forces.
The hostile armies met on the plain of Kurukshetra. Bhishma
had the command of the Kaurava faction; Bhíma was the General
of the other party. The scene of the Bhagavat Gita now opens,
and remains throughout the same-the field of battle.
The poem
is in the form of a discourse between the Avatár Krishṇa, and his
friend and pupil Arjuna. The fight began with a volley of arrows
from both sides; when Arjuna desired Krishna to draw up the
chariot in the space between the two armies, while he examined the
lines of the enemy. Krishna, who acted as charioteer, did so, and
pointed out in those lines the numerous relatives of his friend.
Arjuna, seeing his relatives drawn up in battle array, was suddenly
struck with compunction at the idea of fighting his way to a
kingdom through the blood of his kindred, and declared that he
would rather be killed himself than continue to fight them.
Krishna replied in a long metaphysical dialogue, full of fine
passages, the moral of which is that as Arjuna belongs to the
military caste, his duty is to fight. He said that the renunciation
of the world ought not to involve the avoidance of action, or the
neglect of professional duties. He then gave a full and most
curious exposition of the half-mythological, half-philosophical
84
BHAG
pantheism of the Brahmans, and a general view of the mystic
theology of the Hindus; following with some modification the
theories of what is termed the Sánkhya School of Philosophy.
A. W. Schlegel calls this episode "the most beautiful, and
perhaps the only truly philosophical poem that the whole range of
literature known to us has produced." Dean Milman says, "It
reads like a noble fragment of Empedocles or Lucretius, introduced
into the midst of an Homeric epic." "In point of poetical con-
ception," he adds, "there is something singularly striking and
magnificent in the introduction of this solemn discussion on the
nature of the godhead and the destiny of man in the midst of the
fury and tumult in which it occurs."
Arjuna is overruled, if not convinced, by the arguments of the
god; the fight goes on, and the Pándavas gain a complete victory
over their opponents.
The Bhagavat Gita was first translated into English by Sir
Charles Wilkins, and published by the East India Company, with
an Introduction by the then Governor-General of India, Warren
Hastings. It was eagerly received in Europe, and translated into
the French, German and Russian languages. Schlegel published
an excellent Latin version.* More recently a new English transla-
tion has been published by Mr. J. Cockburn Thompson, with
valuable notes.
Bhagiratha-The son of Rája Dilípa, who spent a thousand
years in severe austerities upon a mountain, by which he propitiated
Brahma and Śiva, and brought the Ganges to the earth; and with
it watered the ashes of the sixty thousand sons of Sagara, who
were at once restored to life, purified by the sacred water from all
their sins, and ascended to heaven.
"Soon as the flood their dust bedewed,
Their spirits gained beatitude,
And all in heavenly bodies dressed,
Rose to the skies' eternal rest.
* The Bhagavat Gíta in Sanscrit, Canarese and English, with Schlegel's Latin
version, and Humboldt's Essay on the Philosophy of the Gíta, was published in
1847 by the Editor of this Volume,
BHAG-BHAL
85
"Then thus to king Bhagírath said,
Brahma, when, coming at the head
Of all his bright celestial train,
He saw those spirits freed from stain :
'Well done! great Prince of men, well done!
Thy kinsmen bliss and heaven have won.'
The sons of Sagar mighty-souled,
Are with the Blest, as Gods, enrolled."
— Griffiths' Rámáyan.
Bhagirathi—A name of the Ganges in consequence of having
been brought to the earth by Bhagiratha.
Bhaimyekadasi-The eleventh lunar day of the light half of
Mágha (10th February.) This is also a festival of traditional origin,
said to have been first observed by Bhíma, one of the Pandu princes,
in honor of Vishnu, according to the instructions of Vasudeva.
Every eleventh lunar day, it may be observed, is held in extra-
vagant veneration by the Hindus, but more particularly by the
Vaishnavas. Fasting on the eleventh is declared to be equally
efficacious with a thousand aśwamedhas, and eating during its
continuance as heinous a sin as parricide, or the murder of a
spiritual teacher. This extravagance demonstrates its sectarian
character, and consequently its more modern origin. The notion.
may have grown, however, out of particular appropriations of the
lunar day, when the eleventh was set apart, as in the present case,
to the adoration of Vishnu.-Wilson.
Bhairava—An inferior manifestation of some portion of Śiva,
with the idea of severity or cruelty. A Bhairava has the head of
a dog. There are eight Bhairavas named respectively, Asitanga,
Ruru, Chanda, Krodha, Unmatta, Kupati, Bhishana, Sanhara, all
indicative of something fearful.
Bhajamana-A son of Andhaka, according to all the best
authorities; the Agni makes him the son of Babhru.
Bhajina-A son of Satwata.
Bhalandana-A son of Nábhága, who had carried off and
married the daughter of a Vaisya, in consequence of which he was
86
BHAL-BHAR
degraded to the same caste, and deprived of his share of the patri-
monial sovereignty, which his son and successor, Bhalandana, after-
wards recovered.
Bhallada, Bhallaka, Bhallatta-A king of Hastinapura,
the last of the race of Hastin, who had founded the city; which
was destroyed by the encroachments of the Ganges.
Bhanu-A son of Krishna and Satyabháma.
Bhanu-The daughter of Daksha, wife of Kasyapa, who
became one of the ten wives of Dharma.
Bhanus-The sons of Bhanu, who became suns, and deities.
presiding over moments of Muhúrtta.
Bhanumat-A prince, the son of Kusadhwaja, king of Kási or
Benares; or according to the Rámáyana of Sankasya.
Bharadwaja—A sage, the son of Vrihaspati, who being aban-
doned by his natural parent was brought by the Maruts or winds
to Bharata, who called the child Vitatha (unprofitable) in allusion
to the birth and loss of his previous nine sons. Bharata had by
different wives nine sons who were put to death by their own
mothers, because Bharata remarked that they bore no resemblance
to him, and the women were afraid that he would therefore desert
them. From Bharadwája, a Brahman by birth and king by adop-
tion, descended Brahmans and Kshatriyas, the children of two
fathers.
Bharadwaja-One of the eight celebrated Rishis, the reputed
father of Dróna. His hermitage was at Prayága, the modern
Allahabad; he is said to have dwelt there surrounded by a band of
Brahman disciples, 'who lead the ideal life of austerity, sacrifice,
and devotion, which is so frequently described and lauded by
Brahmanical bards.' He received Ráma and Síta when they set
forth on their exile, and recommended the hill Chitra-kúta as a
residence. The Rámáyana says, 'the great Bharadwaja com-
manded Bharata to bring his whole army to the hermitage that he
might feast them.'
'Bring all thy host,' the hermit cried,
And Bharat, to his joy, complied.
BHAR
87
Then to the chapel went the sire,
Where ever burnt the sacred fire,
And first, in order due, with sips
Of water purified his lips :
To Visvakarma then he prayed,
His hospitable feast to aid:
'Let Vişvakarmá hear my call,
The God who forms and fashions all:
A mighty banquet I provide,
Be all my wants this day supplied.
Lord Indra at their head, the three
Who guard the worlds I call to me :
A mighty host this day I feed,
Be now supplied me every need.
Let all the streams that eastward go,
And those whose waters westering flow,
Both on the earth and in the sky,
Flow hither and my wants supply.
Be some with ardent liquor filled,
And some with wine from flowers distilled,
While some their fresh cool streams retain
Sweet as the juice of sugar-cane.
I call the Gods, I call the band
Of minstrels that around them stand:
I call the Háhá and Huhú,
I call the sweet Viṣvávasu.
I call the heavenly wives of these
With all the bright Apsarases,
Alambushá of beauty rare,
The charmer of the tangled hair,
Ghritáchí and Vișváchí fair,
Hemá and Bhímá sweet to view,
And lovely Nágadantá too,
And all the sweetest nymphs who stand
By Indra or by Brahmá's hand-
I summon these with all their train
And Tumburu to lead the strain.
88
BHAR
*
*
*
*
*
The troops of Bharat saw amazed
What Visvakarmá's art had raised.
On every side, five leagues around,
All smooth and level lay the ground,
*
With fresh green grass that charmed the sight
Like sapphires blent with lazulite.
There the Wood-apple hung its load,
The Mango and the Citron glowed,
The Bel and scented Jak were there,
And Aonla with fruitage fair.
There, brought from Northern Kuru, stood,
Rich in delights, the glorious wood,
And many a stream was seen to glide
With flowering trees along its side.
There mansions rose with four wide halls,
And elephants and chargers' stalls,
And many a house of royal state,
Triumphal arc and bannered gate.
With noble doorways, sought the sky,
Like a pale cloud, a palace high,
Which far and wide rare fragrance shed,
With wreaths of white en-garlanded.
Square was its shape, its halls were wide,
With many a seat and couch supplied,
Drink of all kinds, and every meat
*
Such as celestial Gods might eat.-Griffiths' Rámáyan.
In some of the vernacular versions of the Rámáyana the sage
is
represented as having provided a similar entertainment for the
great army of monkeys and bears.
Bharadwajas-Inhabitants of the northern regions according
to the Vayu, but Professor Wilson says they might be thought
to be religious fraternities from the sages Atri and Bharadwaja.
Bharadwaji—A deep river in Malwa, included in the V. P. list.
Bharani—A lunar asterism in Nagavithi, the first Vithi in
Airávatha, or the northern Avasthana.
BHAR
89
Bharata-See Mahábhárata.
Bharata-The eldest of the hundred sons of Rishabha, prince
of Himahwa. Rishabha having ruled with equity and wisdom, and
celebrated many sacrificial rites, resigned the sovereignty of the
earth to the heroic Bharata. Bharata having religiously discharged
the duties of his station, resigned the kingdom to his son Samati, a
most virtuous prince; and abandoned his life at the holy place
Sálagráma to become an ascetic. His thoughts were now wholly
on God; his conduct was distinguished by kindness, and he
effected in the highest degree the entire control over his mind.
On one occasion while bathing, a doe, being frightened by a
lion, suddenly brought forth a fawn, and fell into the river.
Bharata took the fawn to his hermitage and tended it with great
care. His affection for it became so strong that it distracted
his mind and interrupted his devotions. He at last died watched
by the deer, with tears in its eyes. He was afterwards born again
as a deer with the faculty of recollecting his former life; this gave
him a distaste for the world and he again repassed to the holy
place Sálagráma. Upon his death he was next born as a brahman,
still retaining the memory of his prior existence. Possessed of all
true wisdom he beheld soul as contra-distinguished from matter,
(Prakriti) he beheld the gods and all other beings as the same in
reality. This led him to disregard all castes and distinctions, and
his conduct was so extraordinary that he was thought to be idiotic,
and was treated with neglect or contempt: he worked in the fields,
and on one occasion was pressed as a palankeen bearer for the Rája
of Sauvira: being rebuked for his awkwardness, he replied and
entered into a dialogue with the king, who soon discovered his
merits. Bharata then expounded the nature of existence, the aim
and object of life, and the identification of individual with univer-
sal spirit. The king then opened his eyes to truth and abandoned
the notion of distinct existence. Bharata also obtained exemption
from future birth. V. P.
Bharata-One of the four sons of Dasaratha and Kaikeyí. In
youth he was sent to Girivraja, with his uncle Yudhájit. He was
there educated in the house of his grandfather Rája Aswapati.
12
90
BHAR
During his absence from Ayodhya, his brother Ráma was installed
as Yuvaraja (heir apparent). On the death of the Mahá Rája he
returned to Ayodhya and was deeply grieved when he ascertained
that his mother, in order to secure the kingdom to him, had
effected the exile of Ráma whose right to the Ráj he loudly pro-
claimed. He then went to Chitrakúta, where Ráma resided, and
offered to go into exile himself if Ráma would take the kingdom.
It was at length decided that Ráma should ascend the throne after
the fourteen years of exile had expired, and Bharata determined to
govern Kósala in the name of Ráma. This he did by carrying
away a pair of shoes which had been worn by Ráma, and which he
treated as symbolical of Ráma's presence.
Bharata-In the Bhagavat Gíta a patronymic from Bharata,
applied to Arjuna as his descendant. Arjuna is also called Prince
of the Bharatas, and best of the Bharatas.
She
Bharata-"The son of Rája Dushyanta and Sakuntala. The
legend of his birth forms the ground-work of Kalidása's drama of
Sakuntala, or the Lost Ring. The Rája was hunting in the forest.
when he saw Sakuntala, a brahman's daughter, and fell in love with
her. He induced her to accept him as her husband by a Gandharva
marriage, and giving her his ring as a pledge of his troth.
afterwards gave birth to a son who was named Bharata, but having
lost the ring, the Rája in the absence of such evidence, conve-
niently forgot his engagement to marry the daughter of a priest.
Ultimately when the ring was found, and he either saw or heard of
the exploits of Bharata in taming lions, he acknowledged the
hero to be his son and made the mother his chief Rání."
young
"There is no reliable information as to the extent of the king-
dom of Bharata, but his wonderful doings and the greatness of his
empire, have been set forth in the most extravagant terms. To
this day India is known to the Hindus by the name of Bharata-
varsha, or the country of Bharata. The Kshatriya bards declared
that the Rájas of Bharata were descended from the moon, and that
one of their number conquered Indra, the ruler of the gods." All
that is really known is that an Aryan empire was established by
Bharata amidst an aboriginal population. The original seat of the
BHAR-BHAT
91
empire was at the site now occupied by the ruins of Takh-i-Bahi,
in the country of the Yusufzais to the northward of Peshawar.
Bharata-varsha-An ancient name for northern India, which
was divided into nine portions.
Bharga-A prince, the son of Vainahótra, descended from
Alarka.
Bhargas, Bhargavas-A people of the east subdued by Bhíma.
Bhargabhumi-The son of Bharga, the prince who is said to
have promulgated the four rules of caste.
Bharika-A son of Krishna and Satyabhama.
DITYA.
Bhartri-hari-A Sanskrit grammarian who lived in the century
preceding the Christian era. He was the brother of VICRAMA-
He wrote a grammatical treatise, but his Vákya Pradípa
or Metrical Maxims on the philosophy of Syntax, are the best
known. They are often cited under the name of Harikarica, and
have almost equal authority wilh the precepts of Panini. His
Satakas or centuries of verses, are also much admired.
Bhasi-One of the six illustrious daughters of Támra, the wife
of Kasyapa. Bhasi gave birth to kites.
Bhatta-Bhaṭṭa. An honorary title given to learned brah-
mans who commit one of the Vedas to memory so as to be able to
recite the whole without book.
Bhatta Murti-A distinguished Telugu poet, one of "the
eight elephants," so styled of Krishna-raya's Court. He wrote
the Narasa Bhúpaliyam during his patron's life; but his chief
poem, the Vasu Charitramu, after that patron's death. It contains
florid descriptions of scenery and love affairs, in recondite versifica-
tion, much esteemed. Bhaṭṭa Múrti ranks high as a poet.-Taylor.
Bhattacharyas-The name of those Hindu scholars who
not only learn, as the Bhaṭṭas do, one of the vedas completely by
heart, but who study the meaning of each verse and word, so as to
be able to give orally the explanation of any passage required.
The number of this class of scholars, who represent the doctors of
92
BHAT-BHAS
Hindu theology, is now very small. There are three or four, it
is said at Benares. They are highly respected, and as incarna-
tions of Vrihaspati (the Pandit of the gods,) at certain occasions
regularly worshipped.-Haug.
Bhattoji Dikshita-A grammarian, the son of a Brahman, and
born in the Mahratta country. He applied to study; but, his own
country ranking low in literature, he went to Benares studying
Sanscrit and philosophy. He is now chiefly known by his cele-
brated work on grammar, entitled Siddhanta Kaumudi (moon-
light of accuracy). Pánini's old sutras obtained three commenta-
tors, Vara ruchi, Bhattoji, and Patanjali; the latter is the most
diffuse and perfect; but the Siddhanta Kaumudi, holding a
medium place, has always been in wide and approved use. The
author lived a studious and contemplative life; and died at
Benares, aged fifty-six-Taylor.
Bhaskaracharya-“ A celebrated Brahman astronomer who
resided at Beder, one of the four ancient Mahomedan principa-
lities. He applied his mind chiefly to numerical science. His Bija
ganita was a work on arithmetic. He dedicated it to his only
child, a daughter named Lilavati, under date S. S. 1036 (A. D.
1114). Singularly enough for such a work, it came to be called
by her name; Bhaskara was also an astronomer, in which science
his calculations are not to be confounded with Pauranical fables.
His Siddhanta Sirómani, (head jewel of accuracy) is an astro-
logical work. It was published S. S. 1050 (A. D. 1128). He
soon after died, aged sixty-five, at Beder. The authors of the
Siddhanta and Vakya systems are no longer known; but Bhaskara
has no Indian rival of medieval, or modern times." It has been
said by some that Bhaskara was fully acquainted with the prin-
ciple of the differential calculus, which was only discovered in
Europe during the last century. In 1859 Professor Wilson wrote
to Mr, Spottiswoode on this subject, and that gentleman replied to
the inquiry in the following terms :-
"I have read Bâpû Deva Sâstrin's letter on Bhâskarâchârya's
mode of determining the instantaneous motion of a planet, with
great interest, and think that we are much indebted to him for
BHAU-BHAV
93
calling our attention to so important an element in the old Indian
methods of calculation. It still, however, seems to me, that he
has over-stated the case, in saying that " Bhâskarâchârya was fully
acquainted with the principle of the differential calculus." He has
undoubtedly conceived the idea of comparing the successive posi-
tions of a planet in its path, and of regarding its motion as constant
during the interval; and he may be said to have had some rudi-
mentary notion of representing the arc of a curve by means of
auxiliary straight lines. But on the other hand, in the method
here given, he makes no allusion to one of the most essential
features of the differential calculus, viz., the infinitesimal magnitude
of the intervals of time and space therein employed. Nor, indeed,
in anything specifically said about the fact, that the method is
an approximate one.
Nevertheless, with these reservations it must be admitted, that
the penetration shown by Bhâskara in his analysis, is in the highest
degree remarkable; that the formula which he establishes,......and
his methods of establishing it, bear more than a mere resemblance,
-they bear a strong analogy,-to the corresponding process in
modern mathematical astronomy; and that the majority of scien-
tific persons will learn with surprise, the existence of such a
method in the writings of so distant a period and so remote a
region."- Wilson.
Bhautya-The son of Bhuti, the Manu of the fourteenth
Manwantara.
Bhauma-Mars,' whose splendid car is of gold, drawn by eight
horses of a ruby-red, sprung from fire.
Bhava-1, Śiva, a Muni or Rudra, the husband of Sati, (Truth)
who abandoned her corporeal existence in consequence of the dis-
pleasure of Daksha. She was afterwards the daughter of Himavat,
(the snowy mountains) by Mena; and in that character, as the
only Umá, the mighty Bhava again married her. V. P., p. 59; 2,
The name of a son of Pratiharttá, one of the descendants of
Bharata; also 3, of a son of Viloman.
Bhavabhuti-A celebrated Sanscrit author, some of whose
dramas have been so well translated into English by Professor
94
BHAV
Wilson. He was also named Śríkanta, or he in whose throat
eloquence resides, was the son of a native of the South of India, a
brahman of Berar or Beder, and a member of the tribe of brahmans
who pretend to trace their descent from the sage Kasyapa. The
site of Bhavabhuti's birthplace is fully corroborated by the pecu-
liar talent he displays in describing nature in her magnificence, a
talent very unusual in Hindu bards, and one which he no doubt
derived from his early familiarity with the grand mountains and
forests of Telingána.-Mrs. Manning, A. & M. I., Vol. II, p. 208.
Bhavana-The mental impression or apprehension following
upon knowledge. The formation of a fixed idea of the object of
contemplation. It is also termed Bháva-bhávaná, apprehension of
the being, the existence or substantiality of the object; the thing
contemplated.
Bhavaumanya-The son of Vithatha, and grandson of Bharata.
Bhavishya-One of the eighteen Puránas. "The Purána
in which Brahma, having described the greatness of the sun,
explained to Manu the existence of the world and the characters
of all created beings in the course of the Aghóra Kalpa." This
Purána as its name implies should be a book of prophecies. Dr.
Wilson says:
It should be rather regarded as a manual of religious
rites and ceremonies, in which a few legends enliven the series of
precepts."
Bhavishyottara Purana-This is also a sort of manual of
religious offices, the greater portion being appropriated to vratas,
and the remainder to the forms with which gifts are to be
presented.
Bhavya-One of the ten sons of Priyavrata, who became king
of Sakadwipa. Also the name of one of the sons of Dhruva, by
his wife Sámbha.
Bhavya-A king mentioned in the Rig Veda, who dwelt on the
banks of the Sindhu or Indus.
Bhavyas-One of the five classes of demi-gods of the sixth
Manwantara, when Chakshusha was the Manu of the period, and
Manojava was the Indra.
BHA-BHI
95
Bhaya-(Fear). Son of Anriti (falsehood), and Nikriti (im-
morality).
Bhayada-A prince, the son of Manasya, one of the descend-
ants of Puru.
Bhikshuka-A mendicant, the fourth order of men described
in the V. P. He is to forego the three objects of human existence
(pleasure, wealth and virtue)-to be constantly occupied with
devotion, and abstain from all wrong-doing. He is to reside but
for one night in a village, and not more than five nights at a time
in a city for the support of existence he is to apply for alms at
the houses of the three first castes, when the fires have been
extinguished and people have eaten. The mendicant is to call
nothing his own, and to suppress desire, anger, pride and covet-
ousness.
Bhils-A tribe of Aborigines who still occupy the hill tracts of
Rajputána and Central India, and in ancient times seem to have
dwelt in nearly the same localities; having Rájas or Chieftains of
their own, but acknowledging or dreading the supremacy of the
Kshatriyas. In the Mahábhárata they appear to the south of
the Jumna, and in the immediate neighbourhood of the Ráj of
Bharata; whilst in the Rámáyana they make their appearance
further to the east, near the junction of the Jumna and Ganges.
They have preserved their rude habits to the present day, and
are known as cattle-lifters, robbers, hunters like Nimrod and Esau,
capable of almost any outrage, yet imbued with a sense of truth
and honour strangely contrasting with their external character. At
the same time they are perceptibly yielding to the personal
influence of British administrators and the advancing tide of
British civilization.- Wheeler, Vol. I, p. 83.
Bhima-Terrible." The second of the five sons of Pándu,
but mystically begotten by Váyu, the god of the wind or air,
through his mother Kunti, or Pritha. He is the principal General
of the Pandava army, and is renowned for his strength and swift-
ness. Duryodhana attempted to take his life by poison when a
youth, but he escaped through the agency of the Nagas; he was
instructed in the use of the club by Dróna, and at the exhibition
96
BHIM-BHIS
of arms at Hastinapur fought Duryodhana with the club. His
wars with the Asuras are referred to the old wars between the
Aryans and Aborigines. The myth of his marrying Hidimbi,
the sister of the Asura Hidimba, whom he slew in the forest, is
regarded as a later addition to the original tradition. The Mahá-
bhárata also relates his slaughter of Vaka the Asura, his conquest
of Jarasandha, the Rája of Magadha, his attempt at interference in
behalf of Draupadi in the gambling pavilion; the fearful vow he
uttered against Duryodhana and Dushasanas; his interview with
his mythical brother Hanuman, the son of Váyu; his pursuit and
treatment of Jayadratha after the abduction of Draupadi; his
appearance in the council hall of Rája Viráta with a ladle in one
hand and a scimitar in the other; bis engagement as head cook ;
the enormous quantity of provisions he daily eat himself; his battle
with Jimuta whom he killed, and the favour he consequently
obtained from the Rája; his contest with the prime minister
Kíchaka, whom he killed and rolled into a ball, because of his
ill-treatment of Draupadi; how he rescued Rája Viráta from
Susarman who was carrying him into captivity; his battle with
Bhishma in the first day of the great war; his slaughter of the
Rája of Magadha and his sons; his conflicts with Dróna, with
Dushasana, with Duryodhana; his return to the Mahárája Dhrita-
rashtra at Hastinapur; his slaughter of the horse at the Aswame-
dha of Yudhishthira; his disputes with the Mahárája, and his
death, along with his four brothers, in the Himálayás. It will thus
be seen that Bhíma belongs to the epic period.—Wheeler, Vol. I.
Bhima-The Rája of Vidarbha (Berar), and father of Damayanti.
Bhima-The fifth of the eight Rudras, to whom was assigned
the charge of fire: also the name of a son of Amávasa.
Bhimaratha-Son of Ketumat and grandson of Dhanwantari,
the author of Medical Science. He was the father of Divodasa, of
whom many curious legends are narrated.
Bhimarathi-The ancient name of the river Bhíma.
Bhimasena-One of the four sons of Paríkshit, son of Kuru.
Bhishma-Originally named Santanavu, the son of Sántanu, the
BHI
97
Rája of Hastinapur; the legend in the Mahábhárata is that when
Rája Sántanu was very old he desired to marry a young and beau-
tiful damsel, but the parents of the girl were unwilling to give her
to the Rája, saying, "If our daughter have sons they will not
succeed to the Ráj ; for when Sántanu dies, his son Sántanavu will
become Rája." Then Sántanavu determined to sacrifice himself in
order to gratify his father; and he made a vow to the parents of
the damsel, saying, "If you will give your daughter in marriage
to my father, I will never accept the kingdom or marry a wife, or
become the father of children by any woman; so that if your
daughter bear a son to the Rája, that son shall succeed him in the
kingdom." And the vow of Sántanavu was noised abroad, and
from that day he was called Bhishma, or the dreadful,” because
of his dreadful vow. Henceforth Bhishma became the patriarch
of the family," and is represented as a model of faithfulness and
loyalty, and indeed stands forth as one of the leading characters in
the Mahábhárata.”
•He educated Dhritarashtra, Pándu and Vidura; and afterwards
made Dróna the preceptor of the Pandavas and Kauravas; and at
a meeting of council proposed that the kingdom should be divided
between the two parties. In the great war he became the gene-
ralissimo of the Kauravas and their allies. On the tenth day he
was mortally wounded in a terrible conflict with Arjuua.
Bhishmaka-The king of Vidarbha (now Berar) who resided
at Kundina. He had a son named Rukmin, and a beautiful daugh-
ter named Rukminí. Krishna fell in love with the latter and soli-
cited her in marriage; but her brother would not assent to the
espousals. At the suggestion of Jarásandha, the powerful sove-
reign, Bhíshmaka affianced Rukminí to Siṣupála. Krishna went to
witness the wedding and contrived to carry off the princess.
Rukmin, with a large force, pursued and overtook Krishna, who
with his discus destroyed the host of Rukmin, and would have
slain him, but was withheld by the entreaties of Rukminí.
Bhishmashtami-The twenty-third of Mágha, and eighth lunar
day of the light half (7th February). This is a festival which, at
first sight, appears to be of special and traditional origin, but which
13
98
BHI--BHO
has, probably, its source in the primitive institutes of the Hindus,
of which the worship of the Pitris, the patriarchs or progenitors,
the Dii Manes, constituted an important element. According to
the Tithi Tattwa, this day is dedicated to Bhishma, the son of
Gangá, and great uncle of the Pandava and Kaurava princes; who
was killed in the course of the great war, and dying childless left
no descendant in the direct line, on whom it was incumbent to
offer him obsequial honors. In order to supply this defect, persons
in general are enjoined to make libations of water on this day
to his spirit, and to offer him sesamum seeds and boiled rice. The
act expiates the sins of a whole year: one of its peculiarities
is, that it is to be observed by persons of all the four original castes,
according to a text of Dhavala, an ancient lawgiver, quoted by
Raghunandana, "Oh twice-born! persons of all the Varnas should
on the eighth lunar day offer water, sesamum seeds and rice, to
Bhishma. If a Brahman, or man of any other caste, omit to make
such offerings, the merit of his good deeds during the preceding
year is annulled." According to a different reading of the text, how-
ever, it should be rendered: "Let all the twice-born castes make
the oblations." This excludes Súdras, but extends the duty to the
Kshatriyas and Vaisyas as well as Brahmans. The intention of the
rite, as now understood, is expressed in the formulæ uttered at the
time of presenting the offerings: "I present this water to the
childless hero Bhishma, of the race of Vyághrapada, the chief of
the house of Sankriti. May Bhishma, the son of Sántanu, the
speaker of truth and subjugator of his passions, obtain by this
water the oblations due by sons and grandsons," The simple
nature of the offerings which are sufficient on such occasions, water
and sesamum seeds, justifies the remark made by Ovid on the
Feralia, that the manes are easily satisfied,-Parva petunt manes.
Bhiras-The people about Surat; called Phauni or Phryni,
by Strabo.
Bhogavati-The capital of Vásuki in Rasátala, one of the
seven regions of Pátála.
Bhojakata-The city near the Narmada, founded by Ruk-
min, after his defeat by Krishna, as he had vowed never to
return to Kuudani but as victor.
BHO-BHR
99
Bhojas-Inhabitants of the country near the Vindhya range of
mountains; a branch of the Yadavas. A Bhoja Rája is amongst
the warriors of the Mahábhárata.
Bhoja Raja-A prince of Dhára; or Dhar, in Malwa ; supposed
to be the same as Vikrama. There is some uncertainty as to
the exact time of Bhoja's reign; the "nine gems" are said to
have flourished during his reign and that of Vikrama. The period
is designated the golden age of Hindu literature. Dr. E. F. Hall
says it is high time to give up speaking of this prince as a great
patron of literature. His pretensions to be so considered rest on
the frailest foundation possible.-H. H. Wilson's Works, Vol. V.
p. 171.
Bhraja-The name of one of the seven suns into which the
seven solar rays dilate at the consummation of all things when their
radiance is to set the three worlds and Pátála on fire.
Bhrajiras-One of the five classes of demi-gods on the four-
teenth Manwantara.
Bhrami-(Revolving.) The daughter of Sisumara (the sphere)
wife of Dhruva, according to the Bhagavata, which converts the
family of Dhruva into personifications of divisions of time and of
day and night.
Bhrigu—A Prajapati, or Rishi, chief of the Maharshis (see
Rishi.) Also one of the ten Prajapatis, sons of Brahma and
progenitors of mankind, and teacher of the Dhanurveda, or science
of war, one of the Upavedas. As such he belongs to the Vedic
period. In the Puránic period he is called the husband of Khyáti,
or fame, the daughter of Daksha, by Prasúti.-Vishnu Purána,
pp. 49, 284.
In Muir's Original Sanscrit Texts there are many
incidents related of Bhrigu which illustrate the celebrity he had
attained and the great influence he had acquired. When king
Nahusha tyrannised over the brahmans and compelled even the
Rishis to carry him from place to place, it once came Agastya's
turn to perform the servile office. Bhrigu then said to Agastya
"Why do we submit to the insults of this king of the gods ?"
Agastya answered that none of the Rishis had ventured to curse
100
BHR-BHU
Nahusha because he had obtained the power of subduing to his
service every one upon whom he fixed his eyes; and that he had
nectar for his beverage. However Agastya said he was prepared
to do anything that Bhrigu might suggest. Bhrigu said he had
been sent by Brahma to take vengeance on Nahusha, who was that
day about to attach Agastya to his car, and would spurn him with
his foot; and that he (Bhrigu) incensed at this insult, would by a
curse condemn Nahusha to become a serpent. All this accordingly
happened. Bhrigu however on Nahusha's solicitation, and the
intercession of Agastya, placed a period to the effects of the curse,
which Yudhishṭhira was to be the instrument of terminating. Vol.
1, p. 315.
Bhrihaspati-See Vrihaspati. This is not only the name
of the purohita of the gods, but is also used in the ancient Sanscrit
hymns as the name of the One Eternal.
Bhurishena-The third son of the holy sage Chyavána, accord-
ing to the Bhagavata; the V. P. only mentions one son Anartta,
Bhudevi-A name of the earth, and fabled to be married to
Prithu; the first king who taught the mode of cultivating the
ground. Hence the earth is named Prithivi. One of the Puránas
was delivered to Bhu-dévi, by Vishnu, as Varáha Swámi. Bhū-
devi, or Bhumi-devi, is the secondary wife of Vishnu.
Bhumimitra-A Kanwa prince, whose father Devabhuti, the
last Sunga king, was murdered by his minister.
Bhuri-A son of Sómadatta, one of the descendants of Kuru.
Bhurloka-The sphere of the earth comprehending its oceans,
mountains and rivers, and extending as far as it is illuminated by
the rays of the sun and moon.
Bhuta-A son of Vasudeva by his wife Róhiņi.
Bhutadi-The third variety of Ahankara, q. v.
Bhutas-Evil spirits, said to proceed from Brahma. Children
of Kródha. Malignant spirits, goblins or ghosts, haunting ceme-
teries, lurking in trees, animating dead bodies, and deluding and
devouring human beings. They are generally coupled with the
BHU-BIJ
101
Pretas, and in this character belong to the Epic period. In the
Puranic period they are personified as demi-gods of a particular
class, produced by Brahma when incensed; and their mother is
therefore considered in the Padma-purána as Krodhá, or 'Anger,'
and their father, Kasyapa.-Thompson.
Bhutasantapana-A powerful Daitya, the son of Hiran-
yáksha. The descendants of Hiranyaksha are said in the Padma-
purána to have extended to seventy-seven crores, or seven hundred
and seventy millions.
Bhutatma-An appellation of Vishnu, meaning one with
created things.
Bhutavidya-The fourth branch of Medical Science, treating
of maladies referred to demoniac possession.
Bhutesa-A name of Vishnu, meaning lord of the elements,
or of created things.
Bhuti-A sage, the son of Angiras, whose pupil Santi, having
suffered the holy fire to go out in his master's absence, prayed to
Agni, and so propitiated him, that he not only re-lighted the flame,
but desired Santi to demand a further boon. Santi accordingly
solicited a son for his Guru, which son was Bhúti, the father of
the Manu Bhautya. Also the name of a goddess, wife of Kavi.
Bhuvana-The name of one of the eleven Rudras, according
to the Váyu Purána list.
Bhuvar-loka-The sphere of the sky, both in diameter and
circumference, as far upwards as to the planetary sphere, or Swar-
lóka.
Bijala Raja-A Jaina king of Kalyanapura, otherwise Silpa-
giri, who had the celebrated Basava, for his minister of state. He
was charged with wasting the state funds, in gathering around him-
self adherents to a new form of the Saiva religion. When called
to account, he made up the deficiency in appearance; but soon after
caused the king to be assassinated by three men, in his own palace.
Thereupon, the Jainas were massacred. The exact date is not
known; but Professor Wilson places it in the early part of the
eleventh century. See Basava.
102
BIK-BRA
Bikya-The daughter of the minister of the Rája of Kutuwal
in the Dekhan, who was married to Chandrahása, the fortunate
boy, q. v.
Bodha-(Understanding). A son of Dharma, by one of
Daksha's daughters, Buddhi.
Bodhana-A mountain to the east of Ramghur.
Bodhas-One of the tribes of Central India, according to the
Váyu Purána; it is also read Bahyas.
Brahma-The first deity of the Hindu triad; the creator of
the world; the great father and lord of all; the supporter of all :
yet described as born in the lotus which sprung from the navel of
Vishņu; and as born from the golden egg. The Vishnu Purána
says, the one only god Janárdana, takes the designation of Brahma,
Vishnu and Śiva, accordingly as he creates, preserves or destroys.
Mr. Cockburn Thompson says: "In the ante-mythological age this
was probably nothing but a name for the sun, considered as pro-
ducer, vivifier and pervader. He afterwards replaced Súrya in
the triad of elementary gods, and was coupled with Vishnu and
Śiva, who were substituted for Varuna and Váyu, the other com-
ponents of that triad. In the earliest mythological period, Brahma
(always masculine) is then first person of the triad, Brahma, Vishņu
and Śiva; and when later the unity of these personages was
established by referring them to one Supreme Being, Brahma was
that being in his character of creator and enlivener, Vishnu in that
of preserver, and Śiva in that of destroyer. Thus in the Puránas
(Vishņu P., p. 22,) Brahma is said to live 100 of his own years,
each of which consists of 360 days and nights. The days are
called Kalpas, and consist of 4,320,000,000 years of mortals, during
which the universe exists. During his nights the universe ceases
to exist, and is reproduced at the commencement of the next day or
Kalpa. He is described in the Puránas as having four faces, and
as being produced from the cup of a lotus, which sprang from the
navel of Vishņu. In this mythological character of creator of the
universe, he is mentioned in the Bhagavat Gita and Vishnu Purána.
When, after the period of superstitious mythology, the idea of one
Supreme Being was again brought forward, Brahma was considered
BRA
103
the chief of the existing trinity, and was at first identified with
that idea of an unknown god; and though afterwards Śiva and
Vishņu were each in turn identified with the Supreme Being by
their respective followers, the Saivas and Vaishnavas, the name
Brahma, in the neuter, was still retained in the language of philo-
sophy to designate the universal Supreme One. In this sense the
word occurs throughout the Bhagavat Gita with the exception of a
few places where it is masculine; and once where it occurs in the
neuter, but no longer signifies the Supreme Being in his complete
character of the essence of both spirit and matter; but merely that
portion of him which is the essence of all matter, the universal vital
energy. We have thus:- 1st, Brahma, masculine, the mythological
personage, first person of the mythological triad, and personification
of the creative power, considered as a mortal and material deity ;
2nd, Brahma, neuter, a name used to designate the Supreme Being
in philosophic language; and 3rd, Brahma, neuter, the personifi-
cation, in later philosophical language, of the material portion of the
Supreme Being. (The word has never been satisfactorily derived,
though commonly supposed to come from the root vrih, to grow or
increase."-Thompson. Dr. Muir in the 5th Vol. of his Original
Sanscrit Texts, translates a text which he says 'is interesting not
merely as introducing Brahma but as containing what is probably
one of the oldest extant expositions of the conceptions of nama and
rūpa (name and form) as comprehending the whole of the pheno-
minal universe."
"1. In the beginning Brahma was this [universe.] He created
gods. Having created gods, he placed them in these worlds, viz.,
in this world Agni, in the atmosphere Vayu, and in the sky Surya;
(2) And in the worlds which were yet higher he placed the gods
who are still higher. Such as are these visible worlds and these
gods, -even such were those (higher) visible worlds in which he
placed those (higher) gods, and such were those gods themselves;
(3) Then Brahma proceeded to the higher sphere (pararddha-
explained by the commentator to mean the Satyaloka, the most
excellent, and the limit of all the worlds.) Having gone to that
higher sphere, he considered 'how now can I pervade all these
worlds?' He then pervaded them with two things-with form
104
BRA
and with name. Whatever has a name, that is name.
And then
that which has no name-that which he knows by its form, that
'such is its form'-that is form. This [universe] is so much as is
(i. e., is co-extensive with) form and name; (4) These are the two
great magnitudes (abhve) of Brahma. He who knows these two
great magnitudes of Brahma becomes himself a great magnitude;
(5) These are the two great manifestations of Brahma. He who
knows these two great manifestations of Brahma becomes himself
a great manifestation. Of these two, one is the greater, viz,, form;
for whatever is name is also form. He who knows the greater of
these two, becomes greater than him than whom he wishes to
become greater; (6) The gods were originally mortal, but when
they were pervaded by Brahma they became immortal. By that
which he sends forth from his mind (mind is form; for by mind he
knows, 'This is form')-by that, I say, he obtains form. And by
that which he sends out from his voice (voice is name; for by voice
he seizes name)-by that, I say, he obtains name. This universe
is so much.as is (i. e., is co-extensive with) form and name. All
that he obtains. Now that all is undecaying. Hence he obtains
undecaying merit, and an undecaying world."
"The deity who is described in the later hymns of the Rig
Veda, and in the Atharva Veda, under the different titles of Viṣva-
karman, Hiranyagarbha and Prajapati, appears to correspond with
the Brahma of the more modern legendary books. Though this
god was originally unconnected with Vishnu and Rudra, while at
a subsequent period he came to be regarded in systematic mytho-
logy as the first person in the triad of which they formed the
second and third members, yet the general idea entertained of his
character has been less modified in the course of his history than
is the case in regard to the other two deities."
"Brahma was from the beginning considered as the Creator,
and he continued to be regarded as fulfilling the same function
even after he had sunk into a subordinate position, and had come
to be represented by the votaries of Vishnu and Mahadeva
respectively, as the mere creature and agent of one or other of these
two gods. In later times Brahma has had few special worship-
pers; the only spot where he is periodically adored being at
ᏴᎡᎪ
105
Pushkara in Rajputana. Two of the acts which the earlier
legends ascribe to him, the assumption of the forms of a tortoise
and of a boar are in later works transferred to Vishnu."
In the fourth Volume of Muir's Original Sanscrit Texts, from
which the above extract has been taken, the reader will find the
In
life, character and attributes of Brahma fully illustrated.
some of the Texts translated it is maintained that Brahma, Vishnu
"I shall
and Śiva, are three manifestations of the same divinity.
declare to thee that form composed of Hari and Hara (Vishņu and
Mahadeva) combined, which is without beginning, middle, or end,
imperishable, undecaying. He who is Vishnu is Rudra; he who
is Rudra is Pitámaha (Brahma); the substance is one, the gods
are three, Rudra, Vishnu and Pitámaha." (O. S. T., Vol. iv,
p. 237.)
Brahma-Purana-The, gives a description of the creation, an
account of the Manwantaras, and the history of the solar and lunar
dynasties to the time of Krishna. It also sets forth the sanctity of
Orissa, with its temples and sacred groves, dedicated to the sun, to
Śiva and Jagganath. Its object seems to be the promotion of the
worship of Krishna as Jagganath.
Brahmabali-A disciple of Devaderṣa and teacher of the
Sámaveda.
Brahmabhuta-To become identified with the Supreme Spirit :
to have the conviction that spirit is one, universal, and the same.
Brahma bodhya-A river mentioned in the Vishnu Purána,
but not identified.
Brahmachari-A religious student who has been invested
with the sacred thread; he is to prosecute the study of the Vedas
in the house of his preceptor: and to wait on him constantly; in
the morning he is to salute the sun, in the evening fire; and then.
to address his preceptor with respect. He must stand when his
preceptor is standing; move when he is walking, and sit beneath
him when he is seated: he must never sit, nor walk, nor stand,
when his teacher does the reverse. He is to read the Veda atten-
tively, placed before his preceptor; and to eat the food he has
14
106
BRA
collected as alms, when permitted by his teacher. He is to bathe
in water which has first been used for his preceptor's ablutions ;
and every morning bring fuel and water, and whatever else may
be required. V. P.
One of the hymns translated by Dr. Muir in his Original
Sanscrit Texts ascribes "very astonishing powers to the Brahima-
charin or religious stulent." Dr. Muir says: "Some parts of it are
obscure, but the translation I give, though imperfect, will couvey
some idea of the contents."
"The Brahmacharin works, quickening both worlds. The gods
are joyful in him. He has established the earth and the sky. He
satisfies his acharya (religious teacher) by tapas; 2, The Fathers,
the heavenly hosts, all the gods separately, follow after him, with
the 6,333 Gandharvas. He satisfies all the gods by tapas; 3, The
acharya, adopting him as a disciple, makes him a Brahmacharin
even in the womb, and supports him in the belly for three nights.
When he is born the gods assemble to see him ; 4, This piece of fuel
is the earth (compare verse 9), the second is the sky, and he satis-
fies the air with fuel. The Brahmacharin satisfies the worlds with
fuel, with a girdle, with exertion, with tapas; 5, Born before
Brahma, the Brahmacharin arose through tapas, clothed with heat.
From him was produced divine knowledge (bräamana), the highest
Brahma, and all the gods, together with immortality; 6, The
Brahmacharin advances, lighted up by fuel, clothed in a black
antelope's skin, consecrated, long-bearded. He moves straightway
from the eastern to the northern ocean, compressing the worlds,
and again expanding them; 7, The Brahmacharin, generating
divine science, the waters, the world, Prajapati, Parameshthin,
Viraj, having become an embryo in the womb of immortality,
having become Indra, crushed the Asuras; 8, The Acharya has
constructed both these spheres, broad and deep, the earth and the
sky. The Brahmachariu preserves them by tapas. In him the
gods are joyful; 9, It was the Brahmacharin who first produced
this broad earth and the sky as an alms. Making them two pieces
of fuel (compare verse 4) he worships. In them all creatures are
contained; 10, The two receptacles of divine knowledge are
secretly deposited, the one on this side, the other beyond the
BRA
107
surface of the sky. The Brahmacharin guards them by tapas. Wise,
he appropriates that divine knowledge as his exclusive portion... ;
16, The Brahmacharin is the Acharya, the Brahmacharin is Pra-
jāpati; Prajāpati shines (virājati); the shining (Viráj) became
Indra, the powerful; 17, Through self-restraint and tapas a king
protects his dominions. Through self-restraint an Ácharya seeks
after a Brahmacharin; 18, By self-restraint a damsel obtains a
young man as her husband. By self-restraint an ox and a horse
seek to gain fodder; 19, By self-restraint and tapas the gods
destroyed death. By self-restraint Indra acquired heaven from
[or for] the gods; 20, Plants, whatever has been, whatever
shall be, day and night, trees, the year, with the seasons, have
been produced from the Brahmachārin; 21, Terrestrial and celes-
tial beings, beasts, both wild and tame, creatures without wings
and winged, have been produced from the Brahmacharin; 22, All
creatures which have sprung from Prajapati have breath separately
in themselves; all of these are preserved by divine knowledge.
(Brahma), which is produced in the Brahmacharin...; 26, These
things the Brahmacharin formed; on the surface of the water he
stood performing tapas in the sea.”
Brahmadatta—A sage, the son of Anuha. In the Hari
Vamsam is a curious legend of the different transmigrations of Brah-
madatta and his six companions, who were successively as many
brahmaus, then forests, then deer, then water fowl, then swans, and
finally, brahmans again, when with the king they obtained libera-
tion. According to the Bhagavat, Brahmadatta composed a treatise
on the Yôga, a yóga tantra.
Brahmaloka-The highest heaven, the world of infinite
wisdom and truth, the inhabitants of which never again know
death.
Brahman-The name of the sacerdotal class; though a
priestly tribe, all brahmins are not priests. The true origin of the
brahmans is not distinctly known. The fabulous tradition current
amongst them derives them from the head of Brahma. A brah-
man is in a very different situation from a Kshatriya, a Vaisya or a
Śudra. These are born in the condition in which they continue to
108
BRA
live. But a Brahman becomes such only by the ceremony of the
cord with which he is invested at an early age. (See Upanayana).
They are after this rite designated Dwija, twice-born.
The seven castes of the brahmaus have for their special origin
the seven famous Rishis or penitents. These seven Rishis are
highly celebrated in the anuals of the country. They are the
holiest and most venerated personages the Hindus acknowledge.
Their names are held sacred and invoked by all the people. (See
Rishis).
"If the fabulous stories which are told of the origin of certain
great families in Europe, shed a lustre upon them by proving their
antiquity, how much more reason has the brahman to vaunt his
noble pedigree? and if the honor of being sprung from an illus-
trious family sometimes leads its descendants to look down with
contempt upon the lower ranks, we cannot wonder at the haughti-
ness of the brahman, and the high disdain which he shows to every
caste but his own."*
Every brahman professes to know from which of the seven
Rishis he has descended. There is another and more general divi-
sion which separates them into four distinct classes, each of which
appertains to one of the four Vedas. But in the ordinary inter-
course of life little attention is paid to this distinction. There are
several sectarian divisions which are practically more operative.
These are Vishnuvite, Smárta or Saiva brahmans; and in different
parts of India other sub-divisions are found.
Brahmanas-The portions of the Vedas which comprise pre-
cepts inculcating religious duties, maxims which explain these
precepts, and arguments which relate to theology. "The Brâh-
manas represent no doubt a most interesting phrase in the history
of the Indian mind, but judged by themselves, as literary produc-
tions, they are most disappointing. No one would have supposed
that at so early a period, and in so primitive a state of society,
there could have risen up a literature which for pedantry and
downright absurdity can hardly be matched anywhere. There is
no lack of striking thoughts, of bold expressions, of sound reason-
* Abbe Dubois.
BRA
109
ing and curious traditions in these collections. But these are
only like the fragments of a torso, like precious gems set in brass
and lead. The general character of these works is marked by
shallow and insipid grandiloquence, by priestly conceit and anti-
quarian pedantry. It is most important to the historian that he
should know how soon the fresh and healthy growth of a nation
can be blighted by priestcraft and superstition. It is most
important that we should know that nations are liable to those
epidemics in their youth as well as in their dotage. These works
deserve to be studied as the physician studies the twaddle of
idiots, and the raving of madmen. They will disclose to a
thoughtful eye the ruins of faded grandeur, the memories of noble
aspirations. But let us only try to translate these works into our
own language, and we shall feel astonished that human language
and human thought should ever have been used for such purposes.
Brahmanda Purana-That which has declared in twelve
thousand two hundred verses, the magnificence of the egg of
Brahma, and in which an account of the future Kalpas is con-
tained, is called the Brahmánda Purána, and was revealed by
Brahma. V. P.
Brahmas or Brahmarishis--According to the V. P. the
names of the nine Brahmans, or Brahmarishis, are Brighu,
Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Angiras, Marichi, Daksha, Atri and
Vasishta. They are also called.Prajapatis and Brahmaputras.
Considerable variety prevails in the lists of them in the different
books but the variations are of the nature of additions made
to an apparently original enumeration of but seven, whose
names generally recur. In the V. P. they are termed the
mind-engendered progeny of Brahma born from his con-
tinued meditations. In the South of India they are usually
termed the Seven Penitents. Two it is said were not originally
brahmaus, but they practised so long and severe a penance that
they obtained the remarkable favor of being raised to that rank
by the ceremony of the cord. From penitent Rájas they became
penitent brahmans: their rise was from a still lower rauk accord-
* Max Müller.
110
BRA-BUD
ing to the philosophical poet Vernana. These Rishis existed
prior to the Vedas, in which they are often mentioned. The
Abbe Dubois thinks they were the seven sons of Japhet.
Brahma-savarni-The Manu of the tenth Manwantara.
Brahmavaivartta-Purana-"That Purána which is related
by Sávarne to Nárada, and contains the account of the greatness
of Krishna, with the occurrences of the Rathantantara Kalpa,
where also the story of Brahma Varália is repeatedly told, is called
the Brahma vaivartta and contains eighteen thousand stanzas." V. P.
Brahmajna-Sacred Study, that which communicates to
soul the knowledge of good and evil: one of the five great
sacrifices or obligations of the Brahmachári.
Bramharshis-Descendants of the five patriarchs who were
the founders of races or Gotras of brahmans, or Kaṣyapa,
Vasishtha, Angiras, Atri and Brighu. The Brahmarshis dwell in
the sphere of Brahma.
Brammedhya-The name of a river in the Vishnu Purána
not yet identified.
Buddha-" Buddha, or more correctly, the Buddha,-for
Buddha is an appellative meaning Enlightened,-was born at
Kapilavastu, the capital of a kingdom of the same name, situated
at the foot of the mountains of Nepal, north of the present Oude.
His father, the king of Kapilavastu, was of the family of the
Sâkyas, and belonged to the clan of the Gautamas. His mother
was Mâyâdêvî, daughter of king Suprabuddha, and need we say
that she was as beautiful as he was powerful and just? Buddha
was therefore by birth of the Kshatrya, or warrior caste, and he
took the name of Sâkya from his family, and that of Gautama
from his clan, claiming a kind of spiritual relationship with the
honoured race of Gautama. The name of Buddha, or the Bud-
dha, dates from a later period of his life, and so probably does the
name Siddhartha (he whose objects have been accomplished),
though we are told that it was given him in his childhood. His
mother died seven days after his birth, and the father confided the
child to the care of his deceased wife's sister, who, however, had
BUD
111
been his wife even before the mother's death. The child grew up
a most beautiful and most accomplished boy, who soon knew more
than his masters could teach him. He refused to take part in the
games of his playmates, and never felt so happy as when he could
sit alone, lost in meditation in the deep shadows of the forest. It
was there that his father found him when he had thought him lost,
and in order to prevent the young prince from becoming a dreamer,
the king determined to marry him at once. When the subject
was mentioned by the aged ministers to the future heir to the
throne, he demanded seven days for reflection, and convinced at
last that not even marriage could disturb the calm of his mind, he
allowed the ministers to look out for a princess. The princess
selected was the beautiful Gopâ, the daughter of Dandapâni.
Though her father objected at first to her marrying a young prince
who was represented to him as deficient in mauliness and intellect,
he gladly gave his consent when he saw the royal suitor dis-
tancing all his rivals both in feats of arms and power of mind. Their
marriage proved one of the happiest, but the prince remained as
he had been before, absorbed in meditation on the problems of life
and death. Nothing is stable on earth,' he used to say,
C
nothing
is real. Life is like the spark produced by the friction of wood.
It is lighted and is extinguished-we know not whence it came or
whither it goes. . It is like the sound of a lyre, and the wise man
asks iu vain from whence it came and whither it goes. There
must be some supreme intelligence where we could find rest. If
I attained it, I could bring light to man; if I were free myself,
I could deliver the world.' The king, who perceived the melan-
choly mood of the young prince, tried everything to divert him
from his speculations: but all was in vain. Three of the most
ordinary events that could happen to any man, proved of the
utmost importance in the career of Buddha. We quote the
description of these occurrences from M. Barthélemy Saint Hilaire :
'One day when the prince with a large retinue was driving
through the eastern gate of the city on the way to one of his
parks, he met on the road an old man, broken and decrepit. One
could see the veins and muscles over the whole of his body, his
teeth chattered, he was covered with wrinkles, bald, and hardly
112
BUD
able to utter hollow and unmelodious sounds. He was bent on his
"Who is that man ?"
said the prince to his coachman. "He is small and weak, his
flesh and his blood are dried up, his muscles stick to his skin, his
head is white, his teeth chatter, his body is wasted away; leaning
on his stick he is hardly able to walk, stumbling at every step. Is
there something peculiar in his family, or is this the common lot
of all created beings ?"
stick, and all his limbs and joints trembled.
6.66
Sir," replied the coachman," that man is sinking under old
age, his senses have become obtuse, suffering has destroyed his
strength, and he is despised by his relations. He is without sup-
port and useless, and people have abandoned him, like a dead tree
in a forest. But this is not peculiar to his family. In every
creature, youth is defeated by old age. Your father, your mother,
all your relations, all your friends, will come to the same state;
this is the appointed end of all creatures.'
"Alas!" replied the prince, are creatures so ignorant, so
weak and foolish, as to be proud of the youth by which they are
intoxicated, not seeing the old age which awaits them! As for
me, I go away. Coachman, turn my chariot quickly. What have
I, the future prey of old age,-what have I to do with pleasure ?""
And the young prince returned to the city without going to hist
park.
Another time the prince was driving through the southern
gate to his pleasure garden, when he perceived on the road a man
suffering from illness, parched with fever, his body wasted, covered
with mud, without a friend, without a home, hardly able to breathe,
and frightened at the sight of himself and the approach of death.
Having questioned his coachman, and received from him the
answer which he expected, the young prince said, "Alas! health
is but the sport of a dream, and the fear of suffering must take
this frightful form. Where is the wise man who, after having
seen what he is, could any longer think of joy and pleasure ?"
The prince turned his chariot and returned to the city.
A third time he was driving to his pleasure garden through
the western gate, when he saw a dead body on the road, lying on
a bier, and covered with a cloth. The friends stood about crying,
BUD
113
sobbing, tearing their hair, covering their heads with dust, strik-
ing their breasts, and uttering wild cries. The prince, again,
calling his coachman to witness this painful scene, exclaimed,
"Oh ! woe to youth, which must be destroyed by old age! Woe
to health, which must be destroyed by so many diseases! Woe
to this life, where a man remains so short a time! If there were
no old age, no disease, no death; if these could be made captive
for ever!" Then betraying for the first time his intentions, the
young prince said, "Let us turn back, 1 must think how to
accomplish deliverance.'
He was driving
'A last meeting put an end to his hesitation.
through the northern gate on the way to his pleasure gardens,
when he saw a mendicant who appeared outwardly calm, subdued,
looking downwards, wearing with an air of dignity his religious
vestment, and carrying an alms-bow!.'
"Who is this man?" asked the prince.
Sir," replied the coachman, "this man is one of those who
are called bhikshus, or mendicants. He has renounced all plea-
sures, all desires, and leads a life of austerity. He tries to conquer
himself. He has become a devotee. Without passion, without
envy, he walks about asking for alms.'"
"This is good and well said," replied the prince. "The life
of a devotee has always been praised by the wise. It will be my
refuge and the refuge of other creatures; it will lead us to a real
life, to happiness and immortality."
'With these words the young prince turned his chariot and
returned to the city.'
After having declared to his father and his wife his intention of
retiring from the world, Buddha left his palace one night when all
the guards that were to have watched him were asleep. After
travelling the whole night he gave his horse and his ornaments to
his groom, and sent him back to Kapilavastu. A monument,'
remarks the author of the Lalita-Vistara (p. 270), ' is still to be
seen on the spot where the coachman turned back.' Hiouen-
Thsang (II, 330) saw the same monument at the edge of a large
forest, on his road to Kuşinâgara, a city now in ruins, and situated
about fifty miles E. S. E. from Gorakpur.
15
114
BUD
Buddha first went to Vaisâli and became the pupil of a famous
Brahman, who had gathered round him 300 disciples. Having
learnt all that the Brahman could teach him, Buddha went away
disappointed. He had not found the road to salvation. He then
tried another Brahman at Râgagriha, the capital of Magadha or
Behar, who had 700 disciples, and there too he looked in vain for the
means of deliverance. He left him, followed by five of his fellow-
students, and for six years retired into solitude, near a village named
Uruvilva, subjecting himself to the most severe peuances, previous
to his appearing in the world as a teacher. At the end of this
period, however, he arrived at the conviction that asceticism, far
from giving peace of mind and preparing the way to salvation,
was a snare and a stumbling-block in the way of truth. He gave
up his exercises, and was at once deserted as an apostate by his
five disciples. Left to himself he now began to elaborate his own
system. He had learnt that neither the doctrines nor the auste-
rities of the Brahmans were of any avail for accomplishing the deli-
verance of man, and freeing him from the fear of old age, disease
and death. After long meditations and ecstatic visions, he at last
imagined that he had arrived at that true knowledge which
discloses the cause, and thereby destroys the fear of all the changes
inherent in life. It was from the moment when he arrived at
this knowledge, that he claimed the name of Buddha, the enlight-
ened. At that moment we may truly say that the fate of millions
of millions of human beings trembled in the balance. Buddha
hesitated for a time whether he should keep his knowledge to
himself, or communicate it to the world. Compassion for the
sufferings of man prevailed, and the young prince became the
founder of a religion which, after more than 2,000 years, is still
professed by 455,000,000 of human beings.
The further history of the new teacher is very simple. He
proceeded to Benares, which at all times was the principal seat of
learning in India, and the first converts he made were the five
fellow-students who had left him when he threw off the yoke of
the Brahmanical observances. Many others followed; but as the
Lalita-Vistara breaks off at Buddha's arrival at Benares, we have
no further consecutive account of the rapid progress of his
BUD
115
doctrine. From what we can gather from scattered notices in the
Buddhist canon, he was invited by the king of Magadha, Bimbi-
sâra, to his capital, Râgagriha. Many of his lectures are repre-
sented as having been delivered at the monastery of Kalantaka,
with which the king or some rich merchant had presented him ;
others on the Vulture Peak, one of the five hills that surrounded
the ancient capital.
Three of his most famous disciples, Sáriputra, Kâtyâyana, and
Maudgalyâyana, joined him during his stay in Magadha, where he
enjoyed for mary years the friendship of the king. That king
was afterwards assassinated by his son, Agâtaṣatru, and then we
hear of Buddha as settled for a time at Srâvastî, north of the
Ganges, where Anâthapinḍada, a rich merchant, had offered him
and his disciples a magnificent building for their residence. Most
of Buddha's lectures or sermons were delivered at Srâvastî, the
capital of Koşala; and the king of Koṣala himself, Prasênagit,
became a convert to his doctrine. After au absence of twelve
years we are told that Buddha visited his father at Kapilavastu, on
which occasion he performed several miracles, and converted all
the Sâkyas to his faith. His own wife became one of his followers,
and, with his aunt, offers the first instance of female Buddhist
devotees in India. We have fuller particulars again of the last
days of Buddha's life. He had attained the good age of three-
score and ten, and had been on a visit to Râgagriha, where the
king, Agâtaṣatru, the former enemy of Buddha, and the assassin
of his own father, had joined the congregation, after making a
public confession of his crimes. On his return he was followed
by a large number of disciples, and when on the point of crossing
the Ganges, he stood on a square stone, and turning his eyes back
towards Râgagriha, he said, full of emotion,' This is the last time
that I see that city.' He likewise visited Vaișâtlî, and after taking
leave of it, he had nearly reached the city of Kuşinâgara, when
his vital strength began to fail. He halted in a forest, and while
sitting under a sâl tree, he gave up the ghost, or, as a Buddhist
would say, entered into Nirvâņa.
This is the simple story of Buddha's life. It reads much better
in the eloquent pages of M. Barthélemy Saint Hilaire, than in the
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BUD
turgid language of the Buddhists. If a critical historian, with the
materials we possess, entered at all on the process of separating
truth from falsehood, he would probably cut off much of what our
biographer has left. Professor Wilson, in his Essay on Buddha
and Buddhism, considers it doubtful whether any such person as
Buddha ever actually existed. He dwells on the fact that there
are at least twenty different dates assigned to his birth, varying
from 2420 to 453 B. C. He points out that the clan of the Sâkyas
is never mentioned by early Hindu writers, and he lays much
stress on the fact that most of the proper names of the persons
connected with Buddha suggest an allegorical signification. The
name of his father means, he whose food is pure; that of his
mother signifies illusion; his own secular appellation, Siddhârtha,
he by whom the end is accomplished. Buddha itself means, the
Enlightened, or, as Professor Wilson translates it less accurately,
he by whom all is known. The same distinguished scholar goes
even further, and maintaining that Kapilavastu, the birth-place of
Buddha, has no place in the geography of the Hindus, suggests
that it may be rendered, the substance of Kapila; intimating, in
fact, the Sâukhya philosophy, the doctrine of Kapila Muni, upon
which the fundamental elements of Buddhism, the eternity of
matter, the principles of things, and the final extinction, are
supposed to be planned. It seems not impossible,' he continues,
that Sâkya Muni is an unreal being, and that all that is related
of him is as much a fiction, as is that of his preceding migrations,
and the miracles that attended his birth, his life, and his departure.'
This is going far beyond Niebuhr, far even beyond Strauss. If an
allegorical name had been invented for the father of Buddha, one
more appropriate than clean-food' might surely have been found.
His mother is not the only queen known by the name of Mâyâ,
Mâyâdêvî, or Mâyavatî. Why, if these names were invented,
should his wife have been allowed to keep the prosaic name of
Gopâ (cowherdess), and his father-in-law, that of Dândapâni,
'stick-hand?' As to his own name, Siddhartha, the Tibetans
maintain that it was given him by his parent, whose wish (artha)
had been fulfilled (siddha), as we hear of Désirés and Dieu-donnés
in French. One of the ministers of Dasaratha had the same name.
BUD
117
It is possible also that Buddha himself assumed it in after-life, as
As to the name
was the case with many of the Roman surnames.
of Buddha, no one ever maintained that it was more than a title,
the Enlightened, changed from an appellative into a proper name,
just like the name of Christos, the Anointed; or Mohammed, the
Expected. Kapilavastu would be a most extraordinary compound
to express the substance of the Sânkhya philosophy.' But all
doubt on the subject is removed by the fact that both Fabian in
the fifth, and Hiouen-Tshang in the seventh centuries, visited the
real ruins of that city.
Making every possible allowance for the accumulation of fiction
which is sure to gather round the life of the founder of every great
religion, we may be satisfied that Buddhism, which changed the
aspect not only of India, but of nearly the whole of Asia, had a
real founder; that he was not a Brahman by birth, but belonged
to the second or royal caste; that being of a meditative turn of
mind, and deeply impressed with the frailty of all created things,
hebecame a recluse, and sought for light and comfort in the different.
systems of Brâhman philosophy and theology. Dissatisfied with
the artificial systems of their priests and philosophers, convinced
of the uselessness, nay of the pernicious influence, of their cere-
monial practices and bodily penances, shocked, too, by their world-
liness and pharisaical conceit, which made the priesthood the exclu-
sive property of one caste and rendered every sincere approach
of man to his Creator impossible without their intervention,
Buddha must have produced at once a powerful impression on the
people at large, when breaking through all the established rules of
caste, he assumed the privileges of a Brahman, and throwing away
the splendour of his royal position, travelled about as a beggar,
not shrinking from the defiling contact of sinners and publicans.
Though when we now speak of Buddhism, we think chiefly of its
doctrines, the reform of Buddha had originally much more of a
social than of a religious character. Buddha swept away the web
with which the Brahmans had encircled the whole of India.
Beginning as the destroyer of an old, he became the founder of a
new religion."*
* Max Müller, Chips from a German Workshop, Vol. I, p. 210.
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BUD
According to Buddhist belief when a man dies he is immediately
born again, or appears in a new shape, according to his merit or
demerit, he may be born in the form of a woman, or a slave, a quad-
ruped, a bird, a fish, an insect, a plant, or even a piece of inorganic
matter. He may be born in a state of punishment in one of the
many Buddhist hells; or in the condition of a happy spirit or even
divinity in heaven; but whatever the position be, and however long
he
may live in it, the life will have an end, and the individual must
be born again, and may again be either happy or miserable-
"either a god, or it may be the vilest inanimate object. The Bud-
dha himself, before his last birth as Sakyamuni, had gone through
every conceivable form of existence, on the earth, in the air, and
in the water, in hell and in heaven, and had filled every condition
in human life. When he attained the perfect knowledge of the
Buddha, he was able to recall all these existences; and a great
part of the Buddhist legendary literature is taken up in narrating
his exploits, when he lived as an elephant, as a bird, as a stag, and
so forth."-Goldstücker.
The Buddhist does not regard these various transmigrations,
whether punishments or rewards, as caused by the Creator or
Kuler of the Universe. "They do not conceive any god or gods
as being pleased or displeased by the actions, and as assigning the
actors their future condition by way of punishment or reward.”
The very idea of a god as creating or in any way ruling the world,
is utterly absent in the Buddhist system. God is not so much as
denied ; he is simply not known." The power that controls the
world is expressed by the word Karma, literally action, including
both merit and demerit. "The future condition of the Buddhist,
then, is not assigned him by the Ruler of the Universe; the Karma
of his actions determines it by a sort of virtue inherent in the
nature of things-by the blind and unconscious concatenation of
cause and effect."
Buddhism inculcates morality. The most essential virtues are
truthfulness, benevolence, kindness, purity, patience, courage, and
contemplation. All offensive and gross language is forbidden;
nothing is ever to be said to stir up ill-will, or excite enmity, or
that would cause quarrels; it is a duty on all occasions to act as a
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119
peace-maker. "Humility holds a no less prominent place among
Buddhist graces than it does among the Christians."— Goldstücker,
Chamber's Ency.
Buddhi-Understanding, synonyme of Mahat; also the name
of a daughter of Daksha who became the wife of Dharma.
Budha (Mercury.) The son of Soma, the moon. Budha
married Ilā, whose sex had been changed by Śiva. Thence the
lunar, as distinguished from the solar, line of kings; and to that
point is to be referred many important opinions and results,
very widely disseminated. See Ilă.
There exists a doubt whether the names of planetary bodies
were given to early men, or whether the planets were named after
distinguished men of the earliest age. The puránas give a brief
legend, which has been deemed astronomical, but of a doubtful
school; such as reduced Abraham to a constellation. This legend
is that Chandra (the moon) was placed in the house of Vrihas-
pati (Jupiter) as his pupil, and that Tárá (the lunar path of 27
asterisms) fell in love with Chandra, and seduced him while
Vrihaspati was away at a sacrifice made by Indra (the firmament);
the result was the birth of Budha (Mercury). If there be any
astronomical meaning, it would imply that the old Chaldeans
thought that the moon in some part of its orbit attracted a satel-
lite of Jupiter, detached it from that planet, and was the occasion
of its finding an orbit around the sun, as a primary planet. How-
ever, this interpretation has great improbabilities.
The poets, and especially Telugu poets, have paraphrased the
legend in their own way; and very freely too. If the parties
were men on earth we get at one of the earliest known wars.
For, the claim to the parentage and right of Budha by Vrihas-
pati and Chandra, led to a fierce war, dividing gods and men into
two parties.
In a variety of works published, writers, though oriental
scholars, confound Budha and Buddha. This appears so late
down as Major Cunningham's book on the Bhilsa Topes; published
in 1855. But the persons are distinct, the sense of the words
different, the spelling different, the pronunciation still more so.-
Taylor.
C
Caste-The term Caste, derived from the Portuguese Casta,
expressive of the Indian word Játi, has been universally adopted
by Europeans to denote the different classes or tribes into which
the people of India are divided. "The permanent division of the
community into classes, with hereditary professions assigned to
each, is one of the most remarkable institutions of Hindustan.
There are four great divisions. The most distinguished of all is
that of Brahmana or Brahmans, who are said to have come from
the mouth of Brahma: the second in rank is that of Kshatriya or
Rájas, from the arm of Brahma; the third the Vaisya, or
merchants, from the thigh of Brahma; the fourth the Sudras, or
workmen, from his foot: all with their females. Each of these
four tribes is subdivided into several more; the Sudras especially
have an almost endless number of distinctions; such as herdsmen
who keep the cows; shepherds who tend the sheep; weavers ;
five castes of Artizans, viz., carpenters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths,
stone-cutters, founders. The several castes of cultivators take
precedence of other Sudras, and look with contempt on tradesmen
and labourers. There is a Caste of Kallaru, or robbers, who
consider their profession as no way discreditable to themselves or
their tribe. Each caste exhibits some particular and local varieties
of its own by which it is discriminated from the rest: Some
distinguish themselves by the cut and colour of their clothes;
some by the manner in which they put them on. But however
extravagant their modes and customs are, they never excite from
castes of the most opposite habits and fashions the least appearance
of contempt or dislike. Upon this point there seems to be the
most perfect toleration.
In the South of India there is another division of the different
tribes still more general than those which have been yet mentioned.
It is that of Right-hand and Left-hand Castes. The greater
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121
number of Hindu castes belong either to the Right-hand or the
Left. The Brahmans, the Pariahs (or outcastes) and several
tribes of the Sudras, are considered neutral, and enjoying all the
privileges and honors attached to both hands, they take no part
with either. These neutral castes are frequently called upon to
arbitrate in the fierce disputes that occur between the Right and
Left-hand parties. Both parties lay claim to certain privileges;
and when any encroachment is made by either it is followed by
tumults that spread through a district, accompanied with every
excess; and generally with bloody contests. The Hindu, usually
so gentle and timid, seems to change his nature. There is no
danger he fears to encounter in maintaining these rights."-Dubois.
Dr. Muir in the first volume of his O. S. Texts, has very fully
investigated the mythical accounts of the creation of man and of
the origin of the four castes. He says "it will be seen from the
texts adduced that from a very early period the Indian writers
have propounded a great variety of speculations regarding the
origin of mankind, and of the classes or castes into which they
found their own community divided. The most commonly received
of these explanations is the fable which represents the Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras, to have been separately created
from the head, the breast or arms, the thighs, and the feet of the
Creator. Of this mythical account no trace is to be found in any
of the hymus of the Rig Veda, except one, the Purusha Sukta.”
Dr. Muir is of opinion that this hyma belongs to the most
recent portion of the Rig Veda. Mr. Colebrook, Professors Max
Müller and Weber concur on this view; which however is con-
troverted by Dr. Haug.
After quoting a great number of texts from the oldest authorities,
Dr. Muir remarks. "When we discover in the most ancient Indian
writings such different and even discrepant accounts of the origin
of man, all put forth with equal positiveness, it is impossible to
imagine that any uniform explanation of the diversity of castes
could have been received at the period when they were composed,
or to regard any of the texts which have been cited as more
orthodox and authoritative than the rest. Even, therefore, if we
should suppose that the author of the Purusha Sūkta meant to
16
122
CAS
represent the four castes as having literally sprung from separate
parts of Purusha's body, it is evident that the same idea was not
always or even generally adopted by those who followed him, as
a revealed truth in which they were bound to acquiesce. In fact,
nothing is clearer than that in all these cosmogonies, the writers,
while generally assuming certain prevalent ideas as the basis
of their descriptions, gave the freest scope to their individual
fancy in the invention of details. In such circumstances, perfect
coincidence cannot be expected in the narratives."
The following are the results of Dr. Muir's careful investiga-
tion of all the Texts bearing on the subject :—
"The details which I have supplied in the course of this
chapter must have rendered it abundantly evident that the sacred
books of the Hindus contain no uniform or consistent account of
the origin of castes; but, on the contrary, present the greatest
varieties of speculation on this subject. Explanations mystical,
mythical, and rationalistic, are all offered in turn; and the freest
scope is given by the individual writers to fanciful and arbitrary
conjecture.
First we have the set of accounts in which the four castes are
said to have sprung from progenitors who were separately created;
but in regard to the manner of their creation we find the greatest
diversity of statement. The most common story is that the castes
issued from the mouth, arms, thighs, and feet of Purusha, or
Brahma. The oldest extant passage in which this idea occurs,
and from which all the later myths of a similar tenor have no
doubt been borrowed, is, as we have seen, to be found in the
Purusha Sūkta; but it is doubtful whether, in the form in which
it is there presented, this representation is anything more than an
allegory. In some of the texts which I have quoted from the
Bhagavata Purána, traces of the same allegorical character may
be perceived; but in Manu and the Puránas the mystical import
of the Vedic text disappears, and the figurative narrative is
hardened into a literal statement of fact. In other passages, where
a separate origin is assigned to the castes, they are variously said
to have sprung from the words Bhuh, Bhuvah, Svah; from
different Vedas; from different sets of prayers; from the gods,
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123
and the asuras; from nonentity, and from the imperishable, the
perishable, and other principles. In the chapters of the Vishnu,
Váyu, and Márkandeya Puránas, where castes are described as
coeval with the creation, and as having been naturally distinguished
by different gunas, or qualities, involving varieties of moral
character, we are nevertheless allowed to infer that those qualities
exerted no influence on the classes in whom they were inherent,
as the condition of the whole race during the Krita age is described
as one of uniform perfection and happiness; while the actual
separation into castes did not take place, according to the Váyu
Purana, until men had become deteriorated in the Treta age.
Second in various passages from the Brahmanas, Epic poems,
and Puránas, the creation of mankind is, as we have seen, described
without the least allusion to any separate production of the
progenitors of the four castes. And whilst in the chapters where
they relate the distinct formation of the castes, the Puránas, as
has been observed, assign different natural dispositions to each
class, they elsewhere represent all mankind as being at the creation
uniformly distinguished by the quality of passion. In one of the
texts I have quoted, men are said to be the offspring of Vivasvat ;
in another his son Manu is said to be their progenitor; whilst in a
third they are said to be descended from a female of the same
name. The passage which declares Manu to have been the father
of the human race explicitly affirms that men of all the four castes
were descended from him. In another remarkable text the
Mahábhárata categorically asserts that originally there was no
distinction of classes, the existing distribution having arisen out of
differences of character and occupation. Similarly, the Bhagavata
Purána in one place informs us that in the Krita age there was
but one caste; and this view appears also to be taken in some
passages which I have adduced from the Epic poems.
In these circumstances we may fairly conclude that the separate
origination of the four castes was far from being an article of
belief universally received by Indian antiquity."-Vol. I, p. 160.
Chaidyas-A race of kings, descendants of Chedi, amongst
whom were Damagosha and Sisupála.
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CHA
Chaitra-The name of the third lunar month (Feb.-March).
Chaitraratah-A large forest, in the east of Ilávrita.
Chakora--One of the thirty Andhrabhritya kings; he only
reigned six months.
Chakora-The name of a mountain in the eastern ghauts.
Chakra-1, The discus of Vishnu; a sharp-edged quoit ;
Arjuna performed wonderful feats with his chakra. It was with.
this weapon that Krishna slew Sisupála. It is always seen in one
of the four hands of Vishņu. The Chakra has also been converted
into the prayer wheel of the Buddhists; 2, The name of one of
the chanters of the Sáma Veda.
Chakras-A race of people who about the commencement of
our era, extended along the West of India, from the Hindu Kosh
to the mouths of the Indus.
Chakravartti-One on whom the Chakra, the discus of
Vishnu, abides; such a figure being delineated by the lines of the
hand. The grammatical etymology is he who abides in or rules
over, an extensive country called a chakra.' Chakravartti is there-
fore a universal emperor. On the death of such an emperor it
was the custom to collect and deposit the ashes of the body, after
burning, in a pyramidal monument,-Wilson.
Chakravaka—A Brahmani goose: the name of a wise coun-
sellor in the Pancha Tantra ; Hiranyagarbha, the king of the
water-fowl, was anxious to make war, when his minister, Chakra-
váka, made many speeches to prevent it, suggesting that victory
was ever doubtful, &c.
Chakshu-One of the four great rivers, made by the division
of the Ganges, and which is said in the V. P. to flow into the
sea after traversing all the western mountains, and passing through
the country of Ketumala.
Chakshu-A prince, the son of Purujánu, one of the desceud-
ants of Dwimídha.
Chakshupa-A prince renowned for his valour, the son of
Khanitra, one of the descendants of Nedishta.
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125
Chakshusha-The Manu of the sixth Man wantara, son of
Ripu by Vrihati. The Márkandeya has a legend of his birth as a
son of Kshatriya; of his being exchanged at his birth for the son
of Visranta Rája, and being brought up by the prince as his own;
of his revealing the business when a man, and propitiating Brahma
by his devotions, in consequence of which he became a Manu;
In his former birth he was born from the eye of Brahma; whence
his name from Chakshush the eye.'
Chakshushas-The first of the five classes of gods in the
fourteenth Manwantara.
Chandrayana-Penances, which, according to the Vedánta,
cause, not the acquisition of any thing positive, but merely the
removal of sin. They are regulated by the moon's age; and
consist in diminishing the daily consumption of food every day,
by one mouthful, for the dark half of the month, beginning with
fifteen at the full moon, until it is reduced to one at the new
moon; and then increasing in like manner during the fortnight of
the moon's increase: there are other forms of this penance.
Champa-The son of Pritulaksha, a descendant of Anu, who
founded the city of Champápuri, a city of which traces still remain
in the vicinity of Bhaghulpur. Champa is everywhere recognised
as the capital of Anga.
Champa-A town on the Ganges in which is a Vihára, or Bud-
dhist convent. It is described in the Dasukumáru as notoriously
abounding in rogues.
Chamunda—A name of the consort of Śiva. Her temple is
represented as a dreadful place; whither victims are conveyed to
be offered in sacrifice to the cruel goddess. In the drama of
Málatí and Mádhava, the heroine Málatí is kidnapped by the priest.
of Chamunda and carried to the dreaded temple, but is rescued
by her lover just as the fatal stroke is about to descend on her.
Chanakko or Chanakya-A brahman of the city of Takka-
sila who lived about 330 B. C. He is said to have achieved the
knowledge of the three Vedas; could rehearse the mantra; was
skilful in stratagems, and dexterous in intrigue as well as policy.
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CHA
of his mother.
After his father's death he became celebrated as the filial protector
A long legend is told of the way in which he
brought up Chandragupta and ultimately placed him on the throne
about 315 B. C. When Chandragupta was a wandering adven-
turer, the ambitious intriguing brahman became his ardent friend,
and promised to open for him a pathway to the throne. Nine
brothers, called the nine Nandas, then reigned at Magadha.
"Chandragupta was looked upon as their half-brother by a Sudra
mother. He is called a Takshaka, or descendant of the great
snake Seshanága. Feeling unsafe amongst his relatives in Behar
he had wandered forth to seek his fortune elsewhere." It was
then he met with Chanakya, who in pursuance of his intention to
place Chandragupta on the throne "contrived to give dire offence
to the nine Nandas." He entered their dining-room unannounced,
and with the cool assumption of a powerful brahman, took posses-
sion of the place of honour. The kings, having their understand-
ings bewildered by fate,' regarded him as a mere wild scholar; and
not heeding the remonstrances of their wise minister, they dragged
him from his seat with scorn.
6
"Then Chanakya, blind with indignation, stood up in the centre
of the hall, loosened the knot of hair on the top of his head, and
thus vowed the destruction of the Nanda race.
'Until I have exterminated these haughty and ignorant Nandas,
who have not known my worth, I will not again tie up these hairs.'
Having thus declared war he sought out the discontented Chan-
dragupta.
"In the meantime, Rákshasa, who was the prime minister of
the Nandas, did all for his princes that could be done either by
valour or sagacity. But all in vain, the Nandas perished like
moths in the flame of Chanakya's revenge."
The drama entitled "Mudra Rákshasa," attributed to Visákha-
datta, is founded on this story of Chánakya. Hindu Theatre. Mrs.
Manning; A. & M. I., Vol. II, p. 221.
Chandana― A river in Bhagulpúr.
Chandana Dasa-A banker and intimate friend of Rakshasa
in the drama of the "Signet of the Minister." He was condemned
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127
and dressed for execution, bearing the stake upon his shoulder,
followed by his wife and child; when he was rescued, pardoned
and made provost of the merchants.
Chandala-An outcaste or pariah; one of the lowest of the
mixed tribes descended from a Śudra mother and a Brahman father.
Chando-The name of the bull that protected Chandragupta
in infancy.
Chandanodakadundhubi-A Yádava chief called also
Bhava, a friend of the Gandharba Tumburu.
Chandragiri-A prince descended from Kusa, the son of Ráma.
Chandrabhaga-The name of a river, that takes its rise in
the Himálayás and which Professor Wilson identifies as the Chinab.
Chadragupta-King of Magadha, a most important name, as
it has been proved by Professor Wilson and others that he is the
Sandracoptus of the Greeks, who visited the camp of Alexander
the Great, and we are thus able to determine the chronology satis-
factorily. "The relative positions of Chandragupta, Vidmisára,
or Bimbisára, and Ajátaśatru, serve to confirm the indentification.
Sakya was contemporary with both the latter, dying in the eighth
year of Ajátasatru's reign. The Maháwanso says he reigned
twenty-four years afterwards; but the Váyu makes his whole reign
but twenty-five years, which would place the close of it B. C. 526.
The rest of the Saiśunága dynasty, according to the Váyu and
Matsya, reigned 143 or 140 years; bringing their close to B. C.
383. Another century being deducted for the duration of the
Nandas, would place the accession of Chandragupta B. c. 283.
Chandragupta was the contemporary of Seleucus Nicator, who
began his reign B. c. 310, and concluded a treaty with him B. C.
305. Although therefore his date may not be made out quite
correctly from the Pauránic premises, yet the error cannot be more
than twenty or thirty years. The result is much nearer the truth
than that furnished by the Buddhist authorities. According to the
Mahawanso a hundred years had elapsed from the death of Buddha
to the tenth year of the reign of Kálásoko (p. 15). He reigned
other ten years, and his sons forty-four, making a total of 154 years
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between the death of Śákya and the accession of Chandragupta,
which is consequently placed B. c. 389, or above seventy years too
early. According to the Buddhist authorities, Chan-ta-kutta or
Chandragupta, commenced his reign 396 B. C. Burmese Table ;
Prinsep's Useful Tables. Mr. Turnour, in his Introduction, giving
to Kálásoko eighteen years subsequent to the century after Buddha,
places Chandragupta's accession B. C. 381, which, he observes, is
sixty years too soon; dating, however, the accession of Chandra-
gupta from 323 B. C. or immediately upon Alexander's death,
a period too early by eight or ten years at least. The discrepancy
of dates, Mr. Turnour is disposed to think, proceeds from some
intentional perversion of the Buddhistical chronology." V. P.
Chandrahasa-In the farthest extremity of the Dekhar there
lived a Rája who was doomed to the severest adversity. He had
a son born at a propitious period, but was himself soon after slain
in battle, and his Ráni perished in the funeral pile. The nurse fled
away with the infant to Kutuwal, but died herself in three years
without having made known the secret of the child's birth. The
boy was now quite destitute and suffered much; but one day
happening to go to the house of the prime minister, the astrologers
present declared that the boy's face had all the signs of royalty.
The minister hearing this, determined that the lad should be
assassinated. But the men employed for the purpose took
compassion on him and resolved not to kill him. He was found
in the jungle and adopted by a certain dependant of the Minister,
who called the boy Chandrahása because when he laughed it was
said his face resembled the moon.
As Chandrahása grew up he was distinguished for his skill and
The
courage, and his achievements came to the ears of the Rája.
Minister became jealous and determined to visit the Zamindar who
had adopted Chandrahása, when he discovered that the young man
was the very boy he had sent into the jungle to be murdered.
Still bent on the youth's destruction he wrote a letter to his son
Madan and requested Chandrahása to carry it to the city; the
letter was as follows :-
"May my son eat the fruits of youth, and know that this same
CHA
129
Chandrahása is my enemy, and that he is eager to get possession
of all my property: Look not you to his youth or comeliness, nor
trouble yourself as to whose son he is, or whether he be a man of
rank or learning or abilities, but give him poison.”
As he approached the city he entered a pleasant garden belong-
ing to the Minister, and being very weary, he tied his horse to
a tree, laid down in the shade and fell asleep. That very morning
the Minister's daughter Bikya, with the Princess and her maids,
had come to amuse themselves in the garden. Bikya, wandering
away from the others, saw a young man asleep with such a charm-
ing face that her heart burnt towards him. Seeing a letter falling
from his bosom and perceiving that it was in her father's hand-
writing, and addressed to her brother, she opened and read it.
Having compassion on the youth she determined to alter the
letter, and as the word signifying enemy was such that by taking
away a single letter she could turn it into a word meaning friend,
she did so. The word signifying poison was Bika, which, as the
young man was very good-looking, she altered into her own name
of Bikya; and re-sealing the letter placed it again on the youth's
bosom, and returned to her companions.
Soon after Chandrahása rose from his sleep, found his way to the
house of the Minister, and gave the letter to his son. Madan read
the letter with great surprise, but saw that the orders were very
positive and that he must obey them without delay.
Chandrahása who was more confounded than any one, was pre-
sented with a bridegroom's dress, and directed to prepare himself
to be married that evening to the beautiful daughter of the
Minister. There was the usual distribution of presents, and great
rejoicing throughout the city.
The Minister on his return home was congratulated by every
one he met, and "entered his house in a state bordering on mad-
ness," when he found what had occurred. His own letter was
produced, and as he could not discover the alterations that had
been made, he "could only wonder at the greatness of his own
blunder." Early next morning he hired some assassins to secrete
themselves in the temple of the goddess Durga which was outside
the city, and murder the man who should come at evening time to
17
130
CHA
present a golden-pot of incense to the goddess. He then told Chan-
drahása it was the fixed rule for every man who married into his
family to offer a golden-cup of incense at the temple of Durga,
and Chandrahása readily promised to comply with the custom that
same evening.
But that very day, the Rája, in consequence of a dream, deter-
mined to resign his kingly authority, and not knowing of the
minister's return sent for Madan, to whom he communicated his
intention, and his determination to make Chandrahása his successor.
He desired Madan to bring his new brother-in-law to the palace
with all speed. Madan gladly set out in search of Chandrahása and
found him in the road to the temple of Durga with the golden-cup
in his hand; and having briefly explained to him the urgent neces-
sity for his immediate presence at the palace, he took the cup from
his hand and promised to present it himself to the goddess.
Madan thus sent back Chandrahása to the palace of the Rája and
proceeded alone with the golden-cup to the temple of Durga. On
entering it he was cut down by the swords of the assassins and
killed on the spot. Chandrahása on arriving at the palace, was
crowned by the Rája himself. The minister on hearing how his
plot had been again defeated, and his own son killed, destroyed
himself in the same temple.-Wheeler's Mahábhárata.
Chandraketu-The son of Lakshmana, and king of Chandra-
vaktra, a country near the Himalaya.
Chandrama-A river mentioned in the V. P., but which has
not been identified.
Chandrasri-One of the thirty Andhrabhritya kings, who
reigned three years. V. P.
Chandrasukta-One of the islands into which the Varsha of
Bharata is divided, as enumerated in the Bhagavata and Padma.
It has not been identified.
Chandravaloka-A prince descended from Kusa, the son of
Ráma.
Chandraswa-One of the three sons of Dhundhumára, who
survived the conflict with the demon Dhundu. Dhundu hid himself
CHA
131
beneath a sea of sand which king Kuvalayaswa, aided by twenty-
one thousand sons, dug up, undeterred by the flames which checked
their progress and finally destroyed all but three of them, Kuva-
layaswa was hence called Dhundumára. Professor Wilson thinks
that the legend originates probably in the occurrence of some
physical phenomena, as an earthquake or volcano.
Chanura-A demon who was killed by Krishna, after a very
severe contest, in which Chanúra was whirled round a hundred
times, until his breath was expended in the air, and Krishna
dashed him on the ground with such violence as to smash his body
into a hundred fragments, and strew the earth with a hundred
pools of gory mire. V. P.
Charaka-A renowned medical writer of great antiquity.
"Charaka appears to have been a person of varied thought and
culture, and to have had an earnest desire to teach men so to
manage their bodies, as not only to avoid all unnecessary pain on
earth; but so as to ensure happiness after death. Charaka states ·
that originally the contents or material of his work was communi-
cated by Atreya to Agnivesa. By Agnivesa it was taught to
Charaka, and by him condensed "where it was too prolix aud
expanded where it seemed too brief." The result of Charaka's
labour was a work of considerable extent, no less than one hundred
and twenty chapters in eight divisions.—Mrs. Manning ; A. and
M. I., vol. i, p. 342, where the reader will find an abstract of
Charaka's work ; made from the Sanskrit manuscripts of the India
Office Library.
Charakas-The students of a Sákhá so denominated from its
teacher Charaka.
Charana-A sect pledged to the reading of a certain Sák há of
the Vedas. Charana means an ideal succession of pupils and
teachers who learn and teach a certain branch of the Veda. See
Gotra.
Charanavyaha-The name of a Parisishta' work, which is
considered to have been composed later than the Sutras, and
representing a distinct period of Hindu literature. See Parisishta.
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CHA
Chariot-The sun, moon and planets are all represented in the
Puránas as having chariots or cars. That of the sun is stated in
the V. P. to be nine thousand leagues in length, and the pole of
twice that longitude: that of the moon has three wheels and is
drawn by ten white horses. The chariot of Mercury is composed
of air and fire and is drawn by eight bay horses. The chariots of
Mars and Jupiter are of gold.
Charishnu-A son of the sage Kirttimat.
Charudatta-Au impoverished brahman who is one of the
principal characters in the drama of the Toy Cart. On one
occasion Chárudatta says:—
My friend,
The happiness that follows close on sorrow,
Shows like a lamp that breaks upon the night,
But he that falls from affluence to poverty,
May wear the human semblance, but exists
A lifeless form alone.
On being further questioned, Chárudatta declares that he would
much prefer death to poverty.
"To die, is transient suffering, to be poor
Interminable anguish."
And he further explains that he does not grieve for the lost
wealth:
"But that the guest no longer seeks the dwelling
whence wealth has vanished.
*
**
*
*
*
And then with poverty comes disrespect;
From disrespect does self-dependence fail;
Then scorn and sorrow following, overwhelm
The intellect; and when the judgment fails.
The being perishes. And thus from poverty
Each ill that pains humanity proceeds."
*
—A. and M. I., vol. 2, p. 157.
Charmamandalas-A northern people, living in the district
of Mandala or Khanda of Charma. Pliny mentions a king of a
people so called, Charmaru rex.
CHA-CHE
133
Charmanvati-The name of a river, the Chambal.
Charu, Charudeha, Charudeshna, Charugupta, Charu-
vinda-Five sons of Krishna by Rukmini, one is termed in the
V. P. the mighty Cháru.
Charumati-A daughter of Krishna by Rukmini.
Charvaka- A philosopher who about the third century,
founded a new school of undisguised materialism-maintaining that
perception is the one only source of knowledge and means of proof :
that while there is body there is thought and sense of pleasure and
pain; none when body is not; and hence, as well as from self-
conciousness, it is concluded that self and body are identical. In
the Vedanta Sára there is a refutation of no less than four followers
of Chárváka, who assert his doctrine under various modifications ;
one maintaining that the gross corporeal frame is identical with
soul; another that the corporeal organs constitute the soul; a
third affirming that the vital functions do so; and the fourth
insisting that the mind and the soul are the same.
Charvaka-A Rákshasa who disguised himself as a mendicant
brahman and reviled Yudhishthira at his installation as Rája. The
real brahmans, says the Mahábhárata, were so enraged with
Chárváka that they looked upon him with such angry eyes that he
fell upon the ground like a tree struck with lightning, and was
burnt to ashes on the spot.
Chatakas-Pupils of Vaisampáyana. The Váyu states that
they were styled Chátakas from Chát 'to divide,' because they
shared amongst them their master's guilt. Those pupils of
Vaisampayana were called Chátakas by whom the crime of
Brahmauicide was shared.
Chaturunga-A Prince, the son of Romapáda, one of the
descendants of Anu.
Chaturmasya-Sacrifices every four months.
Chedi-Son of Kaisika, whose descendants were called the
Chaidya kings.
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CHE-CHH
Chedyas-The inhabitants of Chedi, which is usually consi-
dered as Chandail, on the west of the Jungle mehals, towards.
Nagpore. It is known in times subsequent to the Puránas as
Ranastambha.
Chhala-A Prince, the son of Dala, one of the descendants of
Kusa.
Chhandajas-The vasus and similar divinities. They have
the epithet Chhandajá as born in different Manwantaras of their
own will.
Chhandas-An Anga of the four Vedas, the one which relates
to metre.
Chhaya-The wife of the sun. Sanjua, daughter of Viswakar-
man, was the wife of the sun and bore him three children, the
Manu Vaivaswata, Yama, and the goddess Yami (or the Yamuna
river.) Unable to endure the fervours of her lord, Sanjua gave
him Chhaya* as his handmaid, and repaired to the forests to
practice devotion. The sun supposing Chhaya to be his wife,
Sanjua, begot by her three other children, Sanaischara (Saturn);
another Manu (Savarni), and a daughter Tapti (the Tapti river.)
Chhaya upon one occasion being offended with Yama, the son
of Sanjna, denounced an imprecation upon him, and thereby let it
be seen that she was not Sanjna, his mother. Chhaya informed
the sun that his wife had gone to the wilderness, and he brought
her back to his own dwelling. V. P.
Chhandoga-brahmana-In the Brahmana of the Chhan-
dogas it is evident that, after the principal collection was finished
(called the praudha or Panchavinśa-brâhmana, i. e., consisting of
twenty-five sections,) a twenty-sixth Brâhmaṇa was added which
is known by the name of Shadvinśa-brâlimaņa. This Brahmaṇa
together with the Adbhuta-brâhmaṇa must be of very modern
date. It mentions not only temples (Devâyatanâni,) but images
of gods (daivata-pratimâ) which are said to laugh, to cry, to sing,
to dance, to burst, to sweat and to twinkle. These two have long
been supposed to be the only Brahmaṇas of the Chhandogas,
*
That is her shadow or image. It also means shade.
CHH-CHI
135
and they constitute, no doubt, the most important part of that
class of literature. It is curious, however, that whenever the
Brâhmaṇas of the Chhandogas are quoted, their number is invari-
ably fixed at eight. Kumârila Bhaṭṭa says, "in the eight Brâh-
maņas, together with the Upanishads, which the Chhandogas read,
no single accent is fixed." -A. S. L.
Chhandoga-priests-The second class of priests at sacrifices.
Chikitsa-One of the eight branches of medical science; that
which treats of the administration of medicines, or medical treat-
ment in general.
Chintamani-An Epic poem in Tamil, of considerable merit,
and regarded as the highest classical authority in that language.
It contains the heroic story of a king named Jívagan, and is
probably founded on a similar story found in the Mahá Purána, a
sacred work of the Jains written in Sanscrit.
Chintamani is a compound of two Sanscrit words Chintá, thought
or reflection, and mani a jewel. It is generally applied to a
fabulous gem which is supposed to yield its possessor whatever
may be required. The design of the work is to represent the
Jaina system in an attractive form.
Chitar-A chief mentioned in the Rig Veda as living with
other chiefs near the Sarasvatí.
Chiti-Synonyme of Mahat, " is that by which the consequences
of acts and species of knowledge are selected for the use of soul."
Wilson. V. P. p. 15.
Chitra-The name of a lunar mausion in Govithi, in the
Central Avasthana.
Chitrabaha-A Purána river, not identified.
Chitragupta-The Registrar of Yama; all that die appear
before Yama, and are confronted with Chitragupta by whom their
actions have been recorded. "Chitragupta is described in the
following tasteless and extravagant style in the Vrihannáradíya
Purána. The dreadful Chitragupta with a voice like that
issuing from the clouds at the mundane dissolution, gleaming like
a mountain of collyrium. terrible with lightning-like weapons,
136
CHI
having thirty-two arms, as big as three yojanas, red-eyed, long-
nosed, his face furnished with grinders and projecting teeth,
his eyes resembling oblong ponds, bearing death and disease.' "
O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 302.
Chitraka-A prince, the son of Prisni, a descendant of Siní.
Chitraketu-A son of Vasishtha, the great sage, according to
the list in the Bhagavata.
Chitrakuta-An isolated hill situated on a river called the
Pisani, fifty miles south-east of the town of Banda in Bundelkund.
It is a sacred spot crowded with temples, and shrines of Ráma and
Lakshmana; celebrated too as the seat of Valmiki, the sage and
poet, who became famous in after years as the author of the
Rámáyana.
"We have often looked on that green hill it is the holiest
spot of that sect of the Hindu faith who devote themselves to this
incarnation of Vishnu. The whole neighbourhood is Ráma's
country. Every head-land has some legend, every cavern is
connected with his name ; some of the wild fruits are still called
Sitaphal, being the reputed food of the exiles. Thousands and
thousands annually visit the spot, and round the hill is a raised
foot-path, on which the devotee, with naked feet, treads full of
pious awe. - Calcutta Review, Vol. XXIII.
The following extracts from Mr. Griffith's translation of the
Rámáyana will serve to show how this sacred character has been
acquired :-
"Then, as he saw the morning break,
In answer Bharadvája spake,
'Go forth to Chitrakúta's hill,
Where berries grow, and sweets distil:
Full well, I deem, that home will suit
Thee, Ráma, strong and resolute.
Go forth, and Chitrakúta seek,
Famed mountain of the Varied Peak.
In the wild woods that gird him round,
All creatures of the chase are found:
CHI
137
Thou in the glades shalt see appear
Vast herds of elephants and deer.
With Sítá there shalt thou delight
To gaze upon the woody height;
There with expanding heart to look
On river, table-land, and brook,
And see the foaming torrent rave
Impetuous from the mountain cave.
Auspicious hill! where all day long
The lapwing's cry, the Koil's song
Make all who listen gay :
Where all is fresh and fair to see,
Where elephants and deer roam free,
There, as a hermit, stay."
"Then on from wood to wood they strayed,
O'er many a stream, through constant shade,
As Bharadvaja bade them, till
They came to Chitrakúta's hill.
And Rama there, with Lakshman's aid,
A pleasant little cottage made,
And spent his days with Sítá, dressed
In coat of bark and deerskin vest.
And Chitrakúta grew to be
As bright with those illustrious three
As Meru's sacred peaks that shine
With glory, when the gods recline
Beneath them: Śiva's self between
The Lord of Gold and Beauty's Queen."
Chitralekha-The companion and friend of the princess
Usha, to whom Usha related her dream, and who by her magic
power brought Aniruddha to the palace.
Chitrangada-The son of Sáutanu by his wife Satyavati. He
was killed when young, in a conflict with a Gandarbhá, who was
also named Chitrangada.
Chitrangada-The daughter of the Raja of Manipura who
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138
CHI-CHR
was married to Arjuna in his travels, but remained in her own
city with her son Babhru-váhana, when Arjuna returned to
Hastinapur.
Chitraratha-The king of the celestial choristers ;
"On Chitraratha, true and dear
My tuneful bard and charioteer
Gems, robes, and plenteous wealth confer
Mine ancient friend and minister."
--Griffith's Rámáyana.
Chitraratha was also the name of the son of Rushadru and father
of Saṣavinda who was lord of the fourteen great gems. There was
another Chitraratha, son of the Dharmaratha, who drank the Soma
juice along with Indra. A fourth Chitraratha is mentioned in the
V. P. as the son of Ushna, a descendant of Paríkshit.
Chitraratha, Chitrasena, Chitropala-The names of three
rivers in the V. P. which have not been yet identified.
Chitravarna-The name of the peacock king in the Pancha-
tantra stories.
Cholas-The inhabitants of the lower part of the Coromandel
coast; so called after them Chólamandala.
:
A
Chronology-The Vishnu Purána says, "Time is a form of
Vishņu hear how it is applied to measure the duration of Brahma,
and of all other sentient beings. Fifteen twinklings of the
eye make a Kásh'thá; thirty Kásh'thás, one Kalá; and thirty
Kalás, one Muhúrtta. Thirty Muhúrttas constitute a day and
night of mortals: thirty such days make a month, divided into
two half-months: six months form an Ayana (the period of
the sun's progress north or south of the ecliptic :) and two
Ayanas compose a year. The southern Ayana is a night, and
the northern a day, of the gods. Twelve thousand divine years,
each composed of (three hundred and sixty) such days, constitute
the period of the four Yugas, or ages. They are thus distributed:
the Krita age has four thousand divine years; the Tretá three
thousand; the Dwápara, two thousand; and the Kali age, one
thousand so those acquainted with antiquity have declared." The
CHU-CHY
139
period that precedes a Yuga is called a Sandhya, and it is
of as many hundred years as there are thousands in the Yuga :
and the period that follows a Yuga, termed the Sandhyánsa,
is of similar duration. The interval between the Sandhyá and
the Sandhyánsa is the Yuga, denominated Krita, Tretá, &c. The
Krita, Tretá, Dwápara and Kali, constitute a great age, or
aggregate of four ages: a thousand such aggregates are a day of
Brahma, and fourteen Manus reign within that term. Hear the
division of time which they measure.
Seven Rishis, certain (secondary) divinities, Indra, Manu, and
the kings his sons, are created and perish at one period; and
the interval, called a Manwantara, is equal to seventy-one times.
the number of years contained in the four Yugas, with some
additional years: this is the duration of the Manu, the (attendant)
divinities, and the rest, which is equal to 8,52,000 divine years, or
to 3,06,720,000 years of mortals, independent of the additional
period. Fourteen times this period constitutes a Brahma day, that
is, a day of Brahma; the term (Brahma) being the derivative
form. At the end of this day a dissolution of the universe occurs,
when all the three worlds, earth, and the regions of space, are
consumed with fire. The dwellers of Maharloka (the region
inhabited by the saints who survive the world,) distressed by the
heat, repair then to Janaloka (the region of holy men after
their decease.) When the three worlds are but one mighty ocean,
Brahma, who is one with Nárayana, satiate with the demolition of
the universe, sleeps upon his serpent-bed-contemplated, the lotus
born, by the ascetic inhabitants of the Janaloka-for a night of
equal duration with his day; at the close of which he creates anew.
Of such days and nights is a year of Brahma composed; and a
hundred such years constitute his whole life. One Parárddha,
or half his existence, has expired, terminating with the Mahá Kalpa
called Padma. The Kalpa (or day of Brahma) termed Váráha
is the first of the second period of Brahma's existence.”
Chunchu-A prince, the son of Harita, a descendant of Haris-
chandra.
Chyavana-A celebrated sage, who in old age was restored to
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CHY
youth by the Asvins. The legend is related at length in the
Satapatha Brâhmaṇa, and translated by Muir in O. S. T., Vol. V,
p. 250.
The substance of the story as told in the Mahábhárata is
thus given by Muir: "We are there told that the body of
Chyavana, when performing austerity in a certain place, became
encrusted with an ant-hill; that king Saryati came then to
the spot with his 4,000 wives and his single daughter Sukanyā;
that the rishi, seeing her, became enamoured of her and endeavoured
to gain her affections, but without eliciting from her any reply.
Seeing, however, the sage's eyes gleaming out from the ant-hill,
and not knowing what they were, the princess pierced them with
a sharp instrument, whereupon Chyavana became incensed, and
afflicted the king's army with a stoppage of urine and of the
necessary functions. When the king found out the cause of the
infliction, and supplicated the rishi for its removal, the latter
insisted on receiving the king's daughter to wife, as the sole
condition of his forgiveness. Sukanya accordingly lived with the
rishi as his spouse. One day, however, she was seen by the
Aṣvins, who endeavoured, but without effect, to persuade her
to desert her decrepit husband, and choose one of them in
his place. They then told her they were the physicians of the
gods, and would restore her husband to youth and beauty,
when she could make her choice between him and one of them.
Chyavana and his wife consented to this proposal; and, at
the suggestion of the Aṣvins, he entered with them into a
neighbouring pond, when the three came forth of like celestial
beauty, and each asked her to be his bride. She, however,
recognized and chose her own husband. Chyavana, in gratitude
for his restoration to youth, then offered to compel Indra to admit
the Asvins to a participation in the Soma ceremonial, and fulfilled
his promise in the course of a sacrifice which he performed for
king Saryati. On that occasion Indra objected to such an honor
being extended to the Așvins, on the ground that they wandered
about among men as physicians, changing their forms at will; but
Chyavana refused to listen to the objection, and carried out his
intention, staying the arm of Indra when he was about to launch a
thunderbolt, and creating a terrific demon, who was on the point
CLE-CLO
141
of devouring the king of the gods, and was only prevented by the
timely submission of the latter.”—Vol. V, p. 254.
Clepsydra-A water-clock, is thus described in an extract from
a commentary, given in a note to the Vishnu Purána. "A vessel
made of twelve Palas and a half of copper, and holding a Prastha,
Magadha measure, of water, broad at top, and having at bottom a
tube of gold, of four Máshas weight, four fingers long, is placed in
water, and the time in which the vessel is filled by the hole in the
bottom, is called a Nádika. The common measure of the Nádi is
a thin shallow brass-cup, with a small hole in the bottom. It is
placed in the surface of water, in a large vessel, where nothing can
disturb it, and where the water gradually fills the cup and sinks
it." Page 631.
:
Clouds--Clouds, in the Puránas, are of three classes:-1,
Ágneya, originating from fire or heat, or in other words evapora-
tion they are charged with wind and rain and are of various
orders; 2, Brahmaja, born from the breath of Brahma; these
are the clouds whence thunder and lightning proceed and 3,
Pakshaja, or clouds which were originally the wings of the
mountains, and which were cut off by Indra; these are the largest
of all, and are those which at the end of the Kalpas and Yugas,
pour down the waters of the deluge. The shell of the egg of
Brahma, or of the universe, is formed of the primitive clouds.
The Vishnu Purána states that " during eight months of the year
the sun attracts the waters and then pours them upon earth as
rain." Consequently the Linga Purána observes there is no waste
of water in the universe as it is in constant circulation. The
Vishnu Purána adds, “The water that the sun has drawn up
from the Ganga of the skies he quickly pours down with his rays,
and without a cloud; and men who are touched by this pure rain
are cleansed from the soil of sin and never see hell: this is termed
celestial ablution." "The water which the clouds shed upon the
earth is the Ambrosia of living beings, for it gives fertility
to the plants which are the support of their existence. By this,
all vegetables grow and are matured, and become the means of
maintaining life."
D
"Indra
Dabhiti-A king mentioned in the Rig Veda who was saved
by Indra from being carried off by the Asuras or Dasyus.
burnt all their weapons in a kindled fire, and enriched Dabhiti
with their cattle, horses and chariots."
Dadhicha-A celebrated sage who reproved Daksha on the
occasion of his great sacrifice, saying, "The man who worships
what ought not to be worshipped, or pays not reverence where
veneration is due, is guilty of heinous sin.”
Dadhikra-The name given in the Rig Veda to a divine horse,
described as the straight-going, the graceful-moving, the resplen-
dent, the rapid, the destroyer of enemies like a heroic prince. In
a second hymn the Rishi says, "May Aditi, consentient with Mitra
and Varuna, render him free from sin who has performed the
worship of the steed Dadhikra, when the fire has been kindled at
the opening of the dawn."
Dadhividarchas, Dahas -Two tribes of people mentioned in
the Vishnu Purána but not identified.
Dadu-The founder of a Vaishnava sect, who taught that
Bhakti, or implicit faith, was more efficacious than subjugation of
the passions, charity, or knowledge. Dádú was originally a cotton-
cleaner at Ajmír.
Dadu-panthis-The designation of the disciples or followers
of the above. One of the Vaishnava sects in Hindustan. It had
its origin from Dadu, a cotton-cleaner by profession, who, having
been admonished by a voice from heaven to devote himself to
a religious life, retired with that view to the Baherana mountain,
where, after some time, he disappeared, and no traces of him could
be found. His followers believed him to have been absorbed into
the Deity. He is supposed to have flourished about A. D. 1600.
The followers of Dádú wear no peculiar mark on the forehead,
but carry a rosary, and are further distinguished by a round white
DAG
143
cap according to some; but, according to others, one with four
corners, and a flap hanging down behind. This cap each man is
required to manufacture for himself.— Wilson.
(
Dagoba-A conical erection surmounting relics among the
Buddhists. The name is said by Mr. Hardy to be derived from
dá, dátu, or dhátu, an osseous relic, and geba or garbha, the womb.
These buildings are sometimes of immense height, of circular
form, and composed of stone or brick, faced with stone or stucco.
They are built upon a platform, which again rests upon a natural
or artificial elevation, which is usually reached by a flight of steps.
The utmost respect is felt for dágobas among the Buddhists, chiefly
because they contain relics of different kinds. Professor Wilson,
in his Ariana Antiqua,' thus describes the ordinary contents of
a dágoba: "The most conspicuous objects are, in general, vessels
of stone or metal; they are of various shapes and sizes; some of
them have been fabricated on a lathe. They commonly contain a
silver box or casket, and within that, or sometimes by itself, a
casket of gold. This is sometimes curiously wrought. One found
by Mr. Masson at Deh Bimaran is chased with a double series of
four figures, representing Gautama in the act of preaching; a
mendicant is on his right, a lay-follower on his left, and behind the
latter a female disciple; they stand under arched niches resting
on pillars, and between the arches is a bird; a row of rubies is set
round the upper and lower edge of the vessel, and the bottom is
also chased with the leaves of the lotus: the vase had no cover.
Within these vessels, or sometimes in the cell in which they are
placed, are found small pearls, gold buttons, gold ornaments and
rings, beads, pieces of white and coloured glass and crystal, pieces
of clay or stone with impressions of figures, bits of bone, and teeth
of animals of the ass and goat species, pieces of cloth, and folds of
Tuz or Bhurj leaf, or rather the bark of a kind of birch on
which the Hindus formerly wrote; and these pieces bear some-
times characters which may be termed Bactrian; but they are in
too fragile and decayed a state to admit of being unfolded or read.
Similar characters are also found superficially scratched upon the
stone, or dotted upon the metal vessels. In one instance they
were found traced upon the stone with ink. Within some of the
144
DAG
vessels was also found a liquid, which upon exposure rapidly
evaporated, leaving a brown sediment, which was analysed by Mr.
Prinsep, and offered some traces of animal and vegetable matters."
The principal dágobas in Ceylon, as we learn from Mr. Hardy,
are at Anuradhapura, and it would appear that it was accounted a
ceremony of great importance amoug the ancient ascetics to walk
round one of these sacred structures. It is regarded by the Hindu
Brahmans as a most meritorious walk to circumambulate a temple,
raising the person who performs this pious act to a place in the
heaven of the god or goddess to whom the temple belongs. The
Nepaulese also account it one of the most devout employments
in which a Buddhist can be engaged to march round a dágoba,
repeating mental prayers, and holding in his right hand a small
cylinder fixed upon the upper end of a short staff or handle, which
he keeps in perpetual revolution. The reverence in which these
structures are held is thus noticed by Mr. Hardy, in his valuable
work, entitled 'Eastern Monachism :' "Any mark of disrespect to
the dágoba is regarded as being highly criminal, whilst a contrary
course is equally deserving of reward. When Elaro, one of the
Malabar sovereigns, who reigned in Ceylon B. c. 205, was one day
riding in his chariot, the yoke-bar accidentally struck one of these
edifices, and displaced some of the stones. The priests in attend-
ance reproached him for the act; but the monarch immediately
descended to the ground, and prostrating himself in the street, said
that they might take off his head with the wheel of his carriage.
But the priests replied, 'Great king! our divine teacher delights
not in torture; repair the dágoba.' For the purpose of replacing
the fifteen stones that had been dislodged, Elaro bestowed 15,000
of the silver coins called kahapana. Two women who had worked
for hire at the erection of the great dágoba by Dutugamini were.
for this meritorious act born in Tawntisa. The legend informs us
that on a subsequent occasion they went to worship at the same
place, when the radiance emanating from their persons was so great
that it filled the whole of Ceylon."
The ground on which a dágoba is held in so high estimation is
simply because it contains relics which have from remote times been
worshipped by the Buddhists. As far back as the fourth century,
DAH-DAI
145
Fa Hian, a Chinese traveller, mentions such a practice as then
prevailing. "The boues of Gautama, the garments he used, the
utensils he used, and the ladder by which he visited heaven, were
worshipped by numbers of devout pilgrims; and happy did the
country consider itself that retained one of these precious remains.”
The most celebrated relic which is still to be found among the
worshippers of Gautama Buddha is the DALADÁ (which see). To
make a present or offering to a dágoba is viewed as an act of the
highest virtue, which will be rewarded both in this world and the
next, and will lead to the attainment of Nirwana or annihilation.
Buddha himself declared while on earth, "Though neither flowers
nor anything else should be offered, yet if any one will look with a
pleasant miud at a dágoba or the court of the bó-tree, he will
undoubtedly be born in a DEVA-LOKA (which see); it is unneces-
sary to say that he who sweeps these sacred places, or makes offer-
ings to them, will have an equal reward; furthermore, should any
one die on his way to make an offering to a dágoba, he also will
receive the blessedness of the DEVA-LOKAS." Some dágobas are
alleged to have the power of working miracles, but this privilege is
almost exclusively confined to those which have been built in honor
of the rahats, or beings who are free from all evil desire, and
possess supernatural powers.
"It was not till the year 1837 in which Mr. Jas. Prinsep deci-
phered the written character of king Asoka's edicts, that anything
was known of the Buddhism of ancient India. Then first was it
understood when and by whom, and for what purpose, these
dágobas were erected.”—A. and M. I.
Dahana-The name of one of the eleven Rudras, according to
the enumeration in the Matsya Purána.
Dahragni-A name of the sage Agastya.
Daityas-Demons. The Daityas are thought to have been, in
the epic period, personifications of the Aborigines of India, more
particularly of the southern part of the Peninsula ; who, to increase
the glories of the heroes who conquered them, were represented as
giants and demons. They are associated with the Danavas, who
bear the same character. In the Puránic period they play a very
19
146
DAK
important part, as the enemies who are constantly at war with the
deities for the sake of obtaining the sovereignty of heaven. They
are there considered as the descendants of Kaṣyapa and Diti (from
whom the name Daitya is called a matronymic). At the churning
of the ocean they attempted to seize the cup of Amrita or Ambrosia
which was then produced, and was in the hand of Dhanwantari :
but Vishnu, assuming a female form, fascinated and deluded them;
and recovering the Amrita from them delivered it to the gods.
Sakra and the other deities quaffed the Ambrosia. The incensed
demons, grasping their weapons, fell upon them; but the gods,
into whom the ambrosial draught had infused new vigour, defeated
and put their host to flight; they then fled through the regions of
space, and plunged into the subterraneous realms of Pátála. The
gods thereat greatly rejoiced, did homage to the holder of the
discus and mace, and resumed their reign in heaven. The Daityas
then inhabited Pátála. Hiranyakaṣipu was their king, but when
deposed by Vishnu, his illustrious son Prahláda received the
sovereignty. The Vishnu Purána relates other legends of the
Daityas obtaining the sovereignty of the earth, and being deluded
from the tenets of the Vedas were easily conquered.
Daksha-A celebrated Prajapati, born from the thumb of
Brahma; he was the chief of the patriarchs. He had twenty-
four daughters by his wife Prasúti, and twenty-seven other
daughters who were afterwards stellarised in the lunar mansions.
The Váyu Purána contains a full account of the great sacrifice
offered by Daksha. One of his daughters, Sati, was married to
Śiva; but neither she nor her husband were invited to the
sacrifice, as Daksha had been offended with Śiva not long before.
Sati, however, attended, and on being affronted threw herself into
the flames of the sacrifice and perished.* Śiva exasperated, tore
off a lock of his hair and cast it with violence to the ground. It
started up in the shape of Víra Bhadra with a thousand hands,
whom Śiva sent to destroy the sacrifice. He did so, and according
to some accounts cut off Daksha's head. According to the Vishnu
* Hence in modern times a widow consentary to be bound with the corpse
of her husband is called a Sati. The common word suttee is not the act
of burning, but the female burnt.
DAK
147
Purána, Víra Bhadra, was created from Śiva's mouth, a being
like the fire of fate, a divine being with a thousand heads, a
thousand feet, &c., &c. It is only the Kási Khanda, however,
that makes Sati throw herself into the fire, and Professor Wilson
thinks this an improvement indicative of a later age. In other
legends she is represented as killing herself on account of a quarrel
with her father. The conduct of Víra Bhadra in interfering with
and destroying the sacrifice, displeased the gods who were present,
and they complained of it to Brahma; whereupon he with them
proceeded to Śiva, interceding on behalf of Daksha. Śiva then
went personally to the scene of disorder, and having resuscitated
Daksha, whose head could not be found, replaced it by the head of
a ram. The exploits of the Rudras on the occasion are parti-
cularly specified in the Kurma and Bhagavata Puránas. Indra is
knocked down and trampled on; Yama has his staff broken ;
Saraswati and the Mátris have their noses cut off. Mitra or
Bhaga has his eyes pulled out: Púsha has his teeth knocked down
his. throat; Chandra is pummelled; Vahni's hands are cut off;
Bhrigu loses his beard the Brahmans are pelted with stones;
the Prajapatis are beaten; and the gods and demi-gods are run
through with swords or stuck with arrows. Other accounts state
that Daksha himself propitiated the mighty god, the holder of the
trident, Maheshwara." V. P.
"The sacrifice of Daksha is a legend of some interest, from its
historical and archæological relations. It is obviously intended to
intimate a struggle between the worshippers of Siva and of Vishnu,
in which at first the latter, but finally the former, acquired the
ascendancy. It is also a favourite subject of Hindú sculpture,
at least with the Hindus of the Sáiva division, and makes a
conspicuous figure both at Elephanta and Ellora. A representa-
tion of the dispersion and mutilation of the gods and sages by
Vírabhadra, at the former, is published in the Archæologia, vII,
326, where it is described as the Judgment of Solomon! a figure
of Vírabhadra is given by Niebuhr, Vol. II, tab. 10: and the
entire group in the Bombay Transactions, Vol. I, p. 220. The
legend of Daksha therefore was popular when those cavern temples
were excavated." V. P.
148
DAK-DAL
(6
"Daksha," says Mrs. Manning," is a shadowy god. He is
an Aditya, one of the sons of Aditi.
"Daksha sprang from Aditi, and Aditi from Daksha. In the
Rig Veda, Mitra and Varuna are celebrated as the sons of
Daksha.
Mr. Muir relieves us from some of our perplexity concerning
this mysterious Daksha, by suggesting that possibly in some
of these passages, the word Daksha was used figuratively for
strength."-A. and M. I.
Daksha-savarni-The name of the Mauu of the Ninth Man-
wantara; described in the Váyu as one of the mind-engendered
sons of a daughter of Daksha, by himself and the three gods
Brahma, Dharma and Rudra, to whom he presented her on Mount
Meru.
Dakshayana-One of the names of the goddess Parvati. It
is also the name of a lunar asterism in general. The grammarian
Vyádi, author of the Sangraha, is sometimes called Dáksháyana.
Dakshi-The name of the mother of the celebrated Sanscrit
grammarian Pánini.
Dakshina-One of the twin daughters of Ruchi and Akúti.
These descendants of the first pair are evidently allegorical: thus
Yajni (the name of the other twin daughter) is sacrifice;' and
Dakshiná, donation' to brahmans. See V. P., Chap. VIII.
6
Dakshinacharis-A leading division of the sect of Sáktas,
the followers of the right-hand ritual; often popularly called the
right-hand caste; the followers of the left-hand ritual being
termed Vámácharis.
Dala-A prince, the son of Kusa, a descendant of Ráma.
Dalada-The left canine tooth of Buddha, the most highly
venerated relic among the Buddhists, particularly in Ceylon. To
preserve this, the only portion which remains of the body of the
holy sage, a temple has been erected, in which it is deposited,
being placed in a small chamber, enshrined in six cases, the largest
of them being upwards of five feet in height and formed of silver.
DAL
149
All the cases are constructed in the conical shape of a dágoba, and
two of them are inlaid with rubies and precious stones. The outer
case is ornamented with gold and jewels, which have been offered
by devotees. Mr. Hardy describes the relic itself as a piece of
discoloured ivory or bone, slightly curved, nearly two inches in
length, and one in diameter at the base; and from thence to the
other extremity, which is rouuded and blunt, it considerably
decreases in size.' The vihára or temple which contains the
sanctuary of this relic, is attached to the palace of the former
kings of Kandy. . From a work composed on the subject of
Buddha's tooth, dating as far back as A. D. 310, it is said that one
of the disciples of the sage procured his left canine tooth when his
relics were distributed. This much-valued treasure he conveyed
to Dantapura, the chief city of Kalinga, where it reminded for 800
years. Its subsequent history we quote from Mr. Hardy's
"Eastern Monarchism: "The Brahmans informed Pándu, the lord
paramount of India, who resided at Pátaliputra, that his vassal,
Gubasiwa worshipped a piece of bone. The monarch, enraged at
this intelligence, sent an army to arrest the king of Kálinga, and
secure the bone he worshipped. This commission was executed,
but the general and all his army were converted to the faith of
Buddhism. Pándu commanded the relic to be thrown into a
furnace of burning charcoal, but a lotus arose from the flame, and
the tooth appeared on the surface of the flower. An attempt was
then made to crush it upon an anvil, but it remained embedded in
the iron, resisting all the means employed to take it therefrom,
until Subaddha, a Buddhist, succeeded in its extraction. It was
next thrown into the common sewer; but in an instant this
receptacle of filth became sweet as a celestial garden, and was
mantled with flowers. Other wonders were performed, by which
Pándu also became a convert to Buddhism. The relic was
returned to Dantapura; but an attempt being made by the princes
of Sewet to take it away by force, it was brought to Ceylon, and
deposited in the city of Auurádhapura. In the fourteenth century
it was again taken to the continent, but was rescued by Prákrama
Bahú, IV. The Portuguese say that it was captured by Constantine
de Braganza, in 1560, and destroyed; but the native authorities
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DAL-DAM
assert that it was concealed at this time at a village in Saffragam.
In 1815, it came into the possession of the British Government;
and although surreptitiously taken away in the rebellion of 1818,
it was subsequently found in the possession of a priest, and
restored to its former sanctuary. From this time the keys of the
shrine in which it was deposited were kept in the custody of the
British agent for the Kaudian provinces, and at night a soldier
belonging to the Ceylon Rifle Regiment mounted guard in the
temple, there being from time to time public exhibtions of the
pretended tooth, under the sanction of the British authorities.
The relic has since been returned to the native chiefs and priests,
by a decree from the Secretary of State for the Colonies."
The Dalada is worshipped with great reverence by all Buddhists,
but the inhabitants of Kandy more especially attach the highest
importance to the possession of the sacred relic, regarding it as in
fact the very glory and security of their country.
Dalaki-One of the four pupils of Sákapúrni, and teacher of
the Rig Veda.
Dama-A prince, the son of Narishyanta, whose father Marutta,
was a Chakravartti or universal monarch. The Márkaṇḍeya has
the following curious story of Dama. His bride Sumaná, daughter
of the king Dasárha, was rescued by him from his rivals. One
of them Bapushmat, afterwards killed Marutta, who had retired
Dama
into the woods after relinquishing his crown to his son.
in retaliation killed Bapushmat, and made the Pinda or obsequial
offering to his father, of his flesh with the remainder he fed the
brahmans of Rakshasa's origin; such were the kings of the solar
race. See Vishnu Purána, Book IV.
Damaghosha—The Raja of Chedi and father of Śiṣupala, q. v.
Damanaka-The name of one of the jackals in the Pancha-
tantra.
Damaliptas, or Tamaliptas-The people at the western
mouth of the Ganges, in Medinipur and Tamluk. Tamralipti
was a celebrated seaport in the fourth century and retained its
character in the ninth and twelfth.
DAM
151
Damayanti-The daughter of Bhíma, Rája of Vidarbha. The
name is already familiar to many English readers through Dr.
Milman's metrical translation of the story, "Nala and Dama-
yantí"-and a translation in blank verse by Mr. Chas. Bruce,
which appeared in Fraser's Magazine a few years ago.
The story
itself is referred to the Vedic period of Hindu history. Dama-
yanti was famous amongst all the Rájas for her radiaut charms
and exceeding grace. Nala, the Rája of Nishadha, had so often.
heard of the exquisite loveliness of Damayantí, the pearl of
maidens, that he was enamoured without having seen her; and
the soul-disturbing Damayautí had in like manner, so often been
told of the god-like comeliness and virtues of the hero Nala, that
she secretly desired to become his bride. Nala one day wandering
in a grove, caught a swan of golden plumage; the bird cried out,
'Slay me not O gentle Rája, and I will so praise thee to Damayautí
that she shall think of no other man but thee. So Nala set it free,
and the bird flew away with its companions and entered the garden
of Rája Bhíma. It took an opportunity of saying to Damayantí,
'O Damayantí, thou art the loveliest of maidens, and Nala is
the handsomest of heroes; if the peerless wed the peerless how
happy will be the union.' Then the royal maiden whispered,
'Say the same words to Nala.' And the bird flew away to
Nishadha and told all to Nala.
Meantime the beautiful maiden grew pale and dejected. She
could not sleep, she often wept, she found no joy in banquets
or in conversation. The father saw that she must be married, and
at the proclamation of her Swayamvara all the Kájas assembled.
Nala repairs as a suitor to Vidarbha ; but Indra and three other
gods become incarnate for the same purpose, and, meeting Nala in
the way, they beg him to be the bearer of their message of love.
He remonstrates, but at last consents. He delivers it, but
Damayantí declares that, even in the presence of the gods, she
shall select the noble Nala. The assembly meets, and all the
royal suitors are in array; but Damayantí discovers, to her
dismay, five Nalas, each of the deities having assumed the form,
features, and dress of the king of Nishadha. She utters a suppli-
catory prayer to the gods to reveal to her the true object of
152
DAM
her choice. They are moved with compassion, and stand con-
fessed, their spiritual bodies being distinguished from that of the
human hero by their casting no shadow, nor touching the ground,
and otherwise. Damayantí throws the wreath of flowers around
the neck of the real Nala in token of her choice. The assembly
breaks up amid the applause of the gods, and the lamentations of
the disappointed suitors. The nuptials are celebrated and Nala
and his bride are blessed with two lovely children.
Nala, the model of virtue, and piety, aud learning, at length
performs the Aswameda, or sacrifice of a horse, the height of
Indian devotion. In the course of time, however, Nala is induced
by an evil spirit to play at dice with his brother, Pushkara, and
loses his kingdom, his wealth, his very clothes. One stake only
remains,-Damayantí herself. This Pushkara proposes, but Nala
refuses. The ill-fated pair are driven together into the wilderness
all but naked. Nala persuades his wife to leave him, and return
to her father's court, but she will not forsake him. The frantic
man, however, resolves to abandon her while asleep. He does so.
Each passes through a series of strange and stormy adventures,
ending in Nala becoming master of the horse to the King of
Ayodhya (Oude,) and Damayantí returning to her father's house.
After some time, Damayantí, in order to discover the retreat of
Nala, proclaims her intention to hold another Swayamvara, and
to form a second marriage, though forbidden by the laws of Manu.
Rituparna, the King of Oude, resolves to become a suitor, and sets
forth with his charioteer-the disguised Nala. As they enter the
city of Bhíma, Damayantí recognises the sound of her husband's
trampling steeds, his driving could not be mistaken by her ear.
She employs every artifice to discover her lord; she suspects the
charioteer'; she procures some of his food, and recognises the
flavour of her husband's cookery; she sends her children to him.
Nala can conceal himself no longer; but the jealous thought that
his wife was about to take a second husband, rankles in his heart,
and he rebukes her with sternness. Damayantí solemnly denies
any such design, declaring that she had only employed the
artifice to win back her lord. Nala re-assumes his proper
form and character-wins back his wife and all that he had
DAM-DAN
153
lost to his unprincipled brother, and, re-ascending his ancestral
throne, recommences a reign of piety, justice and felicity.-
Mrs. Manning, A. & M. I.
Dambha-Hypocrisy. The son of Adharma (vice,) and Hinsa
(violence.)
Damodas-The name of one of the nine divisions of the
Atharva Veda.
Danavas-Enemies of the gods, who, "incapable of steadiness
and animated by ambition, put forth their strength against the
gods. They were the descendants of Kasyapa by his wife Danu,
hence their name. They were a class of mythological giants; in
the Epic period they were probably personifications of the
Aborigines of India; in the Puranic period they are regarded
as the inhabitant of Pátála and enemies of the gods. See Daityas.
-Thomson.
Danda-The name of a son of Dharma by Kriya. Also the
name of one of the hundred sons of Ikshwáku. Professor Wilson
thinks that by these sons of Ikshwáku we are to understand
colonies or settlers in various parts of India. In the Padma P., and
the Uttara Khanda of the Rámáyana, there is a detailed narrative
of Danda, whose country was laid waste by an imprecation of
Bhargava, whose daughter Daṇḍa had violated. His kingdom
became in consequence the Dandaka forest. The Hari Vansa
states that Danda was killed by Sudyumna.
Danda-A measure of time-sixty Vikalás. Sixty Dandas
make one siderial day.
Dandaka-An extensive forest near the Godavery, frequently
mentioned in the Rámáyana as the scene of Ráma's wanderings.
Ráma was living in a hermitage in this forest when Rávana
carried off Síta. The river which the unhappy Síta loved was a
tributary to the Godavery, running through the dense forests and
wild districts not yet entirely explored, which lie to the north of
Bombay and stretch away towards Orissa. The plash of the
water-fowl bathing in the bright waters of the Godavery is the
most cheerful feature of the scene; but, unlike the Gogra, it is
20
154
DAN
skirted by sea-bright hills, with flashing torrents, but hemmed in
by the weary woods of "the pathless Dandaka;" where twining
creeper plants, hauging and climbing from bough to bough, alone
relieve the "forest gloom." The country is said to be still the
"pathless Dandaka." A. and M. I., vol II, p. 22.
Dandaka-"A class of metre in Sanskrit which admits au
inordinate length of the verse, which may consist of any number
of syllables from twenty-seven to nine hundred and ninety-nine;
and the specific name varies accordingly. The construction of the
metre requires that the first six syllables be short, and the
remainder of the verse be composed of cretic feet, or the bacchus.
These two kinds of metre are distinguished by different names.
A verse consisting of any number of anapæsts within the limitation
above mentioned, is also comprehended under this general designa-
tion; as are verses of similar length consisting exclusively of
iambic or trochaic feet. They have their peculiar denominations."
Dandaniti-Policy; one of the four branches of royal know-
ledge; originally written by Vishnugupta in six thousand stanzas
for the use of the Maurya kings.
Dandis-One of the Vaishnava or Saiva sects among the
Hindus, and a legitimate representative of the fourth Asrama or
mendicant life, into which the Hindu is believed to enter after
passing through the previous stages of student, householder, and
hermit. A Brahman, however, does not require to pass through
the previous stages, but is allowed to enter at once into the fourth
order. The Dandi is distinguished by carrying a small dand or
wand, with several projections from it, and a piece of cloth dyed
with red ochre, in which the Brahmanical cord is supposed to be
enshrined, attached to it; he shaves his hair and beard, wears only
a cloth around the loins, and subsists upon food obtained ready-
dressed from the houses of the Brahmans once a day only, which
he deposits in the small clay-pot that he always carries with him.
He should live alone, and near to, but not within a city; but this
rule is rarely observed, and, in general, the Dandis are found in
cities, collected like other mendicants in Maths. The Dandi has
no particular time or mode of worship, but employs himself chiefly
DAN
155
in meditation and in the study of the Vedánta works, He reverences
Siva and his incarnations in preference to the other members of
the Hindu Triad, and hence the Danḍis are reckoned among the
Śaivas. They bear the Śiva mark upon the forehead, smearing
it with the Tripundra, that is, a triple transverse line formed
with the ashes of fire made with burnt cow-dung. This mark,
beginning between the eyebrows and carrying it to their extremity,
is made with the thumb reverted between the middle and third
fingers. The genuine Dandi, however, is not necessarily of the
Śiva or any other sect, and in their establishments they are
usually found to adore Nirguna or Niranjana, the deity devoid of
attribute or passion. The Dandis have usually great influence and
authority among the Siva Brahmans of the North of India, and
they are the Sanyasis or monastic portion of the Smarta sect of
Brahmans in the south.
It is not so much the speculative as the practical Danḍis that are
worshippers of Śiva, and the form in which they adore him is that
of Bhairava (which see), or Lord of Terror. In the case of those
who thus worship Śiva, part of the ceremony of initiation consists
in inflicting a small incision on the inner part of the knee, and
drawing the blood of the novice as an acceptable offering to the
god. The Daṇḍis of every description differ from the great mass
of Hindus in their treatment of the dead, as they put them into
coffins and bury them, or when practicable cast them into some
sacred stream. Hindus of all castes are occasionally found assuming
the life and emblems of the order of Dandis. There are even
Brahmans who, without connecting themselves with any com-
munity, take upon them the character of this class of mendicants.
There is, however, a sect of Dandis termed DASNAMIS (which see),
which admit none but Brahmans into their order.- Wilson.
Danshtrinas-The progeny of Krodavasá, carnivorous animals,
birds and fishes-all sharp-toothed monsters.
Dantavaktra-A fierce Asura, the son of prince Vriddhasarman.
Danu-The daughter of Daksha and mother of the Danavas.
Danu-The mother of Vrittra who was slain by Indra, along
156
DAN-DAR
with her son, and when slaughtered, lay over him like a cow over
her calf. O. S. T. Vol. v, p. 95.
Danus-Another name for Danavas, the sons of Dánu.
Danusha- An unerring bow ;-one of the fourteen gems
obtained at the churning of the milk sea in the second or Kúrma
Avatar of Vishnu.
Dapple-skin-The name of the wonderful cow of plenty
belonging to the great sage Vasishtha, and which Rája Viswamitra
took away by force.
Daradas-The inhabitants of the country along the course of
the Indus above the Himalaya, just before it descends to India.
This is the locality they occupied in the days of Strabo and
Ptolemy, and at the date of the V. P. They reside there still and
are now called Durds.
Dabhasayana-A place between Rameshwara and Cape
Comorin, where Ráma, reclining on a couch of sacred grass, prayed
to the sea for a passage.
Darpa―(Pride). The name of one of the sons of Dharma.
Darsapaurnamasa-One of the five great sacrificial cere-
monies: viz., new and full-moon, those at which four priests officiate.
Darsanas-The name given to the six systems of Hindu
Philosophy:
I. The Sánkya system of Kapila, to which is appended.
II. The Yoga system of Patanjali.
III. The Nyaya system of Gautama, to which is appended
IV. The Vaiṣeshika system of Kanáda.
V. The Púrva Mimansa system by Jaimini.
VI. The Uttara Mimansa, or Vedánta, by Veda Vyása.
and full moon.
A. & M. I.
Darsapurnamasa-The small festivals held at the new moon
"In the beginning of the Darsapurnamása sacrifice,
the Adhivarya priest having called the cows and calves together,
touches the calves with a branch, and says, 'You are like the
winds.'"
"'"-Max Müller,
DAR-DAS
157
Daruka-The charioteer of Krishna. He was sent to apprise
Arjuna of Krishna's approaching end, when he was about to quit
the body, and "unite himself to his own pure, spiritual, inex-
haustible, imperishable and universal spirit-to become Nirguna,
devoid of all qualities."
Daruna-The name of one of the Narakas, or hells, described
in the Puránas.
Darvan-The son of Ușînara, one of the descendants of Anu.
Dasa-bala-Ten powers or modes of wisdom possessed by
BUDDHA. Mr. Spence Hardy, to whose excellent works we are
indebted for our information on the principles and rites of the
BUDDHISTS, thus enumerates the Dasabala, in his • Manual of
Buddhism :'-“1, The wisdom that understands what knowledge
is necessary for the right fulfilment of any particular duty,
in whatsoever situation; 2, That which knows the result or
consequences of karma, or moral action; 3, That which knows
the way to the attainment of nirwána or annihilation; 4, That
which sees the various sakwalas or systems of worlds; 5, That
which knows the thoughts of other beings; 6, That which knows
that the organs of sense are not the self; 7, That which knows
the purity produced by the exercise of the dhyanaş or abstract
meditation; 8, That which knows where any one was born in
all his former births; 9, That which knows where any one will be
born in all future births; 10, That which knows how the results
proceeding from karma, or moral action, may be overcome.”
6
661,
Dasa-dandu-Ten prohibitions which are enjoined upon the
Buddhist monks to be studied during their noviciate. Mr. Hardy,
in his Eastern Monarchism,' thus describes them :- The
eating of food after mid-day; 2, The seeing of dances or the
hearing of music or singing; 3, The use of ornaments or
perfumes; 4, The use of a seat or couch more than a cubit high ;
5, The receiving of gold, silver, or money; 6, Practising some
deception to prevent another priest from receiving that to which
he is entitled; 7, Practising some deception to injure another
priest, or bring him into danger; 8, Practising some deception in
order to cause another priest to be expelled from the community;
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DAS
9, Speaking evil of another priest; 10, Uttering slanders, in order
to excite dissension among the priests of the same community.
The first five of these crimes may be forgiven, if the priest bring
sand and sprinkle it in the court-yard of the vihára, and the second
five may be forgiven after temporary expulsion.”
Dasnami Dandis-The primitive members of the order of
Dandis. They are said to refer their origin to SANKARA
ACHÁRYA, a remarkable individual who acted a conspicuous part
in the religious history of Hindustan. The word Dasuami means
ten-named, there being ten classes of mendicants descended from
this remarkable man, only three of them, however, having so far
retained their purity as to entitle them to be called Sankara's
Dandis. These are numerous, especially in and about Benares.
The chief Vedántist writers belong to this sect. The most
sturdy beggars, as we learn from Professor Wilson, are
members of this order, although their contributions are levied
particularly upon the Brahmanical class, as whenever a feast is
given to the Brahmans, the Dandis of this description present
themselves, though unbidden guests, and can only be got rid of
by bestowing upon them a share of the viands. Many of them
practise the YOGA, and profess to work miracles. The author of
theDabistan' speaks of one who could keep his breath suspended
for three hours, bring milk from his veins, cut bones with hair, and
put eggs into a narrow-mouthed bottle without breaking them.
The remaining members of the Dasnami class, though they have
degenerated from the purity of the practice necessary to the original
Dandis, are still religious characters, only they have given up the
staff or wand, the use of clothes, money, and ornaments; they
prepare their own food, and admit members from any order of
Hindus. These Atíts, as they are often called, are frequently
collected in Maths, as well as the Dandis, but they mix freely in the
business of the world; they carry on trade, and often accumulate
property, and some of them even enter into the married state, when
they receive the name of Samyogi."- Wilson. vol. I, 204.
p.
Dasa-sil-Dasasikha, Dasa-pariji, Dasa-nasanu, Dasa-dandu,
Dasa-sil, the ten obligations binding on the Buddhist priest-to
DAS
159
abstain from murder, theft, sexual intercourse, falsehood, intoxi-
cating drink, eating after mid-day, dancing, perfumes, luxury,
receiving of gold or silver. The other Dasas relate to the same
rules with slight modifications. The Dasa-dandu forbid deceiving
or speaking evil of other priests.
Dasaratha-The son of Aja, and father of Ráma. He was the
sovereign of Ayodhya or Oude, whose car bore him to the ten
quarters of the universe, that is, to the eight points of the compass,
and to the zenith and nádir. He was a descendant from Surya,
and one of his ancestors, Raghu, had conquered the seven dwípas,
or the whole earth.
"There reigned a king of name revered,
To country and to town endeared,
Great Dasaratha good and sage
Well read in Scripture's holy page ;
Upon his kingdom's weal intent,
Mighty and brave and provident :
The pride of old Ikshváku's seed
For lofty thought and righteous deed.
Peer of the saints for virtues famed,
For foes subdued and passions tamed ;
A rival in his wealth untold
Of Indra and the Lord of Gold.
Like Manu first of kings, he reigned,
And worthily his state maintained.
For firm and just and ever true,
Love, duty, gain he kept in view ;
And ruled his city rich and free,
Like Indra's Amarávatí."-Griffiths' Ramayan.
Another Dasaratha was the son of Múlaka; a third, the son of
Navaratha; a fourth, the son of Suyaṣas. The name of Dasaratha,
in a similar ancient character to that of Piyadasi's inscriptions,
has been found at Gaya amongst Buddhist remains, and like them
deciphered by Mr, Prinsep. V. P.
Dasagriva-A name of Rávana, meaning the ten-necked
160
DAS
Dasakumara-The name of a popular collection of stories
containing the Adventures of Ten Princes.
(6
They are storiesof
common life, relating the adventures of a lively set of people, who
kill, cheat, and rob, as it were for diversion ;-something indeed
after the fashion of pantomimes and farces, which are still popular
in Europe."-Mrs. Manning. For extracts from these stories,
See Works of Professor Wilson, vol. iv.
Dasara-An Annual Festival, called in the north of India the
Durga Pújá. It is the most popular, splendid and expensive of
any of the Hindu festivals, and takes place in the month Aswiya,
(the end of September or beginning of October). The preliminary
ceremonies occupy several days previous to the three days of
worship. "During the whole of this period all business, in many
parts of the country, is suspended, and pleasure and festivity
prevail... The artisaus and labourers offer sacrifices to the tools
and implements which they use in their daily work. The labourer
brings his plough, hoe, and other instruments, piles them together,
and offers to them a sacrifice consisting of incense, flowers, fruits,
rice, and similar articles; after which he prostrates himself before
them, and then returns them to their places. The mason offers
the same adoration and sacrifice to his trowel, his rule, and other
instruments. The carpenter is no less pious with regard to his
hatchet, his adze, and his plane. The barber, too, collects his
razors in a heap, and worships them with similar rites. The
writing-master or copyist sacrifices to the iron pencil or style with
which he writes; the tailor to his needles; the weaver to his loom ;
the butcher to his cleaver. The women, at the same time, heap
together their baskets, the rice mill, the wooden cylinder with
which they bruise the rice, and the other household implements;
and fall down before them after having offered the sacrifices above
described. In short, every person adores the instrument or tool
which he principally uses in gaining his livelihood. The tools are
now considered as so many deities; to whom they present their
supplications that they would continue propitious, and furnish them
still with the means of living. The festival is concluded by erecting
a shapeless statue in each village, composed of paste from grain.
It is intended to represent the goddess Parvati; and, being placed
DAS
161
under a sort of canopy, is carried about and receives the homage
of the inhabitants, who flock to render it their adorations."
Many other usages prevail at this festival in different parts of
the country. Amongst the Mahrattas, sheep and buffaloes are
sacrificed. The chiefs often give money to enable their soldiers to
buy sheep to perform sacrifices, which from furnishing them with
a good dinner, are by many considered as the most essential
ceremonies of the Dasara. The cannon belonging to the army are
planted, praised, invoked, and propitiated by several species of
offering. Sir John Malcolm states that on the morning of the
tenth day, the Péshwa with all his officers and soldiers, used to
move out to the camp in the vicinity of the city, each mounted on
his best horse, drest in his finest clothes, and with his arms highly
polished. Horses, elephants, and camels were all arranged in
their gayest trappings, and every corps spread its gaudiest flags
and banners. The whole population of the capital, either as actors
or spectators, joined in this grand procession, which moved towards
the sacred tree, the object of adoration. After the offerings and
prayers the Péshwa plucked some leaves of the tree, in which all
the cannon and musketry commenced firing. The Péshwa then
plucked from a field, purchased for the occasion, a stalk of jowri,
on which the whole crowd fired off their arms or shot arrows, and
rushing to the field, tore up all the stalks, each person securing
some share of the spoil, which he carried home with joy.
Dasarha-A Prince, the son of Nirvriti. In the Linga Purána
it is said that Dasárha was the destroyer of the host of copper
(faced) foes.
Dasarna-A river mentioned in the Puránas, and identified in
the Dhosaun in Bundlekund.
Dasarna-A place mentioned in Kálidása's Cloud Messenger.
"Dasárna's fields await the coming shower." Dr. F. E. Hall
says it was situated to the cast of Chandeyru. Vidisá is described
as the capital of the District. Dasárna is said to be derived from
Dasa, ten; and Rina, a stronghold or Durga, the Droog of the
Peninsula, and means the District of the ten citadels.— Wilson,
21
162
DAS--DEV
Dasa-Rupaka-Ten varieties of dramatic performance. See
Wilson's Hindu Theatre, vol. i.
Dasra-The name, in later literature, of one of the two Asvins.
Dasyus-A name given to the aborigines of India by the first
Aryan settlers. The name often occurs in the Rig Veda, where
they are described as enemies to be slain.
Dattatreya-An ascetic; one of the three sinless sons of the
patriarch Atri by his wife Anasuya [Atri].
Dattdi-A name of Agastya, in a previous Manwantara.
Dayabhaga-A celebrated Sanscrit treatise on the Hindu Law
of Inheritance. Mr. Colebrooke first published a translation of
this work, in 1810; and a new edition, with valuable notes, was
published in 1865 by Mr. Whitley Stokes.
Deva-A divine being, whether resident upon earth or in a
deva-loka. Deva is also a divine epithet variously applied but
rarely to the superior deities if alone. Maha deva is sometimes
met with. The most frequent use of the term is in the plural,
and may be translated "Celestials." The Hindu books say there
are thirty-three crores of them; that is, three hundred and thirty
millions of celestials; but this is probably only a figurative
expression to denote a great number. They are not demi-gods, as
has been stated; that is not deified human heroes. Rama or
Krishna is not one of them, but of a higher order. The devatas
people the paradise of Vishnu; but they especially belong to the
Sverga, the paradise of Indra. They are usually ranged under
eight divisions, with a vasu, as leader, at the head of each division.
Devabhaga-The son of Sura and one of the nine brothers of
Vasudeva.
Devabhuti-The last Sunga prince, the dynasty having
consisted of ten, who governed the kingdom for a hundred and
twelve years. Devabhuti being addicted to immoral practices,
was murdered by his minister, the Kanwa named Vasudeva, who
usurped the kingdom.
*
DEV
163
Devadarsa-A teacher of the Atharva-Veda, a pupil of
Kahandha. He had four disciples who taught this veda.
Devagiri-Deogur or Ellora; the mountain of the gods; the
Apocopie are said hy Ptolemy to be also called mountains of the
gods.
Devahuti-A third daughter, according to the Bhagavata of the
Manu Swayambhuva. She was married to the Rishi Kardama,
and was mother of the sage Kapila.
Devaka-One of the sons of Ahuka.
the sons of Yudhishthira, the Pandava.
Also the name of one of
Deva-loka-The six celestial worlds between the earth and the
Brahma lokas.
Devaki - The daughter of Devaka, who was married to
Vasudeva. No person could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the
light that invested her: the gods, invisible to mortals, celebrated
her praises continually from the time that Vishnu was contained in
her person. Before the birth of Krishna "the quarters of the horizon
were irradiate with joy as if moonlight was diffused over the whole
earth. The virtuous experienced new delight, the strong winds
were hushed, and the rivers glided tranquilly, when Janardana was
about to be born. The infant was brought forth and conveyed to
a place of safety, to escape from the euraged Kansa who had vowed
his destruction. Kausa made unavailing search for the child, and
ordered that every boy in whom there were signs of unusual vigour
should be slain without remorse." See Krishna.
Devakshatra-A prince, the sou of Devarata, one of the
descendants of Jyamagha.
Devala-A Rishi, the son of Kriṣaswa. He was a legislator,
and has acquired additional celebrity as the grandfather of Paniui.
Devamidha-An ancient Raja of the solar race, one of the
ancestors of king Janaka.
Devamidhusha-The son of Vrishni; also the name of a son
of Hridika.
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DEV
Devamitra-Also called Sákalya, a teacher of the Rig Veda. He
died in consequence of his being defeated by Yajnavalkya in a
disputation at a sacrifice celebrated by Jauaka.
Devanampriya-Tishya-A king of Ceylon from 307 to 267
B. C. He adopted Buddhism and made it, like Asoka, with whom
he was contemporary, the State religion of the island.
Devanika-A prince, the son of Kshemadhanawan, one of the
descendants of Kusa.
Devapi-The son of Pratipa, who abdicated the throne and
adopted in childhood a forest life; while an ascetic in the forest he
was perverted from the doctrines of the Vedas. The Vishnu
Purána states that he is still in existence.
Devarakshita-The daughter of Devaka, sister of Devaki and
aunt of Krishna; also the name of a prince who reigned in a city
on the sea-shore over the Kosalas and Tamraliptas.
Devarata-1, A royal sage of the solar race, the name given
to Sunaṣepha when he was adopted by Viswamitra. Sunasépha
refused to return home with his father Ajigartha, who had offered
for 300 cows, to sacrifice him (See Sunaṣepha) and was afterwards
enrolled as the adopted son of Viswamitra by the name of Devaráta
(Theodotus); 2, Also a son of Rája Śuketu; 3, The name of a
son of Karambhi, one of the descendants of Jyámagha; 4, also a
name of Bhishma.
Devarshis-Divine sages, demi-gods; their dwelling is the
region of the gods.
Devasarman-The name of a brahman who figures in the
Panchatantra; he had no child and his wife was very unhappy in
consequence at length by some mantram the promise of a son was
obtained ; the child when born proved to be a snake. It was
proposed that the monster should be destroyed, but maternal
affection prevailed, and it was reared with tenderness. At the
proper age it was married to a brahman girl, and one night was
changed into a man, intending to resume its serpent form next
DEV
165
morning; but the girl's father discovering the deserted skin threw
it into the fire, and the sou-in-law ever after remained in the figure
of a man.
Devasavarni-The thirteenth Manu according to the Bhága-
vata, which differs from the other Puránas in the enumeration.
Devasravas-One of the sons of Sura, and brother of Vasudeva.
Devatithi-A Kuru prince, one of the sons of Akrodhana.
Devavat-A son of Akrura, also a son of Devaka.
Devavriddha-One of the sons of Satwata, said in the Vishnu
Purána to be equal to the gods.
Devayani--The daughter of a Brahman priest named Sukra YO
she fell in love with her father's pupil Kanju, and finding her
advances rejected, became soured in temper and vindictive in
character. One day when out in the jungle with Sarmishta,
daughter of the Rája of the Daityas and a number of other
young damsels, on reaching a pleasant pool they all threw off
their garments and went into the water to bathe, when it so
happened that Váyu the god of the wind passed by, and seeing
their clothes upon the bank he mingled them up together. Then
when the damsels came out of the water, Devayáni and Sarmishta
by mistake put on each others' clothes and quarrelled. At last
Sarmishta pushed Devayáni into a well and left her there. A Rája
named Yayáti, who was hunting in the forest discovered her in the
well and extricated her from it. Devayáni, on meeting her maid,
said she would never enter the city again. Her father Sukra went
to the Raja of the Daityas to obtain an apology from him for his
daughter's conduct. Devayáni said to the Rája, "I shall be satisfied
upon one condition, that when my father shall give me to a
husband, your daughter who pushed me into a well, shall be given
to me as a servant." To this the Rája assented, and Devayáni
had afterwards the daily attendance of Sarmishta and her maids.
One day the whole party were surprised by the Rája Yayáti, who
in hot pursuit of a stag burst in upon the damsels. The sight of
so much loveliness almost deprived Yayáti of his senses; but the
166
DEV-DHA
adventure terminated in Devayáni proposing that he should
espouse her, which, on obtaining her father's consent, he did.
Two or three years afterwards Sarmishta obtained her revenge by
stealing away Yayáti's affections, and Devayáni left him and
returned to her father's house.-( Wheeler's Mahábhárata). In the
V. P. an entirely different account is given.
Devi-The female of a deva. They also may reside either in
earth or in a deva loka, and leave the oue for the other at will for
any important purpose. Also the name of Uma the wife of Śiva.
Devika-The name of a river, the Déva or Goggra.
Devikota-A Puranic city, usually considered to be the
modern Devicottah in the Carnatic, which is commonly believed
to be the scene of Bana's defeat.
Dhamajaya—A Vyása, the arranger of the Vedas in the
sixteenth Dwápara.
Dhanaka-A prince, the son of Durdama, a descendant of
Yadu.
Dhananjaya—A fierce and venomous many-headed serpent,
one of the progeny of Kadru.
Dhanamitra-The name of a wealthy merchant in Kálidasa's
drama of Sakuntala; the merchant, trading by sea, was lost in a
shipwreck; and as he was childless, the whole of his property
became by law forfeited to the king. The king ascertained that
the merchant's widow was expecting to give birth to a child, and
declared that the unborn child had a title to his father's property;
a proclamation which was received with acclamations of joy.
Dhana-nando-The youngest son of Kálásoka, king of Páta-
liputra. The nine sons succeeded their father in the order of their
seniority. The youngest was called Dhana-nando from his being
addicted to hoarding treasure. He collected money to the amount
of eighty kotís; and to keep it securely he diverted the Ganges from
its course, by constructing a dam across it and in a rock in the
bed of the river having caused a deep excavation to be made, he
:
DHA
167
buried the treasure there. Over this cave he laid a layer of
stones, and to prevent the admission of water poured molten lead
in it. Repeating this process, which made it like a solid rock he
restored the river to its former course. This prince was afterwards
killed by the brahman Chánakko, who raised Chandragupta to the
throne in his stead. As everything in India Chronology depends
on the date of Chandragupta, great pains have been taken by
Wilson, Max Müller, and others, to determine it accurately.
Dhaneyu-A prince; one of the ten sons of Raudraswa, a
descendant of Puru.
Dhanishta-An asterism, or lunar mansion, in Migravithi, in
the southern Avashtána.
Dhanur-veda-The science of archery or arms, taught by
Bhrigu.
Dhanwantara-A sage produced from the churning of the
ocean, robed in white, and bearing in his hand the cup of Amrita,
which was afterwards seized by the Daityas. He is called the
physician of the gods. In a second birth he was the son of
Dirghatamas, and taught the Ayur Veda, or medical science. He
was exempt from human infirmity, and master of universal
knowledge. The only work at present existing under the title of
Ayar Veda is said to have been revealed by Dhanwantari to his
pupil Susruta; Dhanwantari having himself, as he declares, received
it from Bramha.
Dhara-A city to the south of the river Godávery, where the
celebrated Rája Vikrama resided.
Dharana-Steady thought; retention or holding of the image
or idea formed in the mind by contemplation; one of the eight
stages by which "Yoga" must be accomplished. Sec Yoga.
Dharani-A daughter of the Pitris, and wife of Meru. In
the Vishnu Purána she is said to have been well acquainted with
theological truth; addicted to religious meditation; accomplished
in perfect wisdom, and adorned with all estimable qualities.
168
DHA
Dharbaga-The son of Ajatasatru, king of Maghada, one of
the ten Saiṣunágas, the aggregate of whose united reigns amounted
to three hundred and sixty-two years.
Dharma--The god of justice; the Hindu Pluto. See Yama.
Dharma-A Prajapati, one of the mind-engendered sons of
Brahma, with form and faculties derived from his corporeal nature.
He married thirteen daughters of Daksha. It is evident from the
names of these daughters (faith, devotion, &c.) that they are
allegorical personages, being personifications of intelligences and
virtues and religious rites, and being therefore appropriately
wedded to the probable authors of the Hindu Code of religion and
morals, or to the equally allegorical representation of that code,
Dharma, moral and religious truth. V. P.
Dharma-Virtue, religion, duty, law, moral and religious truth
according to the law and the Vedas. Any peculiar or prescribed
practice or duty; thus giving alms, &c., is the dharma of a
householder administering justice is the dharma of a king;
piety is the dharma of a brahman; courage is the dharma of a
kshatriya, &c.
:
Dharma Raja--A name of the eldest of the five Pándavas,
Yudhishthira, (q. v.) son of Kunti Devi, by Yama; Pándu, the
nominal father, being impotent.
Dharmadhris-One of the sons of Swaphalka, a descendant
of Sini.
Dharmadhwaja-1, A king of Mithila,-who is also called
Janaka; 2, The name of a king of Burdwan, mentioned in the
Belata Panchavinsati, as having restored Brahmanism, which had
been put aside for the Jaina religion.
Dharmaketu-A prince, the son of Suketana, (according to
the Bhagavata list) a descendant of Alarka. In the Vishnu
Purána he is made the son of Sukumára, and in the Agni he
appears as the son of Alarka himself.
DHA
169
Dharmanetra-The son of Haihaya, a descendant of Yadu--
the tribe in which Krishna was born.
Dharmapal-One of the ministers of justice of Mahárája
Dasaratha.
Dharmaranya-A Puranic city in the mountainous part of
Magadha, the residence of Amurtarajas.
Dharmaranya-Is also the name of the wood to which the god
of justice is said to have fled through fear of Sóma the moon-god.
Dharmaratha-A prince, the son of Divaratha.
have drank the Sóma juice along with Indra.
He is said to
Dharma-sastra-A law book; the three principal topics of all
such are áchára, rules of conduct; vyavahara, judicature; and
prayaschitta, penance. The Code of Yajjnawalka is termed
Dharmasástra; as is also the Code of Manu.
Dharma-savarni-The Manu of the eleventh Manwantara.
One of the mind-engendered sous of a daughter of Daksha, by
himself and the three gods Brahma, Dharma, and Rudra, to whom
he presented her on Mount Meru.
Dharshtakas-A race of Kshatriyas, some of whom obtained
brahmanhood upon earth. V. P.
Dhata-A Rudra, the son of Bhrigu by Khyati.
Dhataki-A prince, the son of Savana, king of Pushkara—an
island without mountains or rivers in which men live a thousand
V. P.
years without sickness or sorrow.
Dhatri-A son of Vishnu and Lakshmi, married to Ayati,
daughter of Meru.
Dhatu-A linguistic root. In European languages if grammar
attempts to reduce a word to its last limit, it calls such a limit its
'root,' and a root in grammar thus answers to an element in
chemistry, representing the farthest result of analysis attainable by
the analyser; but in Sanskrit grammar,-dhátu, though generally
translated root, does not imply that which is expressed by the
170
DHA-DHI
European term. The former designates that theoretical form,
from which, by conjugational affixes, verbal bases, and by krit
affixes nominal bases may be derived. Yet as such derivations
may not only be made from those forms which have been collected in
lists called Dhátupátha, and may be called primary Dhátus, but also
from those derivative forms,-the passives, intensives, causals,
desideratives, and denominatives ;-even these derivative forms are,
to the Hindu grammarian Dhátus. To his mind therefore a dhátr
is not an absolutely last linguistic element; but even a primary
dhátu, or that form from which passive and other secondary dhátus
could be derived, is to him only that form which, to the popular
understanding, appeared to be a last limit of derivation."*
Dhatu-Parayana-A celebrated commentary on Dhátus,
written by Hemachandra.
Dhaumya―The name of the brahman who was engaged by the
Pandavas to be their Purohita or family priest. He also officiated
as Hótri and cooked the sacrifice when it was offered. He
accompanied the Pandavas on their exile; and on their return
performed the inauguratory ceremonies for Rája Yudhishthira ;
and at the great Aswamedha squeezed milk out of the horse's ear.
Dhava--(Fire). A deity of the class termed Vasu; because
they are always present in light or luminous irradiation.
Dhenuka-A demon, fierce and malignant, who in the form of an
ass, attacked Bala Ráma when a boy, and began to kick him on the
breast with his hinder heels. Bala Ráma however, seized him by
both hind legs, and whirling him round till he expired, tossed his
carcase to the top of a palm tree from the branches of which it
struck down abuudauce of fruit, like rain drops poured upon carth
by the wind. Vishnu Purána, 517.
Dhi-The wife of the Rudra Manyu.
Dhimat-One of the six sons of Purúravas; the name also of
the valiant son of Virat.
Dhishana-A princess of the race of Agni, and wife of Havir-
dhána.
* Mrs. Manning, A, and M. I.
DHI-DHR
171
Dhishnyas-The seven little circles extending in a straight line
from the Marjála to the Agnidhra fire.-Ait. Brah.
Dhoti or Dhotra-The cloth wrapped round the loins, and
universally worn by Hindus. It is spoken of by Nearchus as
reaching to the middle of the leg. It is from 2 to 3 yards long
by 2 to 3 feet broad. "Native sepoys march thirty or forty
miles a day in dhótis without fatigue."
"In the frescoes on the
caves of Ajanta this costume is carefully represented."- Edin.
Rev., Jan. 1868.
Dhridhaswa-One of the three sons of Kuvalayaswa, who
escaped from the conflict with the demon Dhundu.
Before
Dhrishta-One of the sons of the Manu Vaivaswata.
their birth the Manu, being desirous of sons offered a sacrifice for
that purpose to Mitra and Varuņa; but the rite being deranged
through an irregularity of the ministering priest, a daughter, Ila,
was produced. See Ila and Manu. From Drishta sprang the
Kshatriya race of Dharshtakas.
Dhrishtadyumna-A prince, the son of Rája Drupada, in
whose reign the possessions of the Pánchálas were divided. Dhrish-
tadyumna was the brother of Draupadi, who proclaimed the terms
of her Swayamvara.
"The gallant Dhrishtadyumua on the plain.
Descended, and his father's will proclaimed ;-
Princes, this bow behold! Yon mark-these shafts—
Who'er with dextrous hand at once directs
Five arrows to their aim; and be his race,
His person, and his deeds, equivalent
To such exalted union,-He obtains
My sister for his bride. My words are truth.
Thus said, he to the Princess next described
Each royal suitor by his name and lineage,
And martial deeds; and bade her give the wreath
To him whose prowess best deserved the boon,
Arjuna was the successful suitor, and Draupadi became the wife
of the five Pándu brothers. Dhrishtadyumna followed the brothers
172
DHR
home, and ascertained that they were not brahmans but Kshatriyas
of the royal house of Hastinapura, and soon acquainted his father
with the tidings. At the beginning of the great war Dhrishtadyumna
was elected commander-in-chief; after several days' fighting, Rája
Drupada was slain by Drona, and Dhrishtadyumna vowed that he
would be revenged for his father's death by killing Drona. This
he did the following day, aided by Bhíma. He was afterwards
surprised by Aswattháma, the son of Drona, while sleeping in the
tents of the Pandavas and was barbarously murdered. See Drupada.
Dhrishtaketu-1, The son of Dhrishtadyumna, he commanded
the troops of Chedi and Malwa in the great war; 2,. The name
of a son of Satyadhriti or Sudhriti, king of Mithila, who was
celebrated for his piety, and received the designation of "royal
saint." 3, A son of Suketu, a descendant of Alarka.
Dhrishtasarman-A prince, one of the sons of Swaphalka, of
the family of Auamitru.
Dhrishti-The war minister of Mahárája Dasaratha.
Dhrita-A prince, the son of Dharma.
Dhritamati-A river among those enumerated in the Vishnu
Purána as one of the rivers of Bharata.
Dhritarashtra-The elder son of Krishna Dwaipayana and the
widow of Vichitravírya (see Bhishma), king of Hastinapura, and
father of Duryodhana and his ninety-nine brothers. Being blind
from birth, he eventually delivered his sceptre to Duryodhana, at
whose suggestion he banished the Pandava princes, his own
nephews, from his kingdom. It is to him that his charioteer and
hard (súta), Sanjaya, relates the Bhagavat Gita, or dialogue
between Krishna and Arjuna, having received, as he says, from the
Vyása, the mystic power of being present while it was carried on.
His wife's name was Gándhári, and the chief of her hundred
were Duryodhana, Duhṣásana, Vikarṇa, and Chitrasena.
(Dhritarashtra is derived from drita, held firm;' and ráshtra, a
'kingdom,' 'who tenaciously maintains the sovereignty.' The name,
Schlegel observes, may have arisen from his remaining on the throne
in spite of his blindness.) (J. C. Thomson.) On the death of Duryod-
sons
DHR
173
hana, who was killed by Bhíma, he meditated revenge, and caused
an instrument of strongly constrictive power to be made, which he
wore on his person; and then expressed a strong desire to embrace
Bhíma, his nephew, before he died. Krishna being aware of the
device (the hug as of a bear) caused a stone image to be substituted;
and as the blind king could not distinguish the difference, he was
deceived, and Bhíma escaped.
Dhritarashtra was also the name of a powerful many-headed
serpent, of immeasurable might; one of the progeny of Kadru.
Dhritarashtri-The daughter of Kasyapa, one of the wives of
Garuda and mother of geese, ducks, teal and other water-fowl.
Dhritavrata--One of the eleven Rudras. Also the name of a
prince, one of the descendants of Anu.
Dhriti Steadiness. One of the twenty-four daughters of the
patriarch Daksha, married to Dharma (righteousness), their son.
was Niyama (precept). Dhriti was also the name of several
princes-of a son of Vethavya, king of Mithila; of a son of Babhru;
and of a son of Vijaya. The wife of Manu, one of the eleven
Rudras, was named Dhriti.
Dhritimat—A celebrated sage, the son of Kirthimat, by his wife
Also the name of a son of Yavinara.
Dhenuka.
:
Dhruva-The polar star, the pivot of the atmosphere; on it
rests the seven great planets, and on them depend the clouds the
rains are suspended in the clouds and fall for the support of created
beings. This source of rain is termed the sacred station of Vishņu,
and the support of the three worlds. Vishnu Purána, Ch. VIII.
From it proceeds the stream that washes away all sin, the river
Gunga, embrowned with the unguents of the nymphs of heaven,
who have sported in her waters. Having her source in the nail of
the great toe of Vishnu's left foot, Dhruva receives her and
sustains her day and night devoutly on his head. V. P.-Ibid.
As Dhruva revolves it causes the moon, sun and stars to turn
round also; and the lunar asterisms follow in its circular path, for
all the celestial luminaries are bound to the polar star by ærial
cords. The rain is evolved by the sun; the sun is sustained by
•
174
DHR
Dhruva ; and Dhruva is supported by the celestial porpoise-shaped
sphere, which is one with Nárayaṇa. Nárayana, the primeval
existent, and eternally enduring, seated in the heart of the stellar
sphere, is the supporter of all beings. V. P., Ch. IX.
Dhruva was the son of Uttánapáda and Suníti; when a child
he observed his half-brother Uttama in the lap of his father as he
was seated on his throne, and was desirous of ascending to the
same place. He was reproved for this by the mother of Uttama,
Suruchi, the favorite wife of his father. The boy being angry
went to the apartment of his own mother, who took him on her
lap and asked what had vexed him. Suníti, distressed by the
narrative of the boy, said, Suruchi has rightly spoken; thine, child,
is an unhappy fate; those who are born to fortune are not liable
to the insults of their rivals. Yet be not afflicted my child. That
the king favors Suruchi is the reward of her merits in a former
existence. It is not proper for you to grieve; a wise man will be
contented with that degree which appertains to him; be amiable,
be pious, be friendly, be assiduous in benevolence to all living
creatures; for prosperity descends upon modest worth as water
flows towards low ground.
Dhruva answered: "Mother, the words that you have addressed
to me for my consolation, find no place in a heart that contumely
has broken. I will exert myself to attain such elevated rank that
it shall be revered by the whole world." The youth then went
forth from his mother's dwelling and applied to sever Munis, whom
he found sitting in an adjoining thicket. By their advice he
devoted himself entirely to the service of Vishnu, concentrating
his whole mind on this one object. He commenced a course of
religious austerities; resisted all the attempts made to change his
purpose; and was finally elevated by Vishnu to the skies as the
pole-star. V. P.
Dhruva sandhi-One of the sons of Rája Tresandhi, king of
Ayodhya, and father of Bharata.
Dhruvasandhi-A prince, the son Pushya, a descendant of
Ráma.
Dhruyu-The eldest son of king Yayáti, by his wife Sarmishta ;
DHU
175
called in some of the Puránas, the handmaid of his first wife
Devayáni. Dhruyu became king of the western part of his father's
dominions.
Dhumaketu-(Comet). An allegorical personage, the son of
Krisáswa, by his wife Archish (flame). The deified weapons of the
gods were the progeny of Krisáswa. Dhumakétu is also the name
of one of the sons of Trinavindu by the celestial nymph Alambushá,
who became enamoured of Trinavindu.
Dhumrakesa-One of the five sons of the celebrated Prithu,
the universal emperor or Chakra-vertti.
Dhumraksha-One of Rávana's generals, who was killed at
the siege of Lanka.
Dhumraswa―The son of Suchandra and king of Vaișáli—the
city founded by Vaișáli, son of Trinavinda. The Buddhists consider
Vaişáli to be Prayága, or Alláhabad. Among them it is celebrated
as a chief seat of the labours of Sakhya and his first disciples.
Dhundu-Au Asura, or demon, represented as most formidable.
The pious sage Uttanka was much harassed by this demon, and
king Kuvalayaswa, inspired with the spirit of Vishņu, determined
to destroy it. In the conflict the king was attended by his sons to
the number of twenty-one thousand, and all these with the exception
of three perished in the engagement, consumed by the fiery breath
of Dhundu. The demon hid himself beneath a sea of sand, which
Kuvalayaswa and his sons dug up, undeterred by the flames which
checked their progress and finally destroyed most of them. The
king was afterwards entitled Dhundumára. The legend is supposed
to have originated in some physical phenomena as an earthquake
or volcano. V. P.
Dhundumara-The name of Kuvalayáswa, after the conflict
above described. In the Rámáyana he is termed the son of
Trisanku.
Dhuti-One of the twelve Ádityas who in a former
Manwantara were deities called Tushitas; they entered the
womb of Aditi, daughter of Daksha, and were born as the sons of
Kasyapa, and named the twelve Ádityas.
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DHY-DIK
Dhyana-Profound meditation on Vishņu. When the image
(of Vishņu) never departs from the mind of the sage, whether he
be going or standing, or be engaged in any other voluntary act,
then he may believe his retention to be perfect. There are six
stages in the attainment of this object: 1, Yama, acts of restraint
and obligation; 2, Asana, sitting in particular postures; 3,
Pranayama, modes of breathing; 4, Pratyáhára, exclusion of all
external ideas; 5, Bhavana, apprehension of internal ideas; 6,
Dhárana, fixation or retention of those ideas. Those who thus
devote themselves to meditation, must divest their minds of all
sensual desire, and have their attention abstracted from every
external object, and absorbed with every sense in the prescribed
subject of meditation. Patanjali says, 'Restraint of the body,
retention of the mind, and meditation, which thence is exclusively
confined to one object, is Dhyana.' See V. P., p. 657.
Digambara-A naked ascetic, or gymnosophist. The Jains
are divided into two principal divisions, Digambaras and Svetam-
baras; the former of which appears to have the best pretensions
to antiquity, and to have been most widely diffused. The discrimin-
ating difference is implied in these terms, the former meaning the
sky-clad, that is, naked; and the latter the white-robed, the
teachers being so dressed. In the present day, however, the
Digambara ascetics do not go naked, but wear coloured garments;
they confine the disuse of clothes to the period of their meals,
throwing aside their wrapper when they receive the food given
them by their disciples.- Wilson.
Diksha-Certain ceremonies preliminary to a sacrifice. It also
means a new birth-and a rite of initiation.
Diksha-The wife of Ugra, one of the eight Rudras or
manifestations of Brahma; or according to the Bhagavata, the
wife of Vámadeva, another Rudra.
Dikshaniya Ishti- A curious sacrificial ceremony, apparently
suggested by "a feeling nearly akin to belief in original sin. The
gods, and especially Vishnu and Agui, are invoked to come to the
offering with the Díksha. 'Grant the Díksha to the sacrifice.
Agni as fire, and Vishnu as the sun, are invoked to cleanse the
sacrificer, by the combination of their rays, from all gross and
DIK-DIL
177
material dross. The worshipper is then covered up in a cloth, on
the outside of which is placed the skin of a black antelope; and,
after a certain time has elapsed, and specified prayers have been
recited, the coverings are removed, the new birth is considered
to have been accomplished, and the regenerated man descends
to bathe."*
Dikshavisarjane-A religious ceremony amongst brahmans;
it is customary for a man to allow his hair to grow for six months
after his marriage, and then go to his father-in-law's house to have
his head shaved; this act, and the observances which accompany it,
is termed Díkshavisarjane.
Dilipa-The son of Ansuman and father of Bhagiratha who
brought Ganga down to the earth.
Ansuman's son, Dilípa famed,
Begot a son Bhagirath named,
From him the great Kakutstha rose;
From him came Raghu feared by foes.
Dilípa is described in the Raghuvansa as a grand ideal of what
a king should be.
"Tall and broad-shouldered, stout and strong of limb,
Valour incarnate fixed her throne in him,
Matchless in beauty and heroic might,
He towers like Meru in his lofty height.
Meet for his god-like form, his noble mind
To worthy studies in his youth inclined.
Thence great designs inspired his generous soul,
And mighty deeds with glory crowned the whole."
This monarch was the delight of his subjects, who followed him
as their guide, and thereby obeyed the laws of Manu.
"And well they knew the tax they gladly paid,
For their advantage on the realm was laid.
The bounteous sun delights to drink the lakes,
But gives ten thousand-fold the wealth he takes."
*Mrs. Manning, A. and M. I.
23
178
DIL
Just as the earth and water, fire and ether, were given by the
good Creator for the benefit of all mankind; so was the king,
Dilípa, sent to bless his subjects, and find his own happiness in
that of others. Theft was unknown in his dominions, and
“He ruled the earth, from rival sceptre free,
Like one vast city girdled by the sea.'
But one boon was wanting. He had a lovely queen, but no son.
"Oh! how he longed, that childless king, to see
A royal infant smiling on her knee;
With his dear mother's eyes and face divine,-
A second self to ornament his line !"
In the hope of attaining this boon he resolves to seek his holy
guide, the renowned Vasishtha, who now lived far away in a
secluded hermitage. His queen goes forth with him, and they
travel in a car, which "tells his coming with the music of its bells."
"Fresh on their cheeks the soft wind gently blows,
Wafting the perfume of the woodland rose:
And, heavy with the dust of rifled flowers,
Waves the young branches of the mango bowers.
They hear the peacock's joyous cry; his head
Lifted in wonder at the courser's tread.
They watch the cranes in jubilant armies fly,
Crowning, like flowers, the portals of the sky.
From shady coverts by the way, the deer
Throw startled glances when the car is near.
*
*
*
*
*
Through towns they pass, and many a hamlet fair,
Founded and cherished by their royal care.”
Peasants bring them curds and milk; the king calls attention
to the varied beauties of the woodland scene; and, lost in delight,
they reach the end of their journey quite unexpectedly.
"Evening is come, and, weary of the road,
The horses rest before the saints' abode."
The hermitage reminds one of that described in Kálidâsa's play,
Sakuntalâ. Hermits from the neighbouring forest have come for
DIL
179
grass and fuel; playful fawns are waiting to be fed with rice ;
young girls are watering the roots of trees, &c.
The king and the queen are most kindly received,
After "food and rest," the sage inquires of the king his wishes,
and having heard that
"Mother earth, whom tears nor prayers have won,
Is still ungracious, and denies a son,"
and that "the spirits of his fathers pine," seeing no hope of funeral
offerings, ...... the great Vasishtha falls into profound meditation,
and, after a few minutes, announces the cause of the misfortune.
The king, Dilípa, had once, thoughtlessly and unconsciously,
omitted to pay reverence to "the holy cow," which was lying under
of
a celestial tree near the falls of the Ganges.... Therefore, by way
penance, he and his queen must tend a cow, called Nandinî, in the
sacred woods close by; and when they have gained the love of
this descendant of the affronted cow, the curse will be removed.
The attendance is given faithfully: the queen worships the cow,
by walking round her and scattering grain; and the king cannot
be persuaded, even by illusive phantoms, to desert his trust. He
hastens to the queen ;
"And though she read at once his looks aright,
He told her all again with new delight.
Then, at the bidding of the saint, he quaffed
Of Nandinî's pure milk a precious draught,
As though, with thirst that rises from the soul,
He drank eternal glory from the bowl."
At the dawn of day,
"Swift towards their home the eager horses bound;
The car makes music o'er the grassy ground.
They reach the city, where the people wait,
Longing to meet their monarch, at the gate.
Dim are his eyes, his cheek is pale, his brow
Still bears deep traces of his weary vow."
In due time a son was born.
"There was a glory round the infant's head;
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DIN-DIP
And e'en the unlit torches seemed to shine
As in a picture, with that light divine."
And, when all rites had been duly performed,-
"Still greater glory crowned Dilípa's son."
-A. and M. I., vol. II, pp. 99-101.
Kálidása in the Raghuvansa makes Raghu the son of Dilípa and
great grandfather of Ráma.
Dina-chariyawa-The daily observances of Buddhist priests.
These are very numerous, and are prescribed with minute detail.
At the conclusion it is said the priest must maintain a course of
good behaviour, he must keep under the five senses, with matured
wisdom, and without any haughtiness of either body, speech or
mind.
Dipaka-The Illuminator. A figure of poetical rhetoric, throw-
ing "a quickening ray of light upon the colouring of the poet's
pictures; for its power it is indebted to arrangement in general,
especially to the connection of the single verb, which (to use the
expression of the commentator) lights up the whole description."-
Colebrooke.
Dipavali-habba-A festival instituted in memory of two
celebrated giants, Bala-chakravarti and Narak-asura. The latter
had become the scourge of the human race and infested the earth
with his crimes. Vishnu at length delivered both gods and men
from the terror of this monster, whom he slew after a dreadful
combat. The contest ended but with the day. Thus Vishņu not
having it in his power to make his diurnal ablutions before the
setting of the sun, had to perform them in the night. The
Brahmans in commemoration of this great event, put off their
ablutions to the night; and this is the only occasion, in the course
of the year, in which they can transgress the ordinance of never
bathing after sunset. But this exception of the nocturnal bathing,
possesses a high degree of merit, and is conducted with solemnity.
The word Dipavali-habba signifies the Feast of Lamps; and
the Hindus actually light a great number of lamps round the door
of their houses. They make paper lanterns also, which they hang
in the streets. The husbandmen celebrate this festival in a different
DIP-DIT
181
i
way. Being then the harvest time for grain they assemble in the
rági fields and offer prayers or sacrifices. Some sacrifice to the
dunghill which is afterwards to enrich the ground. The offerings
consist of burning lamps, fruits, or flowers which are deposited in
the mass of ordure.--Abbé Dubois.
The
Diptimat-One of the sons of Krishna by Rohiní.
Vishņu Purána says that Krishna had one hundred and eighty
thousand sons, but the names of only a few are given.
Dirghabahu—A prince, the son of Khatwánga.
Dirghamukha-A crane that figures in the Panchatantra ;
the name means "long bill."
Dirghatamas-The son of Kásirája and father of Dhanwantari.
Another Dírghatamas was the son of Utathaya, and some of the
Puránas have an absurd story of the circumstances attending
his birth.
Dis-Space, which is said in the Bhagavata to be the deity
Dis is also the name of a river in
whith presides over the ear.
the Vishnu Purána.
Disa-The wife of Bhíma, one of the eight Rudras.
Dishta-One of the sons of Manu Vaivaswata, the son of the
celestial luminary.
Diti-A daughter of Daksha, who became one of the wives of
She is termed the
Kasyapa, and mother of the Daityas, q. v.
general mother of Titans and malignaut beings. Diti having lost her
children propitiated Kasyapa; and the best of ascetics promised her
a boon on which she prayed for a son of irresistible prowess who
should destroy Indra. The Muni granted his wife the gift on one
condition, "You shall bear a son," he said, if with thoughts wholly
pious, and person entirely pure, you carry the babe in your womb
for a hundred years." Diti consented, and during gestation, observed
the rules of mental and personal purity. Indra, aware of what was
going on, tried to prevent it; and in the last year of the century
an opportunity occurred. Diti retired one night to rest without
performing the prescribed ablution of her feet, and fell asleep on
which the thunderer divided the embryo in her womb into seven
182
DIV-DRA
portions. The child thus mutilated, cried bitterly. Indra not
being able to console and silence it, divided each of the seven
portions into seven, and thus formed the swift-moving deities
called Máruts, (winds). "In this myth of Indra destroying
the unborn fruit of Diti with his thunder-bolt, from which
afterwards came the Máruts or gods of wind and storm, geological
phenomena are, it seems, represented under mythical images. In
the great mother of the gods is, perhaps, figured the dry earth:
Indra the god of thunder rends it open, and there issue from its
rent bosom the Máruts or exhalations of the earth, But such
ancient myths are difficult to interpret with absolute certainty."-
Gorriseo.
Divakara-A prince, the son of Prativyoman, of the family of
Ikshwáku, q. v.
Divaratha-A prince, the son of Para, a descendant of Anu.
Divaspati-The Indra of the thirteenth Manwantara.
Divijata-One of the sons of Purúravas, according to the list
in the Matsya.
Divodasa-1, A king mentioned in the Rig Veda who coveted
one of the hundred impregnable cities of the black-skinned Sambara.
Indra hurled Sambara from the mountain; he destroyed ninety-
nine cities and gave the hundredth to Divodása; 2, A king of Kasi
(Benares)—the son of Bhímaratha. There are some curious legends
connected with this prince. It is said that Śiva and Párvati,
desirous of occupying Kási, which Divodása possessed, sent a
teacher named Nikumbha, to lead the prince to the adoption of
Buddhist doctrines ; in consequence of which he was expelled from
the sacred city, and founded another on the banks of the Gomti;
or according to other accounts, he took a city on that river from
the family of Bhadraṣrenya; that Durdama the son of Bhadraṣrenya,
recovered the country; that the son of Divodása Pratarddana,
subsequently conquered it from his descendants.
Divya-One of the sons of Satwata.
Dosha-The wife of Kalpa, the son of Dhruva.
Dragons-These are represented in the Vishnu Purána to be
the progeny of Surasá; one of the Daityas.
DRA
183
Dravidian-The term applied to designate the five languages
of Southern India, viz :-the Tamil, the Telugu, the Canarese, the
Malayalim, and the Toulava. South India was formerly called the
Drávida country. The Tamil is the most cultivated of the
Dravidian tongues; it contains the largest portion and the richest
variety of undoubtedly ancient forms, and the smallest infusion of
Sanskrit terms. It is the vernacular of about 12 millions of people.
The Telugu ranks next to the Tamil in respect of culture and
copiousness; in point of euphonic sweetness it ranks in the first
place. It is the vernacular of about 14 millions. The Canarese
occupies the third place. Sanskrit words have been extensively
introduced into the modern dialect, and during the reigns of Hyder
and Tippu in Mysore, Hindustani words became common; but the
ancient dialect, spoken from about 800 to 1500 A. D. was free from
any admixture of foreign terms. It is the vernacular of about 10
millions. The Malayalim ranks next in order and is spoken along
the Malabar Coast from Cannanore to Trevandrum by about 3
millions of people. The Toulava is the least important of the five,
and is spoken by the smallest number of people.
Drauni-The Vyása of the Dwápara which immediately follows
the twenty-eight Dwáparas enumerated in the Vishnu Purána.
Draupadi-The daughter of Rája Drupada of Pánchála, whose
capital was Kámpilya. "She is the heroine of the Mahábhárata."
"She is of dark complexion but of exceeding loveliness; and the
only wish we have for her is that we could change her name,—
Draupadí; for it is almost beyond the power of art to invest a
heroine with so uncouth an appellation with the poetic charm
belonging to her in the Sanskrit."* The reports of the extraordinary
beauty of Draupadí attracted many Rájas and chieftains to her
Swayamvara. The young Princess was led into the arena,
elegantly dressed, adorned with radiant gems, and carrying in her
hand the garland which she was to throw over the neck of the hero
who might have the fortune to win her to be his wife. Prince
Dhrishtadyumna stood by the side of his resplendent sister, and
proclaimed that whoever shot the arrow through the revolving
* Mrs. Manning. A. and M. I., Vol. ii.
1
184
DRA
chakra on the first attempt, and struck the eye of the golden fish,
should have the princess for his wife. Many Rájas tried to bend
the bow but could not. Then the ambitious Karna entered the
lists and to the surprise of all bent the bow and fitted the shaft to
the string; but the proud Draupadí resolved that no son of a
charioteer should be her lord, and cried out, "I wed not with the
base-born." Karna was abashed and walked angrily out of the
area. Then Śisupála, the Rája of Chedi ; and Jarasandha, the Rája
of Magadhá, tried one after another to bend the bow, but they both
failed. All this time the Pándavas had been standing amongst the
crowd disguised as brahmans: suddenly Arjuna advanced and
lifted the bow, bent it and drew the cord, then fitting the arrow to
the string, he discharged it through the centre of the chakra and
struck the eye of the golden fish. A roar of acclamation arose
from the vast assembly; the beautiful Draupadi was filled with
joy and wonder at the youth and grace of the hero; as commanded
by her brother she came forward and threw the garland round the
neck of Arjuna, and permitted him to lead her away according to
the rule of the Swayamvara.
In the works of H. H. Wilson, Vol. iii, pp. 328-335, the follow-
ing poetical version of the account of the Swayamvara is given
In Panchála's spacious realm
The powerful monarch Drupada observes
A solemn feast; attending princes wait
With throbbing hearts, his beauteous daughter's choice;
The royal Draupadí, whose charms surpass
All praise, as far as her mild excellence
And mind transcend the beauties of her person.
**
*
*
*
And now the day of festival drew nigh;
When Drupada, whose anxious hopes desired
A son of Pándu for his daughter's lord,
And who had sent his messengers to search
The banished chiefs, still sought by them in vain,
Devised a test--no other force but theirs
He deemed could undergo, to win the bride.
*
ᎠᎡᎪ
185
A ponderous bow with magic skill he framed,
Unyielding but to more than mortal strength.
And for a mark he hung a metal plate
Suspended on its axle, swift revolving
Struck by a shaft that from the centre strayed.
This done he bade proclaim-that he whose hand
Should wing the arrow to its destined aim,
Should win the Princess by his archery.
Before the day appointed, trooping came
Princes and chiefs innumerous: 'midst the throng
Duryodhana and all the hundred sons
Of Dhritarashtra, with the gallant Karṇa,
In haughty cohort at the court appeared.
With hospitable act the king received
His royal guests and fitting welcome gave.
Between the North and East without the gates
There lay a spacious plain; a fosse profound
And lofty walls enclosed its ample circuit, .
And towering gates and trophied arches rose,
And tall pavilions glittered round its borders:
Here ere the day of trial came, the sports
Were held and loud as ocean's boisterous waves,
And thick as stars that gem the Dolphin's brow,
The mighty city here her myriads poured.
Around the monarch's throne on lofty seats
Of gold with gems emblazoned sat the kings,
Each lowering stern defiance on the rest.
Without the barriers pressed the countless crowd
Or clambering upon scaffolds clustering hung.
Skirting the distance multitudes beheld
The field from golden lattices, or thronged
The high house-tops, whose towering summits touched
The clouds, and like the mountain of the gods
With sparkling peaks streamed radiant through the air.
A thousand trumpets brayed, and slow the breeze
With incense laden wafted perfume round.
Whilst games of strength and skill-the graceful dance,
24
186
DRA
The strains of music, or dramatic art,
Awoke the gazer's wonder and applause.
Thus sixteen days were passed, and every chief
Of note was present-and the king no more
Could with fair plea his daughter's choice delay.
Then came the Princess forth in royal garb
Arrayed and costly ornaments adorned:
A garland interwove with gems and gold
Her delicate hands sustained-from the pure bath
With heightened loveliness she tardy came,
And blushing in the princely presence stood.
Next in the ring the reverend Priest appeared.
And strewed the holy grass and poured the oil,
An offering to the God of Fire, with prayer
Appropriate, and with pious blessings crowned.
Then bade the king the trumpets' clangor cease
And hush the buzzing crowd-while his brave sou
The gallant Dhrishṭadyumua on the plain.
Descended and his father's will proclaimed.
66
Princes, this bow behold-yon mark-these shafts-
Whoe'er with dexterous hand at once directs
Five arrows to their aim, and be his race,
His person and his deeds equivalent
To such exalted union, He obtains
My sister for his bride-my words are truth.”
Thus said, he to the Princess next described
Each royal suitor by his name and lineage
And martial deeds, and bade her give the wreath
To him whose prowess best deserved the boon.
Quick from their gorgeous thrones the kings uprose,
Descending to the conflict, and around
The lovely Draupadí contending pressed;
Like the bright gods round Śiva's mountain bride.
Love lodged his viewless arrows in their hearts,
And jealous hatred swelled their haughty minds;
Each on his rivals bent a lowering glance,
And friends till now, they met as deadliest foes.
DRA
187
Alone the kindred bands remained aloof
Who owned Janárdana their glorious chief.
He and the mighty Haláyudha curbed
Their emulous zeal,-and tranquil they beheld
Like furious elephants the monarchs meet ;
Their rage by courteous seeming ill represt
Like fire amidst the smouldering embers glowing.
And now in turn the Princes to the trial
Succeeding past, in turn to be disgraced-
No hand the stubborn bow could bend-they strained
Fruitless each nerve, and many on the field
Recumbent fell, whilst laughter pealed around.
In vain they cast aside their royal robes
And diamond chains and glittering diadems,
And with unfettered arm and ample chest
Put forth their fullest strength-the bow defied
Each chief nor left the hope he might succeed.
Karṇa alone the yielding bowstring drew
And ponderous shafts applied, and all admired.
The timid Draupadí in terror cried,
I wed not with the base-born-Karna smiled
In bitterness and upwards turned his eyes
To his great Sire the Sun-then cast to earth
The bow and shafts and sternly stalked away.
Thus foiled the Princes, through the murmuring crowd
Amazement spread-then Arjuna from where
He and his brethren with the Brahmans placed
Had viewed the scene, advanced to prove his skill-
The priestly bands with wonder struck beheld
Who seemed a student of their tribe aspire
To triumph where the mightiest chiefs had failed-
They deemed the like disgrace would shame the attempt,
And ridicule their race and name assail,
And many a venerable elder strove
To turn the stripling from the hopeless task :
They strove in vain-nor did they all despair-
For many marked his elephantine strength,
188
DRA-DRI
His lion port and self-collected soul;
And fancied that they saw revived in him
The son of Jamadagui: to o'erthrow
Once more the haughty Kshatriya's power and pride.
Unheeding praise or censure, Arjuna
Passed to the field with reverential steps
:
He round the weapon circled, next addressed
A silent prayer, to Mahadeo, and last
With faith inflexible on Krishṇa dwelt.
One hand the bow up bore, the other drew •
The sturdy cord, and placed the pointed shafts-
They flew the mark was hit-and sudden shouts
Burst from the crowd long silent: flattering waved
The Brahman scarfs, and drum and trumpet brayed,
And Bard and Herald sung the hero's triumph.
The Pandavas took Draupadí home to their mother, and told
her that Arjuna had won the damsel at her Swayamvara, and she
became the wife of the five brothers according to the institutions
of polyandry, which seemed to have prevailed at a very remote
period. The history of Draupadí is henceforth connected with
that of the Pándavas. See Arjuna, Bhíma, &c. She at last
accompanied her husbands to the Himálaya mountains in the garb
of a devotee and died.
Dravina-One of the sons of Prithu, the universal emperor.
Also the name of one of the sons of the sage Dhava.
Draviras-The people of the Coromandel Coast, from Madras
southwards; those by whom the Tamil language is spoken.
Dravya-Substance; thing; the receptacle or substratum of
properties, one of the six Padarthas, or categories, into which
Kanáda distributes the contents of the universe.
Dridhadhanash-A prince, the son of Senajit, of the family
of Hastin.
Dridhanetra-The youngest of the four sons of Viswamitra,
born when he had retired to the jungles of the south to practice
austerities.
And in that solitary spot,
Four virtuous sous the king begot,
DRI-DRO
189
Havishyand from the offering named,
And Madhushyand for sweetness famed,
Mahárath, chariot-borne in fight,
And Dridhauétra, strong of sight."-Griffiths.
Dridhasona-A king of Maghada, the son of Susam; he
reigned 48 years.
Dridhayas-One of the sons of Purúravas, according to the
Matsya list.
Drishadwati-A river of considerable importance in the
history of the Hindus, although no traces of its ancient name
exist. V. P., p. 181.
This river is also called Himavat, and is said to be the mother
of Prasenajit.
Drishtanta-An illustration, example, or familiar instance; in
the Nyaya system of Gautama, it is a topic on which in controversy
both disputants consent; or "that on regard to which, a man of an
ordinary and a man of a superior intellect, entertain the same
opinion."
Drona--Son of the Rishi Bharadwaja, by birth a Brahman, but
acquainted with military science, which he received as a gift from
Parasuráma (see Ráma.) "Drona was no ascetic, and having in
childhood shared the lessons and sports of the royal heir of the
neighbouring kingdom of Panchála, he felt inclined to live again
at that court, now that his old playfellow had become king. Never
doubting of a hearty welcome, he presented himself to king
Drupada quite unceremoniously, merely saying, 'Behold in me
your friend.' His reception however was totally different to what
he anticipated.
"the monarch sternly viewed
The sage, and bent his brows, and with disdain
His eyeballs reddened; silent awhile he sat,
Then arrogantly spoke: Brahman, methinks
Thou showest little wisdom, or the sense
Of what is fitting, when thou call'st me friend.
What friendship, weak of judgment, can subsist
Between a luckless pauper and a king?"
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DRO-DRU
“The king of Panchála stares at the idea of friendship between
a learned brahman and one to whom the Vedas are a mystery, or
between a warrior and one who cannot guide a chariot through the
ranks of war; and continues-
he to whose high mandate nations bow,
Disdains to stoop to friends beneath the throne.
Hence then with idle dreams; dismiss the memory
Of other days and thoughts; I know thee not."
Drona was too much astonished to speak, but he instantly
withdrew from Panchála to Hastinapura, where he was most
reverentially welcomed, and was at once entrusted with the
instruction of the five young Pándu and the hundred young Kuru
princes." Drona had in youth been equally instructed in wisdom
and in arms; and he taught the young princes to rein the steed,
to guide the elephant, to drive the chariot, launch the javelin, hurl
the dart, wield the battle-axe, and whirl the mace."* In the
Vishnu Purána, p. 454, Droņa is called the husband of Kripí, and
father of Aswattháma; afterwards king of the north part of the
Panchála country, and a general in the Kuru army. After Bhishma
had been mortally wounded, Droņa was elected to the command of
the army.
He promised Duryodhana that he would take
Yudhishthira prisoner, but he could not do so as Krishna aud
Arjuna were ever on the alert to prevent it. On the fourth day of
his command he killed Viráta and Drupada. Dhrishṭadyumna
then vowed to slay Droņa in revenge for the death of his father
Drupada. A combat took place; but it was not till Droņa was
falsely told that his son Aswattháma was dead, that he laid down
his arms, and Dhrishṭadyumna rushed upon him and severed his
head from his body.
Dronakas-A term by which, in the Puránas, the inhabitants
of valleys, are designated.
Drupada-The son of Prishata, and father of Draupadi, wife
of the sons of Pándu. He was king of the Panchálas, and one
of the generals of the Pándava army. Being conquered by Drona
* Mrs. Manning-Professor Wilson, Oriental Mag., Vol. iii.
DUH
191
he only managed to retain the southern part of his kingdom, from
the Ganges to the Charmavati (the moderu Chumbal) including the
cities Mákandi and Kampilya. " Although Drupada was compelled
to acquiesce in the arrangement made by Drona, by which his rule
was confined to the country south of the Bhágírathí, the partition
was the cause of deep mortification, and he long meditated on the
means by which he might recover his former power, and be
revenged upon his enemy. He especially regretted the want of a
son whose youth and valour might compete with Drona's disciples,
and he visited the chief resorts of the brahmans, in hope to meet
with some holy sage, whose more than human faculties might
secure him progeny. He found two brahmans of eminent learning
and sanctity named Yája and Upayája, and addressed himself to the
latter, promising him a million of cows if he enabled him to obtain
the son he desired. Upayaja, however declined the task and
referred him to his elder brother Yája, to whom the king repaired
and promised ten millions of kine: with much reluctance he
undertook to direct a sacrificial ceremony by which the king should
obtain offspring, and called his younger brother to his assistance.
When the rite had reached the proper period the queen was invited
to partake of it, but she had not completed her toilet and begged
the brahmans to delay the ceremony. It was too late, and the
sacrifice proceeding without her, the children were born independent
of her participation. The son Dhrishṭadyumna appeared with a
diadem on his head, in full mail, and armed with a bow and
falchion, from the middle of the sacrificial fire. Draupadi, the
daughter, from the middle of the vedi or altar, on which the fire
had been kindled! she was of very black colour although of
exceeding loveliness, and was thence named Krishna; the name of
the son is derived from the pride and power with which he was
endowed from his birth."
**
King Drupada was killed by Drona on the fourteenth day of the
great war.
Duhsala-The daughter of Maharája Dhritarashtra, who wast
married to Jayadratha, Rája of Sindhu.
* Wilson's Works, vol. iii, p. 326.
192
DUH-DUR
Duhsasana-One of the chief of the hundred sons of
Dhritarashtra. He took part in the great war. It was he who
dragged Draupadi into the gambling pavilion by the hair, and
insulted her before the assembly. Bhíma vowed to drink his blood;
and on the sixteenth day of the great war, after a deadly conflict,
Bhíma slew Duhsásana and fulfilled his vow.
Dukha-Pain. The son of Naraka and Vedana.
Dundhubi-A huge giant slain by Báli. When Sugríva wished
Ráma to destroy Báli, in order to convince him of the great
strength of the latter he showed Rama the dead body of Dundhubi:
"The prostrate corse of mountain size
Seemed nothing in the hero's eyes;
He lightly kicked it as it lay
And cast it twenty leagues away."
Duradarsin-Far-seeing; the name of a Vulture in the Pancha-
tantra, who was the chief minister of the peacock king Chitravarna.
Durdama-The son of Bhadrasrenya, who recovered his
father's kingdom from Divodása, q. v.
Durga-The Sakti or wife of the god Śiva, and the goddess of
destruction; she is described as terrible in form and irascible in
temper. She was the daughter of Himálaya, the sovereign of the
snowy mountains. Durgá is often called Káli. In her amiable
form she is termed Bhaváni. "The adoration of Káli, or Durgá, is
however particularly prevalent in Bengal, and is cultivated with
practices scarcely known in most other provinces. Her great
festival, the Daṣará, is in the West of India, marked by no
particular honors, whilst its celebration in Bengal occupies ten days
of prodigal expenditure. This festival, the Durgá Pújá, is now
well known to Europeans, as is the extensive and popular
establishment near Calcutta, the temple of Kálí at Kálí Ghát."
"That human offerings to the dark forms of Śiva and Durgá
were sometimes perpetrated in later times, we know from various
original sources, particularly from that very effective scene in the
drama of Madhava and Málatí, in which Aghoraghanța is
represented as about to sacrifice Málatí to Chámunda, when she is
DUR
193
rescued by her lover. No such divinities, however, neither Śiva
nor Durga, much less any of their terrific forms, are even named,
so far as we know, in the Vedas, and therefore these works could
not be authority for their sanguinary worship. That the practice
is enjoined on particular occasions by the Tantras and some of the
Puránas connected with this branch of the Hindu faith, is, no doubt,
true; but these are works of a much later date."*
"Durgá combines the characteristics of Minerva, Pallas, and
Juno. Her original name was Párvatí, but having, by a display
of extraordinary valour, defeated a giant named Durgá, she was
thenceforth dignified with the name of her conquered foe. This
mouster is by some supposed to be a personification of vice, and
Durgá of virtue, while the struggle typified the action and reaction
of good and evil in the world."-G. Small. (See Aparṇā, Devi,
Kālī, Karālī, Parvati, Sati, Yoganidrā.)
Durga-The name of a river flowing from the Vindhya.
Qurgadasa-A distinguished commmentator on the Sanskrit
Grammar of Vopadeva.
Durgama-Durmada. Two sons of Vasudeva by his wife Rohini.
Durgas-Strongholds. There are four kinds; three of which
are natural from their situation in mountains, amidst water, or in
other inaccessible spots; the fourth is the artificial defences of a
village hamlet or city.
Durjayanta-A mountain in the Vishnu Purána not yet
identified.
Durvasas-The great Hindu Cynic; a celebrated sage, the son
of Atri by Anasúyá, and an incarnation of a portion of Śiva. He
was wandering over the earth when he beheld in the hands of a
nymph of air, a garland of flowers, with whose fragrance he was
enraptured. The graceful nymph presented it to the sage, who
placed the chaplet upon his brow, and resumed his journey; soon
after he beheld Indra, the ruler of the three worlds, approach, seated
on his infuriated elephant Airávata, and attended by the gods.
The sage threw the garland of flowers to the king of the gods, who
* H. H. Wilson's Works, vol. ii.
25
194
DUR
suspended it on the brow of Airávata. The elephant took hold of
the garland with his trunk and cast it to the ground. The chief
of sages Durvásas, was highly incensed at this treatment of his gift,
and thus addressed the sovereign of the immortals.
"Thou art
* thy
an idiot not to respect the garland I gave thee * *
sovereignty over the three worlds shall be subverted, &c." Indra
descended from his elephant and endeavoured, but without effect,
to appease the sinless Durvásas. Thenceforward the three worlds
lost their vigour and fell into decay and ruin. The gods were
then oppressed by the Dánavas, had recourse to Vishnu, and were
directed to churn the ocean. Durvásas was a Chiranjívi or
immortal mau, not limited to one age. In the drama of Sakuntala,
his curse on that young woman for a slight delay in opening her
door to him, brought on her sorrow and disgrace. In like manner,
throughout the whole range of Hindu literature, the curse of
Durvásas is at haud, to account for every contretemps, mishap or
misadventure. A. and M. I.
Duryaman-A prince, the son of Dhrita, a descendant of
Druhyu.
Duryodhana-" Difficult to be fought with." The eldest of
the Kurus. The eldest of the hundred sons of Dhritarashtra, and
one of the principal actors, among the Kauravas, in the great war…..
Pándu was the younger brother of Dhritarashtra, but Yudhishthira
his eldest son was born before Duryodhana, and according to the
customs of those times had in consequence a prior right to the
throne of Hastinapura. This led to constant rivalry between
Yudhishthira and Duryodhana for the post of Yuvarája. As the
five Pandavas had, ou the death of Páudu, come under the
guardianship of their uncle Dhritarashtra, the cousins were brought
up together in the old palace of Hastinapura. It is stated in the
Mahábhárata that "about this time Duryodhana the eldest of the
Kauravas, became very jealous of the strength of Bhíma, and
resolved to work evil against him. He attempted to take his life
by poison, aud throwing him into a lake while stupified from its
effect. Bhíma was not however killed but appeared again to play
an important part in the struggles of their lives."
DUR
195
"The jealousy and hatred of the Kurus towards the Pandavas
increased as they all attained manhood. The father of the Kurus
being blind, required a vice king, or Yuvarajá, i. e., "Little
Raja." In this office Yudhishthira was installed, he being entitled
to it as eldest son of the late king Pándu. But Duryodhaua was
highly discontented at this arrangement, and at length persuaded
his blind father to send away the Pandavas to the city of
Váranávata (the modern Allahabad). Here a splendid house was
prepared for them; but hemp, resin, and other combustible
substances, were secreted within; for the wicked Duryodhana
plotted that the house should be set on fire, and the five Pándavas
and their mother burnt to death. Warning, however, was given
to these intended victims before they left Hastinapura; and, on
taking possession of their splendid new habitation, they had an
underground passage made, by which, when the expected fire took
place, they all escaped.”
Among the poor people whom Kunti had been feasting was a
Bhíd woman, with five sons, who, according to the practice of
their tribe, drank deeply of intoxicating liquor, and then lay down.
and slept heavily. The next morning their bodies were found
amid the ruins of the conflagration; and it was believed in
Hastinapura that the Pandavas had perished, and Duryodhana
pretended to mourn their death.
After the Páudavas (q. v.) had conquered their misfortunes
“the very splendour of their success revived the dark jealousy of
Duryodhana; for he and his brother Duhsásana, and one or two
others, plot to deprive the newly-inaugurated king of his territories.
They first secure the co-operation of a relative, named Sakuni,
who was a noted gambler, and then induce the blind old Mahárája
to invite the Pandavas to a gambling festival at Hastinapura.
Yudhishthira accepts the invitation, with secret misgiving; for
"he was not very skilful in throwing the dice," and he knows
that "Sakuni is dwelling in Hastinapura." Of Sakuni, it is said
that "he is very skilful in throwing dice, and in playing with dice
that were loaded; insomuch, that whenever he played he always
won the game." Nevertheless, Yudhishthira feels compelled to go;
for "
no true Kshatriya can refuse a challenge to war or play." The
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DUR
game they played at seems to have resembled backgammon, "pieces
on a board being directed by the throwing of dice." Certain seeds
or nuts served as dice; and dice of this description were used for
the guidance of a portion of the religious sacrifice. So that, to
throw dice, was not deemed objectionable; and only when a
passion, or the stake immoderate, was it esteemed a vice. It was,
of course, contrived that Yudhishthira should be led on to stake
and to lose all that he possessed.*
When the Pándavas returned from their second exile it was
chiefly owing to Duryodhana that the great war was fought. He
rejected all Krishna's proposals for peace, though Bhishma and
Droua, as well as his aged father, were anxious that he should
accept them... The war commenced.
"The Kuru host entrusted to his care,
The son of Bharadwaja marshals; first
The chiefs of Sindhu, and Kalinga's king,
With the young prince Vikarna on the right
He stations, by Gándhára's martial chivalry;
With glittering lances armed, and led by Sakuni,
Their sovereign's son, supported. On his left
Duhsásana and other chiefs of fame
Commanded the array around them rode
Kámboja's horse, Śakas and Yavanas,
On rapid coursers, mighty in the field.
The nations of the north, and east, and south,
Composed his main battalions; in the rear
Secure the monarch marched; whilst in the van
The gallant Karna led his faithful bands,
Exulting in their sovereign's stately stature,
High raised upon his elephant of war,
And gorgeous shining as the rising sun.
His warriors deemed the gods themselves were weak,
With Indra at their head, to stem his prowess,
And each to each their thoughts revealed, they moved,
Secure of victory, to meet the foe."t
A, and M. I.
† Wilson's Works, vol, iii, p. 291,
DUS
197
On the last day of the war Bhíma fought Duryodhana in single
combat with clubs, and killed him. It is said that he then fulfilled
the vow he made to avenge the insult which Duryodhana had
offered to Draupadi.
Dushan-A giant slain by Ráma in the forest of Dandaka.
Dushyanta-The eldest son of Anila, and father of the emperor
Bharata. The Mahábhárata relates the following legend of this
king. "Once upon a time the valiant Rája Dushyanta was hunting
in the forest, when he beheld the beautiful Sakuntala, the adopted
daughter of Kanwa the sage; and he prevailed on the damsel
to become his wife by a Gandharva marriage, and gave her his
ring as the pledge of his troth. Then Dushyanta returned to his
own city, whilst Sakuntalá remained in the hermitage of her father.
After this Durvásas the sage visited the hermitage of Kanwa, but
the thoughts of Sakuntala were fixed upon her husband, and she
heard not the approach of the sage. And Durvásas cursed the
damsel, that she should be forgotten by the man she loved; but
after a while he relented, and promised that the curse should be
removed as soon as Dushyanta saw the ring. When Sakuntalá
found that she was with child, she set off for the palace of her
husband; but on her way she bathed in a sacred pool, and the
ring dropped from her finger and was lost beneath the waters.
When she reached the palace of the Rája, his memory had
departed from him, and he would not own her to be his wife ; and
her mother came and carried her away to the jungle, and there she
gave birth to a son, who was named Bharata. And it so happened
that a large fish was caught by a fisherman, and the ring of
Dushyanta was found in the belly of the fish, and carried to the
Rája; and Dushyanta saw the ring, and he remembered the beautiful
Sakuntala, who had become his wife by a Gandharva marriage. And
the Rája went into the jungle and saw the boy Bharata sporting
with young lions and setting at nought the lioness that gave them
suck; and his heart burned towards the lad; and presently he
beheld the sorrowing Sakuntalá, and he knew that Sakuntala was
his wife, and that Bharata was his son. So Rája Dushyanta took
Sakuntala and Bharata to his own city; and he made Sakuntalá
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DUT-DWA
his chief Rání, and appointed Bharata to succeed him in the Ráj."
The story of Sakuntala is the subject of the beautiful drama of
Kálidása, "The Lost Ring."
Dutas-Messengers. The Gananátas or Dútas are divided
into three classes; 1, Siva-dutas, who are represented as red,
short, and thick like the Bhúta. Their hair-locks twisted together,
rest on their heads like a cap, and from their mouths project two
great lion's teeth. They have four hands in which they hold,
respectively, a snake, a cord, a trident, and a wine-jug; whilst
their body is adorned with various ornaments. By means of these
messengers Isvara fetches the souls of his devotees at their death
to his seat of bliss, called Kailasa, and that in a Pushpakavimāna,
i. e., a self-moving chariot.
2. The Vishnu-dútas have their hair dressed like the Śiva-dútas,
and also like them a lion's teeth, but otherwise they resemble
Vishnu, being of a blue color, and wearing the Tirunama on their
forehead, arms, and breasts; and round their necks a rosary of
Tulasimani; whilst they hold in their four hands, respectively,
a Sankha, a Chakra, a battle-axe, and a club. Through these
messengers Vishnu fetches the souls of his faithful devotees into
his abode of bliss called Vaikuntha.
3. The Yama-dútas, the messengers of Yama, the king of death
and hell, are painted quite black, like demons, with horrible faces.
and great teeth. In their four hands they carry a trident, a club and
many ropes; and in their girdles, daggers. Their business consists
in carrying the souls of the wicked into Naraka or hell; but they
are not allowed to lay hold on any one before his fixed life-time is
elapsed, and the souls of the pious they cannot touch at all. When,
however, such die as are neither virtuous nor wicked, then it
happens that the messengers of Yama and those of Śiva or Vishņu
come into conflict with each other, each party claiming the
indifferent souls."
Dwapara-The third Yuga or age, which lasts 2,400 divine
years; these are converted into years of mortals by multiplying
them by 360, a year of men being a day of the gods-thus
2,400 × 360 = 864,000 mortal years, the duration of the Dwápara
DWA-DWI
199
or third Yuga. The predominant duties of the four Yugas are
said to be austere fervour on the Krita age, knowledge in the
Tretá, sacrifice in the Dwápara, and liberality alone in the Kali
Yuga. O. S. T., vol. i, p. 39.
Dwaraka-The city of Krishna; after he had conquered many
difficulties in his position, he solicited a space of twelve furlongs
defended
from the ocean, and there he built the city of Dwaraka ;
by high ramparts, and beautiful with gardens and reservoirs of
water, crowded with houses and buildings, and splendid as the
capital of Indra, Amarávati. After Krishna abandoned his mortal
body, Arjuna conducted his many wives and all the people from
The ocean theu rose and
Dwaraka, with tenderness and care.
submerged the whole of Dwaraka except the dwelling of Krishna.
The Vishnu Purána says the sea has never been able to wash that
temple away, as Krishna still abides there. The Mahábhárata
declares that the sea did not spare any part whatever. "It is clear,
therefore;" says Professor Wilson, "that when the latter was
compiled the temple was not standing, and that it was erected
between the date of the compilation and the two Puránas. The
present shrine, which is held in great repute, stands at the extremity
of the peninsula of Guzerat. It is still an object of pilgrimage ;
it was so in the reign of Akbar; and has been no doubt, from a
remote period."
Dwesha-Hatred; one of the five afflictions of the Pátanjali
philosophy.
Dwija-Twice-born; a brahman, whose investiture with the
sacred thread constitutes, religiously and metaphorically, their
second birth. In this sense it may be applied to the Kshatriya
and Vaishya.
Dwimidha-One of the sons of Hastin, founder of Hastinapura.
Dwimurddha-One of the Danavas, a son of Kasyapa by Danu.
Dwipas-Insular continents, of which there are seven chief,
and with the seven seas are supposed to form alternate concentric
circles, viz: 1, Jambu Dwípa, surrounded by a salt sea (Lavana);
2, Plaksha, by a sea of sugar-cane juice, (Ikshu); 3, Sálmali, by a
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DWI-DYA
sea of wine, (Surá); 4, Kusa, by a sea of clarified butter, or ghee,
(Sarpi); 5, Krauncha, by a sea of curds, (Dugdha); 7, Pushkara,
by a sea of fresh water. The whole is surrounded by a circular
mountain designated Chakravaligiri. An account of the kings,
divisions, inhabitants, &c., of these Dwipas will be found in the
Vishnu Purána, Chap. IV, Book I. The geography of the
Puránas, says Prof. Wilson, occurs in most of these works; and in
all the main features, the seven Dwipas, seven seas, the divisions of
Jambudwípa, the situation and extent of Meru, and the sub-division
of Bharata, is the same. It has been stated that the first rudiments
and general outline of this fiction, including the circular mountain,
are rabbinical, and may be found in the Talmud.
Dwivida-An Asura, the foe of the friends of the gods, which
in the form of an ape,. committed great devastation. "The whole
world, disordered by this iniquitous monkey, was deprived of
sacred study and religious rites, and was greatly afflicted." (V. P.)
On one occasion, when Bala Ráma was enjoying himself in the
groves of Raivata, the monkey Dwivida came there, threw over
the wine and groaned at the company. An encounter followed,
in which the monkey struck the Yádava on the breast with his
paws. Bala Ráma replied with a blow of his fist upon the forehead
of Dwivida, which felled him lifeless to the earth. The crest of
the mountain on which he fell was splintered into a hundred pieces
by the weight of his body, as if the thunderer had shivered it with
his thunderbolt. V. P., &c.
Dwivida-One of the sons of the Asvins, famed for his beauty.
Dyaus and Prithivi-Heaven and Earth, seemed to have
been very ancient Aryan divinities, and are in many passages of
the Rig Veda described as the parents of the other gods. There
are several hymns specially devoted to their honour. In the hymns,
Heaven and Earth are characterized by a profusion of epithets, not
only such as are suggested by their various physical characteristics,
as vastness, breadth, profundity, productiveness, unchangeableness,
but also by such as are of a moral or spiritual nature, as innocuous
or beneficent, wise promoters of righteousness.
While Heaven and Earth are described as the universal parents,
DYU
201
they are spoken of in other places as themselves created. Thus
it is said in the Rig Veda that he who produced heaven and earth
must have been the most skilful artizan of all the gods.' Indra
also is described as their creator; as having beautifully fashioned
them by his power and skill; as having bestowed them on his
worshippers; as sustaining and upholding them, &c.
"In other passages we encounter various speculations about
their origin. In one hymn the perplexed poet inquires which of
these two was the first? and which the last? How have they
been produced? Sages who knows? In another hymn the
creation of heaven and earth is ascribed to the sole agency of the
god Vişvakarman. Some are of opinion that the functions which
in the older Indian Mythology were assigned to Dyaus, were at a
later period transferred to Indra. O. S. T., vol. v., pp. 21—34.
Dyumat-One of the sons of the Rishi Vasishtha, according to
the list in the Bhagavata, which differs altogether from that in
the Vishnu Purána.
Dyutimat-One of the ten sons of Priyavrata: three of them
adopted a religious life: Priyavrata having divided the earth into
seven continents, gave them respectively to his other seven sons.
Dyutimat was king of Krauncha-dwipa, where the inhabitants
resided without apprehension, associating with the bands of
divinities.
26
E
Earth-The Earth, considered as one of the ancient 'elements,'
occupies nearly the same place in all the Puránas. The order is,
ether, (ákás) air, (váyu) fire, (tejas) water and earth. The order
of Empedocles was ether, fire, earth, water, air. The Puránas
describe the earth as having been raised from the lowest regions on
the ample tusks of the Varáha (boar) avatar. The Bhagavata
states that, when the earth, oppressed by the weight of the
mountains, sunk down into the waters, Vishņu was seen in the
sub-terrene regions, or Rasátala, by Hiranyáksha, in the act of
carrying it off. The demon claimed the Earth, and defied Vishnu
to combat: and a conflict took place in which Hiranyáksha was
slain. There are legends which relate the subjugation of the Earth
by the mighty Prithu, when he was invested with universal
dominion. Prithu levelled or uprooted mountains ; defined
boundaries on the irregular surface of the Earth; introduced
cultivation, pasture, highways, commerce, in a word, civilization.
The Vishnu Purána states, "This Earth, the mother, the nurse,
the receptacle, and nourisher of all existent things, was produced
from the sole of the foot of Vishņu. And thus was born the
mighty Prithu, the heroic son of Vena, who was the lord of the
Earth, and who, from conciliating the affections of the people, was
the first ruler to whom the title of Rája was ascribed.
Five chapters in the Vishnu Purána are devoted to a description
of the Earth; its people and countries. Jamba-dwípa is placed in
the centre of the seven great insular continents (see DWIPAS) and
in the centre of Jamba-dwípa is the golden mountain Meru-the
shape of which is variously described in the different Puránas ;
though all represent it as if enormous size and great beauty. The
apples of the Jamba-tree are as large as elephants; from their
expressed juice is formed the Jamba river, the waters of which are
drunk by the inhabitants; and in consequence of drinking of that
stream they pass their days in content and health, neither exposed
EAR-EGG
203
to decrepitude or decay. Ample details of the Varshas or
countries, are given in most of the Puránas, but they are all of an
equally fanciful and extravagant character.
* *
*
*
The Vishnu Purána says, "Sesha bears the entire world like a
diadem, upon his head
when Anauta, his eyes rolling
with intoxication, yawns, then Earth, with all her woods and seas,
and mountains, and rivers, trembles." In another place, "At the end
of a thousand periods of four ages the Earth is for the most part
exhausted. A total dearth then ensues which lasts a hundred years:
and in consequence of the failure of food all beings become languid,
and at last entirely perish. The eternal Vishņu then assumes the
character of Rudra the destroyer, and descends to re-unite all his
creatures with himself. He enters into the seven rays of the sun;
drinks up all the waters of the globe, and causes all moisture to
* The
evaporate, thus drying up the whole earth.
destroyer of all things, Hari, in the form of Rudra, becomes the
scorching breadth of the serpent Sésha, and thereby reduces
Pátála to ashes. The great fire, when it has burnt all the divisions
of Pátála proceeds to the earth, and consumes it also." V. P., 632.
*
*
*
Ear-rings-Among the various articles produced at the churning
of the ocean, ear-rings are enumerated; these were taken by Indra
and given to Aditi; the daughter of Daksha and wife of Kasyapa.
The ear-rings were stolen by Naraka, son of the Earth, and
conveyed by him to Prágjyotisha, "an impregnable, formidable and
unassailable city of the Asuras." Krishna attacked the place,
overcame all opposition, slew Naraka, recovered the jewelled
ear-rings, and returning to the heaven of the gods, restored them
to Aditi, who praised Krishna in verses which contain some
remarkable sentiments. They will be found in the V. P., 584-5.
Egg of the World-In the Rig Veda the Supreme Spirit is
represented as producing an egg, and from the egg is evolved a
world. At a later period, Brahma is set forth as depositing in the
primordial waters an egg shining like gold. The Puránas all
contain accounts of the first aggregation of the elements in the form
of an egg. The Vishnu Purána says, "This vast egg, compounded
of the elements, and resting on the waters, was the excellent
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EGG
natural abode of Vishnu in the form of Brahmá; and there Vishnu,
the lord of the universe, whose essence is inscrutable, assumed a
perceptible form, and even he himself abided in it in the character
of Brahmá. "Its womb, vast as the mountain Meru, was composed -
of the mountains; and the mighty oceans were the waters that
filled its cavity. In that egg, O Brahman, were the continents and
seas and mountains, the planets and divisions of the universe, the
gods, the demons, and mankind. Aud this egg was externally
invested by seven natural envelopes, or by water, air, fire, ether,
and Ahankára the origin of the elements, each tenfold the extent
of that which it invested; next came the principle of intelligence;
and, finally, the whole was surrounded by the indiscreet principle:
resembling thus the cocoauut, filled interiorly with pulp, and
exteriorly covered by husk and rind.”
"It seems impossible," says Professor Wilson, “not to refer
this notion to the same origin as the widely diffused opinion of
antiquity, of the first manifestation of the world in the form of an
egg." It seems" says Bryant, "to have been a favourite symbol,
and very ancient, and we find it adopted among many nations."
Traces of it occur among the Syrians, Persians and Egyptians ;
and besides the Orphic egg amongst the Greeks, and that
described by Aristophanes, part of the ceremony in the Dionysiaca
and other mysteries, consisted of the consecration of an egg, by
which, according to Porphyry, was signified the world."
"The shell of the mundane egg is said to be outside of the seven
spheres of which this system is composed: In the V. P. ii, 7, 19
it is said
"These seven spheres have been described by me; and there are
also seven Pátáļas; this is the extent of Brahma's egg. The whole
is surrounded by the shell of the egg at the sides, above and below,
just as the seed of the wood apple is covered by the rind."
This system, however, it appears is only a very small part of the
whole of the universe; in verse 24 it is added
"There are thousands and ten thousands of thousands of such
mundane eggs; nay hundreds of millions of millions.”
EKA
205
"Indian mythology, when striving after sublimity, and seeking
to excite astonishment, often displays au extravagant and puerile
facility in the fabrication of large numbers. But in the sentence
last quoted, its conjectures are substantially in unison with the
discoveries of modern astronomy; or rather they are inadequate
representations of the simple truth, as no figures can express the
contents of infinite space." Muir, O. S. T., vol. i, p. 504.
Eka-" The one :" a synonym of Mahat, from its singleness.
See Mahat.
Ekachakra-One of the renowned Danavas, son of Danu and
Kasyapa.
Ekachakra-The city in which Bhíma and his mother and
brethren were advised by the sage Vyása to reside; they dwelt
there for a long time in the house of a brahman. It was in this
city that Bhíma destroyed the cannibal Vaka. "In the neigh-
bourhood there lived a giant,--the same sort of being as the
modern earth-goddess of Orissa; that is a demon who feeds on
human beings." One day, it is said, the Pandavas heard a great
noise in the house in which they were dwelling, and enquiring
into its cause, were told that the demon compelled the king of
Ekachakra every day to send him a great quantity of provisions;
and that Vaka daily devoured the man as well as the provisions ;
and that on that very day the family of the brahman was required
to supply the man. While reposing in an inner apartment the
Pandavas overheard the father, the mother, and the daughter, each
urging a separate claim to be allowed to suffer for the rest.
The father commences, saying, that never would he be so base
as to give a victim from his house and consent himself to live;
but still he expresses anxiety at not knowing how to provide a
place of refuge for his wife, daughter, and little son, after his.
removal. He cannot, he says, surrender his faithful wife,—the
sweet friend given to him by the gods; nor his daughter,-whom
Brahma made to be a bride, and the mother of heroes; not yet his
son: ...but if he offer himself, sorrow will pursue him in the world
to come, and his abandoned wife and children will be unable to live
without him.
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EKA
The wife next speaks, and chides her husband for yielding to
grief, like one of lowly caste; for, whoever knows the Vedas,
must know that-
"Fate, inevitable, orders ;-all must yield to death in turn.
Hence the doom, th' irrevocable, -it beseems not thee to mourn.
Man hath wife, and son, and daughter,-for the joy of his own heart;
Wherefore, wisely check thy sorrow,-it is I must hence depart.
'Tis the wife's most holy duty,-law on earth without repeal,-
That her life she offer freely,-when demands her husband's weal."
She goes on to argue, that he can support and guard the children
when she is gone, but that she would have no power to guard and
support them without him. Deprived of his protection, "rude
and reckless men," she says, would come seeking their blameless
daughter; and helpless, and beset on every side, she would be
unable to check the suit of Sudra lovers... She concludes, by
saying, that her honored husband will find another wife, to whom
he will be as gentle and kind as he has been to her.
Hearing thus his wife, the husband fondly clasp'd her to his breast:
And their tears they pour'd together-by their mutual grief oppress'd."
When the daughter overheard the troubled discourse of her
parents, she put in her claim to be the offered victim; for, if they
died before her, she would sink to bitterest misery: but, if she died
to preserve them, she would "then become immortal, and partake
of bliss divine."
Whilst they were all thus weeping, the little son opened wide
his eyes, and lisped out in broken accents :
66
Weep not, father, weep not, mother; oh, my sister, weep not so
First to one, and then to th' other,-smiling went he to and fro.
Then a blade of spear-grass lifting, thus in bolder glee he said:
With this spear-grass will I kill him—this man-eating giant-dead.'
Though o'erpowered with bitterest sorrow, as they heard their prattling boy,
Stole into the parents' bosom-mute and inexpressive joy."
Happily the child's chivalry was not required. After some.
discussion the brahman reluctantly consented that Bhíma should
go himself to the Asura, and he set out with the ordained quantity
of provisions, and went on until he came to the banyan tree under
which Vaka was accustomed to eat his meals. Bhíma then ate up
all the victuals that were in the waggon and refilled it with dirt.
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207
Vaka then came forward ravenous with hunger, and finding
nothing but dirt, struck Bhíma in a great rage. They then tore
up large trees by the roots and fought together until not a tree
was left. They then fought with their fists until the Asura was
spent ; when Bhíma. seized him by the legs and rent him asunder.
The date of the story is fixed in the age of Buddhism. Ekachakra
has been identified as the modern Arrah. It was occupied by
Brahmans who may be regarded as the later representatives of the
Aryan population, while the jungle was evidently in the possession
of the Asuras or Aborigines.*
Ekadanta―The single-tusked. A name of Ganesa.
Ekadasi—A ceremony performed on the eleventh day after the
death of a relative. During the previous ten days the relatives
are supposed to be mourning, and in a state of asaucha or impurities,
so that no one can communicate with them. When Ekádaṣí is
performed the period of uncleanness ceases.
Ekádaşí is also the eleventh day after the new and full moon,
observed by the Vaishnavas as a fast day.
Ekalavya--The king of the Nishádas; he was regarded as
invincible by mortals but was attacked and slain by Krishna.
Ekapadakas-A nickname or term of derision, found in the
geographical accounts of the Puránas; it means one-footed or
rather, one-slippered, and is probably an exaggeration of national
ugliness, or allusion to some peculiar custom, in the people to whom
the term is applied. Professor Wilson thinks that such terms, of
which there are many in the Puránas, may have furnished the
Mandevilles of ancient and modern times, with some of their
monsters.
Ekaparna, Ekapatala-Two of the daughters of Mená, the
eminent wife of the great mountain Himavat. They performed
great austerities such as could not be accomplished by gods or
Dánavas, and distressed both the stationary and moving worlds.
Ekaparná (One leaf) fed upon one leaf. Ekapátalá took only one
páțalá (Bignonia) for her food. The former was given as a wife
* Mrs. Manning. A. & M. I.
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EKA-ELE
to Asita Devala, the wise teacher of the Yoga. The latter was in
like manner bestowed on Jaigishavya. Muir, O. S. T., vol. iv,
p. 367.
Ekashtaka--The daughter of Prajapati, who through practis-
ing austere-fervour, became the mother of the glorious Indra, and
of Soma. According to other authorities, Indra is one of the sons
of Kasyapa and Daksháyani. O. S. T., vol. v, p. 80.
Ekavinsa-The name of the collection of hymns created from
the northern mouth of Brahma.
Ekoddishta-sradda-Obsequial offerings on account of a
kinsman recently deceased. These are performed mouthly. The
proper period of mourning is ten days, on each of which offerings
of cakes and libations of water are to be made to the deceased,
augmenting the number of cakes each day, so that in the last day
ten cakes are presented.
Elapatra-One of the progeny of Kadru, a powerful serpent,
with many heads.
Elephanta-" A small island about 7 miles in circumference,
situated between the island of Bombay and the Mahratta shore,
from which it is distant 5 miles, and 7 miles from the castle of
Bombay. Its name among the natives is Gorapori; that by which
it is known to Europeans was derived from the figure of an
elephant twice the size of life cut out of the solid black rock on the
acclivity of a hill about 250 yards from the landing-place. This
figure is now completely dilapidated. At a short distance from the
elephant stands the figure of a horse, also cut out of the rock. Ou
this island is a remarkable temple-cave. The entrance to this cave,
or temple, occurs about half way up the steep ascent of the
mountain or rock out of which it is excavated. Its length,
measuring from the entrance, which is on the north side, is 130
feet, and its breadth 123 feet; the floor not being level the height
varies from 15 to 17 feet. The roof was supported by 26 pillars
and 8 pilasters, disposed in four rows; but several of the pillars
are broken. Each column stands upon a square pedestal and is
fluted, but instead of being cylindrical is gradually enlarged
ELL-ELU
209
towards the middle. Above the tops of the columns a kind of
ridge has been cut to resemble a beam about 12 inches square, and
this is richly carved. Along the sides of the temple are carved
` between 40 and 50 colossal figures varying in height from 12 to 15
feet; none of them are entirely detached from the wall. On the
south side, facing the main entrance, is an enormous bust with
three faces, which is supposed to represent the triple deity, Brahma,
Vishņu, and Śiva. The centre face is 5 feet in length. At the
west side of the temple is a recess, 20 feet square, having in the
centre an altar. The entrance to this recess is guarded by eight
naked figures, each 133 feet high, sculptured in a superior manner.
The origin of this cave is quite unknown: it is frequently visited
by devotees for the purpose of offering prayers and oblations.-
English Encyclopædia.
Ellamma-One of the grámadévatas in Southern India-
identified with Renuká, wife of Jamadagni, mother of Parasuráma,
Ellammá is represented in a sitting posture, with a red skin, a
fiery face, and four arms and hands. If any one is bitten by a
poisonous serpent he calls on Ellamma for aid. Fishermen when
in danger call on Ellamma and make vows to her.
Ellora-A town in the province of Aurangabad, and near to
the city of Dowlatabad. In one instance, about a mile to the
eastward of the village the side of a great mountain has been
excavated, so as to give a level floor 150 feet wide by 270 feet in
length. In the centre stands the rock-cut temple called Kailâs,
similar in form to the Pagoda at Tanjore It is between 80 and 90
feet high, and is preceded by a large square porch, supported by
sixteen columns. In the front of this stands a detached porch,
reached by a bridge; and again, in front of the whole, a gateway,
connected with the last porch by a rock-cut bridge, and flanked on
either side by pillars or deepdans (which word is literally lamp-post.)
Two elephants, the size of life, are also mentioned; and all around
the court are cloisters, with cells. And the whole,-pillars,
cloisters, halls, bridges, and vimâna,-are sculptured out of the
rock.-Mrs. Manning. A. and M. I., Vol. I, p. 420.
Elu-A dialect of the ancient Singhalese, which differs from the
27
210
EMU-EXP
colloquial Singhalese, rather in style than in structure, having been.
liberally enriched by incorporations from Sanskrit and Pali. Mr.
Spence Hardy mentions a number of Buddhist works which are
written in Elu.
Emusha-The name of the boar in which Prajapati became
incarnate when he raised up the earth and extended it. "Formerly
this earth was only so large, of the size of a spau. A boar called
Emúsha, raised her up. Her lord Prajapati, therefore, prospers
him with (the gift of) this pair, the object of his desire, and makes
him complete." O. S. T., vol. i, p. 53.
Ettaia-A place in the North-west of India, said to be the
scene of a conflict between Krishna and Kali; where some fine
ruins still exist.
Expiation-The Vishnu Purána says that "suitable acts of
expiation have been enjoined by the great sages for every kind of
crime. Arduous penances for great sins, trifling ones for minor
offences, have been propounded by Swayambhuva and others :• but
reliance upon Krishna is far better than any such expiatory acts,
as religious austerity or the like. Let any one who repents of the
sin of which he may have been culpable, have recourse to this
best of all expiations, remembrance of Hari; by addressing his
thoughts to Nárayana at dawn, at night, at sunset, and midday, a
man shall be quickly cleansed from all guilt: the whole heap of
worldly sorrows is dispersed by meditating on Hari; and his
worshipper, looking upon heavenly fruition as an impediment to
felicity, obtains final emancipation."
"This remembrance of Vishņu," says Professor Wilson, "is the
frequent reiteration of all his names; hence the lower orders of
Hindus procure a starling or parrot, that in the act of teaching it
to cry Ráma or Krishna or Radhá, they may themselves repeat
these appellations; the simple recitation of which, even if
accidentally, irreverently, or reluctantly performed, is meritorious."
سلام
F
Faith-The paramount efficacy of faith is a tenet of the
Vedánta school; particularly that branch of it which follows the
authority of the Bhagavat Gíta. In that work, and in many of
the Puránas, passages relating to faith constantly recur.
Fakir-The word Fakir is derived from an Arabic term
siguifying "poor people," and belongs strictly to those who profess
Mahomedanism, not to Hindus. But the word is sometimes used
by Europeans to designate all classes of monks, who subject
themselves to austerities and mortifications. Some of them vow
to preserve a standing posture during their whole lives, supported
only by a stick or rope under their armpits. Some mangle their
bodies with scourges or knives. Others wander about in
companies, telling fortunes, and in other ways imposing on the
people. Some go about as mendicants asking alms in the name
of God. See Sanyasi.
Feringahi-A name of Párvati or Devi.
an
Fever-In the Vishnu Purána, Fever is personified, as
emanation from Maheswara, having three feet and three heads,
(alluding, says Dr. Wilson, to the three stages of febrile paroxysms,
or to the recurrence of tertian ague). Fever fought desperately
with Vishnu in defence of the city of Bána. Baladeva, upon whom
his ashes were scattered, was seized with burning heat, and his
eyelids trembled: but he obtained relief by clinging to the body of
Krishna. The fever emanating from Śiva was quickly expelled
from the person of Krishna by fever which he himself engendered.
Brahma beholding the impersonated malady, bewildered by the
beating inflicted by the arms of the deity, entreated the latter to
desist; and the foe of Madhu refrained, and absorbed into himself
the fever he had created. The rival fever then departed, saying
to Krishna," Those men who call to memory the combat between
us shall be for ever exempt from febrile disease."
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FIR
Fires-According to the Vishnu Purána there are forty-nine
fires. The Agui named Abhimání, who is the eldest born of
Brahmá, had, by Swáhá, three sons of surpassing brilliancy,
Pávaka Pavámána, and Suchi, who drinks up water: they had
forty-five sons, who, with the original son of Brahmá and his three
descendants, constitute the forty-nine fires. According to the
Vaya Purána, Pávaka is electric, or Vaidyuta fire; Pavamána is
that produced by friction, or Nirmathyaya, and Suchi is solar,
or Saura fire. The Bhagavata explains these different fires to be so
many appellations of fire employed in the invocations with which
different oblations to fire are offered in the ritual of the Vedas.
Fire-Sacrificial-The ceremony of consecrating the fire and
hallowing the sacrificial implements is the groundwork of all
religious acts amongst the Hindus, and may therefore be particu-
larly described :-" First, the priest smears with cow-dung a level
piece of ground four cubits square, free from all impurities, and
sheltered by a shed. Having bathed and sipped water, he sits
down with his face towards the east, and places a vessel of water
with husa grass on his left; then, dropping his right knee, and
resting on the span of his left hand, he draws with a root of kuśa
grass a line, one span or twelve fingers long, and directed towards
the east. From the nearest extremity of this line he draws
another at right angles to it, twenty-one fingers long, and directed
towards the north. Upon this line he draws three others, parallel
to the first, equal to it in length, and distant seven fingers from
each other, The first line is really, or figuratively, made a yellow
line, and is sacred to the earth; the second is red, and sacred to
fire; the third black, and sacred to Brahma the creator; the
fourth blue, and sacred to Indra, the regent of the firmament; the
fifth white, and sacred to Sóma. He next gathers up the dust
from the edges of these lines, and throws it away towards the
north-east, saying, "What was [herein] bad, is cast away :" and
he concludes by sprinkling water on the several lines.
Having thus prepared the ground for the reception of the
sacrificial fire, he takes a lighted ember out of the covered vessel
which contains the fire, and throws it away, saying, "I dismiss far
"away carnivorous fire; may it go to the realm of Yama, bearing
FIR
212
"sin [hence]." He then places the fire before him, saying,
"Earth! Sky! Heaven!" and adding, "this other [harmless] fire
"alone remains here; well knowing [its office], may it convey my
"oblation to the gods." He then denominates the fire according
to the purpose for which he prepares it, saying, "Fire! thou art
named so and so ;" and he concludes this part of the ceremony by
silently burning a log of wood, one span long and smeared with
clarified butter.
He next proceeds to place the Brahman or superintending priest.
Upon very solemn occasions, a learned Brahman does actually
discharge the functions of superintending priest; but, in general,
a bundle containing fifty blades of kusa grass is placed to represent
the Brahman. The officiating priest takes up the vessel of water,
and walks round the fire keeping his right side turned towards it:
he then pours water near it, directing the stream towards the east ;
he spreads husa grass thereon; and crossing his right knee over
his left without sitting down, he takes up a single blade of grass
between the thumb and ring finger of his left hand, and throws it
"What
away towards the south-west corner of the shed, saying,
was herein bad, is cast away." Next, touching the water, resting
the sole of his right foot on his left ankle, and sprinkling the grass
with water, he places the Brahman on it, saying, "Sit on [this] seat
until [thy] fee [be paid thee]." The officiating priest then returns
by the same road by which he went round the fire; and sitting
down again with his face towards the east, names the earth
inaudibly.
If any profane word have been spoken during the preceding
ceremony, atonement must be now made by pronouncing this text :
"Thrice did Vishnu step, and at three strides traversed the
"universe: happily was his foot placed on the dusty [earth]."
"The meaning is, since the earth has been purified by the contact
of Vishnu's foot, may she (the earth so purified) atone for any
profane word spoken during this ceremony.
If it be intended to make oblations of rice mixed with milk,
curds, and butter, this too is the proper time for mixing them ; and
the priest afterwards proceeds to name the earth in the following
prayer, which he pronounces with downcast look, resting both
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FIR
hands on the ground: "We adore this earth, this auspicious and
most excellent earth : do thou, O fire! resist [our] enemies. Thou
dost take [on thee] the power [and office] of other [deities]."
With blades of kusa grass held in his right hand, he must. next
strew leaves of the same grass on three sides of the fire, arranging
them regularly, so that the tip of one row shall cover the roots of
the other. He begins with the eastern side, and at three times.
strews grass there, to cover the whole space from north to south;
and in like manner distributes grass on the southern and western
sides. He then blesses the ten regions of space; and rising a
little, puts some wood on the fire with a ladle-full of clarified
butter, while he meditates in silence on Brahma, the lord of
creatures.
The priest then takes up two leaves of kusa grass, and with
another blade of the same grass cuts off the length of a span,
saying, "Pure leaves! be sacred to Vishnu ;" and throws them
into a vessel of copper or other metal. Again he takes two leaves
of grass, and holding the tips between the thumb and ring finger
of his right hand, and the roots between the thumb and ring finger
of his left, and crossing his right hand over his left, he takes up
clarified butter on the curvature of the grass, and thus silently
casts some into the fire three several times. He then sprinkles
both the leaves with water, and throws them away. He afterwards
sprinkles with water the vessel containing clarified butter, and puts
it on the fire, and takes it off again, three times, and thus concludes
the ceremony of hallowing the butter; during the course of
which, while he holds the leaves of grass in both hands, he recites
this prayer: "May the divine generator [Vishnu] purify thee by
means of [this] faultless pure leaf; and may the sun do so, by
means of [his] rays of light be this oblation efficacious."
The priest must next hallow the wooden ladle by thrice turning
therein his fore-finger and thumb, describing with their tips the
figure of 7 in the inside, and the figure of 9 on the outside of the
bowl of the ladle. Then dropping his right knee, he sprinkles
water from the palms of his hands on the whole southern side of
the fire, from west to east, saying, " Aditi! [mother of the gods !]
grant me thy approbation." He does the same on the whole
FIR
215
“Anumati! grant me
western side, from south to north, saying,
thy approbation ;" and on the northern side, saying, "Saraswati !
grant me thy approbation." And lastly he sprinkles water all
round the fire, while he pronounces this text, "Generous sun!
approve this rite; approve the performer of it, that he may share
its reward. May the celestial luminary, which purifies the
intellectual soul, purify our minds. May the lord of speech make
our prayers acceptable."
Holding kusa grass in both hands, he then recites an expiatory
prayer; and throwing away the grass, he thus finishes the hallow-
ing of the sacrificial implements: a ceremony which necessarily
precedes all other religious rites.
He next makes oblations to fire, with such ceremonies, and in
such form as are adapted to the religious rite which is intended to
to be subsequently performed. The sacrifice, with the three
mysterious words, usually precedes and follows the particular
sacrifice which is suited to the occasion; being most generally
practised, it will be the most proper specimen of the form in which
oblations are made.
Having silently burnt a log of wood smeared with clarified
butter, the priest makes three oblations, by pouring each time a
ladle-full of butter on the fire, saying, "Earth! be this oblation
efficacious :"
"Heaven!
"Sky! be this oblation efficacious :"
be this oblation efficacious." On some occasions he makes a fourth
offering in a similar mode, saying, "Earth! Sky! Heaven! be
this oblation efficacious." If it be requisite to offer a mixture of
rice, milk, curds and butter, this is now done; and the oblations,
accompanied with the names of the three worlds, are repeated.
There are five fires, which were overcome and demolished by
Vishņu. Their names are the Ahavaniya, Gárhapatya, Dakshina,
Sabhya and Ávasathya; of which the three first have a religious,
and the other two a secular character. The first is a fire prepared
for oblations at an occasional sacrifice: the second is the household
fire, to be perpetually maintained the third is a sacrificial fire, in
the centre of the other two, and placed to the south the Sabhya
is a fire lighted to warm a party and the Avasathya, the common
:
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FRE
domestic or culinary fire. Manu, iii, 100, 185, and Kullúka
Bhatta's explanation.
Brahmans who devote
themselves to the priesthood have to
maintain a perpetual fire. They have also to worship fire, making
an oblation to it with this prayer: Fire! seven are thy fuels ;
seven thy tongues; seven thy holy sages; seven thy beloved
abodes; seven ways do seven sacrifices worship thee. Thy sources.
are seven. Be content with this clarified butter. May this
oblation be efficacious.
The seven tongues of fire are enumerated Pravaha, Avaha,
Udvaha, Samvaha, Vivaha, Parivaha, Nivaha, all of which
imply the power of conveying oblations, to the deities to whom
offerings are made. Fire, like the sun itself, is supposed to emit
seven rays; this perhaps may account for the number seven being
so often repeated."-Colebrooke's Essays, vol. 1, p. 153.
Free-will-The Mimánsa philosophy in effect denies the
doctrine of free-will; but endeavours to reconcile the existence of
moral evil under the government of an all-wise, all-powerful and
benevolent Providence, with the absence of free-will, by assuming
the past eternity of the universe, and the infinite renewals of
worlds, into which every individual being has brought the pre-dis-
positions contracted by him in earlier states, and so retrospectively,
without beginning or limit.
G
Gabhastimat-One of the nine divisions of Bharata varsha.
Also the name of one of the divisions of Patála.
Gachchas-One of the peoples enumerated in the Vishņu
Purána, but not identified.
Gada-1, A son of Vasudeva by Bhadra; 2, The name of
Bhíma's formidable weapon.
Gadhi-An incarnation of Indra, born as the son of Rája
Kusámba. Kusámba being desirous of a son, engaged in devout
penance to obtain one who should be equal to Indra. Observing
the intensity of his devotions, Indra was alarmed, lest a prince of
power like his own should be engendered, and determined therefore
to take upon himself the character of Kuşámba's son, Gádhi, the
father of Viswamitra.
Gahvaras-Dwellers in mountain caves. The mountains from
Cabul to Bamian furnish numerous instances of cavern habitations.
Gajavithi The second division (or Vithi) of the lunar
mansions, in the northern Avashtaṇa.
Galava-A Teacher of the white Yajush, a branch of the
Yajur Veda, imparted by the sun in the form of a horse.
Games-There are many public games described in the various
Puránas; and an account of each will be found under its
native name.
Gananathas-Messengers of the gods. See Dútas.
Ganapatyas-The worshippers of Ganésa, or Ganapati; all the
Hindus in fact, worship this deity as the obviator of impediments,
and never set off on a journey without invoking his protection.
Gandaki-A large river in Oude.
28
218
GAN
Gandhamadana-A high mountain south of the great mount
Meru ; an extensive forest of the same name is placed in close
proximity to the mountain.
Gandhamadana--One of the generals in Rama's army at the
siege of Lanka; he was wounded by the magical weapons of
Indrajit and left on the field for dead, but was restored to life by
the medicinal herbs brought by Hanuman from the golden hill
Rishaba, on the crest of Kailása. Although he is represented as
being a large and powerful monkey, he is said to have been the
son of Kuvera, the god of wealth
"Of Gandhamádan brave and bold
The father was the Lord of gold."
Gandhamojavaha-A son of Śwaphalka, by his wife Gándiní,
Gandhara-A prince, the son of Aradwat, a descendant of
Druhyu. Also, a large country in the west of the Indus, named
after Gándhára, famous for its breed of horses; now Kandahar.
Gandharba-One of the nine divisions, or dwípas, of Bharata
Varsha.
Gandharbas or Gandharvas-(Southey's Glendoveer's.) A
race born from Bramhá, described in the Vishnu Purána as
"boru
imbibing melody; drinking of the goddess of speech they were
born, and thence their appellation." (Gam dhayantah). They
are a species of demi-gods or angels, the musicians of heaven,
inhabiting Indra loka, the paradise of the deities, and witnesses of
the actions of men. They form the orchestra at the banquet of the
gods. In the creation of the second Manwantara they are called
the illustrious Gandharbas, the children of Arishta and Kasyapa.
In the Vishnu Purána it is said, "in the regions below the earth, the
Gandharbas, called Maneyas (or sons of the Muni Kasyapa) who
were sixty millions in number, had defeated the tribes of the
Nágas or snake-gods, and seized upon their most precious jewels,
and usurped their dominion." Narmadá, the personified Nerbudda
river, was the sister of the Nágas, and on her aid being solicited,
she went to Purukutsa, and conducted him to the regions below
the earth, where, being filled with the might of the deity, he
GAN
219
destroyed the Gandharbas. They originally belong to the latter
Epic period, but figure more prominently in the Purânas.
“The Gandharvas or heavenly bards had originally a warlike
character, but were afterwards reduced to the office of celestial
musicians cheering the banquets of the gods. Dr. Kuhn has
shown their identity with the Centaurs in name, origin, and
attributes."-Gorresio.
Gandharba loka—The region of celestial spirits, the sphere or
lóka above the earth to which Súdras are elevated after death.
Gandharba marriage--A form of wedlock requiring no
public ceremony, but which is nevertheless, recognised in ancient
Hindu law as legal for kings and warriors.
Gandharba veda-The drama, and the arts of music, dancing,
etc., of which the Muni Bhárata was the author; and the Artha
Sastrum, or Science of Government, as laid down first by Vrihaspati.
Gandharbi-The daughter of Surabhi, and parent of horses.
Gandhari―The daughter of the Rája of Gandhára, who was
married to the Mahárája Dhritáráshtra ; she blindfolded herself on
hearing that he was blind. She was the mother of the Kauravas,
and is represented as a woman of superior character and abilities.
She was summoned to the Council to try to overcome the obduracy
of her eldest son Duryodhana. The Mahábhárata relates an
affecting interview which she had with Krishna after the slaughter
of her sons in the great war.
Gandini-Daughter of Kásírája: the following legend of her
birth is told in the V. P., "when the time of delivery arrived the
child issued not from the womb, twelve years passed away and
still the girl was unborn. Then Kásírája spoke to the child
'Daughter, why is your birth thus delayed? come forth. I desire
to behold you; why do you inflict this protracted suffering upon
your mother? Thus addressed, the infant answered, if, father, you
will present a cow every day to the brahmans I shall at the end of
three years more be born.' The king accordingly presented daily
a cow to the brahmans, and at the end of three years the damsel
220
GAN
came into the world. Her father called her Gándiní, and he
subsequently gave her to Swaphalka when he came to his palace.
Gándiní as long as she lived, gave a cow to the brahmans every day."
Gandiva-The name of a miraculous bow which Arjuna received
as a present from Agni the god of fire.
Gandusha-One of the ten sons of Súra, and brother of
Vásudeva.
Ganesa-The son of Siva and Parvati the god of good luck,
and remover of difficulties and obstacles; addressed at the
commencement of all undertakings, and at the opening of all
compositions. He is thus the patron of learning. He is called
Ganesa, as presiding over the troop of deities attendant on
Śiva-the ganas, or companies of celestials in Śiva's paradise. He
is also designated Vinayaka, the god of difficulties. Ganésa is
represented by an outrageous figure, half-man and half-elephant,
in a sitting posture, with a large belly. His head is that of an
elephant, and on it he wears a crown, while his ears are adorned
with jewels and his forehead with sacred ashes; of his four arms
he elevates two, holding in the left hand a rope and in the
right an elephant goad. In his other two hands he holds in the
right, a piece of his own elephant's tooth which he once broke
himself in a rage, and in the left, a pancake; he is said to be
fond of pancakes. His image stands in almost every house,
and is worshipped by men and women, with offerings and all
the prescribed ceremonies, especially when they are about to
begin something important. This eminent position was assigned
a compensation for the strange head he wears, which
was put upon his shoulders when he lost his own, in infancy,
by a look of the celestial Sáni-the Hindú Saturn. The goddess,
seeing her child headless, was overwhelmed with grief, and would
have destroyed Sáni, but Brahma prevented her, telling Sáni to
bring the head of the first animal he should find lying with
its head northwards. He found an elephant in this position,
et off its head, and fixed it on Ganésa, who then assumed the
ape he at present wears. Durgá was but little soothed when
she saw her son with an elephant's head; but, to pacify her,
him as
GAN
221
Brahma said that, amongst the worship of all the gods, that of
Ganésa should for ever have the preference. Shop-keepers and
others paint the name or image of this god over the doors of their
shops or houses, expecting from his favour protection and success.
He is worshipped especially at the commencement of a wedding,
as well as when the bride is presented to the bridegroom. No
public festivals, however, in honour of Ganésa are held, nor any
temples dedicated to him in Bengal, though stone images of the
god are worshipped in the temples on the banks of the Ganges at
Benares.
Sir William Jones calls Ganésa the god of wisdom, referring,
as a proof, to his having an elephant's head. The Hindús,
however, in general, consider the elephant a stupid animal; and
He
to be called "as stupid as an elephant" is a bitter taunt.
corresponds rather to the Roman Janus. In the south Ganésa is
usually termed Vigneṣvara as he can prevent literary fame, if his
worship be neglected.
When Paraṣuráma, who was a favorite disciple of Śiva, went to
Kailasa to visit his master, on arriving at the inner apartments,
his entrance was opposed by Ganéṣa, as his father was asleep.
Parașuráma nevertheless urged his way, and the parties came to
blows. Ganéṣa had at first the advantage, seizing Paraṣuráma in
his trunk, and giving him a twirl that left him sick and senseless ;
on recovering, Ráma threw his axe at Ganéșa, who recognizing it
as his father's weapon (Śiva having given it to Paraṣuráma)
received it with all humility upon one of his tusks, which it imme-
diately severed, and hence Ganéṣa has but one tusk, and is known
by the names Ekadanba and Ekadanshtra, (the single-tusked). –
Wilson's Works, Vol. III, p. 107.
Ganesa-A distinguished Hindu mathematician and astronomer
who lived in A. D. 1520.
Ganesa-upa-Purana-The main subject of this work is the
greatness of Ganésa; and prayers and formulæ appropriated to him
are abundantly detailed. It appears to be a work originating with
the Ganapatya sect, or followers of Ganésa. Preface to Vishnu
Purána.
222
GAN
Ganga-The following is a brief summary of the origin of the
Ganges, as detailed in several sections of the first part of the
Rámáyana. Ganga was the daughter of Himavat king of moun-
tains, and given by him to the gods.
sons.
Ságara king of Ayodhya had by one of his wives sixty thousand
Whilst performing the horse sacrifice, the horse was stolen.
He commanded his sons to go and search for it. Not finding it on
the earth, they dug down to Pátála, where they found the horse
feeding, and Kapila Muni near it in profound meditation. On
being charged with the theft, he by one glance reduced them all
to ashes. On account of their long absence, Ságara sent his
grandson, Ausumat, to seek for them. He found their ashes, and
the horse feeding near them. Unable to find water to pour on the
ashes, he was directed by Kapila (who was a minor incarnation of
Vishnu,) not to pour common water upon them, but now to take
the horse and complete his grandfather's sacrifice; and be assured
that his (Ansumat's) grandson should obtain for their ashes the
heavenly Ganges. Ságara reigned 30,000 years; Ansumat 32,000 ;
his son Dilípa 30,000; his grandson Bhagiratha intent, as his
ancestors had been, on bringing down the Ganges, persevered in a
long course of austerities. After 1000 years Brahma signified
his pleasure by commanding him to ask a boon. He begged that
the sons of Ságara might obtain water for their funeral rites;
that, their ashes being wetted by the celestial Ganges, they might
ascend to heaven. Brahma granted his request on condition that
he prevailed on Śiva to break the fall of the waters; else the earth
would be washed away.
By further austerities he propitiated Śiva, who engaged to
receive the goddess, and commanded her to descend. In anger
she resolved to bear him down by her stream; but he, aware of
her proud resolve, detained her in his hair. When Bhagiratha
applied to him for the waters, Śiva reminded him that his request
was only that he should "receive" the Ganges. Bhagiratha
engaged in further austerities, and Siva being pleased with them
discharged the waters from his locks in seven streams; one of
which followed the king. As he led the way in a splendid chariot,
GAN-GAR
223
the Ganges followed; but, overflowing a sacrifice which Jahnu
was performing, the enraged Muni drank up the whole, but was
Thence
afterwards prevailed upon to discharge it from his ear.
the stream followed the king to Pátála, washed the ashes, and
liberated his ancestors the sons of Ságara.
Gangadwara-A sacred spot near Himavau, frequented by
the Rishis. It is the place where the Ganges descends to the
plains, and celebrated as the scene of Daksha's great sacrifice.
is now called Haridwár.
Gara-One of the five sons of Usínara, a descendant of Anu.
It
Garddhabas, Garddhabhins-A race of kings in the west
of India, but not yet satisfactorily identified, though many learned
conjectures have been made respecting them.
Garga-An ancient sage, who having propitiated Sesha,
acquired from him a knowledge of the principles of astronomical
science, of the planets, and of the good and evil denoted by the
aspects of the heavens. He is one of the oldest writers on
Astronomy amongst the Hindus. According to Mr. Bentley his
Sanhita dates 548 B. C. The initiatory rites of Krishna and Rama
were performed by the sage Garga, who was sent to Gokula by
Vasudeva for that purpose. In the Bhagavata Garga describes
himself as the Purohita or family priest of the Yádavas. Garga
was also the name of one of the sons of Bhavanmanyu.
Gargabhumi, Gargya-Two of the descendants of Alarka,
according to the list in the Váyu Purána.
Gargya-A disciple of Bashkali, and teacher of the Rig Veda ;
also a Brahman, who, through arduous penance, living upon iron
sand for twelve years, became the father of the hero Kálayavana.
Gargya-An etymologist and grammarian of much celebrity in
Sanscrit Literature.
Gargyas-The descendants of Gargya, who although Kshatriyas
by birth became Brahmans. Professor Wilson says that all the
authorities concur in this statement; thus furnishing an additional
instance of one caste proceeding from another.
224
GAR-GAU
Garmanas-Hindu or Buddhist priests mentioned by the
geographer Strabo. They are represented as feeding on fruits, and
wearing only a covering made of the bark of a tree.
Garuda-The king of the feathered tribes and the remorseless
enemy of the serpent race. He was the son of Kasyapa and
Vinatá. Garuda is always represented as the bird on which Vishņu
is carried and described as something between a man and a bird.
Garuda is the vehicle of Krishna, appearing whenever he is wanted,
and conveying his master with incredible speed to the most distant
localities. When Krishna recovered the jewel mountain, he placed
it, with the umbrella of Varuna, upon Garuda, and mounting him
himself, he set off to the heaven of the gods to restore the ear-rings
of Adití. Garuda is represented as a large white-necked kite or
eagle. On the walls of many Vaishnava temples he is represented
by the figure of a young man seated, with the palms of the hands
closed, and fingers pointed upwards, denoting reverence.
"He
may be compared with the Simurgh of the Persians, the Anka of
the Arabs, the Griffin of chivalry, the Phoenix of Egypt, and the
bird that sits upon the ash Yggdrasil of the Edda.”—Griffiths.
Garuda Purana-Professor Wilson doubts whether a genuine
Garuda Purána exists. The one he examined contained no account
of the birth of Garuda. Only a brief notice of the creation; and
the greater part being occupied with a description of Vratas, or
religious observances, of holidays, of sacred places, &c. It
contained also treatises on astrology, palmistry, precious stones,
and medicine.
Garutwanta-A name of Garuda.
Gathin-The same as Gádhi, q. v.
Gati-(Movement.) An allegorical personage, one of the
daughters of Devahúti, and wife of Pulaka.
Gatra-One of the seven pure sages, a son of Vasishta.
Gatravat-A son of Krishna by Lakshmaná.
Gauri-The name of Párvati as a girl before she became the
bride of Śiva. Also the name of a wife of Virajas. The wife of
GAU
225
Yuvanáṣwas was named Gauri, and having incurred the imprecation
of her husband became the Báhudú river.
Gautama Sakya Sinha-See Buddha.
Gautama-The founder of the Nyáya school of philosophy.
Little is known of his personal history. He was born at Himálaya
about the same time as Ráma. He married Ahalya the daughter
of Bramha, and lived as a very austere ascetic, the Rámáyana
states, for thousands of years, in a holy hermitage adorned with
fruits and flowers, daily performing religious austerities.
One day when the sage was absent from his dwelling, the mighty
Indra passed by, and burned with an impure passion for the wife
of Gautama; and he entered the hut in the disguise of the sage,
and began to entreat Ahalyá: and she, knowing him to be king of
heaven, in the wantonness of her heart yielded to his desires. As
he was leaving the hermitage Gautama entered, and he was
invincible even to the gods through the power of his austerities.
Judra was overwhelmed with sadness; and the sage beholding the
profligate celestial, addressed him thus; O depraved wretch,
assuming my form you have perpetrated this great crime! therefore
from this moment you become a eunuch! The sage then
pronounced this curse upon his wife Ahalyá; O sinful wretch, for
thousands of years shall you remain in this forest, abandoned by all
and invisible to all, until Ráma the son of Dasaratha, shall enter
here, and you from beholding him shall be cleansed from all sin and
again approach me without fear. These words of the illustrious
Gautama were all fulfilled. Rámáyana 49. For an account of
Gautama's philosophical system, see Nyáya.
Kumárila says: 'In the same manner, if it is said that Indra
was the seducer of Ahalyá, this does not imply that the God Indra
committed such a crime, but Indra means the sun, and Ahalyá
(from ahan and lí) the night; and as the night is seduced and
ruined by the sun of the morning, therefore is Indra called the
paramour of Ahalya.'-Max Müller, A. S. L., p. 530.
The legend is thus versified by Mr. Griffiths :
"This was the grove-most lovely then-
Of Gautam, O thou best of men,
29
226
GAU
<
Like heaven itself, most honoured by
The Gods who dwell above the sky.
Here with Ahalya at his side
His fervid task the ascetic plied.
Years fled in thousands. On a day
It chanced the saint had gone away,
When Town-destroying Indra came,
And saw the beauty of the dame.
The sage's form the God endued,
And thus the fair Ahalyá wooed :
Love, sweet! should brook no dull delay,
But snatch the moments when he may.'
She knew him in the saint's disguise,
Lord Indra of the Thousand eyes,
But touched by love's unholy fire,
She yielded to the God's desire
9
Now, Lord of Gods!' she whispered, 'flce,
From Gautam save thyself and me.'
Trembling with doubt and wild with dread
Lord Indra from the cottage fled ;
But fleeing in the grove he met
The home-returning anchoret,
Whose wrath the Gods and fiends would shun,
Such power his fervent rites had won.
Fresh from the lustral flood he came,
In splendour like the burning flame,
With fuel for his sacred rites,
And grass, the best of eremites.
The Lord of Gods was sad of cheer
To see the mighty saint so near,
And when the holy hermit spied
In hermit's garb the Thousand-cycd,
He knew the whole, his fury broke
Forth on the sinner as he spoke :
Because my form thou hast assumed,
And wrought this folly, thou art doomed.
GAU-GAY
227
For this my curse to thee shall cling,
Henceforth a sad and sexless thing.'
No empty threat that sentence came,
It chilled his soul and marred his frame,
His might and god-like vigour fled,
And every nerve was cold and dead,
Then on his wife his fury burst,
And thus the guilty dame he cursed:
For countless years, disloyal spouse,
Devoted to severest vows,
Thy bed the ashes, air thy food,
Here shalt thou live in solitude.
This lonely grove thy home shall be,
And not an eye thy form shall see.
When Ráma, Dasaratha's child,
Shall seek these shades then drear and wild,
His coming shall remove thy stain,
And make the sinner pure again.”
Gautama-A Prajapati one of the seven Rishis of the seventh
Manwantara.
Gavya-All that is derived from the cow; milk and all
preparations of or from milk; these are proper to be offered as
food to deceased ancestors. The sacrifice of a cow or calf formed
part of the ancient Śráddha. It then became typical, or a bull was
turned loose, instead of being slaughtered.
Gaya-A son of Havirdhána by Dishaná a princess of the race
of Agni; also the name of a prince the son of Nahta, descended
from Bharata; also of one of the sons of Sudyumna, after his
transformation from Ila to a man.
Gayatri-A metre created from the eastern mouth of Bramha.
The Gayatri is also the holiest verse of the Vedas, not to be uttered
to ears profane; it is a short prayer to the sun, identified as the
Supreme, and occurs in the 10th hymn of the 4th section of the
third Ashtaka of the Sauhita of the Rig Veda.
228
GEN-GHR
“We meditate on that excellent light of the divine sun; may he
illuminate our minds." Such is the fear entertained of profaning
this text, that copyists of the Vedas not unfrequently refrain from
transcribing it, both in the Sauhita and Bhashya. Pious brahmans
every morning at sunrise scatter water, purified by the mystical
Omkara and consecrated by the Gayatri; and by this water as by
a thunderbolt the foul fiends are scattered.
Gentoos-The name formerly applied by Europeans to the
Hindus, especially to the Telugu people.
Ghatasrinjayas-A people from the north-west, amongst the
warriors of the Mahábhárata.
Ghatotkacha-The son of Bhíma by a Rákshasí, or female
fiend, Hidimbá, whose brother he slew. The scene of these trans-
actions was on the east of the Ganges, and the Rákshasí may
therefore mean a princess of some of the bordering tribes east of
Hindustan, or between Bhote and Ava; all of whom eating meat,
and following other impure practices, might well be considered
Rakshasas or cannibals, by the Hindus. Heramba is in fact
applied geographically to designate the western portion of Asam.
Ghatotkacha was slain by Karna with the javelin he had received.
from Indra. See Karna.- Wilson's Works, Vol. III, p. 297.
Ghorata-Terror. One of the properties assigned to percep-
tible objects by the Sánkya philosophy.
Ghosha-A son of Lambá (an arc of the heavens.)
Ghosha-(Ghoshá.) A female mentioned in the Rig Veda to
whom the Aṣvins gave a husband when she was growing old in
her father's house. O. S. T., Vol. V., p. 247.
Ghoshavasu—A prince, the son of Palindaka; one of the ten
Sungas, who governed the earth for a hundred and twelve years.
Ghritachi-A celestial nymph, one of those frequently engaged
in the interruption of the penances of holy sages.
Ghritachi-The wife of Rája Kuşanábha and queen of Magadha ;
the mother of a hundred daughters, all of whom Váyu the god of
GHR-GIR
229
wind, wished to "forsake their mortal lot, and accompany him to
the sky," and on their refusal.
"He heard the answer they returned
And mighty rage within him burned,
On each fair maid a blast he sent
Each stately form he bowed and bent."
They were afterwards married to Bramhadatta, Rája of Kámpilí,
and by this means recovered their strength and beauty.
"Soon as the hand of each young maid
In Bramhadatta's palm was laid,
Deformity and cares away
She shone in beauty bright and gay.”—Griffiths.
Ghritaprishtha-One of the ten sons of Priyavrata, according
to the list in the Bhagavata; which says that Priyavrata drove
his chariot seven times round the earth, and the ruts left by the
wheels became the beds of the oceans, separating it into seven
Dwipas; it is uncertain which of them was given to Ghritaprishtha.
Ghriteya-A prince, one of the sons of Randraswa, a descendant
of Puru,
Ghritasamada-A son of Suhótra, and father of Saunaka who
first established the distinctions of the four castes. V. P. 406.
Giri—One of the sons of Swaphalka by his wife Gándiní.
Girigahvaras-A race who lived in caves; probably between
Cabul and Eamian, but their cavern habitations have not been
satisfactorily identified.
Girivraja-A city in the mountainous part of Magadha near
the wood of Dharmaranya.
Girivraja-The city of Rája Aswapati to which Bharata and
Satrughna were sent. The Rájá was the grandfather of the young
princes and they were sent to him that they might be out of the
way when it was resolved that Ráma should be appointed Yuvarája
at Ayodhya.
230
GIT-GOK
Gita-Govinda-Songs of Krishna. It is also the title of
a pastoral mythological dramatic poem in Sanscrit in praise of
Krishna by Jayadeva. Radha is in it identified with Lakshmi.-
Sir W. Jones.
Gobhana-A son of Vahni, and grandson of Turvasu, whose
line failed and merged into that of Puru, in consequence of the
malediction denounced on his son by Yayáti, for refusing to take
his father's infirmities on him.
Goghuatas-A people who formerly resided in Gumanta, part
of the Konkan about Goa.
Godaveri-The river which still bears that name; it is so
called in all the Puránas.
Gohamukha-A mountain mentioned in the Vishnu Purána,
but not identified.
Gokarna-A famous and venerated region near the Malabar
Coast; celebrated as the scene of Rája Bhagirath's austerities,
"The good Bhagirath, royal sage,
Had no fair son to cheer his age.
He, great in glory, pure in will,
Longing for sons was childless still.
Then on one wish, one thought intent,
Planning the heavenly stream's descent,
Leaving his ministers the care
And burden of his state to bear,
Dwelling in far Gokarna he
Engaged in long austerity."
Gokula-The village in which the cowherd Nanda resided,
when Krishṇa and Balaráma were entrusted to his care, to be
brought up as his own children, in order to escape the vengeance
of Kansa. It was at Gokula that the female fiend Pútana attempted
the life of the child Krishna, by giving him her breast to suck ;
the infant Krishna sucked it with such violence that he drained it
of the life and she expired.
GOL-GOP
231
Golaka-A disciple of Súkalya, and teacher of the Rig Veda.
Goloka-The highest world of all, and the residence of Krishņa;
represented as indestructible while all else is subject to annihilation.
Professor Wilson thinks this is an addition to the original system
of seven worlds, in which we have probably some relation to the
seven climates of the ancients, the seven stages or degrees of the
earth of the Arabs, and the seven heavens of the Mahomedans, if
not to the seven Amshaspends of the Parsis. Seven, suggested
originally perhaps by the seven planets, seems to have been a
favourite number with various nations of antiquity. Amongst the
Hindus it was applied to a variety of sacred or mythological
objects, which are enumerated in a verse in the Hanumáns Nátaka.
Ráma is described there as piercing seven palm-trees with an arrow,
in which other groups of seven take fright, as the seven steeds of
the sun, the seven spheres, the seven Munis, the seven seas, the
seven continents and the seven mothers of the gods.
Gomanta-A mountain in the Western Ghauts; the name is
also applied to the country about Goa, the Konkan. The inhabit-
ants are sometimes termed Gomantas."
Gomati-A river in Ayodhya or Oude.
Gomatiputra-One of the Andhra kings, the son of Sivaswáti,
who reigned 21 years.
Gonds, or Khonds-One of the aboriginal or non-aryan tribes
of India who now inhabit part of Orissa. They have partially
preserved what may be regarded as the primitive religion of
Hindustan a religion that has been designated devil worship, as
they sacrifice only to demons or malignant deities.
Gopas-Herdsman; the designation of the inhabitants of
Gokula, where Krishna spent his early days; they afterwards
emigrated to Vrindavana and were the associates of Krishna and
Balarama, who joined heartily in whatever sports amused the sons
of the herdsmen.
Gopala-kakshas-Tribes of eastern India.
Goparashtra-The district of cowherds, that is of Nomadic
tribes. Gora or Kuva is an ancient name of the southern Konkau.
232
GOP-GOV
Gopis-The wives of the Gopas or cowherds.
Their sports
with Krishna are narrated in detail in the Vishnu Purána, as also
in the Bhagavata, &c. The Gopis are said to have wept bitterly
when he left Gokula for Mathura.
Goswala-One of the five disciples of Sákalya, and teacher of
the Rig Veda.
Gotama-One of the twenty-eight Vyásas; the arranger of
the Vedas in the twentieth Dwápara.
Gotras-Families or tribes of brahmans. The names of the
Gótras were liable to confusion, particularly in later times, when
their number had become very considerable. But the respect
which the brahmans from the very earliest time paid to their
ancestors, and the strictness with which they prohibited marriages
between members of the same family, lead us to suppose that the
genealogical lists, even at the present day, furnish in their general
outlines, a correct account of the priestly families of India. All
Brahmanic families who keep the sacred fires are supposed to
descend from the seven Rishis. These are :-Bhrigu, Angiras,
Visvamitra, Vasistha, Kasyapa, Atri, Agastya. The real ancestors,
however, are eight in number :-Jamadagni, Gautama, and
Bharadvaja, Visvamitra, Vasishta, Kasyapa, Atri, Agastya.
The eight Gótras, which descend from these Rishis, are again
subdivided into forty-nine Gótras, and these forty-nine branch off
into a still larger number of families. The names gótra, vanșa,
varga, paksha, and gaṇa, are all used in the same sense, to express
the larger as well as the smaller families, descended from the eight
Rishis.
A Brahman, who keeps the sacrificial fire, is obliged by law to
know to which of the forty-nine Gótras his own family belongs,
and in consecrating his own fire he must invoke the ancestors who
founded the Gótra to which he belongs. Each of the forty-nine
Gótras claims one, or two, or three, or five ancestors, and the
names of these ancestors constitute the distinctive character of
each Gótra. Max Müller. A. S. L., p. 80.
Gova-An ancient name of the Southern Konkan; it may
imply the district of cowherds, that is of Nomadic tribes,
GOV GRA
233
:
*
*
Govardhana-A mountain near Mathura. The Vishnn
Purána states that Krishna thus addressed the Gopas: Cattle and
mountains are our gods. Brahmans offer worship with prayer;
cultivators of the earth adore their landmarks, but we, who tend our
herds in the forests and mountains, should worship them and our
kine. Let prayers and offerings then be addressed to the mountain
Govardhana, and kill a victim in due form."
accordingly the inhabitants of Vraja worshipped the mountain,
presenting to it curds and milk and flesh and they fed thousands
of brahmans who came to the ceremony. Indra, offended by the
loss of his offerings, caused a heavy rain to deluge Gokula.
Krishna then to calm the troubled cowherds held up the mountain
Govardhana as a large umbrella to shelter them and their cattle.
For seven days and nights it rained incessantly at Gokula, but the
inhabitants were protected by the elevation of the mountain. The
threats of Indra having been fruitless, Krishna restored the great
mountain to its original site. Professor Wilson says that it seems
not unlikely that this legend has some reference to the caves or
cavern temples in various parts of India. A remarkable represen-
tation of it occurs upon the sculptured rocks of Mahabalipur.
Govinda-A name of Krishna, given to him by Indra after
having preserved the cattle by raising the mountain Govardhana.
Govinda is he who knows, finds, or tends cattle. As the Indra of
the cows he was called Govinda. Pilgrims invoke Govinda when
travelling to Tripati, &c.
:
Govithi-A division of the lunar mansions in the Central or
Járadgava Avasthana.
Gramadevatas-Tutelar deities which are supposed to protect
the fields, villages and towns from evil spirits; and to ward off all
sorts of plagues, famine, pestilence, war, conflagration, and inunda-
tion, and are, in short, regarded as beings who can avert much
evil, though they may not be able to bestow positive blessings.
It is probable they are the gods worshipped by the Aborigines
when the Aryans first came to India. In Southern India the
Grámadévatas properly so called are Aycaar, with his two wives
30
234
GRA-GRI
Puranic and Pudkalai; Ellamma, Mariamma, Ankalamma, Bha-
drakáli, Pidári, Chámundi, and Durgá.
Gramanis-The seven attendants on the sun's car ; the agents.
in the distribution of cold, heat, and rain at their respective
season. They are also called Yakshas.
Grammar-The Hindus and the Greeks are the only two
nations in the whole history of the world which have conceived
independently, and without any suggestions from others, the two
sciences of Logic and Grammar.* Carefully collecting the facts.
brought to light by critical and pains-taking observation, they
have elaborated a system of Grammar, of gigantic dimensions, far
surpassing anything that has ever been effected, in this branch of
study, in any country or age of the world. Their greatest and
most brilliant champion, in this science, is Páṇini: yet many other
grammarians helped to rear the stupendous fabric which now
excites the admiration of mankind. And while they emulated the
genius of the Greeks in generalising upon the results of their
observations, they far outshine them in the correctness and extent
of their investigations.† See Pánini.
Grantha-In the later literature of India, Grantha was used for
a volume, and in granthakuti, a library, we see clearly that it has
that meaning. But in the early literature, grantha does not mean
pustaka, or book; it means simply a composition as opposed to a
traditional work.
Gridhrika—A daughter of Kasyapa and his wife Tamra, the
parent of vultures.
Grihastha--A householder; his duties are thus defined in the
Vishnu Purána.
"When the scriptural studies appropriate to the
student have been completed, and he has received dismissal from
his Guru, let the regenerate man enter into the order of the house-
holder; and taking unto himself, with lawful ceremonies, house,
wife, and wealth, discharge to the best of his ability the duties of
his station; satisfying the maues with funeral cakes ; the gods
* Max Muller.
† Sherring.
GUD-GUH
235
with oblations; guests with hospitality; the sages with holy
study; the progenitors of mankind with progeny ; the spirits with
the residue of oblations; and all the world with words of truth.
A householder secures heaven by the faithful discharge of these
obligations. There are those who subsist upon alms, and lead an
erratic life of self-denial, at the end of the term during which
they have kept house. They wander over the world to see the
earth, and perform their ablutions, with rites enjoined by the
Vedas, at sacred shrines : houseless, and without food, and resting
for the night at the dwelling at which they arrive in the evening,
The householder is to them a constant refuge and parent: it is his
duty to give them a welcome, and to address them with kindness ;
and to provide them, whenever they come to his house, with a bed,
a seat, and food. A guest disappointed by a householder, who
turus away from his door, transfers to the latter all his own
misdeeds, and bears away his religious merit. In the house of a
good mau, contumely, arrogance, hypocrisy, repining, contradic-
tion, and violence are annihilated and the householder who fully
performs this his chief duty of hospitality is released from every
kind of bondage, and obtaius the highest of stations after death."
:
Gudaras--A class of mendicants, deriving their name from a
pan of metal, which they carry about with them, containing fire
for burning scented woods at the house of those from whom they
receive alms. They do not solicit alms directly, but repeat the
word Alakh," invisible" expressive of the indescribable nature
of the deity.
Guha-The Raja of the Bhils who welcomed Ráma at
Sringavera, the border town between the kingdom of Kosala and
the country of the Bhils. After entertaining Ráma with great
liberality, the Rája provided a well-furnished boat in which his
distinguished guest crossed the Ganges. He also afforded great
assistance to Bharata when proceeding to the hermitage of
Bharadwaja in search of Ráma.
Guhas-The kings of Kalinga aud Mahendra; some parts of
Orissa and Berar.
236
GUH-GUR
Guhyas-The name of a class of demigods who attend on
Kuvera the god of wealth, and whose city is Alákapura.
Guna-Quality, virtue, excellence. A property of all created .
beings; three are particularized, the
1. Satwa, principles of truth or existence.
2. Rája, passion or foulness.
3. Tamas, darkness or ignorance.
Gupta-A name said in the Vishnu Purána to be suited to
Vaisyas and Sudras.
Guptas-A race of kings who reigned in Magadha. They were
Rájas of the Vaisya caste. Of the existence and power of the
Guptas we have recently had ample proofs from inscriptions and
coins, as in the Chandragupta and Samudragupta of the Allahabad
column, etc., in all which the legends are written in a character
prior to the use of the modern Devanagiri and was current probably
about the 5th century of our era. See Vishnu Purána, p. 480.
Guru-"A spiritual preceptor occupying in some measure the
place of the confessor of the middle ages. He is regarded as a
representative and vehicle of divine power, and therefore entitled
to receive the most implicit obedience from his disciples. The
Gurus are a class of priests carefully to be distinguished from the
Puróhita, who is a sort of domestic chaplain and must be married.
The Gurus generally live in celibacy, though some are married.
Each caste and sect has its particular Guru, who may be either a
Brahman or a Súdra, and who exercises great authority and
influence. He superintends those under his jurisdiction and
enforces the observance of the rules and customs of the sect. He
can expel from caste, and some Gurus can restore those who have
been expelled. All Gurus do not possess equal authority. There
is a gradation amongst them and the inferior Gurus frequently
derive their power from the superior, and are sometimes deposed
by them and others appointed.
When the people come into the presence of the Guru, they make
the Sashtanga, i. e., prostration of the eight members, and this,
GUR
237
when followed by the Guru's Asirvada, i. e., benediction, is effectual
for the remission of all sins. The look even of a Guru has the
same efficacy. The Prasada, i. e., the present which the Guru
confers upon his disciples consists in things otherwise of small
value, such as a portion of cow-dung ashes, to beautify the
forehead, flowers that were previously offered up to idols, the
crumbs from his meals, or the water in which he had washed his'
feet, which is preserved and sometimes drunk by those who
receive it. These and other things of like nature coming from
their holy hands, possess the virtue of purifying body and soul
from all uncleanness.
But if the benediction of the Guru and the other little tokens of
his favour, which he bestows on his disciples, have so wonderful
an influence in attracting the respect and reverence of the populace,
his curse is thought to be not less powerful, and fills them with
terror and awe. The Hindus are persuaded that it never fails to
take effect, whether justly or unjustly incurred. Their books are
full of stories which seem to have been invented for the express
purpose of inspiring this belief; and, to add greater force to it, the
attendants of the Guru, who are interested in the success of the
impostor's game, do not fail to recount many marvellous stories
respecting him, of which they pretend to have been eye-witnesses;
and to avoid any possibility of detection, they lay the scene of the
miracles in some distant country.
The Gurus, in general, rauk as the first and most distinguished
order of society. Those who are elevated to this great dignity,
receive, in most cases, marks of reverence or rather of adoration
which are hardly rendered to the gods themselves. But this is not
surprising when it is understood that the power of controlling the
gods is generally attributed to them, by which it is supposed they
have the means of obtaining whatsoever the deities can bestow.
As a rule, the Gurus reside in a kind of monasteries or insulated
hermitages, named Matas. The place of residence of the principal
Gurus is commonly called Simhasana, i. e., throne, and that of the
inferior ones Pitha, i. e., seat.
The great Gurus never appear in public except with great
pomp; but it is when they proceed to a visitation of their district
238
GUR
that they are seen surrounded with their whole splendour. They
commonly make the procession on the back of an elephant, or
seated in a rich palanquin. Some of them have a guard of horse,
and are surrounded with troops both cavalry and infantry, armed
with pikes and other weapons. Several bands of musicians
precede them playing on all the instruments of the country. Flags
in all the varieties of colour wave round them, adorned with the
pictures of their gods. Some of their officers take the lead, singing
odes in their praise, or admonishing the spectators to be prepared
to pay the mighty Guru, as he comes up, the honor and reverence
which are due to him. Incense and other perfumes are burnt in
profusion; new cloths are spread before him on the road. Boughs
of trees, forming triumphal arches, are expanded in many places on
the way through which he passes. Bands of young women, the
dancing girls of the temples, relieve each other, and keep up with
the procession, enlivening it with lewd songs and lascivious dances.
During the visitation, their principal object is to amass money.
Besides the fines which are levied from persons guilty of offences
or any breaches of the ceremonies of the caste or sect, they often
rigorously exact from their adherents a tribute to the utmost extent
of their means. This is called Pada-kanika, i. e., feet offering.
There is no affront or indignity which the Gurus are not disposed
to inflict on any disciple, who fails, either from inability or
unwillingness, to produce the sum at which he is rated, and in the
last resort, they threaten to inflict the curse. And such is the
credulity of the Hindu, and such is the dread of the evils he
supposes to spring from the malediction of a Guru, that this
extreme denunciation seldom fails to exact the payment.
The dignity of Guru descends, among the married, from father
to son; but upon the death of one who has lived single, a successor
is appointed by some one of the grand Gurus, who, in the exercise
of this power, generally nominates one of his own dependants.".
Abbe Dubois.
H
Haihaya, Haya-Two princes of the Yádava race, the sons of
Satajit, the family in which Krishņa was born.
Haihayas-Descendants of Yadu. They conquered Báhu, and
his country was overrun by them, in consequence of which he fled
iuto the forests with his wives. The Haihayas were afterwards
almost destroyed by Sagara, the posthumous son of Báhu. There
were five great divisions of the Haihaya tribe; but from their
These
common ancestor Yadu they are usually termed Yadavas.
tribes only appear after the Christian era. They are thought to
be of Scythian origin. The word háya, a horse, is confirmatory
evidence of this.
Haitakas-Causalists; either the followers of the Nyáya or
logical philosophy, or Bauddhas, those who take nothing upon
authority, and admit nothing that cannot be proved; or it is
explained, those who by argument cast a doubt upon the efficacy
of acts of devotion.
Hala-A prince, the son of Arishtakarman, one of the thirty
Andhrabhritya kings, whose united reigns amounted to four
hundred and fifty-six years.
Hansa-A mountain in the north of Meru; projecting from its
base like a filament from the root of the lotus. V. P.
or as he is sometimes
god of the wind. He
Sugríva, who assisted
When Ráma was in
Hanuman-1. The son of the wind,
represented, an incarnation of Váyu the
was the chief general of the monkey king
Rama in his war with the giant Rávana.
distress at the loss of his wife Síta, Hanuman was employed as
a spy; and, after many researches discovered that Síta was
kept a close prisoner in Lanka, Four armies of monkeys and
bears were dispatched, but only that to the south, under the
command of Hanumáu, met with any success, and brought back
tidings of the lost Sita. The story of Hauumán's adventures in
240
HAN
Lanka is one of the best sustained efforts of pure imagination to
be found in the Rámáyana. The exploits of the vast monkey
hero, who could swell himself to the size of a mountain, or dwarf
himself to the size of a man's thumb; are narrated in a Baron
Munchausen style, sometimes ludicrous, sometimes almost sublime.
The following incidents may be mentioned:
When Hanuman arrived at the sea-shore, opposite Ceylon,
several of his companions offered to leap across, but Hanumán
alone was equal to so great a leap.
"Then by Sampati's counsel led
Brave Hanuman who mocked at dread,
Sprang at one wild tremendous leap,
Two hundred leagues across the deep."
Having discovered Síta in a grove of asoka trees attached to
Rávana's palace, he gave proofs of his supernatural strength, and
was then conducted into the presence of the king, where he
announced himself as the ambassador of his master, king Sugríva,
who demanded the restoration of Síta on behalf of Ráma. This so
irritated Rávaṇa that he ordered Hanumán to be put to death, but
Vibhíshana, Rávaṇa's brother, reminded him that the life of an
ambassador was always sacred. It was therefore decided that he
should be punished by having his tail set on fire. Hanuman then
escaped from his guards, jumped on the house-tops with his
burning tail, and set the whole city on fire. After having satisfied
himself that Síta had not perished in the conflagration, and exhorted
her to maintain her spirits and firmness, he bade her adieu, and
sprang from a mountain which staggered under the shock and
sank into the earth. He then darted through the air, rejoined his
companions ou the opposite coast, and recounted to them the
narrative of his adventures. When the monkeys returned to
Sugríva, Ráma learnt the hiding-place of Síta. Hanumán described
his interview with her, and to attest the truth of his story, gave
Síta's token to Rama, who praised the monkey general, enquired
about the fortifications of Lanka, and soon marched southwards,
attended by Hanuman and the monkey army, to fight for Síta's
deliverance.
HAN
241
In the course of the battle wben Indrajit the bravest of the sons
of Rávaṇa, had, by means of magical weapons, inflicted terrible
wounds on all the leaders of Ráma's army, Hanumat flew to the
Himalaya mountains for four medicinal herbs by which the dead
and wounded might be restored; but the divine plants suspected
his object, and rendered themselves invisible. Upon this the
irritated monkey chief tore up the mountain peak and carried it
with all its contents into the camp of Ráma and Lakshmaņa; who
with all the dead and wounded generals were instantly restored
by the exhalations issuing from the healing plants.
When Lakshmana was dangerously wounded, the physician
Susheņa said that a celebrated medicinal plant (mahaushadi),
growing on the northern mountain Gandha-mádana, would cure
him, Hanumán undertook to fetch it and accordingly flew there.
As he passed over Ayodhya and Nandigramu he was observed by
Bharata, who seeing a strange object in the sky prepared to shoot
it; but Hanumán descended, and arresting the arrow, gave
Bharata tidings of his brothers. On reaching the mountain
Gandha-mádana, he was attacked by a terrible Rákshasa named
Kála-nemi, who had been sent by Rávaṇa to kill Hanumán. This
demon first took the form of an anchorite, and persuaded Hanumán
to drink some water out of a lake where there was a monstrous
crocodile. Hanumán, however, killed both the crocodile and Kála-
nemi, and afterwards destroyed 30,000 gandharvas who attacked
him. He then looked about for the plant, and not finding it, took
up the whole mountain bodily in his arms, and deposited it, with
its rocks, metals, forests, lions, elephants, and tigers, at the feet of
Susheṇa, who knew well where to look for the plant, gathered it,
and made Lakshmana breathe its healing exhalations. Hanumán
then restored the mountain to its place, killing with his feet and
tail more Rakshasas who attacked him on his way while he carried
the mountain, and was unable to use his hands.
When Ravana was at last killed Hanuman was sent by Ráma
with a message to Síta, and subsequently sent to announce his
return to Bharata.*
* Williams; Indian Epic Poetry. A. and M. I.
31
242
HAR
"Hanumán, best of monkey kind,
Was son of him who breathes the wind,
Like thunderbolt in frame was he,
And swift as Garud's self could flee."
Hanuman is now regarded as a demi-god, and his whole race as
sacred; and because of this monkeys are allowed to multiply
indefinitely, and commit mischief of every kind, no one being
willing to interfere with them.
Hara-One of the eleven Rudras. Also a name of Śiva,
meaning the supremely powerful.
Hari--A name of Vishnu, as to the origin of which nothing is
known.
Hari-hara-putra--Vishnu, Śiva's son, because he is said to
owe his origin to the union of Śiva and Vishņu in a female form,
called Mohini. A name of Ayenár, the chief male deity among
the Gramadévatas. See Ayenár.
Harikesa--The name of one of the seven solar rays.
Haris--A class of deities in successive Manwantaras.
Harischandra--The son of Trisanku, king of Ayodha, a Hindu
king of the Solar dynasty, a descendant of Ikshwáku, and a
prominent person in the legendary history of ancient India. In
the Aitareya Brahmana he is described as a king without a son,
though he had a hundred wives. In his house lived, Parvata and
Nárada. He asked Nárada 'Tell me what do people gain by a son
whom they all wish for?'
Being asked by one verse, Nárada replied in ten verses:
• If a father sees the face of a son, born alive, he pays a debt in
him, and goes to immortality.
The pleasure which a father has in his son is greater than all
the pleasures that are from the earth, from the fire, and from the
waters.
Always have the fathers overcome the great darkness by a
son; for a self. is born from his self; it (the new-born self, the
son) is like a ship, full of food, to carry him over,
HAR
243
• What is the flesh? What is the skin? What are the hairs?
What the heat? Try to get a son, you Brahmans; he is undoubt-
edly the world.
<
Food is life for men, clothing is protection, gold is beauty,
cattle is strength. His wife is a friend, his daughter is a pity;
but the son is his light in the highest world.
'As husband he embraces a wife, who becomes his mother,
when he becomes her child. Having been renewed in her, he is
born in the tenth month.
A wife is a wife (jâyâ) because man is born (jâyate) again in
her. She is a mother (âbhûti) because she brings foì h (âbhûti);
a germ is hidden in her.
The gods and the old ages brought great light unto her. The
gods said to men: "In her you will be born again."
There is no life for him who has no son, this the animals also
know.
The path which those follow who have sons and no sorrows,
is widely praised and happy. Beasts and birds know it, and they
have young ones everywhere.'
Having thus spoken, he said to him: Go to Varuna the king,
and say: May a son be born to me, and I shall sacrifice him to
you.' The king assented, he went to Varuna the king, and said :
May a son be born to me and I shall sacrifice him to you.'
Varuna said, 'Yes.' A son was born to him, called Rohita.
Then Varuņa said to Harischandra: A son is born to thee,
sacrifice him to me.' Harischandra said:
more than ten days old, it can be sacrificed.
ten days and I shall sacrifice him to you.'
When an animal is
May he be older than
Varuna assented. The boy was more than ten days old, and
Varuṇa said: 'He is older now than ten days, sacrifice him to me.'
Harischandra said: "When an animal's teeth come, then it can be
sacrificed. May his teeth now come, and I shall sacrifice him to
you.'
Varuņa assented. His teeth came, and Varuņa said: His teeth
have come, sacrifice him to me.' Harischandra said: When au
244
HAR
animal's teeth fall out, then it can be sacrificed. May his teeth
fall out, and I shall sacrifice him to you.'
:
• His
Varuna assented; his teeth fell out, and Varuņa said:
teeth have fallen out, sacrifice him to me.' Harischandra replied :
When an animal's teeth come again, then it can be sacrificed.
May his teeth come again, and I shall sacrifice him to you.'
Varuna assented: His teeth came again, and Varuņa said: His
teeth have come again, sacrifice him to me.' Harischandra said :
'When a warrior (kshatriya) is girt with his armour, then he can
be sacrificed. May he be girt, and I shall sacrifice him to you.'
Varunassented. He was girt, and Varuņa said: 'He has
been girt, let him be sacrificed to me.'
Harischandra assented. He addressed his son and said: 'Child,
he gave you to me; Death! that I sacrifice you to him.' The
son said, 'No!' took his bow, and went to the forest, and lived
there for a year.
And Varuņa seized Harischandra, and his belly swelled. This
Rohita heard and went from the forest to the village (grama).
Indra, in the form of a man, went round him, and said:
• For a
man who does not travel about there is no happiness, thus we have
heard, O Rohita! A good man who stays at home is a bad man.
Indra is the friend of him who travels. Travel.'
Rohita thought, a Brahman has told me to travel, and thus he
travelled a second year in the forest. When he went from the
forest to the village, Indra, in the form of a man, went round him,
and said:
'A traveller's legs are like blossoming branches, he himself
grows and gathers the fruit. All his wrongs vanish, destroyed by
his exertion on the road. Travel!'
Rohita thought, a Brahman has told me to travel, and thus he
travelled a third year in the forest. When he went from the
forest to the town, Indra, in the form of a man, went round him,
and said :
The fortune of a man who sits, sits also; it rises, when he
HAR
245
rises; it sleeps, when he sleeps; it moves well when he moves.
Travel!'
Rohita thought, a Brahman has told me to travel, and thus he
When he went from the
travelled a fourth year in the forest.
forest to the town, Indra, in the form of a man, went round him,
and said:
'A man who sleeps is like the Kali age ; a man who awakes is
like the Dvâpara age; a man who rises is like the Trêta age; a
man who travels is like the Krita age. Travel !'
Rohita thought, a Brahman has told me to travel, and thus he
travelled a fifth year in the forest. When he went from the forest
to the town, Indra, in the form of a man, went round him, and said :
'A traveller finds honey, a traveller finds sweet figs. Look at
the happiness of the sun, who travelling never tires. Travel !'
'Not him.'
And the
Rohita
Rohita thought, a Brahman has told me to travel, and thus he
travelled a sixth year. He met in the forest a starving Rishi,
Ajigårta, the son of Sûyavasa. He had three sons, Sunahpuccha,
Sunahsepha, and Sunolângúla. Rohita said to him: Rishi, I
give you a hundred cows, I ransom nyself with one of these thy
sons.' The father embraced the eldest son, and said:
'Nor him,' said the mother, embracing the youngest.
parents bargained to give Sunahsepha, the middle son.
gave a hundred, took him, and went from the forest to the village.
And he came to his father, and said: Father, Death! I ransom
myself by him.' The father went to Varuṇa, and said: 'I shall
sacrifice this man to you.' Varuņa said, Yes, for a Brahman is
better than a Kshatriya.' And he told him to perform a Râjasûya
sacrifice. Harischandra took him to be the victim for the day,
when the Soma is spent to the gods.
6
Visvamitra was his Hotṛi priest, Jamadagni his Adhvaryu
priest, Vasishtha, the Brahman, Ayâsyu, the Adyâtri priest.
When Sunahsepha had been prepared, they found nobody to bind
him to the sacrificial post. And Ajîgarta, the son of Sûyavasa
said: Give me another hundred, and I shall bind him.' They
gave him another hundred, and he bound him, When he had
246
HAR
been prepared and bound, when the Aprî hymns had been sung,
and he had been led round the fire, they found nobody to kill him.
And Ajîgarta, the son of Sûyavasa said: 'Give me another
hundred, and I shall kill him.' They gave him another hundred,
and he came whetting his sword. Then Sunahsepha thought,
They will really kill me, as if I was not a man. Death! I shall
C
pray to the gods.' He went with a hymn to Prajapati (Lord of
the world), the first of gods. Prajapati said to him: Agui (fire)
is the nearest of gods, go to him. He went with a hymn to
Agni, and Agni said to him: Savitri (the progenitor) rules all
creatures, go to him.' He went with a hymn to Savitri, and
Savitri said to him: • Thou art bound for Varuņa the king,' and
Varuna said to him: Agni is the mouth of the gods, the kindest
god, praise him, and we shall set thee free.' Thus he praised
Agui, and Agni said to him: Praise the Viśve Devâh, and we
shall set thee free.' Thus he praised the Viśve Devâh, and they
said to him: Indra is the greatest, mightiest, strongest, and
friendliest of the gods, praise him, and we shall set thee 'free.'
Thus he praised Indra, and Indra was pleased, and gave him in
his mind a golden car, which Sunahsepha acknowledged by
another verse. Indra said to him: Praise the Aśvinau, and we
shall set thee free.' Thus he praised the Aśvinau, and they said to
him : Praise Ushaş (dawn), and we shall set thee free.' Thus´
he praised Ushas with three verses. While each verse was
delivered, his fetters were loosed, and Harischandra's belly grew
smaller, and when the last verse was said, his fetters were loosed,
and Harischandra well again." A. S. L., p. 408-414.
Harischandra is represented in all the legends as a king of great
uprightness. The following story illustrates this. Once when all
the gods and Rishis were assembled in Dévéndra's audience
chamber, the latter asked Vasishtha, whether he knew of any one
among men on earth who did never lust after another's wife, nor
speak a lie; to which the Rishi replied: "Yes, there is a disciple
of mine, king Harischandra, he never spoke a lie." On hearing
this Visvamitra called out: "Harischandra is a deceiver and liar."
Then said Vasishtha: "If Harischandra is found to speak the least
untruth, I will cease to be a Rishi and to come into this assembly."
HAR
247
"Well," answered Visvamitra, "if I find him altogether truthful,
I will give him all the merit of my penance; but I am afraid, you
will at once tell him that I am about to try him." Upon this
· Vasishtha took an oath, that he would not at all go near the king
till the matter was settled; and Visvamitra went to Harischandra
and tempted him in different ways, more especially through women,
to speak an untruth; but the king did not swerve from the truth.
At last the Rishi asked him far a large sum of money, and having
received it, he returned it to him with the request to take care of
it till he would require it. After a very long time Visvamitra
came and desired all the money, together with compound interest,
which amounted to a sum exceeding the value of his kingdom;
but Harischandra, in order to pay the sum, sold all he had,
and also himself together with his wife and son. Subsequently
he was separated from his wife Satyavati, and employed to burn
corpses. Then, behold, one day, there comes a woman to have her
dead child burnt, and he recognizes her as his wife by her Tāli
(the marriage-badge); which he requires of her as his wages for
burning the child, and which she will not give away. While they
yet talk, there come messengers to seize the woman, because she
was suspected of having kidnapped a royal prince who happened
to be very similar to her child. Being found guilty, she is
condemned to death, and Harischandra is ordered to behead her ;
and he is ready to obey: but, behold, suddenly the sword is turned
into flowers, the child becomes alive, and the royal couple are
restored to their former glory."
In consequence he was elevated with his subjects to heaven,
from whence, having been insidiously led by Nárada to boast of his
merits, he was again precipitated. His repentance of his pride,
however, arrested his downwards descent, and he and his train
paused in mid-air. The city of Harischandra is popularly believed
to be at times still visible in the skies. The indignation of
Vasishtha at Viswámitra's insatiableness produced a quarrel, in
which their mutual imprecations changed them to two birds, the
Śaráli, a sort of Turdus, and the Baka, or Crane. In these forms
they fought for a considerable term, until Brahmá interposed, and
reconciled them. The Bhagavata alludes to this story, in its notice
248
HAR
of Harischandra; but the Váyu refers the conflict to the reign of
a different prince: According to the Siva Purána, Harischandra
was an especial worshipper of that deity; and his wife Satyavatí
was a form of Jayá, one of Durga's handmaids.
Harisrava-A river mentioned in the Vishnu Purána but not
identified.
Harita-A prince the son of Yuvanáṣwa from whom the
Angirasa Haritas were descended; also a grandson of Harischandra;
one of the five sons of Parávrit, and king of Videha.
Haritas-The descendants of Harita, the son of Yuvanáṣwa.
They were brahmans with the properties of Kshatriyas.
Haritas-A class of gods in the twelfth Manwantara; one of
the tribes of Aborigines, who occupy the hills and jungles.
Haritaswa-A son of Sudyumna after his transformation from
Ilá into a man.
Hari Vansa-The last portion of the Mahabharata, and
believed to be a comparatively recent addition to that work. It is
chiefly occupied with the adventures of Krishna, but, as introductory
to his era it records particulars of the creation of the world, and of
the patriarchal and regal dynasties; done, says Professor Wilson,
with much carelessness and inaccuracy of compilation.
Hari-varsha—A country to the north of Hemakuta and south
of Nishádha. Also, the name of the nine sons of Aguióthra,
king of Nishádha.
Harsha―(Joy). A son of Káma (Love) by his wife Nandi
(delight).
Harsha Deva-A king of Kashmír who reigned between a. D.
1113 and 1125, and the reputed author of the play called
"Ratnavali, or the necklace," translated by Wilson, in the
Hindu Theatre.
Harshavarddhana-A prince, the son of Yajnakrit, one of
the descendants of Kshattravriddha.
HAR
249
Haryaksha-One of the five sons of Prithu, according to the
Bhagavata enumeration.
Haryanga-A prince, the son of Champa one of the
descendants of Anu. Champa was the founder of Champapuri, a
city of which traces still remain in the vicinity of Bhágulpúr.
Haryaswa-The son and successor of Dridhaṣwa. Dridhaṣwa
was one of the three sons of Kuvalayáṣwa who survived the
conflict with the Asura Dhundu, all the others, to the extent of
twenty thousand nine hundred and ninety-seven, having perished.
Haryaswa was also the name of a son of Prishadaṣwa; of
a son of Drishtakétu; and of a son of Chakshu.
Haryaswas-In the Vishnu Purána it is stated that Daksha,
The
being commanded by Bramha, created living creatures.
creation and disappearance of the Haryaswas is thus described.
'In the first place he willed into existence the deities, the Rishis,
the quiristers of heaven, the Titans, and the snake-gods. Finding
that his will-born progeny did not multiply themselves, he
determined, in order to secure their increase, to establish sexual
intercourse as the means of multiplication. For this purpose he
espoused Asikní, the daughter of the patriarch Vírana, a damsel
addicted to devout practices, the eminent supportress of the world.
By her the great father of mankind begot five thousand mighty
sons, through whom he expected the world should be peopled,
Nárada, the divine Rishi, observing them desirous to multiply
posterity, approached them, and addressed them in a friendly tone:
Illustrious Haryaswas, it is evident that your intention is to
beget posterity; but first consider this: why should you, who, like
fools, know not the middle, the height, and depth of the world,
propagate offspring? When your intellect is no more obstructed by
interval, height, or depth, then how, fools, shall ye not all behold
the term of the universe?' Having heard the words of Nárada,
the sons of Daksha dispersed themselves through the regions, and
to the present day have not returned; as rivers that lose themselves
in the ocean come back no more."
Haryatma-Called also Uttama, the Vyása of the twenty-first
Dwa para."
32
250
HAS-HEM
:
Hasta―A lunar mansion in Govithi, in the Central Avashthána.
Hastin-The son of Suhótra and founder of the city of
Hastinapura.
Hastinapura-Is the name of the ancient capital of the Kurus,
frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata. The Vishnu Purána
relates that it was founded by Hastin, washed away by the Ganges-
under the reign of Nichakra, who, in consequence of this event,
had to remove the seat of his government to Kauśâmbî-and
at a later period it was undermined by Balarâma. It was situated
on the Ganges, and is placed by Lassen, in his map to the Indische
Alterthuns Kunde, about 78° long, and 28° 50′ lat.
Hastisima-A river mentioned in the Vishnu Purána list, but
not identified.
Havirbha-(Oblation-born). The wife of the Kishi Pulastya,
and mother of Agastya.
Havirdhana-The son of Antarddhána by his wife Sikhandiņi.
Havishmantas-A class of Pitris, of the corporeal order,
living in the solar sphere, sons of Angiras, and Pitris of Kshatriyas.
See Pitris.
Havya-According to the Vayu Purána, one of the five sons of
Atri after his penance.
Havyavahana-The fire of the gods, the son of Suchi.
Hayasiras-The daughter of Vrishaparvan, the renowned
Danava, and wife of Kratu.
Hema-The son of Ushadratha, a descendant of Yayáti. Also
the name of a river in the Vishnu Purána.
Hemachandra-1, The king of Vaisali, a place celebrated
amongst the Buddhists as the chief seat of the labours of Sákhya
and his first disciples-now Allahabad; 2, A zealous and able
propagator of the Jain doctrines in the twelfth century. He was
well versed in the peculiarity of the system which he taught, and
may be regarded as a safe guide. He was the author of a useful
vocabulary termed the Abhidana Chintamani, and of a life of
Maha Vira. Wilson.
HEM-HIN
251
મે
Hemakuta-One of the boundary mountains of the earth, lying
to the south of Meru.
Hermit-See Vánaprastha.
Heti-A Rakshas, that always resides in the sun's car during
the month of Madha or Chaitra, as one of its seven guardians.
Hidimba-A hideous Asura and cannibal, with yellow eyes
and a horrible aspect, but possessed of great strength. He lived
in the jungle south of Váranávata, and attacked the Pándavas on
their march, but was killed by Bhíma after a severe contest.
Hidimbi-The sister of the above who is described as beautiful,
and was afterwards married to Bhíma.
Himavat-The king of mountains. Part of the snowy range.
The well-known range of mountains now called the Himálaya,
forming the northern barrier of the Indian peninsula, containing
the highest elevations in the world. The Imüs or Emodus of
classical writers. In Mythology Himavat is husband of the
Air-nymph Menaka; father of the river Gunga and of Durga or
Uma, in her descent as Parvati to captivate Siva, and seduce him
from the austerities which he practiced in those mountains. In
this personification the name belongs to the Puranic ;
mountain only, to the Epic.
as
а
On account of the majestic height of this mountain range, and
the apparent impossibility of reaching its summit, the imagination
of the ancient Hindus invested it with the most mysterious
properties, and connected it with the history of some of their
deities. In the Puránas, Himavat is placed to the south of
the fabulous mountain Meru, which stands in the centre of
the world, and described as the king of the mountains, who was
inaugurated as such when Prithu was installed in the government
of the earth. As the abode of Śiva, he is the goal of penitent
pilgrims, who repair to his summit in order to win the favours of
this terrific god. His wife was Menâ, whom the Pitris or
demigods Vairâjas, engendered by the mere power of their thought.
Hindi-One of the tongues of India; it abounds in Sanskrit
words, and has many dialects. Speaking generally the tongues
252
HIN
spoken in the whole of upper India, including the Punjab, from the
Himalayan to the Vindhyan range, may be said to be Hindi. Also
the languages of Kamaou and Garhwal, all along the Sub-Himalayan
range as far as the Gogra river; the impure dialect of the
Gorkhas; the Brij-Bhasha (or Baka as it is pronounced on the
Ganges,) the Panjabi, Multani, Sindi, Jataki, Haruti, Marwari and
it is said Konkani. The Bengali is a form of Hindi, but so highly
polished as to be classed as a distinct tongue.
Hindus-"The great bulk of the people known by this appella-
tion are the descendants of Scythian and Aryan immigrants, who
in bye-gone days, as conquerors, in search of a milder clime,
left the cold regions of the north, some off-shoots moving westward
and others to the south. Remnants of Scythian languages are
found in Beluchistan, and the seat of the great Sanskrit speaking
people was long in Kashmir, proving that one great highway to
the south, had been along the valley of the Indus, through
Kashmir, and the Panjab. But between the valley of the Indus,
and that of the Brahmaputra, there are twenty or thirty other
passes in the Himálayas, through which the northern races could
stream to the genial south. Amongst the first of these immigrants
seemingly were the Tamil races, belonging to the Turanian or
Tartar family of mankind, a body of whom seem to have followed
the course of the Indus and spread themselves over the peninsula.
As to the date of their advent, however, history is silent; but
there seems no doubt that great branches of the Scythic
stock were occupants of India, at the time that it was invaded,
and to a considerable extent conquered, by the Sanskrit speaking
tribes of the Aryan family. In the north, the subjugation or
ousting of the Tamilians from all rank and power was so complete
that Sanskrit forms of speech became the language of the country,
and the Kashmiri, the Panjabi, the Sindi, the Guzerathi, the
Hindustani and the Bengali, all of them with a large admixture
of Sanskrit, are sister tongues known as forms of Hindi. South
of the Nerbudda, however, it is otherwise. Throughout the
peninsula, the languages differ from the Sanskrit in grammar, and
only admit Sanskrit words, in the same way that the Anglo-Saxon
HIN
253
admitted terms of law and civilization from the Norman French.
At the present day, the south of India more largely represents
the Tartar, and the north, the Aryan race. But the fair, yellow
colored Aryans are to be met with south even to Cape Comorin,
and though mixing with the various Tamil nations, races and
tribes, for at least two thousand years, in physical form, com-
plexion, intellect and manners, the Brahmanical and other Aryau
families are as distinct as when their forefathers first came
conquering from the north. The great Aryan migration, however,
which seems to have received its first check south of the Aravali,
took place between the fourteenth and eighth centuries before our
era. Major Cunningham in his learned work on the Bhilsa topes
(p. 15) uses the term Aryan in allusion to "the race of Aryya,
whose emigrations are recorded in the Zendavesta, who starting
from Ericene Vijo, gradually spread to the south-east, over Arya-
vartha or Arya-desa, the northern plains of India, and to the
south-west, over Iran or Persia: he adds that the Medas are called
Apital by Herodotus. The original meaning of the word is also
said to have been equivalent to Upper Noble. It has also,
however, been suggested that as the Aryans were originally and
essentially an agricultural and therefore a peasant race, they may
have derived their name from their plough. The Aryans seem to
have brought with them a servile race, or to have had amongst
them a social distinction between the noble and the common
people which has ever continued. As they conquered southwards,
amongst the Tartar races whom they found in the country, they
reduced them everywhere to a state of slavery. They named
them in fierce contempt Dása or slave, and these formed the true
servile race of Manu and other writers. Where the races who
had preceded them retained their independence, these proud
immigrants styled them M'hlechhas, a term which even to the
present day, is intended to comprise every thing that is hateful or
vile. In Vedic times, along the western coast of Hindustan dwelt
other races, different alike from the Scythic tribes and from the
Aryans of the Vedas-earlier colonizers or emigrants, most
probably from Assyria and the west,-who had a civilization of
their own.
Mr. Wheeler divides the history of the Hindus into
254
HIN
four great epochs corresponding with the four great changes in
their religious belief:-
1-The Vedic age, which was characterised by the worship of
the elementary deities, such as Agui and Indra, and appears to
have prevailed in the Panjab prior to the disappearance of the
Saraswati river in the sand.
2-The Brahmanic age, which was characterised by the worship
of Brahma, and appears to have prevailed between the disappear-
ance of the Saraswati in the sand, and the advent of Sakya Muni
about B. C. 600.
3--The Buddhist age, which was characterised by the pursuit
of Nirvána, and appears to have prevailed from about B. c. 600 to
A. D. 800 or 1000.
4-The Erahmanical revival, which was characterised by the
worship of incarnations of deities, and appears to have prevailed
from about A. D. 800 to the present time."
Professor Wilson writes" The circumstances that are told of
the first princes have evident relation to the colonization of India,
and the gradual extension of the authority of new races over an
uninhabited or uncivilized region. It is commonly admitted, that
the Brahmanical religion and civilization were brought into India
from without. Certainly, there are tribes on the borders, and in
the heart of the country, who are still not Hindus; and passages
in the Rámáyána, and Mahábharata, and Mauu, and the uniform
traditions of the people themselves, point to a period when
Bengal, Orissa, and the whole of the Dakhin were inhabited by
degraded or outcaste, that is, by barbarous tribes. The traditions
of the Puránas confirm these views but they lend no assistance
to the determination of the question whence the Hindus came;
whether from a central Asiatic nation, as Sir William Jones
supposed, or from the Caucasian mountains, the plains of Babylonia,
or the borders of the Caspian, as conjectured by Klaproth, Vans
Kennedy, and Schlegel. The affinities of the Sanskrit language
prove a common origin of the now widely scattered nations
amongst whose dialects they are traceable, and render it unques-
tionable that they must all have spread abroad from some centrical
HIN
255
spot in that part of the globe first inhabited by mankind, according
to the inspired record. Whether any indication of such an event
be discoverable in the Vedas, remains to be determined; but it
would have been obviously incompatible with the Pauráńik system
to have referred the origin of Indian princes and principalities to
other than native sources. We need not therefore, expect, from
them, any information as to the foreign derivation of the Hindus.
We have, then, wholly insufficient means for arriving at any
information concerning the ante-Indian period of Hindu history,
beyond the general conclusion derivable from the actual presence
of barbarous and apparently, aboriginal tribes-from the admitted
progressive extension of Hinduism into parts of India where it did
not prevail when the code of Manu was compiled-from the
general use of dialects in India, more or less copious, which are
different from Sanskrit-and from the affinities of that language
with forms of speech current in the western world—that a people
who spoke Sanskrit, and followed the religion of the Vedas, came
into India, in some very distant age, from lands west of the Indus.
Whether the date and circumstances of their immigration will
ever be ascertained, is extremely doubtful: but it is not difficult
to form a plausible outline of their carly site and progressive
colonization.
The earliest seat of the Hindus, within the confines of Hindus-
than, was, undoubtedly, the eastern confines of the Panjab. The
holy land of Manu and the Puránas lies between the Drishad wati
and Saraswati rivers, the Caggar and Sursooty of our barbarous
maps. Various adventures of the first princes and most famous
sages occur in this vicinity; and the Asramas or religious
domiciles of several of the latter are placed on the banks of the
Saraswati. According to some authorities it was the abode of
Vyása, the compiler of the Vedas and Puránas; and agreeably to
another, when on one occasion, the Vedas had fallen into disuse
and been forgotten, the Brahmans were again instructed in them
by Saraswata, the son of Saraswati. One of the most distinguished
of the tribes of the Brahmans is known as the Saraswata; and the
same word is employed by Mr. Colebrooke, to denote that modifi-
cation of Sanskrit which is termed generally Prakrit, and which
256
HIN
in this case, he supposes to have been the language of the Saraswata
nation, 'which occupied the banks of the river Saraswati.' The
river itself receives its appellation from Saraswati, the goddess of
learning, under whose auspices the sacred literature of the Hindus
assumed shape and authority. These indications render it certain,
that, whatever seeds were imported from without, it was in the
country adjacent to the Saraswati river that they were first
planted, and cultivated and reared, in Hindusthan.
The tract of land thus assigned for the first establishment of
Hinduism in India, is of very circumscribed extent and could not
have been the site of any numerous tribe or nation. The traditions
that evidence the early settlement of the Hindus in this quarter,
ascribe to the settlers more of a philosophical and religious, than
of a secular character, and combine, with the very narrow bounds
of the holy land; to render it possible, that the earliest emigrants
were the members, not of a political, so much as of a religious
community; that they were a colony of priests, not in the
restricted sense in which we use the term, but in that in which it
still applies in India, to an Agrahara, a village or hamlet of
Brahmans, who although married, and having families, and
engaging in tillage, in domestic duties and in the conduct of secular
interests affecting the community, are, still, supposed to devote
their principal attention to sacred study and religious offices. A
society of this description with its artificers and servants, and,
perhaps, with a body of martial followers, might have found a
home in the Brahmavarta of Manu, the land which, thence, was
entitled the holy,' or, more literally, the Brahman region,' and
may have communicated to the rude, uncivilized, unlettered,
aborigines the rudiments of social organization, literature, and
religion; partly in all probability, brought along with them, and
partly devised and fashioned, by degrees, for the growing necessities
of new conditions of society. Those with whom this civilization
commenced would have had ample inducements to prosecute their
successful work; and in the course of time, the improvement
which germinated on the banks of the Saraswati was extended
beyond the borders of the Jumna and the Ganges.-Preface to
V. P.
HIR
257
Hiranmaya-A mountainous country lying between the Sevétu
and Srinji ranges; to the north of mount Meru.
Hiranvat-The king of Sweta, installed by his father, the pious
king Aguídhra, before he retired to a life of penance at Sálagráma.
Hiranyagarbha-A name of Brahmá, he who was born from
the golden egg,'
C
In the Rig Veda Hiranyagarbha is celebrated with all the
attributes of supremacy. In the 121st hymn of the tenth book this
god is said to have arisen in the beginning, the one lord of all
beings, who upholds heaven and earth, who gives life and breathı,
whose command even the gods obey, who is the god over all gods, .
and the one animating principle of their being. O. S. T., Vol. IV,
pp. 13, ff. V. p. 355.
Hiranyahasta-The son given by the Asvins to the wise
Vadhrimati, in answer to her prayers. O. S. T. v
O. S. T. v., p. 247.
Hiranyakasipu--A son of Kaşyapa
and Diti, who became
king of the Daityas, and usurped the authority of Indra, and
exercised of himself the functions of the sun, of the air, of the
waters, of fire, and of the moon. Having conquered the three
worlds he was inflated with pride, and enjoyed whatever he
desired. "He obtained the sovereignty of all the immortals for a
hundred million years." (O. S. T., iv, 159.) Prahláda, his son,
remained devoted to Vishņu, and when ordered by his father to
be put to death, Vishnu appeared as his deliverer. Hiranyakaṣipu
was reconciled to his son, but was notwithstanding put to death
by Vishņu as Narasimha (the man-lion) and Prahláda became the
sovereign of the Daityas.
Hiranyaksha-The brother of the above, termed "the invin-
cible." He was destroyed by Vishņu in his boar incarnation. In the
Padma Purána it is said that this occurred in the first, or Matsya
avatara that Vishnu in the form of a fish entered the ocean and
destroyed Hiranyaksha.- Wilson's Works, Vol. III., p. 58.
Hiranyanabha-One of the descendants of Ráma, a pupil of
Jaimini, and teacher of the Sama Veda. He had a large number
of disciples who were termed the northern and eastern chaunters
of the Sáman, and founders of schools.
33
258
HIR-HUT
1
Hiranyaretas-One of the ten sons of Priyavrata, according to
the enumeration in the Bhagavata.
Hiranyaroman-A Lókapála, regent of the North, son of
Parjanya and Maríchi.
Hlada-One of the four mighty sons of Hiranyakasipu.
Hladini-The Gladdener; the name of one of the seven rivers
mentioned in the Rámáyana, in connection with the descent of
Ganga. Only two, the Ganges and Indus, are known to
geographers.
Homa-A sort of burnt offering which can be made by
Brahmaus only. It is only made on special occasions, such as the
celebration of a festival, the investiture of a young brahman with
the sacred thread, marriages, and funerals. The method of making
it is as follows: During the utterance of Mantras, five species of
consecrated wood, together with the Dharba grass, rice and butter,
are kindled and burnt; and the fire is then kept burning as long as
the festival or ceremony lasts. Great efficacy is ascribed to this rite.
Hotri-The priest who recites the hymns at the performance of
sacrificial rites.
Hraswarman-One of the kings of Mithila, the son of
Suvarnarman; sometimes called Hrasvaroma.
Hri-Modesty,' An allegorical personage represented as one of
the daughters of Daksha, and wife of Dharma.
Hridika—A Yádava prince, the son of Swayambhoja, and
father of Súra, in whose family Vishnu took a human form.
Hrishikesa-A name of Vishņu, meaning 'lord of the senses.'
Humas-The white Huns, or Indo-scythians, who were estab-
lished in the Punjab and along the Indus, at the commencement of
our era, as we know from Arrian, Strabo, and Ptolemy, confirmed
by recent discoveries of their coins.
Hutasana--The god of flame.
I
Ida-One of the daughters of Daksha who was married to
Kaşyapa.
Idhmajihwa-One of the ten sons of Priyavrata according to
the Bhagavata.
Idvatsara-The name of the third cycle or Yuga, of which
five are enumerated, each cycle comprehending sixty-oue solar
months or 1,830 days.
Ijikas, also Itikas-A people of the South of India.
Ikshula Ikshumati-The name of a river mentioned in the
Rámáyana and Vishnu Purána, but not identified.
Ikshwaku-One of the ten sons of the lawgiver Manu
Vaivaswata, considered to be the first prince of the Solar dynasty;
he reigned at Ayodha the capital of Kosala, in the second or Treta
yuga. He had one hundred sons, and is said to have been born
from the nostril of Manu when he happened to sneeze. V. P.
"Ikshwáku was the son of Manu, the first king of Kosala, and
founder of the solar dynasty or family of the children of the Sun,
the god of that luminary being the father of Manu. '
The following extract from the Rámáyana gives the line of kings
from Ikswaku to Bharata.
"From viewless nature Brahma rose,
No change, no end, no waste, he knows.
A son had he, Maríchi styled,
And Kasyap was Maríchi's child.
From him Vivaswat sprang; from him
Manu whose fame shall ne'er be dim.
Manu, who life to mortals gave,
Begot Ikshváku good and brave.
First of Ayodhya's kings was he,
Pride of her famous dynasty.
260
ILA-ILW
From him the glorious Kukshi spraug,
Whose fame through all the regions rang,
Rival of Kukshi's aucient fame,
His heir, the great Vikukshi came.
His son was Vāna, lord of might,
His Anaranya, strong to fight.
His son was Prithu, glorious name,
From him the good Trisanku came,
He left a son renowned afar,
Known by the name of Dhundumár.
His son who drove the mighty car
Was Yuvanaswa fear'd in war.
He passed away. Him followed then
His son Mándhátá, king of men,
His son was blest on high emprise
Susandhi fortunate and wise.
Two noble sons had he, to wit,
Dhruvasandhi and Prasenajit
Bharat was Dhruvasandhi's son,
And glorious fame that monarch won.”—Griffiths.
Ila-Before the birth of the sons mentioned above, the Manu,
being desirous of sons, offered a sacrifice for that purpose to Mitra
and Varuna; but the rite being deranged through an irregularity
of the ministering priest, a daughter, Ilá was produced. Through
the favour of the two divinities, however her sex was changed, and
she became a man named Sudyumna, q. v.
Ilavila--One of the sons of Dasaratha, who does not appear
however to have achieved any distinction.
Ilavila-The daughter of Trinavinda, became the wife of
Visravas, and mother of Kuvera the god of wealth.
Ilavrita-One of the nine sons of Aguídhra, king of Jamba-
dwípa. The region in the centre of which Mount Meru is situated
was conferred on Ilávrita.
Ilwala-A celebrated demon, the son of Hláda. He is the hero
of varions legends in the Puránas, He had a cousin of the same
IND
261
name, the son of Viprachitti, who was also distinguished amongst
the Danavas.
India, “is bounded on the north and the east by the Himalaya
mountains, on the west by the Indus, and on the south by the sea.
Its length from Kashmere to Cape Comorin is 1,900 miles; its
breadth from Kurrachee to Sudiya, in Assam, 1,500 miles. The
superficial contents are 1,287,000 miles, and the population, under
British and natiye rule, is now estimated at 200,000,000. It is
crossed from east to west by a chain of mountains called the
Vindya, at the base of which flows the Nerbudda. The country
to the north of this river is generally designated Hindustan, and
that to the south of it the Deccan. Hindustan is composed of the
basin of the Indus on one side, and of the Ganges on the other,
with the great sandy desert on the west, and an elevated tract
now called, from its position, Central India. The Deccan has on
its northern boundary a chain of mountains running parallel with
the Vindya, to the south of which stretches a table land of trian-
gular form, terminating at Cape Comorin, with the western
Ghauts, on the western coast, and the eastern Ghauts, of minor
altitude, on the opposite coast. Between the Ghauts and the sea
lies a narrow belt of land which runs round the whole peninsula.
Of the ancient history or chronology of the Hindus there are no
credible memorials. The history was compiled by poets, who
drew on their imagination for their facts, and the chronology was
computed by astronomers, who have made the successive ages of
the world to correspond with the conjunctions of the heavenly
bodies. The age of the world is thus divided into four periods :
the satya yuga extending to 1,728,000, and the second, or treta
yuga, to 1,296,000 years; the third, or the dwápara yuga,
comprises 864,000 years; and the fourth, or kali yuga is predicted
to last 432,000 years. A kalpa, or a day of Brahma, is composed
of a thousand such periods, or 4,320,000,000 years. Extravagant
as these calculations may appear, they are outdone by the Burmese,
who affirm that the lives of the ancient inhabitants extended to a
period equal to the sum of every drop of rain which falls on the
surface of the globe in three years. The dates given for the first
three ages must. therefore, be rejected as altogether imaginary,
262
IND
while the commencement of the fourth, or present age, which
corresponds, to a certain degree, with the authentic eras of other
nations, may be received as geuerally correct.
India is designated by native writers Bharata Varsha, from king
Bharat, who is said to have reigned over the whole country. That
he did not enjoy universal monarchy in India is certain, though he
was doubtless one of the earliest and most renowned of its rulers ;
but this fact loses all historical value when we are told in the
shasters that he reigned ten thousand years, and on his death was
transformed into a deer. Thus do we plod our way through
darkness and mystery; at every step fact is confounded with
fable, and all our researches end only in conjecture. The original
settlers are identified with the various tribes of Bhíls, Koles,
Gonds, Mínas, and Chúars, still living in a state almost of
nature, in the forests of the Soane, the Nerbudda, and the Maha-
nuddi, and in the hills of Surgúja and Chota Nagpore. Their
languages have no affinity with the Sanskrit, and their religion
differs from Hinduism. In those fastnesses, amidst all the revolu-
tions which have convulsed India, they have continued to maintain,
unchanged, their original simplicity of habits, creed, and speech.
They were apparently driven from the plains by fresh colonies of
emigrants; and these were in their turn conquered by the Hindus,
who brought their religion and language with them from regions
beyond the Indus, and, having reduced the inhabitants to a servile
Of the four
condition, branded them with the name of súdras.
Hindu castes, three are designated the twice-born, which seems to
indicate that they all belonged to the conquering race, although
the term is now applied exclusively to brahmans. In the Institutes
of Manu reference is also made to cities governed by súdras,
which the twice-born were forbidden to enter, and the allusion
evidently applies to súdra chiefs, who continued to maintain their
independence after the Hindu invasion.
The Hindus who originally crossed the Indus took possession of
a small tract of land, 100 miles north-west of Delhi, about 65
miles by 30, which was considered the residence of gods and holy
sages, while the brahmans appear to have subsequently occupied
the country north of the Jumua and the Ganges, stretching to the
IND
263
confines of north Behar. The India of the Vedas, of Manu, and
the earliest writers was exclusively confined to the region north
of the Nerbudda, and comprised but a small portion even of that
limited quarter. It was in the north that the four places of
greatest sanctity were situated during the early ages, though the
Deccan now contains many places of distinguished merit. The
north was also the seat of the solar and lunar races, the scene of
chivalrous adventures, and the abode of all those who are celebrated
in the legends, the mythology, and the philosophy of the Hindus.
Even in the polished age in which the Rámáyan and the Mahá-
blárat were composed, the south was the land of fable, the
dwelling of bears and monkeys, and it was not till a very late
period that these apes and goblins and monsters were transformed
into orthodox Hindus. It must, therefore, be distinctly borne in
mind that the revolutions described in the sacred books of the
Hindus belong to Hindustan and not to the Deccan.'
Indra-The king of heaven; the king of the Devas; is
represented with four arms and hands, with two he holds a lance,
in the third one the thunderbolt (Vajrayudha) and the fourth oue
is empty. Sometimes he is drawn as a white man sitting on an
elephant, with the thunderbolt in his right hand and a bow in his
left. His reign is to continue one hundred years of the gods, after
which another individual from among the gods, the giants, or men,
by his own merit, raises himself to this eminence. The sacrifice
of a horse one hundred times will, it is said, raise a person to the
rank of Indra. The Puránas relate many stories of Indra, who is
described as very jealous lest any person should, by sacred
austerities or sacrifices, excel him in religious merit, and thus
obtain his kingdom. To prevent these devotees from succeeding
in their object, he generally sends one of the celestial nymphs to
draw away their minds, and thus bring them from their religious
observances, induce them to return to a life of sensual gratification.
It was Indra who stole the horse consecrated by king Sagara, who
was about to perform for the hundreth time the sacrifice of that
animal.
* Marshman's History of India, vol. 1.
264
IND
“Indra plays an important part in each of the three periods of
Indian mythology. In the earliest age he seems to have been the
unknown mysterious being who inhabited the sky, the firmament
between earth and the sun, who rode upon the clouds, who poured
forth the rain, hurled the forked lightning upon earth, and spoke in
the awful thunder. His character was at once beneficent as giving
rain and shade; and awful and powerful in the storm. He is the
original of the Jupiter Tonans of the west, and the Thor of the
north, and like them rose in the earliest ages to the first place, and
the sovereignty among the gods. Fear, a stronger motive among
men than gratitude, raised him above the elementary triad. In
the Epic period he is the first person of the pure mythological
triad, Indra, Agni, and Yama. In the Puranic age, when the
powers of a Supreme Being were personified in the superior triad
of Brahmá, Vishnu, and Siva, Indra's star declines. He is no
longer the principal divinity, but only the chief of the inferior
deities; and, as such, is at constant war with the giants and
demons, by whom he is for a time deposed. A curse from the
Rishi Durvása causes his power and that of the deities subject to
him gradually to decline; and he is defeated by Krishna in a fight
for the Párijáta tree, which had been produced at the churning
of the ocean, and planted by Indra in his own garden. An amusing
account of this battle is given in the Vishņu-Purána, p. 587.
His wife's name is Śachí. He is lord of the eight Vasus. The
sage Gautama pronounced upon him the curse of wearing one
thousand disgraceful marks which he afterwards turned to eyes.
He ravished the daughter of Puloman, whom he slew to avoid his
curse. He is borne on a white horse. The rain-bow is supposed
to be his bow bent for the destruction of his foes, and thunderbolts
are his weapons. The heaven over which he rules, and which the
other secondary deities inhabit, is, in the Epic age, called Swarga,
and later, Indralóka, or Devalóka. His horse is Uchchhaih shravas ;
his elephant, Airávata; his city, Amarávati; his palace, Vaija-
yanta. These details belong to the Puranic age." (Thomson.)
Dr. Muir writes "Indra and Agni are said to be twin brothers.
A variety of vague and general epithets are lavished upon Indra.
He is distinguished as youthful, ancient, strong, agile, martial,
IND
265
heroic, bright, undecaying, all-conquering, lord of unbounded
wisdom and irresistible power and prowess, wielder of the thunder-
bolt, &c. He has vigour in his body, strength in his arms, a
thunderbolt in his hand, and wisdom in his head.
*
*
*
The thunderbolt of Indra is generally described as having been
fashioned for him by the Indian Hephaistos, Tvashtri, the artificer
of the gods. Another instrument of warfare, a net, is assigned to
Indra. This world was the great net of the great Sakra. With
this net of Indra I envelope them all in darkness.'
*** *
"Invoked by his mortal worshippers Indra obeys the summons,
and speedily arrives in his chariot to receive their offerings. He
finds food provided for his horses, and large libations of soma
juice are poured out for himself to quaff. He becomes exhilarated
by these libations, which are also frequently described as stimu-
lating his warlike dispositions and energies, and fitting him for his
other functions, even for supporting the earth and sky. He is
said to have drunk at one draught thirty bowls of soma."
Thus exhilarated by soma juice, "Indra hurries off escorted by
troops of Maruts, and sometimes attended by his faithful comrade
Vishņu, to encounter the hostile powers in the atmosphere, who
malevolently shut up the watery treasures in the clouds. These
demons of drought, called by a variety of names, as Vṛittra, Ahi,
Śushua, Namuchi, Pipru, Sambara, Urana, &c., armed on their
side also, with every variety of celestial artillery, attempt, but
in vain, to resist the onset of the gods. Heaven and earth quake
with affright at the crash of Indra's thunder. The enemies of
Indra are speedily pierced and shattered by the discharge of his
iron shafts. The waters, released from their imprisonment,
descend in torrents to the earth, fill all the rivers and roll along to
the ocean. The gloom which had overspread the sky is dispersed,
and the sun is restored to his position in the heavens. Constant
allusions to these elemental conflicts occur in nearly every part of
the Rig Veda ; and the descriptions are sometimes embellished
with a certain variety of imagery. The clouds are represented as
mountains, or as cities or fortresses of the Asuras, or atmospheric
demons, which Indra overthrows."
Dr. Muir selects a great variety of passages as specimens of the
34
266
IND
Janguage in which Indra is most commonly celebrated in the
hymus. He adds, "it will be observed that the attributes which
are ascribed to him are chiefly those of physical superiority, and
of dominion over the external world. In fact he is not generally
represented as possessing the spiritual elevation and moral grandeur
with which Varuna is so often invested." Vol. V., p. 103.
"Thou Indra art a friend, a brother
A kinsman dear, a father, mother.
Though thou hast troops of friends, yet we,
Can boast no other friend but thee.
With faith we claim thine aid divine,
For thou art ours and we are thine.
Thou art not deaf; though far away,
Thou hearest all, whate'er we pray.
Preserve us friend, dispel our fears,
And let us live a hundred years.
And when our earthly course we've run,
And gained the region of the sun,
Then let us live in ceaseless glee,
Sweet nectar quaffing there with thee."
O. S. T., Vol, V., p. 139.
Indrani-The wife of Indra (called also Sáchi) is represented
as an ever-blooming virgin, and whilst the diguity of the king of
the gods passes from one to another, she remains the wife of each
succeeding Devéndra. Indráni, never a mother herself, had a son,
Chitraputra, born unto her of a cow, as a reward for the austerities
which she practised in honour of Iswara, to the end that he might
grant her a son. When Chitraputra was born from the cow,
Judiáni felt like a woman in travail, and her breasts became full,
so that she could nurse the child.
In the Rig Veda one speaker says "I have heard that among all
these females Indráni is the most fortunate; for her husband shall
never at any future time die of old age." The Aitareya Brahmaṇa
alludes to a wife of Indra, called Prásahá. The Satap. Br. says
Indrani is Indra's beloved wife, and she has a head dress of all
forms." O. S. T., Vol, V., p. 82.
IND
267
Indras of the Manwantara-Each Manwantara has its oWE
Indra. The Indra of the second Manuwantara was Vipaschil; of
the third, Susanti; of the fourth Śiva (also named Satakrata, as
he obtained the honour by his performance of a hundred sacrifices,
of the fifth Vibha; of the sixth, Manojava; of the seventh,
Purandara; of the eighth, Báli; of the ninth, Adbhuta; of the
tenth, Sánti; of the eleventh, Vrisha; of the twelfth, Rithudáma :
of the thirteenth, Divaspati; of the fourteenth, Suchí.
Indra-dwipa-One of the nine portions of the Varsha of
Bharata.
Indradyumna-The king of Avanti, who erected the temple
of Vishnu at Purushottama Kshetra, and set up the image of
Jagganátha, made for him by Visvakarman.
རྗ
Indrajit-The bravest and most powerful of the sons of Rávaṇa.
His original name was Megha-náda, but was changed by Bralimá
to Indrajit, in commemoration of the latter having obtained a
victory over Indra. He was skilled in magic, could render himself
invisible, possessed enchanted weapons, described as a kind of rope.
which when thrown at an enemy became transformed into a serpent,
and retained him in its folds. By means of these magical weapons
he pierced a great number of warriors and inflicted terrible
wounds on all the leaders of Ráma's army; viz., Sugríva, Angada,
Níla, Jámbavat, Nala, Tára, Sarabha, Sushena, Panasa, Gaudha-
madana, Dwivida, Keṣarí, Sampáti, Binata, Rishabha; as well as
on Ráma and Lakshmána, leaving them for dead. They were all
restored by the exhalations issuing from the healing plants brought
by Hanuman from Kailasa. All this occurred after Hanumán had
destroyed the great army of Rákshasas sent against him by Rávaṇa,
the latter being filled with dismay, ordered his son Aksha to go
forth, and he was also slain. Then Rávana filled with grief sent
for his famous son Indrajit, and said go you and conquer this evil
Monkey. Indrajit then ascended his chariot, drawn by four tigers,
and went out at the head of a vast army to fight against the
Monkey chief. The combat commenced, but Indrajit could not
conquer until he bound Hanumán in the irresistible noose of
Brahma. Afterwards Indrajit performed three sacrifices to Agni,
and confined Ráma aud Lakshmána in his noose, and successfully
268
IND
?
charged the army of Monkeys. He was ultimately killed by
Lakshmana, with an arrow given to him by Indra at the hermitage
of Agastya.
Indra-kila-A mountain of the Vishnu Purána but not identified.
Indra-loka-Amaravati, the heaven of Indra and Kshatriyas,
called also Swarga. It was built by Vişvakarma, the architect of
the gods, a son of Brahmá. It is described as eight hundred miles
in circumference, and forty miles high. Its pillars are composed
of diamonds; all its thrones, beds, etc., of pure gold, as also its
palaces. It is surrounded by beauteous gardens and pleasure
grounds, interspersed with pools, fountains, etc., while music,
dancing, and every sort of festivity entertain the celestial
inhabitants. The audience chamber is so large that it accom-
modates all the three hundred and thirty millions of celestials,
together with the forty-eight thousand Rishis, and the multitude
of attendants.
Indrapramita—A pupil of Paila and teacher of a Sanhita of
the Rig Veda. Indrapramita imparted his Sanhita to his son
Mandakeya, and it thence descended through successive generations
as well as disciples.
Indra-prastha-The city of the Pandavas situated between
Delhi and the Kútub. "The pilgrim who wends his way from the
modern city of Delhi to pay a visit to the strange relics of the
ancient world which surround the mysterious Kútub, will find on
either side of his road a number of desolate heaps, the debris of
thousands of years, the remains of successive Capitals which date
back to the very dawn of history; and local tradition still points to
these sepulchres of departed ages as the sole remains of the Ráj of
the sons of Pándu, and their once famous city of Indra-prastha."*
The Mahábhárata contains a poetical description of the flourishing
state of the kingdom under the rule of Rája Yudhishthira. When
he resolved on retiring from the world he gave the Ráj of
Hastinapur to Parikshit the son of Abhimanyu, and the Ráj of
Indra-prastha to Yuyutsa, the only surviving son of Mahárája
Dritarashtra.
* Wheeler.
INDIVI
269
Indrasavarni-The Manu of the fourteenth Manwantara,
according to the Bhagavata.
Indriyatma—“One with the senses;" a name of Vishnu, who
is described by five appellations.
1. Bhutátma, One with created things.
2. Pradhanátam, One with crude nature.
3. Indriyátma, One with the senses.
4. Paramátma, Supreme spirit.
5. Átma, Soul, living soul animating nature and existing
before it.
Indumati Devi-The daughter of the Rája of Vidarbha and
wife of Aja. [See Aja.]
Iravat-A son of Arjuna by the serpent nymph Ulupi.
Iravati-The wife of the Rudra Bhava according to the
Bhagavata.
Isana-One of the eight Rudras of the Vishnu Purána whose
statue was the air.
Isa-A name of a month occurring in the Vedas, and belonging
to a system now obsolete. It is one of the months according to the
Vishnu Purána in which the sun is in his southern declination.
Iswara-Brahma in the neuter form is abstract supreme spirit :
and Iṣwara is the Deity in his active nature, he who is able to do,
or leave undone, or to do anything in any other manner than that
in which it is done. Iswara is that which knows all things as if
they were present. Mahat is also called Iswara from its exercising
supremacy over all things. In Southern India Iswara is identical
with Śiva. All who profess the Śiva mata (the religion of Siva)
regard Iswara as the highest god in whose honour they have
everywhere built pagodas, and celebrate many festivals. Iswara
is also the name of one of the Rudras in the Váyu list.
Itihasa-Historical tradition taught by Vyása. It is usually
supposed that by the Itihasa the Mahábhárata is meant.
Ivilaka-One of the Andhra kings, the son of Lambódara.
J
Jabala-The mother of Satyakáma, who could not tell her son
who was his father and to what gotra he belonged; the son had
consequently the utmost difficulty in obtaining permission to
become a Brahmá chárin. See Satyakáma.
Jabalas - Students of a branch of the Vájasaneyi, or white
Yajush.
Jaggannatha*-This is perhaps the most famous form of
Krishna. The image has no legs, and only stumps of arms. The
head and legs are very large. At the festivals, the Brahmaus
adorn him with silver or golden hands.
There
Krishna having been accidentally killed by Jará, a hunter, he
left the body to rot under a tree. Some pious persons, however,
collected the bones of Krishna and placed them in a box.
they remained till King Indradyumna (a great ascetic) was
directed by Vishnu to form the image of Jaggannátha, and put
into its belly these bones of Krishna. Viśvakarma (the architect
of the gods) undertook to prepare it, on condition that he should
be left undisturbed till its completion. The impatient king,
however, after fifteen days, went to the spot; on which Viśvakarma
desisted from his work, and left the god without hands or feet.
The king was much disconcerted, but on praying to Brahmá, he
promised to make the image famous in its present shape. Indra-
dyumna then invited all the gods to be present at the setting up of
this image. Brahmá himself acted as high priest, and gave eyes
and a soul to the god, which completely established the fame of
Jagganuátha. This image is said to lie in a pool, near the famous
temple at Juggannátha-kshetra (i. e. Jagganath's field), near the
town of Purí in Orissa, commonly called by the English, Jugger-
nath's Pagoda.
Vulg. Juggernath," i. e.
The Lord of the World,'
JAG
271
There are many other temples to Jaggannátha in Bengal and
other parts of India, besides that in Orissa, built by rich men as
works of merit, and endowed with lands, villages, and money, at
which the worship of the god is performed every morning and
evening.
There are two great annual festivals in honour of the god, viz.,
the Suán-yátrá in the month Jyaistha (May, June) and the Rath-
yathra in the following month Áśáṛha. These are everywhere
most numerously attended; but especially those celebrated at the
great temple at Purí. Thither pilgrims from the remotest corners
of India flock to pay their adoration at the hallowed shrine.
Between two and three thousand persons, it is computed, used to
lose their lives on the annual pilgrimages to this temple, and not
less than 200,000 worshippers were present at the festivals, from
which the Brahmáns draw an immense revenue. Since the with-
rawment of the large annual grant, however, which the British
Government of India, till very recently, made to the Orissa Temple,
the numbers attending these festivals have very greatly diminished.
All the land within twenty miles round the "Pagoda" is considered
holy; but the most sacred spot is an area of about six hundred
and fifty feet square, which contains fifty temples, the most
conspicuous of which is a lofty tower, about one hundred and
eighty-four feet in height, and about twenty-eight feet square
inside, in which the idol, with his brother Bala-Ráma, and his sister
Subhadra, is lodged. Adjoining are two pyramidical buildings.
In one, about forty square, the idol is worshipped, and in the
other, the food prepared for the pilgrims is distributed. These
buildings were erected in A. D. 1198. The walls are covered with
statues, many of which are in highly indecent postures. The
grand entrance is on the eastern side, and close to the outer wall
stands an elegant stone column, thirty-five feet in height, the
shaft of which is formed of a single block of basalt, presenting
sixteen sides. The pedestal is richly ornamented. The column
is surrounded by a finely sculptured statue of Hanumán, the
monkey chief of the Rámáyana. The establishment of priests and
others belonging to the temple has been stated to consist of threc
thousand nine hundred families, for whom the daily provision is
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JAH
enormous. The holy food is presented to the idol three times a
day. His meal lasts about an hour, during which time the dancing
girls, the Devadasi, belonging to the temple, exhibit their profes-
sional skill in an adjoining building. "At the Suán-yátra (or
bathing festival) the god is bathed by pouring water on his head
during the reading of incantations. At the Rath-yátrá (or car
festival) the carriage, containing the three images (which has
sixteen wheels and two wooden horses) is drawn by the devotees,
by means of a hawser, for some distance. On this occasion many
cast themselves beneath the ponderous wheels and are crushed to
death."-Small, H. S. L., p. 157.
Jahnu-The son of Suhotra. This prince whilst performing a
sacrifice, saw the whole of the place overflowed by the waters of
the Ganges; being highly offended at this intrusion, he united the
spirit of sacrifice with himself by the power of his devotion, and
drank up the river. The gods and sages upon this came to him
and appeased his indignation, and re-obtained Gangá from him in
the capacity of his daughter.
"It chanced that Jahnu, great and good
Engaged with holy offerings stood.
The river spread her waves around
Flooding his sacrificial ground.
The saint in anger marked her pride,
And at one draught her stream he dried.
Then god and sage and bard afraid,
To noble high-souled Jahnu prayed.
And begged that he would kindly deem
His own dear child that holy stream.
Moved by their suit, he soothed their fears,
And loosed her waters from his ears.
Hence Gangá through the world is styled
Both Jahnaví and Jahnu's child."- Griffiths.
Jahnu is also the name of a son of Kuru. V. P.
Jahnavi-A name of Gangá as the daughter of Jahnu, as
related above.
JAI
273
Jaimini-A pupil of Vyása, and teacher of the Sáma Veda.
Also the name of a celebrated author in the South of India, who
lived about the thirteenth century. He wrote a free translation
from 'the Sanskrit of the Aswamedhika Parva of the Mahábhárata,
detailing the horse sacrifice. This work is acknowledged by all
sects to be the finest specimen of Canarese poetry in existence.
'He has read Jaimini' is a proverbial saying, equivalent to he is
an accomplished man.'
Jainas-The Jainas were a very numerous and important sect
in the eighth and ninth centuries of the Christian era. The founder
of the system was Rishaba-deva, a Hindu, but the system itself
was an off-shoot or after-growth of Buddhism with which it has
many leading doctrines in common, but is distinguished from it by
its recognition of a divine personal Ruler of all, and by its political
leaning towards Brahmanism. The Jainas have left many
monuments of their skill and power in the fine temples built in
different parts of the Deccan, as well as in the provinces of Mewar
and Marwar, which have been designated the cradle of their
system. The literature of the Jainas is very extensive, including,
besides Puránas of their own, various works in grammar, astronomy,
mathematical science, medicine, &c. They were the first who
reduced the Canarese language to writing, and cultivated it to a
high degree of perfection. The best Epic poem in the Tamil
language, the Chintamani, is the work of a Jaina.
"The leading tenets of the Jainas and those which chiefly
distinguish them from the rest of the Hindus, are, first, the denial
of the divine origin and infallible authority of the Vedas: secondly,
the reverence of certain holy mortals, now termed Tirthankara, or
saints, who acquired by practices of self-denial and mortification a
station superior to that of the gods; and thirdly, extreme and even
ludicrous tenderness for animal life.
"The Jainas are still found in most of the provinces of Upper
Hindustan; in the cities along the Ganges, in Calcutta, but more
especially to the westward. They are also numerous in Guzerat,
in the upper part of the Malabar Coast, and are scattered
throughout the Peninsula. They still form a large and importan
35
274
JAI
division of the population of India. The name of the sect means a
follower of Jina, the latter being one of the denominations of their
deified saints; and as another name of these saints is Arhát, the
Jainas are also called Arhattas.- Wilson.
The following account of Jainism was written in Tamil by Munshi, Sastram
Aiyar. "The Jainas verily believe that their system alone was the primeval
system of the world; that all other systems were derived from it; that some
of the learned professors of their system, by the fault of the time in which
they lived, formed various other systems; that Móksha [bliss] can be obtained
in this system and in no other; that this alone is the true system; and that
all other systems believe falsehood to be truth.
"The Jainas positively affirm that the world exists from all eternity, and
that it will exist for ever, without being destroyed, and that it was not created
by God, or by any other person. They moreover affirm that this world is
divided into three parts, namely, the lower world, the middle world, and the
upper world; and that below this world, there is a world called Adhogati
[abyss, the nethermost hell], above which there are seven infernal worlds;
and above those again are ten Pavanalokas, purifying worlds [Purgatories],
above which is this world of earth; above this again is the Jotiloka, world of
light [starry world]; and that in this our world of earth there are two worlds
included, namely, the Vyantraloka, world of demons [devils], and the
Vidyadharaloka, world of demi-gods; and again above these are sixteen
different kinds of Devalokas, worlds of the gods, over which is the Ahamin-
draloka, world of Indra; and above that again is the Mokshaloka, world of
bliss; where dwells the Lord of all these worlds, the Supreme Being, called
the Anadi-chitta-para-meshti [Eternal-intellectual-heavenly-dweller.]
"They believe that this earth is sixteen cords high, and seven cords broad;
but this measurement is not within the comprehension of men; it is known
only to the wise. The seas and islands that are situated on the earth cannot
be perceived and estimated by man's understanding. They affirm that in the
midst of the earth is the great mountain Meru, and that to the South of it is
situated the Bharata region, and to the North the Airavata region, and to the
East and West is the Videha region. They also affirm that on both sides of
Mount Meru are situated the three kinds of Bhogabhumi, fruitful, or
felicitous regions; and that the natives of these regions attain to great age
and size; that they cannot interchange places; and that while it is day in
one of the lands, it is night in the other. The people of Videha also attain to
great age and stature.
“The Jainas consider Arugan to be their principal god, and worship him.
From the Chintamani. By the Rev. H, Bower,
Madras, 1868.
JAI
275
The popular name of this god is Jinan; and from this the appellation Jainas
is derived. To this god one-thousand and eight sacred names are ascribed.
His greatness is such that the three worlds worship and adore him. His
knowledge is so great that it extends simultaneously to all things sentient.
and unsentient, to things that have been conceived and that will be conceived,
to worlds and to worldless spaces. He is powerful to impart the knowledge
of his doctrines simultaneously to all kinds of living beings, in their respective
language, without the aid of mind, word, or body; and this he does of pure
grace, and not from any selfish motives. He does not possess the power
[act] of creating anything, or of preserving anything. He is not subject
to birth or death. He manifests great grace, and love, and mercy, to all
sentient beings. He is of infinite wisdom, of infinite intelligence, of infinite
power, and of infinite bliss. It is he that in the beginning, with a view of
causing happiness to all living beings, made known the twelve primeval Vedas.
He is the possessor of the triple-umbrella. He is without beginning and
without end. He is the possessor of the three wheels of justice. He is
represented with four holy faces, and as seated in the shade of the ashoka
tree. He has forsaken the one hundred and forty-eight actions of life. He
has declared that the Veda, the World, Time, Souls, Action, and Virtue are,
like himself, imperishable and eternal objects.
“The god Arugan has declared that there is no other god besides himself;
that all who worship and adore him will obtain bliss, and that those who do
not worship him will not obtain bliss; that all living beings will enjoy the
fruits of their good or evil actions; that by preponderance of evil, souls enter
hell, and by preponderance of good, they enter the world of the gods; but
when good and evil are equally balanced, they are born as human beings;
when evil alone exists, they are born as irrational animals; and when both
good and evil are destroyed, then they are liberated. Since Arugan has
declared these things, the Jains firmly believe them to be true doctrines, and
since all other systems have been intermediately introduced by certain
persons, they positively affirm them all to be false systems.
"As Time is considered to be eternal, it is indestructable in its nature, and
is divided into two sorts, viz, the Utsarpini and the Avasarpini time. The
Avasarpini time has six stages, viz., good-good time, good time, good-bad
time, bad-good time, bad time, and bad-bad time. In like manner the
Utsarpini time has six stages, only that it begins at the bottom of the list
with bad-bad time and goes backwards. In the Utsarpini time, beginning
from bad-bad time, the age and stature of men increase, as that of the waxing
But in the Avasarpini time, beginning from the good-good time, the
age and stature of men decrease, as that of the waxing moon. The increase
and decrease of stature is up to six thousand Vils [bows], and down to a
cubit. The increase and decrease of age will be from three pallams.
moon.
276
JAI
to fifteen years. This account of pallams is not to be understood
· by men. In the above specified six divisions of time, the first consists
of four krores of krores of oceans of years. The second consists of three
krores of krores of oceans of years. The third consists of two krores of krores
of oceans of years. The fourth, one krore of krores of oceans of years, save
forty-two thousand years. The fifth consists of twenty thousand years. The
sixth also consists of twenty thousand years. This account of oceans is not
to be understood by men. The stage in which we now live is the fifth, viz.,
the bad time. When the two sorts of time, viz., the Utsarpini and Avasarpini
times run out, it is said to be a Yugam. Utsarpini means the age of increase,
and Avasarpani means the age of decrease.
"As the present is the Avasarpini time, we must infer that the three good
stages of time have already passed by, and that the Bharata region, and the
Airavata region have both been Bhogabhumis, fruitful lands. The people of
those times, as before stated, had stature of body, and length of age adequate
to the times. The people of those times forty-five days after their birth,
became perfect men, and were well up in all sciences, and attained all
knowledge by themselves, simply from the plastic power of the time.
Moreover in these three stages of time there was no light of the sun or of
the moon; but day and night were formed from the reflection and non-
reflection of the Kalpaka trees. Those people at death entered the world of
the gods, and did not go to hell. And they were not subject to the ordinary
physical evils connected with disease, the discharges of the body, &c.
"Thus after the existence of the Bhogabhumi, when yet there was one.
It was in the
eighth of time, in the third stage, fourteen Manus were born.
time of these Manus that the sun and moon, the stars and clouds appeared;
division of time into years and months, the equinoctical or solstitial course,
the lunar half-month or fortnight, the six seasons, the day of twenty-four
hours, and the day as distinguished from night, were instituted; means of
warding off the evils arising from wild beasts were discovered; rivers, tanks,
reservoirs, mountains, and a variety of means of livelihood were brought into
use. Of the above mentioned Manus, the fourteenth is said to have been
Nabhi Mahárájah. In the reign of this Manu, as the people were born with
the umbilical cord, the name Nabhi was given. In his reign clouds appeared,
and it rained. Then appeared trees and various kinds of corn. By this Manu
men were taught to eat fruit and grain, and the way of preparing food; and
he also pointed out the way of weaving cloths from cotton, and of wearing
them; and the use of flowers, garlands, perfumes, and ornaments, to adorn
the person, came into vogue.
.64
This Nabhi Mahȧrájah is said by some to be Brahma. His consort was
Murudeviarnmal. In his reign was born the first incarnated personage named
Vrishabha Tirthankara. After him were born twenty-three Tirthankaras,
JAI
277
equal to himself. In their days, the twelve Chakravartis, the nine Baladevas,
the nine Vasudevas, and the nine Prativasudevas were all born in the fourth
stage. These sixty-three persons were called Salaka purushas, divine
personages.
"The twenty-four Tirthankaras, without the instruction of a Guru, were
skilled in the circle of the sciences, knew the five Kaliyanas or ceremonies of
the gods, were worshipped by the four classes of the gods, and at
their very birth were endued with the three kinds of knowledge;
they also had the fourth kind of knowledge, by the exercise of which
they were cognizant of the thoughts of all living beings, and they also
possessed the fifth kind of knowledge called Kevalajuanam [spiritual
knowledge,] by which they were instantaneously cognizant of all things done
in all the worlds. They sat exalted on the throne in the temple called
Sambhavasaranam, constructed by the Devendras. They were the possessors
of the triple-umbrella and the Ashoka tree; they were believed in as gods
over gods, as omniscient, as lords of the three worlds, as removers of sin and
bestowers of heavenly bliss, as persons praised by all living beings, as
possessors of divine attributes, as bearing the one thousnd and eight divine
appellations, as having the one thousand and eight divine marks on their
sacred bodies, and as manifesting abundant grace, love, and mercy to all
living beings, and pre-eminent in imparting instruction in their respective
languages to the inhabitants of the celestial and the terrestial worlds, to
those of the Nagaloka, Vaiyantriloka, and Jotiloka, and also to irrational
animals, and inculcating the virtues, such as not killing, &c., prescribed in
the twelve Vedas. As these twenty-four Tirthankaras are incarnations of
wisdom, and are divine personages who appeared in the world and attained
the enjoyment of heavenly bliss, the Jainas consider them to be Swamis
equal to the divine-natured Arugan, who exists in this Avasarpini time. And
accordingly they build temples in honour of these Tirthankaras, and make
images like them of stone, wood, gold, and precious gems, and considering
these idols as the god Arugan himself, they perform daily and special pujas
[worship], and observe fasts, and celebrate festivals, in their honour.
"They moreover say that in the time of Vrishaba Tirthankara, and in the
reign of Baradeswara, the first Chakravarti, the four castes, namely, the
Brahman, the Kshatriya, the Vaisya, and the Sudra, were instituted in
connection with this system.
"They moreover allege that in the time of Vrishaba Swami, who was the
first Tirthankara, the Saiva system was first introduced; and about the same
period, by the fault of the time, one hundred and six heterodox sects were
established by Marichi, a Prajapati [Patriarch]; and that from the time of
Vimalaswami, the 13th Tirthankara, the Vaishnava system was introduced;
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JAI
and that in the time of Paraswanatha, the 20th Tirthankara, Mahomedanism
was established. They also say that there are three hundred and thirty-six
false systems of religion.
"They moreover affirm that during the period of the 20th Tirthankara, by
the fault of the time, Yagam, animal sacrifice, was first introduced by an
Asura named Mahakalesuran; and after the introduction of these Yagams,
temples were built for Siva and Vishnu.
Moreover, as it is declared in the Jaina Vedas that all the gods worshipped
by the various Hindu Sects, namely, Siva, Brahma, Vishnu, Ganapati,
Subramaniyan, and others, were devoted adherents of the abovementioned
Tirthankaras, the Jainas therefore do not consider them as unworthy of their
worship; but as they are servants of Arugan, they consider them to be
deities of their system, and accordingly perform certain pujas in honour of
them, and worship them also.
"As Jaina temples and idols are to be seen in all villages and countries,
and in some places even underground, it is evident that the Jaina system,
as declared in their Vedas, was the primeval system of the Hindus. As
moreover, when the Jaina Vedas are carefully examined, there will be found
in them many things calculated to benefit mankind; and since Jaina idols
are to be found in all countries; and as the deities worshipped by others are
believed to be devotees of Arugan; and as all the precepts of Arugan point
only to what is good to all sentient beings; and by the great doctrine that
no sentient being whatever, even a tree, should be destroyed; and as
there are many things in the system beyond the reach of man's understanding,
and which can by no means whatever be comprehended; and as it is evident
from their Vedas as well as from experience, that all other systems originated
among themselves through the fault of the time, from misunderstanding, and
from a variety of other causes; it is evident that this system was the
primeval one.
"The Jainas are divided into two parties, the Swetambaras, and
Digambaras. Though both parties have the same Veda, they disagree in a
few things. The Swetambaras have many internal divisions, and the
Digambaras also appear to have a few internal divisions.
"The Jainas are prevalent in the North. Their tenets and observances are
the following: They believe that not to kill any sentient being is the greatest
virtue; not to tell lies, not to steal other men's goods, not to covet other
men's wives, and to desire moderately such things as money, grain, house,
garden, land, vehicle, clothing, &c.; these four ordinances they consider of
equal importance with the injunction not to kill.
Moreover, not to eat at night, and to drink water strained, are held to be
high virtues, And not to drink toddy, or honey, or arrack, are also believed
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279
to be important injunctions. They are also forbidden to eat figs, the fruit of
the banian, the peepul, the koli and the jujube, as well as the snake-vegetable,
the calabash, gunjah (bhàng), opium, onions, assafætida, garlic, radish,
mushroom, &c. Such articles, and others which have much seed in them,
they will not so much as think of eating even in an emergency where death
is imminent on such abstinence; and any kind of flesh meat they will not
even inadvertently touch with the hand.
"These and similar observances are enjoined on those who live in the
domestic state; and if we were to write largely upon them many books
would be required; we shall, therefore, abridge what we have to say. They
have in fact twelve thousand injunctions to observe. But regarding those
who live in the ascetic state, as much time will be required both to write and
to read, we have not ventured to describe them. However, it is necessary to
know that they firmly believe that there is no final liberation [bliss] in the
domestic, but only in the ascetic state; nor is liberation to be attained by
females, irrational animals, or Sudras, nor by celestial, nor infernal beings;
and they moreover hazard the assertion that during the fifth and sixth
stages of time there is no liberation for any one; and they show that Time
alone is the cause of this evil. They also affirm that there are always three
less nine krores of Munis [ascetics] on earth.
"The Jainas hold that the function [act, work] of the Divine Being is to
exercise love and mercy to all living beings, and reveal to them the Vedas, in
order that they may walk according to the precepts enjoined in them; and
that the function [act, work] of all living beings is either to do good or evil,
and have fruition of their deeds; and that the attainment of heaven or hell
is also their own act, and that it is in their own power to renounce sin, and
to obtain merit. This they consider to be true doctrine."
According to Mr. Max Müller the Nirwana of the Buddhists is
absolute and total annihilation; but the Jainas certainly do not
attach any such meaning to the term; it is with them a more
defined state of existence than the Moksha of the Hindus.
"The
Jainas not only affirm that there is such a state, but they define
the size of the emancipated souls, the place where they live, their
tangible qualities, the duration of their existence, the distance at
which they are from one another, their parts, natures and numbers.
Those who attain to this nirwána, this extinction of action, this final
liberation, do not return to a wordly state, and there is no interrup-
tion to their bliss. They have perfect vision and knowledge, and do
not depend on works. (Rev. J. Stevenson. The Kalpa Sutra.)
As noticed in the extract given above from Munshi Sastram, the
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JAI
Jainas are divided into two principal divisions, Digambaras and
Swetambaras. The former word means 'sky-clad,' or naked, but
in the present day, ascetics of this division wear coloured garments,
and confine the disuse of clothes to the period of their meals.
Swetambara meåns 'one who wears white garments;' but the
points of difference between these two divisions are far from being
restricted to that of dress: it is said to comprehend a list of seven
hundred topics, of which eighty-four are considered to be of
paramount importance. Amongst the latter are mentioned the
practice of the Swetambaras to decorate the images of their saints
with earrings, necklaces, armlets, and tiaras of gold and jewels;
whereas the Digambaras leave their images without ornaments.
Again, the Swetambaras assert that there are twelve heavens and
sixty-four Indras; whereas the Digambaras maintain that there
are sixteen heavens and one hundred Indras. In the south of
India, the Jainas are divided into two castes; in Upper Hindustan,
they are all of one caste. It is remarkable, however, that amongst
themselves they recognise a number of families between which no
intermarriage can take place, and that they resemble, in this respect
also, the ancient Brahmanical Hindus, who established similar
restrictions in their religious codes.
As regards the pantheon of the Jaina creed, it is still more
fantastical than that of the Brahmanical sects, whence it is
borrowed to a great extent, but without any of the poetical and
philosophical interest which inheres in the gods of the Vedic time.
The highest rank amongst their numberless hosts of divine beings-
divided by them into four classes, with various sub-divisions-they
assign to the deified saints, which they call Jina, or Arhat, or
Tirthankara, besides a variety of other generic names. The Jainas
enumerate twenty-four Tirthankaras of their past age, twenty-four
of the present, and twenty-four of the age to come; and they
invest these holy personages with thirty-six superhuman attributes
of the most extravagant character. Notwithstanding the sameness
of these attributes, they distinguish the twenty-four Jainas of the
present age from each other in colour, stature, and longevity.
Two of them are red, two white, two blue, two black; the rest
are of a golden hue, or a yellowish brown. The other two
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281
peculiarities are regulated by them with equal precision, and
according to a system of decrement, from Rishabha, the first Jina,
who was five hundred poles in stature, and lived 8,400,000 great
years, down to Mahâvîra, the 24th, who had degenerated to the
size of a man, and was no more than forty years on earth; the age
of his predecessor, Pârswanatha, not exceeding one hundred years.
The present worship is almost restricted to the two last Tirthankaras ;
and as the stature and years of these personages have a reasonable
possibility, H. T. Colebrooke inferred that they alone are to be
considered as historical personages. As, moreover, amongst the
disciples of Mahávîra there is one, Indrabhuti, who is called.
Gautama, and as Gautama is also a name of the founder of the
Buddha faith, the same distinguished scholar concluded that, if
the identity between these names could be assumed, it would lead
to the further surmise that both these sects are branches of the
same stock. But against this view, which would assign to the
Jaina religion an antiquity even higher than 543 before Christ-
the date which is commonly ascribed to the apotheosis of Gautama
Buddha-several reasons are alleged by Professor Wilson. As to
the real date, however, of the origin of the Jaina faith, as the
same scholar justly observes, it is immersed in the same obscurity
which invests all remote history amongst the Hindus. We can
only infer from the existing Jaina literature, and from the doctrines
it inculcates, that it came later into existence than Buddhism.
Jaitra-The name of the chariot of Krishna.
Jajali-A pupil of Pathya, and teacher of the Atharva Veda.
Jaleyu-One of the ten sons of Raudraswa, a descendant of Puru.
Jamadagni-One of the seven Rishis, or great sages of the
seventh Manwantara, the present period.
•
Jamadagni-The son of Richíka, was a pious sage, who by the
fervour of his devotions, whilst engaged in holy study, obtained
entire possession of the Vedas. Having gone to king Prasenajit,
he demanded in marriage his daughter Reņuká, and the king gave
her unto him. The descendant of Bhrigu conducted the princess
to his hermitage, and dwelt with her there, and she was contented
to partake in his ascetic life. They had four sons, and then a
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282
JAM
fifth, who was Jámadaguya, (Ráma) the last but not the least of
the brethren. Once when her sons were all absent, to gather the
fruits on which they fed, Renuka, who was exact in the discharge
of all her duties, went forth to bathe. On her way to the stream
she beheld Chitraratha, the prince of Mrittikávatí, with a garland.
of lotuses on his neck, sporting with his queen in the water, and
she felt envious of their felicity. Defiled by unworthy thoughts,
wetted but not purified by the stream, she returned disquieted to
the hermitage, and her husband perceived her agitation. Beholding
her fallen from perfection, and shorn of the lustre of her sanctity,
Jamadagni reproved her, and was exceeding wrath. Upon this
there came her sons from the wood, first the eldest, Rumanwat,
then Susheṇa, then Vasu, and then Viśwávasu; and each, as he
entered, was successively commanded by his father to put his
mother to death; but amazed, and influenced by natural affection,
none of them made any reply: therefore Jamadagni was angry,
and cursed them, and they became as idiots, and lost all
understanding, and were like unto beasts or birds. Lastly,.Ráma
returned to the hermitage, when the mighty and holy Jamadagni
said unto him, 'Kill thy mother, who has sinned; and do it, son,
without repining.' Ráma accordingly took up his axe, and struck
off his mother's head; whereupon the wrath of the illustrious and
mighty Jamadagni was assuaged, and he was pleased with his son,
and said, 'Since thou hast obeyed my commands, and done what
was hard to be performed, demand from me whatever blessings
thou wilt, and thy desires shall be all fulfilled.' Then Ráma
begged of his father these boons; the restoration of his mother to
life, with forgetfulness of her having been slain, and purification
from all defilement; the return of his brothers to their natural
condition; and, for himself, invincibility in single combat, and
length of days; and all these did his father bestow.
"It happened on one occasion, that, during the absence of the
Rishi's sons, the mighty monarch Kárttavírya, the sovereign of
the Haihaya tribe, endowed by the favour of Dattatreya with a
thousand arms, and a golden chariot that went wheresoever he
willed it to go, came to the hermitage of Jamadagni, where the
wife of the sage received him with all proper respect. The king,
JAM
283
inflated with the pride of valour, made no return to her hospitality,
but carried off with him by violence the calf of the milch cow of
the sacred oblation, and cast down the tall trees surrounding the
hermitage. When Ráma returned, his father told him what had
chanced, and he saw the cow in affliction, and he was filled with
wrath. Taking up his splendid bow, Bhargava, the slayer of
hostile heroes, he assailed Kárttavírya, who had now become subject
to the power of death, and overthrew him in battle. With sharp
arrows Ráma cut off his thousand arms, and the king perished,
The sons of Kárttavírya, to revenge his death, attacked the
hermitage of Jamadagni, when Ráma was away, and slew the
pious and unresisting sage, who called repeatedly, but fruitlessly.
upon his valiant son. They then departed; and when Ráma
returned, bearing fuel from the thickets, he found his father
lifeless. V. P. See Ráma.
Jambavat-The king of the bears, that killed the lion that slew
Prasena, the possessor of the Syamantaka gem. The lion had the
jewel in his mouth when he was killed by Jámbavat, who carrying
off the gem retired into his cave, and gave it to his son Sukumára
to play with. The murder of Prasena having been ascribed to
Krishna, he determined to recover the gem, and having found the
cavern of Jámbavat, he saw the brilliant jewel in the hands of the
nurse, who called loudly for help. Hearing her cries Jámbavat
came into the cave, and a conflict ensued between him and Krishna
which lasted twenty-one days. At last Jámbavat was vanquished
and acknowledged the divinity of Krishna, who then alleviated
the bodily pain the bear suffered from the fight. Jámbavat
prostrated himself and offered his daughter Jámbavati along with
the Syamantaka jewel. Jámbavat was one of the generals in
Rúma's army at the siege of Lanka. He was severely wounded by
the magical weapons of Indrajit; but was still conscious, and made
known to Hanuman the existence of the four medicinal herbs, that
grew at Kailása on the Himálaya mountains, and by virtue of
which all the dead and wounded might be restored. Hanumán at
once flew to the spot, and brought the mountain peak and all
its contents back with him to the camp, and Jámbavat, with the
other chiefs were soon made well.
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JAM-JAN
Jamabvati-One of the wives of Krishna obtained as related
in the preceding article.
Jambu--The name of the rose-apple tree on Mount Gandha-
mádana, the southern buttress of Mount Meru. From the Jambu-
tree the insular continent, Jambu-dwípa derives its appellation,
The apples are said to be as large as elephants. V. P.
Jambu-dwipa-The centre of the seven great insular conti-
nents, which, with the seven seas, are supposed to form alternate
concentric circles. In the centre of Jambu-dwípa is the golden
mountain Mera.
Jambumali-The son of the Commander-in-Chief of the
Rakshasas, who was sent by Rávaṇa against Hanumán with orders
not to return until he had slain the blood-thirsty monkey. But
Hanuman took up a large tree and hurled it at the head of his
enemy; afterwards he took up a pillar and threw it at Jambu-máli,
dashing him and his chariot to pieces.
Jambunada-The soil in the banks of the river Jambu,
absorbing the Jambu juice, and being dried by gentle breezes
becomes the gold termed Jambunáda, of which the ornaments of
the Siddhas are fabricated.
Jambu river-The apples of the Jambu tree are as large as
elephants; when they are rotten they fall upon the crest of the
mountain, and from their expressed juice is formed the Jambu-
river, the waters of which are drunk by the inhabitants; and in
consequence of drinking of that stream they pass their days in
content and health, being subject neither to perspiration, to foul
odours, to decrepitude, nor organic decay. V. P.
Janaka-The Rája of Mithila (the modern Tirhoot) the
successor of Nimi, called Janaka from being born without a
progenitor. Another Rája of Mithila of the same name, called also
Siradharaja, is the more celebrated as the father of Síta.
He received Viswamitra the sage with Ráma and Lakshmána,
and exhibited to them the great bow of Śiva, informing them that
his daughter Síta was promised to the Rája who could bend the
bow. Ráma then bent the bow in their presence and claimed his
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285
reward. The Rája invited Dasaratha to the marriage, and
proposed to marry his two daughters to Ráma and Lakshmána;
and his two nieces to Bhárata and Satrughna. The sages approved
of the marriages of the four damsels to the four sons of Dasaratha.
The latter performed a great Sráddha to the ghosts of his deceased
ancestors, and gave four lakhs of cows with their calves to the
Brahmans, being a lakh for each son, and each cow was adorned
with horns of pure gold. The marriage rites were then performed
with great pomp and overpowering splendour. (Ramayana)
Janaka was also the name of a king of Magadha, and seems to have
been a general title of Mithila kings.
Janakpur-A ruined city in the northern skirts of the Mithila
district (Tir út) and supposed to indicate the site of a city founded
by one of the princes of that name.
Jana-loka-The heaven of saints where Sanandana and other
pure-minded sons of Brahma reside, situated twenty millions of
leagues above Dhruva. During a pralaya or general conflagration
of all things at the end of a Kalpa, Jana-loka is beyond the reach
of the all-devouring flame; and the saints who dwell in Mahar-
loka, when the heat of the flames that destroy the world, is felt by
them, repair to Jana-loka in thin subtile forms, destined to become
re-embodied, in similar capacities as their former, when the world
is renewed at the beginning of the succeeding Kalpa. V. P.
Janamejaya--The king of Vaișáli, whose father Sómadatta
celebrated ten times the sacrifice of a horse. Also a son of
Puranjaya, a descendant of Ana. Paríkshit, the son of Kuru, had
also a son named Janamejaya; and another Paríkshit, the son of
Abhimanyu, had a son named Janamejaya.
Janarddana--The name of Vishnu as the one only God,
derived from Jana men' and Arddana, worship, the object of
adoration to mankind.
Janasruti-A king mentioned in the Chhándogya-Upanishad,
described as charitably-disposed, the giver of large gifts, and the
preparer of much food; who built houses everywhere that people
from all sides might come and feast therein.
286
JAN-JAR
Jangalas-One of the aboriginal tribes, dwellers in thickets
and jungles. Many of the aborigines were driven into the forests
by the Aryan invaders.
Jangams, or Lingayats-One of the forms in which the
Linga worship appears, is that of the Lingayats, Lingawants, or
Jangams, the essential characteristic of which is wearing the
emblem on some part of the dress or person. The type is of a
small size, made of copper or silver, and is commonly worn,
suspended in a case, round the neck, or sometimes tied in the
turban. In common with the Saivas generally, the Jangamas
smear their foreheads with Vibhúti (ashes), wear necklaces, and
carry rosaries made of the Rudraksha seed. The clerical members
of the sect usually stain their garments with red ochre. They are
not numerous in upper India, and are rarely encountered except as
mendicants, leading about a bull, the living type of Nandi, the bull
of Śiva, decorated with housings of various colours and strings of
kaurí shells. The conductor carries a bell in his hand, and, thus
accompanied, goes about from place to place, subsisting upon alms.
In the South of India the Lingayats are very numerous, and the
officiating priests of the Saiva shrines are commonly of this sect,
when they bear the designations of Arádhya and Pandaram. The
sect is also there known by the name of Vira Saiva. The restorer
if not the founder of this faith, was Basava whose history is given
in the Basava Purána, q. v.-H. H. Wilson, Vol. I, p. 224.
Janma—A birth; a state of existence; nativity, one of the
branches of the study included in the Brihat-Sanhita.
Jantu―The eldest of the hundred sons of Sómaka. Also the
name of a son of Sudanwan.
Jara-An allegorical personage signifying' old age'' decay'—
mentioned in the Vishnu Purána as the name of the hunter by
whom Krishna was slain. He mistook the foot of Krishna for
part of a deer, and shooting his arrow lodged it in the side. He
then said, 'Have pity on me; I have done this unwittingly,
Krishna forgave him and sent him to heaven in his own car. Jará
was also the name of the female fiend who united the two parts of
Jarasandha.
JAR-JAT
287
Jaradgava-The southern portion or Avashthána of the
planetary sphere or path of the sun and planets amongst the lunar
asterisms.
Jaradgavi-A division of the lunar mansions, occurring in the
Central or Vaiswánara Avasthána.
Jarasandha-The son of Vrihadratha, who was born in two
parts and put together by the female fiend Jarà.
When he grew
up he became king of Magadha, and hearing that Krishna had
killed his son-in-law, he collected a large force and beseiged
Mathura; he was defeated, but renewed the attack eighteen times
without success. When Yudhishthira was about to perform the
Rajasúya, Krishna informed him that there was one Rája still to be
conquered before he began the great sacrifice, and that was
Jarasandha the Rája of Magadha. Krishna, Arjuna and Bhíma
then disguised themselves as brahmans and journeyed to the city
of Magadha, and Bhíma challenged Jarásandha to single combat ;
the challenge was accepted and after a hard contest the Rája was
slain. The story is related at great length in the Mahabharata,
but the details are purely mythical.
Jaratkaru-The Vyasa of the twenty-seventh Dwápara.
Jarudhi-One of the mountain ridges which project from the
base of Mount Meru, on the western side.
Jataka-A birth; a state of existence; the title of one of the
sacred books of the Buddhists, containing an account of Gautama
Buddha in 550 different births.
Jatas-One of the five great divisions of the Haiháya tribe.
;
Jatayu--A son of Syení and Aruna. A semi-divine bird, the
friend of Ráma, who fought in defence of Síta. He heard her
cries in the chariot of Rávana, stopped the chariot and fought
desperately with the formidable giant, but was mortally wounded
and only lived to make known to Ráma the fate of Síta. The
funeral rites of the chief of vultures were carefully performed by
Ráma and Lakshmána.
Jathara-A range of mountains running north and south, and
connecting the two chains of Nishadha and Níla.
288
JAT JAY
Jatharagni-The name in a previous birth of the Muni
Agastya.
Jatharas-A tribe of aborigines inhabiting the mountain range
termed Jathara.
Jaughira--An interesting and picturesque place of pilgrimage
between Bhagulpúr and Monghír. In the middle of the river
there is a romantic rock, with a temple surmounting it sacred to
Śiva; while in the mainland, and close to the small town, there is
another hill of the same kind, on which temples have been built,
some of them of great antiquity. The place has long enjoyed the
reputation of being the residence of holy devotees; Mussalman
as well as Hindu.
Javali-A renowned logician who at Chitra Kúta endeavoured
to persuade Ráma that it was his duty to accept the Ráj when
Bharata himself offered it. Ráma regarded his arguments as
atheistical and wanting in respect for his deceased father the
Mahárája. Javáli ultimately recants. Mr. Wheeler regards the
incident as an interpolation to bring forward Buddhism and
Atheism for the sake of refuting them.
Jaya-One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Gusruta.
Jayadratha-A descendant of Anu and son of Vrihanmanas.
Also the name of a son of Vrihatkarman, a descendant of Hastiu.
Jayadhwaja-The king of Avanti; one of chief of the
hundred sons of Kárttavírya.
Jayanta-A name applied to one of the Rudras. The Puranic
writers apply to the Rudras different appellations of the common
prototype, or synonyms of Rudra and Śiva, selected at random
from his thousand and eight names.
Jayantpura-A city founded by Nimi, near the Ásrama of
Gautama.
Jayas-In the beginning of the Kalpa twelve gods, named
Jayas, were created by Bramha as his deputies and assistants in
the creation. They, lost in meditation, neglected his commands ;
on which he sentenced them to be repeatedly born in each
JAY-JUM
289
Manwantara till the seventh. They were accordingly in the
several successive Manwantaras, Ajitas, Treshitas, Satyas, Haris,
Vaikunthas, Sadyas, and Ádityas.
Jayati-The metre created from the western mouth of Bramha
along with the Sáma Véda, the collection of hymns termed
Saptadása and the Aitarátra sacrifice.
Jayasena-The son of Adína; one of the descendants of
Kuru, Sarvabhauma had a son also named Jayasena.
Jhajhara-A daitya of great prowess, the son of Hiranyaksha.
Jillikas-one of the aboriginal or Non-Aryan tribes mentioned
in the V. P.
Jimuta-A prince, son of Vyoman, a descendant of Jyámagha.
Jiva-The soul; "Spirit cannot change; intelligence has no
knowledge; the soul (jiva) knowing things in excess is subject to
illusion, and says, 'I act, I see.' If spirit falls into the error of
supposing the individual soul, jua, to be itself, as one might
suppose a rope to be a snake, it becomes frightened; but so soon
as it perceives I am not jiva, but the Supreme spirit, (parátman)
it is released from all fear." Atma Bodha, quoted in A. and M. I.,
Vol. I, p. 212.
Jivata--Man's individual spirit; it is an error to attribute the
spirit of life (or man's individual spirit, jurata,) to the Supreme
Spirit, just as it is an error to take a post for a man.
When once
the true nature of jirata has been recognised jirata itself disappears."
Atma Bodha, quoted in A. and M. I. p. 214.
Jogi-See Yogi.
Jumnotree-A sacred spot in the Himalaya mountains, near a
junction of three streams. From the bed of the torrent the
mountain rises at once to its height, apparently without any very
extensive irregularities, and the steepness of the declivity at this
point may in some degree be estimated, when it is understood that
here, though at the foot of this upper region of the mountain, the
very peaks are seen towering above as ready to overwhelm the
37
290
JNA-JYA
gazer with the snow from their summit, and, in fact, the avalanches
from above fall into the channel of the river. The particular spot
which obtains the name of Jumnotree is very little below the place
where the various small streams formed on the mountain brow, by
the melting of many masses of snow, unite in one, and fall into a
basin below. Balfour's Cyclopædia of India.
Jnana-“Wisdom," the various epithets applied to it in the
Yoga philosophy are that it "requires no exercise," "without the
practice of abstract contemplation ;" "not to be taught," "not
capable of being enjoined" "internally diffused," etc., "of all
means knowledge alone is able to effect emancipation; as without
fire there can be no cooking, so without jnana, science, there can be
no final deliverance." Atma Bodha, A. and M. I., Vol. I, p. 210.
Jrimbhika-"Yawning," a form or manifestation of Brahmá.
V. P. 40.
Jyamagha-A king, celebrated for his devotion to his wife.
"Of all the husbands submissive to their wives, who have been or
who will be, the most eminent is the king Jyámagha, who was the
husband of Saivya, who was barren: but Jyámagha was so much
afraid of her, that he did not take any other wife. On one occasion
the king, after a desperate conflict with elephants and horse,
defeated a powerful foe, who abandoning wife, children, kin, army,
treasure, and dominion, fled. When the enemy was put to flight,
Jyámagha beheld a lovely princess left alone, and exclaiming,
"Save me, father! Save me, brother!" as her large eyes rolled
wildly with affright. The king was struck by her beauty, and
penetrated with affection for her, and said to himself, "This is
fortunate; I have no children, and am the husband of a sterile
bride this maiden has fallen into my hands to rear up posterity :
I will espouse her; but first I will take her in my car, and convey
her to my palace, where I must request the concurrence of the
queen in these nuptials." Accordingly he took the princess into.
his chariot, and returned to his own capital.
When Jyamagha's approach was announced, Śaivyá came to the
palace gate, attended by the ministers, the courtiers, and the
JYE-JYO
291
citizens, to welcome the victorious monarch: but when she beheld
the maiden standing on the left hand of the king, her lips swelled
and slightly quivered with resentment, and she said to Jyámagha,
"Who is this light-hearted damsel that is with you in the chariot ?"
The king unprepared with a reply, made answer precipitately,
through fear of his queen; This is my daughter-in-law." "I have
never had a son," rejoined Saivyá, "and you have no other children.
Of what son of yours then is this girl the wife ?" The king
disconcerted by the jealousy and anger which the words of Śaivyá
displayed, made this reply to her in order to prevent further
contention; "She is the young bride of the future son whom thou
shalt bring forth," Hearing this, Saivyá smiled gently, and said,
"So be it ;" and the king entered into his great palace. V. P.
Jyeshta-A lunar month corresponding to May.
Jyeshta-The goddess of misfortune; produced at the churning
of the ocean according to the enumeration in the Uttara Khanda
of the Padma-Purána.-Also the name of a lunar mansion in
Járadgavi in the Central Avashtána.
Jyotiratha-The name of a river mentioned in the Puránas,
but not identified.
Jyotisha" Astronomy;" an anga of the Vedas, or subsidiary
portion of the Vedas. "New moon festivals, and full moon
festivals, were integral elements in early Hindu worship, and each
veda appears to have had a calendar, called jyotisha; but whether
any original copies of these calendars still exist, seems doubtful.
They are interesting as being first steps in astronomy, although
constructed solely with a view to the regulation of religious
ceremonies.
The Súrya Siddhánta, one of the most important of Sanscrit
works on Astronomy, has been attacked and defended and explained
by competent European scholars."
"M. Biot believed that the Hindus derived their system of
nakshatras, or moon stations, from the Chinese; and Professor
Whitney shows that the Hindu nakshatra does not mean the same
thing as the Chinese siew. Siew means a single star, whereas
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JYO
nakshatra generally expresses a group of stars, or rather a certain
portion of the starry heavens.
*
*
The Arab manázil,
marking out the
Such a system,
and the signs of the lunar zodiac, bear a marked resemblance to
the Hindu nakshatras, being groups of stars
ecliptic into twelve nearly equal divisions.
Professor Whitney observes, is as well suited as any that could be
devised for a people seeking to define the daily stages of the moon's
revolution, without the aid of instruments.
"The path of the moon was in fact marked by twenty-seven
stations believed by Hindu observers to be equi-distant. But when
a 'new and more exact astronomy had been brought in from the
West,' the moon was reduced in significance to one of a class of
planetary bodies all whose movements were capable of being
predicted, and their places at any given time determined, and their
conjunctions calculated by an elaborate system of rules. Then first
the lesser planets were mentioned by Hindu astronomers, and then
first was an observation made by aid of the junction stars, which
yielded a trustworthy date. That this must have been not far
from A. D. 500 is, Professor Whitney considers, proved.
"The results of this one grand effort, never repeated and never
rivalled, are recorded with occasional slight and unexplained
modifications, by every succeeding author from century to century.
The date coincides with that of the Hindu Astronomer Aryabhata ;
and Aryabhata we understand, availed himself largely of the
progress which the Greeks, (especially Hipparchus) had made in
astronomy; and not only improved upon their new theories aud
inventions, but added also the results of his own independent
investigations.'
"The beginning of the sixth century stands out, therefore, as
an important era in the history of astronomy in India; and every
fragment of intelligence concerning Aryabhata and his works
becomes invested with peculiar importance. (See Appendix, Art.
Aryabhata). His idea of the roundness of the earth is thus
expressed :-
'The terrestrial globe, a compound of earth, water, fire and air, entirely
round, encompassed by a girdle (the equator) stands in the air, in the centre
JYO
293
of the stellar sphere. Like as a ball formed by the blossoms of the nauclea
kadamba is on every side beset with flowerets, so is the earth-globe with all
creatures, terrestrial and aquatic.'
"And this globe he believed to have a daily revolution.
'Aryabhata' says Dr. Kern, for aught we know was the first, and
remained almost the sole astronomer among his countrymen, who
affirmed the daily revolution of the earth on its own axis.' He
gives the following quotation from one of Aryabhata's works :-
'As a person in a vessel while moving forward, sees an immovable object
moving backwards; in the same manner do the stars, however immovable,
seem to move daily.'
Thus showing it is the earth not the stars which move :-
<
"On another occasion Aryabhata says, the sphere of the stars
is stationary; and the earth, making a revolution, produces the
daily rising and setting of stars and planets.'
"Mr. Colebrooke states that Aryabhata affirmed the diurnal
revolution of the earth on its axis;' that he accounted for it by a
wind or current of ærial fluid, the extent of which, according to
the orbit assigned to it by him, corresponds to an elevation of little
more than a hundred miles from the surface of the earth; that he
possessed the true theory of lunar and solar eclipses, and disregarded
the imaginary dark planets of the mythologists and astrologers,-
affirming the moon and primary planets (and even the stars) to be
essentially dark, and only illumined by the sun,
"But after attaining this excellence, astronomy in India appears
to have drifted away from science, for no second correct determi-
nation of polar longitude and polar latitude is recorded ; and writers
subsequent to Aryabhata confuse astronomy with astrology."* See
Bhaskaracharya, Varáhamihira, &c.
The popular notion even at the present day is that an eclipse is
caused by Ráhu, the demon, attempting to devour a portion of the
sun or moon. See Ráhu.
Jyotishtoma-One of the great sacrifices, in which especially
the juice of the soma plant is offered for the purpose of obtaining
Swarga or heaven.
Mrs. Manning. A. and M, I., vol. 1, p. 367.
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JYO
Jyotishmat-The youngest of the ten sons of Priyavrata,-
installed by his father king of Kúsa-dwípa. Jyotishmat had seven
sons, after whom the seven portions or varshas of the island were
named. At the end of all things the seven solar rays dilate to seven
suns, one of which is termed Jyotishmat.- Vishnu Purána.
Jyotsna-" Dawn"-a form or manifestation of Brahma.
K
Ka-1, A name of Prajapati, the creator of the universe;
"Ka
is Prajapati; to him let us offer our oblations ;" 2, A name given
to Daksha; 3, The name of the divinity who presides over the
excretory and generative organs.
Kabandha-1, A pupil of the Muni Sumanta who became a
teacher of the Sanhitas of the Atharva Veda; 2, A mighty
Rakshasa who attacked Ráma and Lakshmána in the forest, and was
slain by them. When mortally wounded the Rákshasa informed
them that he had originally been a Gandharva, but was changed
by the curse of a sage to a Rákshasa until set free by Ráma. He
then, assuming his real shape as a Gandharva, counselled Rama
to ally himself to Sugríva, with whose aid he might conquer
Rávana. The story is thus translated by Mr. Griffiths.
"A hideous giant then he saw,
Kabandha named, a shape of awe.
The monstrous fiend he smote and slew,
And in the flame the body threw ;
When straight from out the funeral flame
In lovely form Kabandha came,
And bade him seek in his distress
A wise and holy hermitess.
By counsel of this saintly dame
To Pampa's pleasant flood he came,
And there the steadfast friendship won
Of Hanuman the Wind-God's son.
Counselled by him he told his grief
To great Sugríva, Vánar chief,
Who, knowing all the tale, before
The sacred flame alliance swore."
Kabir-The most celebrated of the twelve disciples of the
Hindu reformer Rámánand. He produced a great effect in the
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KAC-KAI
state of popular belief; assailing the whole system of idolatrous
worship, and ridiculing the learning of the Pandits and doctrines
of the Sastras, in a style peculiarly suited to the genius of his
countrymen. Kabir lived at the beginning of the 15th century.
The Bhakta Málá gives an account of his birth and life. The
doctrines taught by Kabir are contained in the Sukh Nidán, and
do not differ much from those of the Vaishnavas. The moral code
is short but favorable to morality.-Wilson's Works, Vol. I, p. 153.
Kachchas-An aboriginal tribe, the name of which implies that
the people dwelt in districts contiguous to water and in marshy
spots such as the province still called Cutch.
:
Kachhapa-One of the sons of Viṣvámitra.
Kadamba-The name of the tree that grows on Mount
Maudara, the flowers of which are said to yield a spirit on
distillation, whence Kádambarí is one of the synonyms of wine or
spirituous liquor.
Kadru-One of the daughters of Daksha, who was married to
Kasyapa and had a progeny of a thousand powerful many-headed
serpents.
Kaikasi-One of the daughters of Sumáli and Ketumati;
Sumáli with his family lived for a long time in Pátala; and once
happening to visit the earth he desired his daughter Kaikasi to go
and woo Viṣravas, who received her graciously, and she became the
mother of the dreadful Rávana, the huge Kumbhakarna, and the
two younger brothers, who all grew up in the forest.
Kaikeya - One of the four sons of Śiví, who has given a name
to a province and people in the northwest of India.
Kaikeyi-One of the queens of Mahárája Dasaratha, and
mother of Bharata. When it was proposed to instal Ráma, the
son of Queen Kausalya, as heir apparent, Kaikeyi was pleased,
and offered a reward to her slave woman Manthara who brought
her the news, saying
I joy that Ráma gains the throne,
Kausalya's son is as mine own."
ΚΑΙ
297
But the old hag Manthara, who disliked Ráma, excited the
jealousy of Kaikeyi by representing the degradation and ruin that
would come to Bharata and herself.
"When Ráma's hand has once begun
Ayodhya's realm to sway."
This roused her to action and she ran to the chamber of
displeasure, sulky and angry. The Mahárája afterwards sought
her, and finding her in this state of affliction, protested his love
and affection, but she remained silent; at last in a critical moment
she extorted a promise from him and then with a woman's
obstinacy compelled him to keep his word." "He had made the
promise and she insisted upon its fulfilment. To all he could urge
she had but one answer Unless Ráma is exiled and Bharata is
installed, you will be stigmatized as a liar and I will take poison.'
C
"The monarch as Kaikeyi pressed.
With cruel words her due request,
Stood for a time absorbed in thought,
While anguish in his bosom wrought."
The result was the exile of Ráma; and when her own son
Bharata returned from Girivraja he strongly reproached his mother
for what she had done. She lived, however, to rejoice in Ráma's
return to his kingdom.
Kaikeyas--The five sons of Dhristakétu, rajah of Kaikeya,
are termed the Kaikeyas.
Kailakila Yavanas-A race of kings, who lived when the
Greek princes or their Indo-Scythic successors, following the
course of the Indus, spread to the upper part of the western coast
of the peninsula. From an inscription which has been found
dated A. D. 1058, Kilakila, or Kilagila as it is there termed, is
called the capital of Márasinha Deva, king of the Konkan.
Kailasa--A mountain situated like Meru, in the lofty regions
to the north of the Himálaya, and celebrated in the traditions and
myths of India.
"Meru and Kailása are the two Indian Olympi.
Perhaps they were held in such veneration because the Sanskrit-
speaking Indians remembered the ancient home where they dwelt
38
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KAI-KAK
with the other primitive peoples of their family before they
descended to occupy the vast plains which extend between the
Indus and the Gauges."— Gorresio.
In the Purúnas Kailása is a fabulous mountain several yójanas
in breadth, to the west of Meru. Kailása is described as a
mountain of pure silver, brilliantly white, and as the residence of
Śiva. In former ages it is said all the mountains had wings but
their flights were productive of so much mischief and danger, that
Indra struck off their wings with his thunderbolts, and fixed them
in their present position. Kailása is often mentioned in the
Rámáyana, as in the region of the sacred lakes, near the northern
heights of the Himalayas.
Kaisika--One of the sons of Vidarbha, (q. v.) and grandson of
Jyámagha.
Kaitabha-A formidable demon, who with his companion
Madhu, sprung from the ear of Vishnu, when he was sunk in his
sleep of contemplation, (Yoganidrá) at the end of the Kalpa; the
demons were about to kill Brahma, when the latter, seeing Vishņu
asleep, with the view of arousing him began to celebrate the
praises of Yoganidrá. O. S. T., Vol. IV., p. 371.
Kaivalya--The fourth chapter of the Yóga Sútras, being a
treatise on the extatic abstraction or isolation of the soul. The
state of emancipation that may be obtained even during life: it is
termed jivanmukti; and is the highest state of Yóga before the
soul is actually re-absorbed into the Supreme Being. The body
still exists, and of course the soul exists within it; but its
connection with it is supposed to be entirely broken, and the soul
can consequently quit and re-enter the body, and wander about
where and as it lists. J. C. Thomson.
Kajnghas-An aboriginal tribe mentioned in the Purána lists,
but not satisfactorily identified,
Kakamukhas--A nickname or term of derision, meaning crow-
faced, applied to designate some of the aboriginal tribes.
Kakas-A tribe of aborigines, dwelling on the banks of the
Indus, as it leaves the mountains.
KAK
299
Kakavarna-One of the kings of Magadha, who reigned for
thirty-six years; he was the son of Sisunaga.
Kakshas-The same as Kachchas.
Kaksheya-One of the ter sons of Raudraswa, a descendant
of Puru.
Kakshivat-A young poet and sage, to whom Rája Swanaya
on the banks of the river Indus, gave his ten daughters in
marriage; and in return was duly praised in a vedic hymn
composed by his enthusiastic son-in-law. Wilson's Rig Veda.
He was a worshipper of the Aṣvins, who bestowed on him wisdom,
and caused a hundred jars of wine and honied liquor to flow forth
from the hoof of their horse as from a sieve. O. S. T., Vol. V,
p. 246.
Kakubha-A mountain in Orissa.
Kakud-One of the daughters of Daksha who was married to
Dharma.
Kakudmin-A name of Raivata, the prince who went to the
heaven of Brahma to consult the god where a bridegroom fit for
his lovely daughter should be found.
Kakutstha--In the Treta age a violent war broke out between
the gods and the Asúras, in which the former were vanquished.
They consequently had recourse to Vishnu for assistance and
propitiated him by their adorations. Nárayana had compassion
on them and said, there is an illustrious prince named Puranjaya,
the son of a royal sage; into his person I will infuse a portion of
myself, and by him subdue all your enemies. Acknowledging
with reverence the kindness of the deity, the immortals quitted
his presence, and repaired to Puranjaya to solicit his alliance.
The prince replied, "Let this your Indra, the monarch of the
spheres, the god of a hundred sacrifices, consent to carry me upon
his shoulders, and I will wage battle with your adversaries as your
ally." The gods and Indra readily answered, "So be it ;" and
the latter assuming the shape of a bull, the prince mounted upon
his shoulder. Being then filled with delight, and invigorated by
the power of the eternal ruler of all movable and immovable
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KAL
things, he destroyed in the battle that ensued all the enemies of
the gods; and because he annihilated the demon host whilst
seated upon the shoulder (or the hump, Kakud) of the bull, he
thence obtained the appellation Kakutstha (seated on the hump).
V. P.
Kala-In the Vishnu Purána the moon's surface is said to be
divided into sixteen Kalás or phases; the moon is also apportioned
as a receptable of nectar, into fifteen Kalas or digits, corresponding
to the fifteen lunations on the fourteen of which during the wane,
the gods drink the amrita, and in the fifteenth of which the Pitris,
exhaust the remaining portion. Professor Wilson remarks on the
indistinctness of this account, but states that none of the other
Puránas make it any clearer. Colonel Warren explains Kála, in
one of its acceptations, the phases of the moon, of which the
Hindus count sixteen.'
Kala-(Kalá.) A gradation or mauifestation of the Múla
Prakriti; the principal Kalás are Swáhá, Swadhá, Dakshiná,
Swasti, Pushti, Tushti, and others, most of which are allegorical
personifications, as Dhriti, fortitude, Pratishta, fame, and Adharma,
wickedness, the bride of Mrityu, or death. Aditi the mother of
the gods, and Diti, the mother of the demons, are also Kalás of
Prakriti. The list includes all the secondary goddesses.- Wilson's
Worhs, Vol. I, p. 246.
:
Kala--(Kála.) Time. A form of Vishnu. "The deity as Time
is without beginning and his end is not known and from him the
revolutions of creation, continuance, and dissolution, unintermit-
tingly succeed; for when, in the latter season, the equilibrium of
the qualities (Pradhána) exists, and spirit (Pumán) is detached
from matter, then the form of Vishnu, which is Time, abides."
V. P., p. 12.
"This being the case it is asked what should sustain matter
and spirit whilst separate, or renew their combination so as to
renovate creation? It is answered, Time, which is when every
thing else is not; and which, at the end of a certain interval,
unites Matter, Pradhána, and Purusha, and produces creation.
Conceptions of this kind are evidently comprised in the Orphic
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301
triad, or the ancient notion of the co-operation of three such
principles in creation, as Phanes or Eros, which is the Hindu spirit
or Purusha; Chaos, matter or Pradhána; and Chronos, or Kála,
Time." (Professor Wilson). Kála is also a name of Yama, the
Hindu Pluto. "In two remarkable hymns in the Rig Veda we
find an altogether new doctrine; Kála or Time is there described
as the source and ruler of all things." O. S. T., Vol. V., p. 407.
Kala-(Kála) Thirty Káshtas make one Kála ; fifteen twinklings
of the eye make a Káshta. Kála or Time, is thus computed:
15 Nimishas
30 Káshtas
30 Kálas
12 Kshanas
30 Muhúrttas
1 Káshta
1 Kála
1 Kshana
1 Muhúrtta
1 day and night.
Kala--(Kála) The name of one of the eleven Rudras according
to the Bhagavata; the son of Vasu Dhruva was named Kála.
One of the daughters of Daksha, who was married to Kasyapa was
named Kála.
Kalajoshakas-One of the aboriginal races mentioned in the
Puránas.
Kalaka-One of the daughters of Daksha who was married to
Kasyapa.
Kalakas, Kalakanjas, Kalakeyas-The names applied to a
class of Danavas who were powerful, ferocious, and cruel.
Kahlanabha—One of the many sons of Hiranyaksha; also the
name of a son of Viprachitti.
Kalanara-A prince, the son of Sabhánara, one of the
descendants of Anu.
Kalanjara-A fabulous mountain, is placed in the Puráuas to
the north of Meru.
Kala-nemi―The uncle of Rávana; the latter promised him half
his kingdom if he would kill Hanumán. Kála-nemi cons equently
assumed the form of a devotee and created a magic hermitage on
the mountain Gandha-mádana. When Hanumán reached the
mountain and perceived Kála-nemi seated like a devotee upon a
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KAL
deer skin, with various rosaries round his neck, and apparently
absorbed in meditation, he supposed he saw
a devout sage
worshipping the linga. Presently Kála-nemi beheld Hanumán,
and welcomed him as his guest; but Hanumán refused food and
drink, and would only bathe in the pond which was near. When
he dipped his foot in the water it was seized by a crocodile, which
however he soon killed; upon this a beautiful Apsara arose from
the dead body, and told Hanumán how she had offended the sage
Daksha, and had been cursed to become a crocodile until she
should be delivered by Hanumán. She then thanked him for her
deliverance and bade him beware of Kála-nemi. Meantime
Kála-nemi being assured of the death of Hanumán, was pending
over the division of the Ráj of Lanka, when Hanumán suddenly
appeared before him and said "O you false hermit I know who
you are ;" and seizing him by the feet whirled him round and
suddenly let him loose; he flew through the air to Lanka to the
utter surprise of Rávana and his councillors. "Kála-nemi," says
Mr. Wheeler, "is a Hindu Alnaschar. He counts upon the
pleasure he shall enjoy when taking half the Ráj without consi-
dering that Hanuman may be still alive. To this day when a
Hindu thinks of future profit without being sure that he will get
it, he is often compared with Kála-nemi.”
Kalansa-A sub-division of the more important Kalás, or
manifestations of Prakriti ; the Kalánsas are all womankind, who
are distinguished as good, middling, or bad, according as they
derive their being from the parts of their great original in which
the Satya, Rajas, and Tamo Guna, or property of goodness, passion
and vice predominate.
Kalapa--The name of the fabulous village in which Maru, a
descendant of Kusa, has lived for a long period, through the
power of devotion, that in a future age he may be the restorer of
the Khshatriya race in the solar dynasty. V. P.
Kalasutra--One of the Narakas, or hells, enumerated in the
Vishnu Purána, and described as one of the awful provinces in
the kingdom of Yama, terrible with instruments of torture.
Kalavas-One of the aboriginal races mentioned in the Puranas.
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303
Kalayavana-The son of Gargya, as black as a bee, and hence
called Kalayavana. He was king of the Yavanas, and having
assembled a large army of Mlechchas and barbarians, advanced
impatiently against Mathura and the Yádavas. Through the
intervention of Krishna Kálayavana was led to enter the cavern in
which Muchukunda was sleeping, and was there destroyed.
Professor Wilson thinks the story may have originated in some
knowledge of the power and position of the Greek Bactrian
princes, or their Scythian successors, mixed up with allusions to
the first Mahomedan aggressions.
Kalayavi-A disciple of Báshkali and teacher of the Rig Veda.
Kali-A male personification of the Kali age, or the fourth and
last age through which the world is now passing. He wished to
obtain Damayantí in marriage, and when he found that she had
chosen Nala, he was greatly enraged and determined to be revenged.
One evening when Nala failed in some ceremonial observance Kali
seized, the opportunity and straightway entered into him and
possessed his inmost soul. Nala had a brother named Pushkara,
and Kali said to Pushkara, go you and play at dice with Nala, and
I will make you the winner of his Raj. Pushkara challenged Nala
to a game at dice, and they sat down to play in the presence of
Damayantí. They played for gold and jewels and raiment, for
chariots and horses, but Nala was worsted at every throw, for
Dwápara embodied the dice, and Kali had mastered him body and
soul. Then the faithful friends of Nala prayed him to throw no
longer, but he was maddened with the love of play, and shut his
ears to all they said. He staked his Raj, and the vestments which
he wore, and he lost all to Pushkara. Then followed his exile,
see Nala. Kali after this induced Nala to desert Damayantí in the
jungle, and this completed his revenge.
Kali-Káli.) The Moloch of Indian Mythology. A form of
Parvati, called Káli, or Mahá-Káli, the consort of Śiva, in his
destroying character of Time. As such, she is painted of a black or
dark blue complexion. In Calcutta, her images are usually seen of
the last-mentioned colour. In plates, she is shown as trampling (as
the personification of Eternity) on the body of Śiva (Time). In one
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KAL
hand she holds the exterminating sword, in another a human head;
a third points downward, indicating, according to some, the
destruction which surrounds her, and the other is raised upwards,
in allusion to the figure of regeneration of nature by a new creation.
Mr. Ward, however, is of an opinion, which he has expressed
respecting others of the deities, but which appears to be much at
variance with the character of Káli, who is here annihilating Time
itself, viz., that of the two last mentioned hands, one is bestowing
a blessing, the other forbidding fear. Whatever her gestures may
import, the image of this goddess is truly horrid, as are the
devotional rites performed in honor of her. Her wild dishevelled
hair reaching to her feet, her necklace of human heads, the
wildness of her countenance, the tongue protruded from her
distorted mouth, her cincture of blood-stained hands, and her
position on the body of Śiva, altogether convey in blended colours
so powerful a personification of that dark character she is
intended to pourtray, that whatever we may think of their tastes,
we cannot deny to the Hindus our full credit for the possession of
most extraordinary and fertile powers of imagination. A model
of this goddess has the body of a dark blue, the insides of the
hands are red, as is also the circlet of hands round the waist. The
heads which form the necklace have a ghastly appearance. Her
tongue is protruded from her mouth, the sides of which are marked
with blood. Her head-dress and other ornaments are splendidly
adorned with gems of various kinds. The body of Śiva is white.
Káli is also called the goddess of cemeteries, under which form she
is described dancing with the infant Śiva in her arms, surrounded
by ghosts and goblins (likewise dancing) in a cemetery amongst
the dead. A paragraph appeared sometime ago in a Calcutta
paper, which stated, that her images, under this form, were now
worshipped by the Hindus as a propitiation against the destructive
ravages of the cholera. To this ferocious goddess sanguinary
sacrifices are made. The Kalika Purána which details, in due
order and with much precision, the different descriptions of animals
that are to be sacrificed, and the length of time by which this
insatiate lady will be gratified and kept in good humour by each,
ordains that one man (or a lion) will please her for a thousand
KAL
305
years, but that by the immolation of three men she will graciously
condescend to be pleased one hundred thousand years. The
sacrificer must repeat the name Kali and pay her the compliment
of saying "Hrang, hring, Kali, Kali! O horrid-toothed goddess!
eat, cut, destroy all the malignant, cut with this axe; bind, bind,
seize, seize, drink blood, spring, secure, secure, salutation to Kali!”
Immense sums of money are annually spent in the worship of this
terrific deity. There is a celebrated temple dedicated to her at
Kali-ghat in the vicinity of Calcutta, or the city of Kali, and
impure sacrifices are offered to it; and on the occasion of the
festivals of Kali, her temples are literally swimming with blood.
An adequate delineation of the scene, and of the horribly disgusting
appearance of the executioners and other attendants of the place is
scarcely possible.- Coleman, Myth, Hind, p. 94.
Kalidasa-The greatest dramatist, and one of the most
celebrated poets of India. He is known to the literary public of
Europe especially through his drama Sakuntala which, first
introduced to the notice of the western world by Sir William
Jones (1789,) created so great a sensation throughout Europe, that
the early success obtained by Sanskrit studies in England and
Germany may be considered due to this master-piece of Sanskrit
literature. Another drama of the same poet, and next in renown
to Sakuntala, is the Vikramorvasi, or the Hero and the Nymph.
Besides these works, Hindu tradition ascribes to his authorship a
third drama and several poems, which no European critic will
believe could ever have sprung from a mind like that of Kálidása.
Professor Lassen, in the Indische Alterthumskunde, passes the
following judgment on this poet: Kálidása may be considered as
the brightest star in the firmament of Hindu artificial poetry. He
deserves this praise on account of the mastery with which he wields.
the language, and on account of the consummate tact with which
he imparts to it a more simple or more artificial form, according
to the requirements of the subject treated by him, without falling
into the artificial diction of later poets, or over-stepping the limits
of good taste; on account of the variety of his creations, his
ingenious conceptions, and his happy choice of subjects; and not
less on account of the complete manner in which he attains his
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306
KAL
poetical ends, the beauty of his narrative, the delicacy of his
sentiment, and the fertility of his imagination.' But although we
are enabled by his works to appreciate the merits of this poet, we
know little of his personal history. That he lived at Ujjayini or
Oujein, and that he was one of the nine gems of the court of
Vikramaditya,' is all that is related in regard to him. But as
there have been several Vikramádityas at Ujjayini, his date is as
uncertain as that of any personage of the ancient history of India.
Dr. Bháo Dájî, in a learned and ingenious essay 'On the Sanskrit
Poet, Kálidása' (Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal
As. Soc., October 1860), has endeavoured to identify Vikramádityá,
the contemporary of Kálidása, with Harsha Vikramádityá, and the
great poet would, therefore, have lived in the middle of the sixth
century of the Christian era.— Goldstücker.
Kalika-One of the daughters of Vaiswánara, the wife of
Kasyapa and mother of the ferocious and cruel Danavas.
Kalikamukha--A distinguished Rakshasa chief, the son of
Sumali and Retumatí; he was the uncle of the great giant Rávaṇa,
and took part in the mythical battles with the gods.
Kalika Purana-This work contains about nine thousand
stanzas in ninety-eight chapters, and is the only work of the series
dedicated to recommend the worship of the bride of Śiva, in one
or other of her manifold forms as Girija, Devi, Bhadrakáli, Káli,
Mahámyá. It belongs therefore to the Sákta modification of
Hindu belief, or the worship of the female powers of the deities.
The influence of this worship shows itself in the very first pages
of the work, which relate the incestuous passion of Brahma for
his daughter Sandhya, in a strain that has nothing analogous to it
in the Váyu, Linga, or Śiva Puránas.
The marriage of Śiva and Párvati is a subject early described,
with the sacrifice of Daksha, and the death of Satí; and this work
is authority for Śiva's carrying the dead body about the world, and
the origin of the Pithást'hanas, or places where the different
members of it were scattered, and where Lingas were consequently
erected. A legend follows of the births of Bhairava and Vetála,
whose devotion to different forms of Devi furnishes occasion to
KAL
307
describe in great detail the rites and formula of which her worship
consists, including the chapters on sanguinary sacrifices, translated
in the Asiatic Researches.- Wilson.
Kalinda--The father of Kálindí, the goddess of the Jumna.
Kalindas-One of the tribes of Kshatriyas who from seeing no
brahmans became outcasts. O. S. T., Vol. I, p. 482.
Kalindi-1, One of the wives of Krishna, the daughter of the
Sun, whom Krishna met on one of his visits to Indraprastha, and
who claimed him as the reward of her penance; 2, The goddess
of the Jumna; 3, One of the widows of king Asit, and mother of
Sagara;
There came the other widowed queen
With lotus eyes and beauteous mien
Longing a noble son to bear,
And wooed the saint with earnest prayer.
When thus Kálindí fairest dame,
With reverent supplication came,
To her the holy sage replied:
Born with the poison from thy side,
O happy queen shall spring ere long
An infant fortunate and strong
Then weep no more and check thy sighs
Sweet lady of the lotus eyes.'
Griffiths' Rámáyana.
4. The daughter of the king of the Asuras, who after her
father's death offered her kingdom and herself, twin wives, to
Mátanga (q. v.) who readily assented, married the damsel, and
became king of Pátála.
Kalinga-One of the five sons of Bali. Kalinga is the name
of the sea coast west of the mouths of the Ganges, with the upper
part of the Coromandel Coast. The inhabitants are called
Kalingas.
Kaliya--A serpent king, into whose lake Krishna when a boy
once leaped, and was severely bitten; Krishna was then exhorted
to put forth his celestial vigour, and soon bruised the head of the
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KAL
venomous and powerful snake. Kálíya then prayed for mercy
saying, behold I am now without strength, without poison,
deprived of both by thee, Spare my life.' The snake king was
then liberated and sent into the sea.
6
Kali Yuga-The last age. It consists of 1,200 years of the
gods, a year of men being a day of the gods; these divine years
may, therefore, be converted into years of mortals by multiplying
them by 360, which makes the duration of the Kali Yuga 432,000
years. The date of its commencement is fixed in the thirteenth
or fourteenth century B. C., when Vishņu returned to heaven after
his incarnation as Krishna. During this age all things will
decline, and the deterioration of mankind will be general. The
Vedas will be disregarded. The minds of men will be wholly
occupied in acquiring wealth; and wealth will be spent solely on
selfish gratifications. Women will follow their inclinations and be
fond of pleasure. Men of all degrees will consider themselves.
equal to Brahmans. Cows will be held in esteem only as they
supply milk. These are a few of the evils, selected from the long
catalogue of them contained in the Vishnu Purána which are to
prevail in the Kali age. A few redeeming properties of the age
are, however, mentioned. The efficacy of devotion to Vishņu is
more strikingly manifested. The least moral merit obtains in
this age, the greatest reward; and is by all classes most easily
displayed. The Kali Yuga is to be followed by the Krita Yuga.
Kalki--An Avatára of Vishņu to be born near the close of the
Kali age, when all whose minds are devoted to iniquity shall be
destroyed, and righteousness be established on earth; and the
minds of those who live at the end of the Kali age shall be
awakened and be as pellucid as crystal.
Kalmashapada-A prince, called also Saudasa. Kalmáshapáda,
whilst hunting, encountered Saktri, the son of Vašíśht'ha, in the
woods; and on his refusing to make way, struck the sage with his
whip. Saktri cursed the king to become a cannibal ; and
Viswamitra, who had a quarrel with Vasisht'ha, seized the
opportunity to direct a Rákshasa to take possession of the king,
that he might become the instrument of destroying the family of
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309
the rival saint. Whilst thus influenced, Mitrasaha, a Brahman,
applied to Kalmáshapáda for food, and the king commanded his
cook to dress human flesh, and give it to the Brahman, who,
knowing what it was, repeated the curse of Saktri, that the king
should become a cannibal; which taking effect with double force,
Kalmáshapáda began to eat men. One of his first victims was
Śaktri, whom he slew and ate ; and then killed and devoured, under
the secret impulse of Viswamitra's demon, all the other sons of
Vasistha. Vaśist'ha, however, liberated him from the Rákshasa
who possessed him, and restored him to his natural character.
V. P. For a somewhat different version of the legend, see O. S. T.
Vol. I, p. 414.
Kalpa-A period of time: a great mundane age; a day of
Brahma. The most simple calculation of a Kalpa is its being
1,000 great ages or ages of the gods. Thus 4,320,000 years or a
divine age, multiplied by 1,000 is equal to 4,320,000,000 years, or
a day or night of Brahmá.
One year of mortals is equal to one day of the gods. 12,000
divine years are equal to a period of four Yugas which is thus
made up, viz. :—
Krita Yuga, with its mornings and evenings, 4,800 divine years.
Tretá Yuga,
Dvápara Yuga,
Kali Yuga,
""
""
>>
3,600
""
2,400
""
1,200
making 12,000 divine years.
As a day of the gods is to one year of mortals, the 12,000
divine years must be multiplied by 360, the assumed number of
days in a year, to give the number of the years of mortals in this
great period of four Yugas, thus: 12,000 divine years x 360 =
4,320,000 years of mortals. 1,000 of these periods of 12,000
divine, or 4,320,000 human years-i e., 4,320,000,000 human
years, are
1 day of Brahma, and his night is of the same
duration. Within that period of a day of Brahmá, 14 Manus reign,
and a Manwantara, or period of Manu, is consequently
part of a day of Brahmá. In the present Kalpa (=
the 14th.
a day of
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KAL-KAM
Brahmá) six Manus, of whom Svayambhuva was the first, have
already passed away, the present Manu being Vaivasvata. In each
Manwantara seven Rishis, certain deities, an Indra, a Manu, and
the kings, his sons, are created and perish. A thousand of the
systems of four Yugas, as has been before explained, occur
coincidently with these 14 Manwantaras; and consequently about
71 systems of 4 Yugas elapse during each Mauwantara, and
measure the lives of the Manu and the deities of the period. At
the close of this day of Brahmá a collapse of the universe takes
place, which lasts through a night of Brahmá, equal in duration to
his day, during which period the three worlds are converted into
one great ocean, when the lotus born god, expanded by his
deglutition of the universe, and contemplated by the yogis and gods
in Janaloka, sleeps on the serpent Sesha. At the end of that
night he awakes and creates anew.-- Wilson.
Kalpa-The name of a son of Dhruva; also an Anga of the
Vedas, containing the Ritual: the ceremonials of the Atharva-
Vedas are called the five Kalpas.
Kalpa-sutras-Aphorisms regarding the performance of
sacrifices enjoined by the vedas; written by human authors, and
therefore not considered as Śruti or revelation, are yet regarded as
of very high authority.
Kama-deva-The Hindu Cupid or Eros, or god of Love,
considered to be one of the most pleasing creations of Hindu
fiction, is the son of Vishnu or Krishna by Lakshmi, who is then
called Máyá or Rukminí. According to another account he was
first produced in the heart of Brahmá, and coming out in the form
of a beautiful female, was looked upon by Brahmá with amorous
emotions. He is usually represented as a handsome youth,
sometime conversing with his mother and consort in the midst of
his gardens and temples; sometimes riding by moonlight on a
parrot or lory, and attended by nymphs, one of whom bears his
banner, which consists of a fish on red ground. Endeavouring to
influence Śiva with a passion of love for his wife Párvati, he
discharged an arrow at him; but Śiva, enraged at the attempt
reduced him to ashes, or as some say to a mere mental essence, by
KAM
311
a beam of fire darted from his central eye. Afterwards the
relenting god declared that he should be born again in the form of
Pradyumna, son of Krishna by Máya or Rukmini. The bow of
Kámadeva is made of flowers, with a string formed of bees, and
his five arrows are each tipped with the blossom of a flower, which
He is lord of
is devoted to and supposed to preside over a sense.
the Apsarasas. Many names are applied to Káma-deva. He is
called the god of desire; the mind agitator; the maddener; the
inflamer; the destroyer of devotional tranquillity.
It is well known that Greek mythology connected Eros, the god
of love, with the creation of the universe, somewhat in the same
way as Káma is associated with it in the Rig Veda, x. 129. (See
Eros in Dr. Smith's Dictionary.) In another hymn of the
Atharva beda, Káma, like the Eros of the Greeks and Cupid of
the Latins, is described as the god of sexual love. "May Káma,
having well-directed the arrow which is winged with pain, barbed
with longing, and has desire for its shaft, pierce thee in the heart."
&c. O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 407.
Kamagamas—A class of deities of the eleventh Manwantara.
Kamakhya, Kamakshi--The name of a form of Dúrga in
the north-east of Bengal. There are some celebrated temples in
Assam dedicated to the goddess under this form.
Kamarupa-The name given to the eastern part of Bhárata-
varsha. Also the name of a place of pilgrimage in Assam, where
the temples referred to in the preceding article are built.
Kambala-One of the many-headed serpent kings, of the
progeny of Kádru.
Kambalavarhish--One of the four sons of Andhaka.
Kambojas-A north-western tribe famous for their horses, of
which they appear to have possessed a remarkably fine breed.
They were conquered by Sagara, who would have destroyed them
utterly, but at the request of Vasisht'ha contented himself with
imposing on all the vanquished tribes peculiar distinguishing
marks, such as shaving their heads, letting their beards grow, &c.
312
KAM-KAN
Kameri-The Indian cuckoo, or bird of Káma, whose emblems
are peculiarly appropriate, being a bow and arrow composed of
roses and jessamine, and other flowers in which no thorns ever
lurk. Colonel Tod says "the Kámeri poured forth its monotonous
but pleasing notes, from au umbrageous peepul, amidst the stilluess
of a lovely scene, where the last tints of sunset illuminated the
dark hues of the surrounding woods."
Kampilya-One of the five sons of Haryaswa. Their father
said these my five (pancha) sous are able (alam) to protect the
countries; hence they were called the Pánchálas. Pánchála was at
first the country north and west of Delhi, between the foot of the
Himalaya and the Chambal. It was afterwards divided iuto
northern and southern Pánchála separated by the Ganges. Kampilya
was the name also given to part of the country, and was called
Kampil by the early Mahommedan invaders. Kampilya was the
city of Rája Drupada.
Kamya-Daughter of Kardanea who was married to Priyavrata.
Kamyaka-Au extensive forest on the banks of the Saraswati,
to which the Pándavas retired, on the occasions of their second
exile.
Kanakas-Inhabitants of Múshika, or the country of thieves,
a name applied to the pirate coast of Konkan. Professor Wilson
thinks it may also designate Malabar where polyandry then as now
prevailed.
Kanakhala-The name of the village according to the Linga
Purána, where the great sacrifice of Daksha took place. Gangad-
wára, the place where the Ganges descends to the plains,-or
Haridwar, as it is more usually termed, is commonly specified as
the scene of action.
Kanchana-The son of Bhíma, a descendant of Pururavas.
Kandarpa-A name of Káma the Indian Cupid.
Kandu--An eminent sage, who practised pious austerities on
the lovely borders of the Gomati river. Indra sent the nymph
Pramlochá to disturb his penance, and the sweet-smiling damsel
diverted the sage from his devotions. They lived together in the
KAN
313
valley of Mandura for a hundred and fifty years, wholly given up
to enjoyment. Then the nymph requested permission to return to
heaven; but the sage still fondly attached to her, prevailed upon.
her to remain for some time longer; and the graceful damsel
continued to reside for another hundred years and delight the
great sage by her fascinations. Then she again wished to return
to the abodes of the gods, and again the Muni desired her to
remain. Similar scenes occurred several times.
<
6
"On one occasion the sage was going forth from their cottage
in a great hurry. The nymph asked him where he was going.
'The day,' he replied, 'is drawing fast to a close: I must
perform the Sandhyá worship, or a duty will be neglected.' The
nymph smiled mirthfully as she rejoined, Why do you talk,
grave sir, of this day drawing to a close your day is a day of
many years, a day that must be a marvel to all explain what
this means.' The Muni said, 'Fair damsel, you came to the river-
side at dawn; I beheld you then, and you then entered my
hermitage. It is now the revolution of evening, and the day is
gone. What is the meaning of this laughter? Tell me the truth.'
Pramlochá answered, you say rightly,' venerable Brahman, that
I came hither at morning dawn, but several hundred years have
The
passed since the time of my arrival. This is the truth.'
Muni, on hearing this, was seized with astonishment, and asked
her how long he had enjoyed her society; to which the nymph
replied, that they had lived together nine hundred and seven
years, six months, and three days. The Muni asked her if she
spoke the truth, or if she was in jest; for it appeared to him that
they had spent but one day together: to which Pramlochá
replied, that she should not dare at any time to tell him who lived
in the path of piety an untruth, but particularly when she had
been enjoined by him to inform him what had passed.
"When the Muni, princes, had heard these words, and knew
that it was the truth, he began to reproach himself bitterly,
exclaiming, Fie, fie upon me; my penance has been interrupted ;
the treasure of the learned and the pious has been stolen from me ;
my judgment has been blinded: this woman has been created by
some one to beguile me: Brahmá is beyond the reach of those
40
314
KAN
agitated by the waves of infirmity. I had subdued my passions,
and was about to attain divine knowledge. This was foreseen by
him by whom this girl has been sent hither. Fie on the passion
that has obstructed my devotions. All the austerities that would
have led to acquisition of the wisdom of the Vedas have been
rendered of no avail by passion that is the road to hell.' The pious
sage, having thus reviled himself, turned to the nymph, who was
sitting nigh, and said to her, Go, deceitful girl, whither thou
wilt thou hast performed the office assigned thee by the monarch.
of the gods, of disturbing my penance by thy fascinations. I will
not reduce thee to ashes by the fire of my wrath. Seven paces
together is sufficient for the friendship of the virtuous, but thou
and I have dwelt together. And in truth what fault hast thou
committed? why should I be wrath with thee? The sin is wholly
mine, in that I could not subdue my passions: yet fie upon thee,
who, to gain favour with Indra, hast disturbed my devotions; vile
bundle of delusion.'
6
"Thus spoken to by the Muni, Pramlochá stood trembling,
whilst big drops of perspiration started from every pore; till he
angrily cried to her, Depart, begone.' She then, reproached by
him, went forth from his dwelling, and, passing through the air,
wiped the perspiration from her person with the leaves of the
trees. The nymph went from tree to tree, and as with the dusky
shoots that crowned their summits she dried her limbs, which were
covered with moisture, the child she had conceived by the Rishi
came forth from the pores of her skin in drops of perspiration.
The trees received the living dews, and the winds collected them
into one mass. This," said Soma, "I matured by my rays, and
gradually it increased in size, till the exhalation that had rested on
the tree tops became the lovely girl named Márishá." V. P.
66
Kanishtas—A class of deities of the fourteenth Manwantara.
Kanka-One of the sons of Ugraséna.
Kanouj-A city on the banks of the river Sone. The
Rámáyana contains an extraordinary legend of its foundation.
The Rája Kusanábha had a hundred beautiful daughters to whom
Váyu the god of wind made some amorous proposals which they
KAN-KAP
315
rejected, declaring that they would only accept such husband as
their father might give them. Váyu then rendered them hunch-
Lacked. Subsequently they were all married to a young Rája,
Brahmadatta, who cured them by a touch, and the city in which
they dwelt was henceforth called Kanyákubja, the hunch-backed,
and still goes by the name of Kanouj.-See Gritáchí, Kusanábha.
Kanyakagunas-A race of Aborigines.
Kanyakubja-The city of the Bent Virgins, the modern
Kanouj.
Kansa --Rajah of Mathura; he deposed his father Ugraséna ;
and threatened to slay his cousin Devaki on her wedding day.
Vasudeva engaged to deliver up her children to him. He was
warned before the birth of Krishna, that the latter would take
away his life. He accordingly attempted to destroy Krishna as
soon as he was born; failing in this he ordered that all the
worshippers of Vishnu, young and old, should be slain; and he
commanded his warriors to make search for all young children
throughout that country, and to slay every male child.
afterwards employed demons to find and kill Krishna, and sent
Akrúra to bring him to Mathura. Public games were celebrated
with great splendour; there was a severe contest in which Krishna
slew the powerful demon Chánúra, and afterwards killed king
Kausa himself.
Kansa, Kansavati, Kanki-Daughters of Ugraséna.
He
Kanwa--1, A teacher of the white Yajush, and founder of
several schools for the purpose; 2, The name of a son of Aprati-
ratha from whom the Kanwáyana brahmans descended; 3, A sou
of Ajamídha, a descendant of Hastin.
Kapali, Kaparddi-Two of the eleven Rudras according to
the Vishnu Purána.
Kapalika--The following description of the Kápalika is from
the Sankara Vijaya of Ànandagiri :
"His body is smeared with ashes from a funeral pile, around
his neck hangs a string of human skulls, his forehead is streaked.
with a black line, his hair is wove into the matted braid, his loins
316
KAP
are clothed with a tiger's skin, a hollow skull is in his left hand
(for a cup), and in his right he carries a bell, which he rings
incessantly, exclaiming aloud, ho, Sambhu, Bhairava-ho, lord
of Kálí."
Kapi-A prince, the son of Urukshaya, who afterwards became
a brahman. V. P., p. 451.
Kapila--A great Rishi, who destroyed the sons of Sagam.
When the latter commenced the performance of the solemn sacrifice
of a horse, it was guarded by his own sons; nevertheless some one
stole the animal, and carried it off into a chasm in the earth.
Sagara commanded his sons to search for the steed. They at last
found it freely wandering about in Pátála, and at no great distance.
saw the Rishi Kapila sitting, absorbed in profound meditation, and
illuminating the surrounding space with radiance as bright as the
splendour of the autumnal sun, shining in an unclouded sky.
Exclaiming "This is the villain who has interrupted our sacrifice
and stolen the horses, kill him; kill him; they ran towards him
with uplifted weɛ pons.
The Muni slowly raised his eyes and for
an instant looked upon them, and they were reduced to ashes by
the sacred flame that darted from his person. Kapila was the
founder of the Sánkya school of philosophy. A work said to be
written by him, called the Śánkya-Praváchana, or Preface to the
Śáukya Philosophy, is still extant, and was printed at Serampore
in 1821. The great reverence in which Kapila was held, may be
presumed from the fact that he is sometimes considered as an
incarnation of the god Agui; and sometimes of Vishnu himself.
He seems to belong only to the Puránic period. See Sánkya. 2,
A renowned Danava. 3, One of the serpent kings of the progeny
of Kadru. 4, The name of a mountain in the west of Meru. 5,
One of the Puranic rivers. 6, A city mentioned in the Puránas.
Kapilasrama-The name of the hermitage of Kapila, on the
shore of the island of Sagara, which is still the scene of an annual
pilgrimage.
Kapilaswa--One of the three sons of Kuvalayáswa, who
survived the great conflict with the demon Dhunda.
Kapotoroman--The son of Vrishta, a descendant of Sini.
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317
Karabhanjikas-An aboriginal mountain tribe of the north.
Karakas, Karatas--Aboriginal tribes enumerated in the
Puránas.
Karali-The terrific one; one of the many names of the
consort of Śiva. O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 364.
Karambhi--A prince, the son of Sakuni of the race of
Jyámagha.
Karandhama―The powerful, wealthy, and valiant son of
Khaninetra, who when besieged by revolted tributaries is said to
have created an army by breathing in his hands; hence his name.
Karari--Is the worshipper of Devi in her terrific forms, the
representative of the Aghora Ghanta and Kápálika, who as lately
as only seven or eight centuries ago, there is reason to suppose,
sacrificed human victims to KALJ, CHAMUNDA, and other hideous
personifications of the Sakti of Śiva.--Wilson's Works, Vol. I,
p. 264.
Kardama-A Prajapati, who was married to one of the
daughters of Daksha named Devahúti. The names given to their
daughters show that they are allegorical personifications of
intelligences and virtues and religious rites. 2, A son of Pulaha.
Karishakas, Karitis-Aboriginal tribes enumerated in the
Puránas.
Karkkotta-One of the serpent kings of the progeny of
Kadru.
Karli-Is situated about half way between Poona and Bombay,
and is celebrated for the numerous inscriptions in its caves in the
Pali language; of a date estimated at 543 B. C. to 176 A. D. The
religion, or divinities or sages mentioned are Buddhist; the
invocation is to the Triad; no doubt meaning Buddha, Dharma,
Sanga. The kings or princes mentioned, Dr. Wilson says, are,
Vijara, but Dr. Stevenson, Arodhana, lord of India. Garga, ruler
of the Sakas. Of the numerous Buddhist inscriptions in the cave
temple at Karli, Drs. Wilson and Stevenson are not quite agreed
about the reading. Garga, the "ruler of the Sakas" (Sakya,
Buddha's tribe), is mentioned.
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KAR
The cave temples, in the southern part of India, are classed by
Mr. Fergusson into (a) the Vihara or monastery caves, which
consist of (1) natural caverns or caves slightly improved by art.
These are the most ancient, and are found appropriated to religious
purposes in Behar and Cuttack; next (2) a verandah, opening
behind into cells for the abode of priests, as in Cuttack and in
the oldest Vihara at Ajanta; the third (3) has an enlarged hall
supported on pillars: the most splendid of these caves are those
of Ajanta; though the Dherwarra at Ellora is also fine, and there
are same good specimens at Salsette and Junir.
(b) Buddhist Chetya caves form the second class. These are the
temples or churches of the series and one or more of them is
attached to every set of caves in western India, though none exist
on the eastern side. Unlike the Viharas, all these caves have the
same plan and arrangement, and the Karli cave is the most perfect
in India. All these consist of an external porch or music gallery,
an internal gallery over the entrance; a central aisle, which may
be called a nave, roofed by a plain waggon vault, and a semi-dome
terminating the nave, under the centre of which always stands a
Dagoba or Chaitya. In the oldest temples, the Dagoba consists
of a plain central drum surmounted by a hemispherical dome
crowned by a Tee, which supported the umbrella of state, of wood
or stone.
These two classes comprehend all the Buddhist caves in India.
The third class consists of brahmanical caves, properly so called.
The finest specimens are at Ellora and Elephanta though some
good ones exist also on the island of Salsette and at Mahabalipur.
In form, many of them are copies of, and a good deal resemble
the Buddhist Vihara. But they have not been appropriated from
the Buddhists, as the arrangement of the pillars and position of the
sanctuary are different.
The Fourth class consists of rock cut models of structural
Brahmanical temples. To this class belong the far famed Kylas
at Ellora, the Sivite temple at Doomnar, and the Ruths at
Mahabalipur. This last is cut out of isolated blocks of granite,
but the rest stand in pits.
The Fifth or true Jaina caves occur at Khandagiri in Cuttack
KAR
319
and in the southern parts of India, but are few and insignificant.
In that in the rock of Gwalior fort, there are cut in the rock a
number of rude colossal figures, from 30 to 40 feet high, of one of
the Thirtankaras, some sitting and some standing.
The Ajanta, are the most complete series of Buddhist caves in
India, without any mixture of Brahmanism, and contain types of
all the rest; they are in a ravine or small valley in the ghát south
of the Taptee. At Baug in a ravine or small valley iu the ghát, on
the north side of the valley of the Taptee, are three ancient
Buddhistical caves.
The Salsette or Kannari caves in the island of Salsette, are also
purely Buddhist, but very inferior to the former. The Kannari
caves are excavated in a hill situated in the midst of an immense
tract of forest country, and Mr. Fergusson supposes their date
about the 9th or 10th century of the christian era.
Dhumnar, about 40 miles S. E. from Neemuch but close to
Chundwassa, contains Buddhist caves with a Brahmanical rock
temple behind.
The Ellora caves are excavated in a porphyritic green stone or
amygdaloid.
The Elephanta caves are cut in a harder rock than those of Ellora.
Those of Dhumnar aud Ellora contain a strong admixture of
Brahmauism, and those of Elephanta are entirely Brahmanical,
though perhaps of the same age as those of Ellora.-Balfour's
Cyclopædia.
Karma--According to the doctrines of Buddhism the power
that controls the universe is Karma, literally Action; consisting
of kusala and akusala, or merit and demerit. There is no such
monad as an immaterial spirit, but at the death of any being, the
aggregate of his merit and demerit is transferred to some other
being, which new being is caused by the karma of the previous
being, and receives from that karma all the circumstances of its
existence. Thus, if the karma be good, the circumstances are
favourable, producing happiness, but if it be bad, they are
unfavourable, producing misery.
The manner in which being first commenced cannot now be
ascertained. The cause of the continuance of existence is
320
KAR
ignorance, from which merit and demerit are produced, whence
comes consciousness, then body and mind, and afterwards the six
organs of sense. Again, from the organs of sense comes contact ;
from contact, desire; from desire, sensation; from sensation, the
cleaving to existing objects; from this cleaving, reproduction ;
and from reproduction, disease, decay, and death. Thus, like the
revolutions of a wheel, there is a regular succession of death and
birth, the moral cause of which is the cleaving to existing objects,
whilst the instrumental cause is karma. It is, therefore, the great
object of all beings who would be released from the sorrows of
successive birth to seek the destruction of the moral cause of
continued existence, that is to say, the cleaving to existing objects,
or evil desire. It is possible to accomplish this destruction, by
attending to a prescribed course of discipline, which results in an
entrance to one of the four paths, with their fruition, that lead, by
different modes, to the attainment of nirwána. They in whom evil.
desire is entirely destroyed are called arhats. The freedom from
evil desire ensures the possession of a miraculous energy. .At his
death the arhat invariably attains nirwana, or ceases to exist.-
Spence Hardy.
Karmosa-The eldest son of the Patriarch Pulaka. In the
Bhagavata he is designated Karmaṣreshta.
Karna-The son of Pritha, or Kunti, by the Phœbus of Hindu
mythology. Pritha was the child of a Yádava prince, Sura, who
gave her to his childless cousin Kuntibhoja, under whose care she
was brought up. One day before her marriage she paid such
respect and attention to the great sage Durvásas, a guest in her
father's house, that he gave her a charm and taught her an incan-
tation, by virtue of which she was to have a child by any god she
liked to invoke. This power she did not suffer to lie idle, but
invoked the sun by whom she had a child, born like Minerva
ready equipped for the field; armed with a miraculous cuirass and
lance. Pritha, afraid of the censure of her relatives, deserted the
child, and exposed it in the Jumna. It was found by Dhrita-
ráshtra's charioteer Adhiratha, and nurtured by his wife Rádhá,
whence the child was afterwards called Radheya, though named
KAR
321
Indra
by his foster parents Vasusheņa. When he was grown up
tricked him out of his armour, by appealing to his generosity in
the guise of a brahman. Indra in return conferred upon him
enormous strength and changed his name to Karna.-Monier
Williams, I. E. P., p. 94.
Karna, though in reality the half-brother of the five Pándava
princes, was on more friendly terms with their cousins, the Kurus,
and joined Duryodhana and Sakuni in various schemes for
destroying the Pándus. In the great war he became a general in
the Kuru army; for five days he had the command of the whole
army; he engaged to slay Arjuna, and when the latter went forth
to a final battle against him, the armies stopped fighting and the
gods descended from heaven. He was finally slain by Arjuna
with a crescent-shaped arrow. His widows, children and
dependants were treated with great kindness by Arjuna and
Yudhisthíra. Karna's relationship to the Pándus was not known
by Arjuna at that time, and his death was afterwards lamented by
all the brothers.
“The birth of Karna was secret, and he was reputed to be the
son of Nandana the charioteer of Dhritarashtra, having been found
floating in the river Yamuná, although the son of Prithá by the
Sun; he was born in celestial panoply, and with splendid ear-rings,
whence his first appellation was Vasusheņa, or abounding in
wealth. Indra disguised as a brahman begged of him his divine
coat of mail, in order to obtain it for his own son Arjuna, and from
the act of cutting it or detaching it from his body, the prince was
named Karna; he is also entitled Vaikarttana from Vikarttana the
sun. Indra in return for the armour presented Karna with a
javelin freighted with the certain death of one individual whether
god, man, or demon. Karna launched it at Ghotokacha, the
Rákshasa son of Bhima, and it destroyed him, but left its
possessor helpless against the charmed weapons, offensive and
defensive, of Arjuna, by whose hand Karna ultimately fell."-
Wilson's Works, Vol. III, p. 333.
Karnapravaranas--A nickname applied in the Puranas to
some of the aboriginal tribes, meaning those who wrap themselves
up in their cars.
41
322
KAR
Karnatakas-The Canarese people; the inhabitants of the
centre of the peninsula, the proper Karuata, or Carnatic.
Kartika-The name of one of the lunar months, corresponding
to October.
Kartikeya-The Hindu Mars, or god of war, generated from
the vivifying principle of Śiva cast into Agni, or Fire, who unable
to retain it, cast it into Ganga, or the Ganges. On the banks of
this river was born the beautiful boy who was destined to lead the
armies of the gods, and to be the destroyer of Táraka, and Súra,
a demon who by his austerities, had alarmed both gods and men,
and gained the dominion of the universe. When born Kártikeya
was nursed by six nymphs called the Krittikás, or Pleiades, who
each called him her son, and offering her breast, the child assumed
to himself six mouths and received nurture from each. He is
considered to be the brother of Ganéṣa who was the reputed
eldest son of Śiva and Párvatí. He is represented riding on a
peacock; sometimes with one face, sometimes with six faces and
twelve arms.
One account of his birth is as follows: Śiva emitted
from his eyes sparks of fire, which being thrown into the lake
Saravana, became six infants, who were nursed by the wives of
the Rishis who are to be seen in the sky as the Pleiades. When
Párvatí saw the children she was so transported with their beauty,
and embraced all of them together so forcibly, that their six bodies
became one, while their six heads and twelve arms remained.
Kartikeya is better known in the south of India as Subramanya,
and Tuesday is the weekly day of his devotees. The Skanda Purána
gives the fullest account of Subramanya, containing his war with
Súra, and relates how he was sent by his father to frustrate the
sacrifice of Daksha, and, at the instigation of the latter, was delayed
in his way by beautiful damsels, who entertained him with song and
music. Hence it is the practice still for the dancing girls who
serve in the pagodas, to be betrothed and married to him, and
then not allowed to marry men though they may prostitute
themselves.
Karttavirya--The son of Kritavírya and sovereign of the
Kaikaya tribe. He is said to have invaded Lanka and taken
KAR-KAS
323
Rávana prisoner. The Vishnu Purána says that by propitiating
the sage Dattatreya he obtained these boons; a thousand arms;
never acting unjustly; subjugation of the world by justice, and
protecting it equitably; victory over his enemies; and death by
the hands of a person renowned in the three regions of the
universe. With these means he ruled over the earth with might
and justice; and offered ten thousand sacrifices. At the expiration
of his long reign (eighty-five thousand years) he was killed by
Parasurama, as related under Jamadagni.
Karundhaka-One of the ten sons of Súra and brother of
Vasudeva, in whose family Krishna was born.
Karusha-One of the sons of the Manu Vaiwaswata, from
whom descended the celebrated warriors termed Kárúshas, who
lived in the Paripátra or Vindhya mountains.
Kasa--The son of Suhotra of the family of Ayus, and king of
Kásí.
Kąseramat--One of the nine divisions of the Varsha of
Bhárata.
Kashtha-One of the daughters of Daksha and wife of
Kaṣyapa; she was the mother of beasts with uncloven hoofs.
Kashtha-Fifteen twinklings of the eye, or Nimishas; five
Kshanas.
Kasi, or Varanasi-Benares, q. v. the sacred city of the
Hindus, which they believe to have descended from the gods
originally.
Kasina-An ascetic rite among the Buddhists, by which it is
supposed that a miraculous energy may be received. There are
ten descriptions of this rite,
1. Prathawi.……….
2. Apo........
3. Tejo
earth.
water.
fire.
4. Váyu
5. Níla
6. Pita..
7. Lohita.....
wind.
blue.
golden.
blood red.
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KAS
8. Odata
9. Alaka
white.
light.
10. Akása.....
space.
There are various ceremonies prescribed for the performance of
these different kinds of Kasina, and from its practice in any one of
its forms, a Buddhist priest expects to derive many advantages.
See Hardy's Manual of Buddhism.
Kasiraja--One of the kings of Kási-the son of Kása, an ally
of the Pandavas.
Kasis-The people of the Benares district, and that opposite.
Kasmiras-The people of Kashmir.
Kasya--A prince, the son of Senajit, one of the descendants of
Hastin.
Hence this
Kasyapa-A sage, the son of Maríchi, the son of Brahma, and
one of the Prajapatis or progenitors of created things. He married
thirteen of the daughters of Daksha; from whom descended the
twelve Ádityas; the nymphs of the lunar constellations; the
Daityas and Danavas; many classes of animals, etc., etc. His
share in creation was thus no unimportant one, as he was the
father of the gods and demons, man, beasts, and reptiles. Kasyapa
was the father of Vivasvat, and he again of Manu. "Righteous
was this wise Manu on whom a race was founded.
family of men became known as the race of Manu.
Kshatriyas, and other men sprang from this Manu."
Vol. I, p. 125.) "The Chhándogya Upanishad agrees with the
above passage from the Mahábhárata, in recognising Manu as the
progenitor of the brahmans as well as the other castes." (p. 196.)
"Having assumed the form of a tortoise Prajapati created offspring.
That which he created, he made; hence the word kúrma. Kasyapa
means tortoise; hence men say all creatures are descendants of
Kaşyapa. This tortoise is the same as Áditya." (Vol. IV, p. 23.)
Brahmans,
(O. S. T.,
The Mahábhárata states: "From Kaṣyapa, who was the son of
Maríchi, were produced the deities and the Asuras; and he was
the source from which all beings sprang. Aditi had twelve sons,
beginning with Śakra. The youngest of them was Vishnu, on
KAS
325
whom the worlds are supported." "Ansa, Bhaga, Mitra, Varuna,
lord of the waters, Dhátri, Aryaman, Jayanta, Bhaskara, Tvashtri,
Púshan, Indra, and Vishnu, who is called the twelfth; these are
the twelve Ádityas, the sons of Kasyapa, according to tradition (or
the veda sruti.)" In another passage Vivasvat and Savitri occur
instead of Jayanta and Bháskara; Tvashtri is placed the eleventh
in order, and it adds “the twelfth is called Vishņu, who though
the latest born, surpasses all the Adityas in his attributes." (Vol.
IV, p. 103,104.)
; Visvamitra
In the Rámáyana the following passage occurs
speaks" At this period O Ráma, the divine Kasyapa, luminous
as fire, glowing, as it were, with splendour, attended by the
goddess Aditi, having completed an act of austerity which had
lasted for a thousand years of the gods, celebrated thus the praises
of the boon-bestowing Madhusúdana. Through intense austerity
I behold thee the Supreme Spirit, whose essence is austerity, who
art a cougeries of austerity, the impersonation of austerity, whose
wealth. is austerity. In thy body, lord, I behold this whole
universe; thou art unbeginning, and ineffable; to thee I have
resorted as my refuge.' Then Hari, gratified, whose taint of sin
had been purged away; 'Ask a boon; may good attend thee;
thou art regarded by me as deserving a boon.' Hearing these
words of his, Kasyapa, the son of Maríchi, replied; Sinless lord,
become the son of Aditi and myself. Slayer of the Asuras become
the younger brother of Śakra. (Indra.) Thou oughtest to succour
the gods who are oppressed with grief, Vishnu, of mighty energy,
was accordingly born of Aditi, shaded by an umbrella, in the form
of a mendicant, resplendent with a drinking gourd, and a lock of
hair on his crown." (Ibid, p. 116.)
Kaṣyapa is supposed by some modern writers to be a personifi-
cation of the remains of the antediluvian race, who took refuge in
tho central Asiatic chain, in which traces of his name so plentifully
abound, as in the Koh-i-Kas or Caucasus, the Kaspian, and Kashmir.
It is asserted that the thirteen Gotras or families of Brahmans owe
their origin to as many divine sages called after their names.
Kasyapa is one of the number. The Asvaláyana Sútra of the Rig
Veda contains the enumeration of the Gotras and their sub-divisions,
326
KAS-KAU
but in a very involved and unintelligible style. The popular
enumeration of them, however, is now wholly confined to the
South of India, where several of the reputed representatives of
these tribes yet exist; especially about Gooty and Gondavir.
Nandavaram, it is said, was a grant to the thirteen Gotras by the
sovereign of India, Nauda, in the year of Kali 980; but if there
be any foundation for the grant, it is of much more recent date,
Nanda having lived in the fourth century before the Christian era.—
Hind., Theatre, Vol. II, p. 11.
Kasyata-A son of Paurnamáșa, a descendant of one of the
daughters of Daksha who was married to one of the Rishis.
Katyayana-A Sanskrit author who lived at the time of and
after Pánini and published criticisms on the Sútra of the great
grammarian. Max Müller places him in the second half of the
fourth century, B. C. Kátyáyana is said to have been a boy of great
talent and extraordinary powers of memory. He was able to repeat
to his mother an entire play after hearing it once at the theatre;
and before he was even initiated he was able to repeat the
Pratiṣákhya which he had heard from byáli. He completed and
corrected Pánini's Grammar such as we now possess it. Kátyáyana
has been identified with Vararuchi (q. v.) the compiler of the
doctrines of Saunaka. A. S. L.
Kaukundakas, Kaukattakas, Kaunkanas-Aboriginal
tribes inhabiting the mountainous districts of the Konkan and its
neighbourhood.
Kaumara Creation-The creation of Rudra or Nílalóhita, a
form of Śiva, by Bramhá, and of certain other mind-born sons
of Brahmá, termed Sanatkumára, &c., who declining to create
progeny, remained, as the name implies, ever boys, kumáras, that
is ever pure and innocent; whence their creation is called the
Kaumára. Sanatkumára and his brethren are described in the
Śaiva Puránas as Yógis. The Linga Purána has "Being ever as
he was born he is called a youth; and hence his name is well
known as Sanatkumára."
Kaumarabhritya-One of the eight branches of medical
KAU
327
science embracing midwifery and the management of children.
Vishnu Purána, p. 407.
Kauravas-The sons of the Mahárája Dhritarashtra and his
wife Gándhári. At an early period they became jealous of their
cousins, the Pandavas, who were brought up with them in their
father's court. Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas, attempted
to take the life of his cousin Bhíma. The chief incidents of their
lives are related under their respective names, q. v.
Kausalya-One of the queens of Mahárája Dasaratha and
mother of Ráma, of whom she was extremely fond. She was
overjoyed when it was decided that Ráma should be installed as
heir-apparent, and when Ráma himself informed her that he was to
be evicted and Bharata made Yuva-rája, "she fell down to the
earth like the bough of a saul tree lopped by the axe of a
forester." She urged Ráma to seize the government and slay the
Mahárája. She afterwards acknowledged her fault.
declared to her his loyal attachment to Ráma.
Bharata
Kausambi--An ancient city of Hindustan, which appears as the
capital of Vatsa. According to the Rámáyana, it was built by
Kusamba, the son of Kusa, a descendant of Ráma. Buchanan,
upon the authority of the Bhágavata, ascribes its foundation to
Chakra, a descendant of Arjuna; but neither the Bhágavata nor
Vishnu Purána state that Nimichakra built Kausambi. They
only say that when Hastinapura shall be washed away by the
Ganges, Nimichakra will reside at Kausambi. From which it is
to be inferred, that Kausambi existed at the time that Hastinapura
was destroyed. The site of Kausambi, Buchanan supposes to
have been that of the ruins ascribed to Hastinapura, but it was
most probably lower down in the Doab, bordering upon Magadha
on one side, and Koşala on the other. In the Hindu drama
Ratuávali the scene is laid in the palace of King Vatsa at Kausámbí.
-Wilson, H. T.
Kausharavi--A name of Maitreya, a disciple of Paráṣara,
who related the V. P. to him.
Kausika-One of the sous of Vasudeva by his wife Vaisali:
the half-brother of Krishna.
328
KAU
Kausikas-The descendants of Viswámitra. The Gotras, the
families or tribes of the Kausika brahmans are given in the V. P.,
(p. 405) and are said to have been multiplied by intermarriages with
other tribes, who were originally of the regal cast, like Viswamitra ;
but like him, obtained Brahmanhood through devotion. As these
Gotras partook more of the character of schools of doctrine, in which
teachers and scholars became one family by intermarrying, it shows.
the interference of the Kshatriya caste, with the Brahmanical mono-
poly of religious instruction and composition.
Kausiki--A character in the Hindu Drama Agnimitra and
Málaviká; the sister of the Raja's minister Sumati. On one
occasion when her brother had to convey the princess Málaviká,
she accompanied them, and on their way through the Vindhya
mountains they were attacked by foresters, and in the affray
Sumati was slain and Málaviká was lost. Kausikí left alone com-
mitted her brother's body to the flames, and resumed her journey.
Kausikí soon found out Málaviká but forbore to discover herself,
confiding in the prophecy of a sage, who had foretold that the
princess, after passing through a period of servitude would meet
with a suitable match.
Kausiki-The name of the river into which Satyavatí was.
transformed for following her husband in death. It is now called
the Kosi, which rising in Nepal, flows through Puraniya into the
Ganges, nearly opposite to Rájamahal.
Kaustabha-The jewel worn by Vishnu, and which was one
of the articles produced at the churning of the ocean.
"And Kaustabha the best
Of gems, that burns with living light,
Upon Lord Vishnu's breast."
"And Kaustabha the gem
Whose ever beaming lustre glows
In Vishnu's diadem."
Kautilya-A name of the brahman Chanakya, through whose
agency the Naudas were destroyed, and Chandragupta raised to
the throne of Palibothra.
KAV-KER -
329
Kavasha--The son of Ilúsha by a slave girl. The Rishis,
when holding a sacrificial session on the banks of the Saraswati
expelled Kavasha from their Sóma sacrifice, saying, how should
the son of a slave girl, a gamester, who is no brahman, remain
among us? So they drove him into the desert that he might not
drink the water of the Saraswati. But a prayer was revealed to
him by which he obtained the favour of the waters, and the
Saraswati surrounded him on all sides. When the Rishis saw
this they said the gods know him let us call him back-Haug.
Ait. Br.
Kaveri-A river which takes its rise in Coorg, runs through
the south of India, and empties itself in the Bay of Bengal. It
seems always to have borne the same appellation, being the Chaberis
of Ptolemy.
Kavi-1, One of the sons of the Manu Chakshusha ; 2, the
name of one of the sons of Priyavrata according to the Bhagavata;
3, A son of the Kshatriya Urukshaya, who afterwards became a
Brahman.
Kaviraja-The author of the curious poem entitled Raghava-
Pándaviya, a remarkable specimen of "studied ambiguity," as it
may, at the option of the reader, be interpreted as relating the
history of Ráma and the other descendants of Daṣaratha,—or that
of Yudhishthira and the other sons of Páṇḍu.-Colebrooke.
Kavyas--1, The name given to the descendants of Kavi, as a
race of brahmans; 2, One of the classes of Pitris, or progenitors,
identified with the cyclic years.
Kekaya--An ancient city supposed to have been in the Panjab.
The king Aṣvapati, (lord of horses) was the father of Rája Dasa-
ratha's wife Kaikeyi.
Kerala-An ancient name of Malabar proper; the inhabitants
are called Keralas.
Kerari-A sect who worshipped Párvatí in her terrific forms,
and used to offer up human sacrifices. They used to inflict upon
themselves bodily tortures, and pierce their flesh with hooks, &c.
Such things are now made a criminal offence.
42
330
KES*
Kesidhwaja--The celebrated son of Kritadhwaja. He had a
cousin named Khándíkya, who was renowned for religious rites,
and the importance he attached to them; while Kesidhwaja
regarded spiritual knowledge as the great object of pursuit. The
quarrel became so serious that Khándíkya was expelled from his
dominions by Kesidhwaja. The latter, on an occasion of great
perplexity, was informed by his counsellors, that none but his
enemy Khánḍíkya could give him the information he wished to
obtain. The desired interview took place, and Kesidhwaja's
difficulties were all removed. He, anxious to reward his preceptor,
wished him to name the remuneration that would be most pleasing
to himself. His friends recommended him to require his whole
kingdom to be restored to him. But Khándíkya, addressing
Kesidhwaja said "As it is known that you are learned in the
spiritual learning that teaches the doctrine of the soul, if you
will communicate that knowledge to me, you will have discharged
your debt. Declare to me what acts are efficacious for the
alleviation of human affliction." Then Kesidhwaja delivered a
discourse on the nature of iguorance and the benefits of the Yóga
or contemplative devotion. See V. P., pp. 649–659.
Kesin--A powerful demon, who was ordered by Kansa to
destroy Krishna. He assumed the form of a horse "spurning the
earth with his hoofs, scattering the clouds with his mane, and
springing in his paces beyond the orbits of the sun and moon."
The formidable demon, however, soon had "his mouth rent open
by the arm of Krishna, and fell down, torn asunder like a tree
struck by lightning; thus he lay separated into two portions, each
having two legs, half a back, half a tail, one ear, one eye, and one
nostril." Krishna was afterwards called Kesava in honour of
this exploit. V. P., p. 540.
Kesini-1, One of the wives of Sagara, who being childless,
solicited the aid of the sage Aurva, and the Muni pronounced this
boon, that one wife should bear one son, and the other sixty-
thousand; and he left it to them to make their election. Kesiuí
chose to have the single son; 2, The name of the wife of Viṣravas.
Kesini-1. The fair-haired maid servant of Damayanti, who
KET-KHA
331
was sent with a message to Nala, and in the interview perceived
his divine powers, and reported accordingly to Damayanti.
Ketu--One of the nine planets; or the sons of Sinhika; his
chariot is drawn by eight horses of the dusky red colour of lac or
the smoke of burning straw.
Ketumala--One of the sous of king Agnidhra, and sovereign
of Gaudhamádana. Also the name of a Varsha or country.
Ketumta-1, A Lókapála, the son of Rajas, regent of the
west; 2, The name of the son of Dhanwantari.
Ketumati-The wife of Sumali, the great Rákshasa chief.
Kevala--1, A prince, the son of Nara; 2, The name of one of
the Puranic countries.
Khandas-1, The name applied to the divisions or portions of
the Skanda and Padma Puránas; 2, The divisions of the Bhárata
Varsha.
Khandapani-A prince, the son of Ahínara, of the race of
Puru.
Khandava-prastha--A country on the banks of the river
Jumna, in which the Pánḍavas settled and reigned when the Ráj
of Bharata was divided between them and the Kauravas
"It was
not so much a division of the kingdom as of the family; one branch
remaining at Hastinapur, whilst the other went out to wrest a
new country from the Aborigines."
Khandikya--A son of Amitadhwaja, who taught his cousin
Kesidhwaja the expiation of a sin, and was by him instructed in
the Yóga doctrine.
Khakis-One of the Vaishnava sects of Hindus, of modern
origin. Many of them go nearly naked, smearing their bodies
with ashes and earth. They add the worship of Hanuman to that
of Vishnu.
Khandas-The elements of sentient existence among the
Buddhists, of which there are five constituents.
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КНА-КНО
1. The organized body, or the whole of being apart from
mental processes.
2.
Sensation.
3. Perception.
Discrimination.
4.
5.
Consciousness.
The four last Khandas are results or properties of the first,
which must be understood as including the soul as well as the
body. At death the Buddhists believe the Khandas entirely
vanish. Gautama says that none of the Khandas, taken separately,
are the Ego; and that taken conjointly they are not the Ego.
Yet there is no such thing as an Ego apart from the five Khandas.
Khaninetra, Khanitra-Two princes of the descendants of
Nedishṭha; the priests. of the royal family conspired against
Khanitra, and were put to death by his ministers.
Khara-The brother of Rávana, who after several unsuccessful
contests with Ráma was at length slain by him.
Khasa-One of the daughters of Daksha who was married to
Kasyapa.
Khasikas, Khasiras-Non-Aryan or Aboriginal tribes in the
north-east of Bengal; or it has been thought that they may be
referred to the situation of Kashgar.
Khasrima--A chief of the Danavas, one of the sons of Vipra-
chitti.
(
Khatwanga-A prince, the son of Visivásaha, called also
Dilípa. He rendered important aid to the gods in one occasion,
and being asked by them to demand a boon, he enquired what is
the duration of my life.'' The length of your life is but an hour,'
the gods replied; on hearing which he descended to the world of
mortals, and prayed for final emancipation. Thus he obtained
absorption, according to this stanza Like unto Khatwánga will
be no one upon earth, who having come from heaven, and dwelt
amongst men, became united with the three worlds by his
liberality and knowledge of truth.
(
Khonds--A non-aryan or aboriginal tribe in Orissa.
Their
KHO
333
condition is in many respects peculiar. They have come less into
contact with civilization, and evince greater wildness of deport-
ment, than most of the other non-aryan tribes. "Their religion
is very peculiar, and in its whole features entirely distinct from
Hinduism. Their supreme god is called BURA-PENNOU the
god of light, who created for himself a consort, the earth-goddess
called Tari-Pennou, the source of evil in the world. The
god of light arrested the action of physical evil, while he left man
at perfect liberty to reject or receive moral evil. They who
rejected it were deified, while the great mass of mankind who
received it were condemned to all kinds of physical suffering, with
death, besides being deprived of the immediate care of the Creator,
and doomed to the lowest state of moral degradation. Bura-Pen-
nou and his consort, meanwhile, contended for superiority, and
thus the elements of good and evil came to be in constant collision
both in the heart of man and in the world around him. At this
point the Khonds diverge into two sects, which are thus described
by Major Macpherson in an interesting memoir read before the
Asiatic Society, and inserted in their Journal :-" One sect," says
he, holds that the god of light completely conquered the earth-
goddess, and employs her, still the active principle of evil, as the
instrument of his moral rule. That he resolved to provide a par-
tial remedy for the consequences of the introduction of evil, by
enabling man to attain to a state of moderate enjoyment upon
earth, and to partial restoration to communion with the Creator
after death. And that, to effect this purpose, he created those
classes of subordinate deities, and assigned to them the office-
first, of instructing man in the arts of life, and regulating the
powers of nature for his use, upon the condition of his paying
to them due worship; secondly, of administering a system of
retributive justice through subjection to which, and through the
practice of virtue during successive lives upon earth, the soul of
man might attain to beatification. The other sect hold, upon the
other hand, that the earth-goddess remains unconquered; that the
god of light could not, in opposition to her will, carry out his
purpose with respect to man's temporal lot; and that man, there-
fore, owes his elevation from the state of physical suffering into
334
KHY
which he fell through the reception of evil, to the direct exercise
of her power to confer blessings, or to her permitting him to
receive the good which flows from the god of light, through the
inferior gods, to all who worship them. With respect to man's
destiny after death, they believe that the god of light carried out
his purpose.
And they believe that the worship of the earth
goddess by human sacrifice, is the indispensable condition on which
these blessings have been granted, and their continuance may be
hoped for; the virtue of the rite availing not only for those who
practice it, but for all mankind.
"In addition to these humau sacrifices, which still continue to
be offered annually, in order to appease the wrath of Tari, and
propitiate her in favour of agriculture, there is a fearful amount of
infanticide among the Khond people. It exists in some of the
tribes of the sect of Boora to such an extent, that no female infant
is spared, except when a woman's first child is female; and that
villages containing a hundred houses may be seen without a female
child."
The revolting rites of human sacrifice and female infanticide
have prevailed from time immemorial among these barbarous
people. The British government, however, has happily succeeded
in almost completely abolishing these bloody rites. Many childreu,
who had been stolen from their parents, and sold to the Khonds
for sacrifice, have been rescued from a cruel death, and put into
asylums for Christian education and training. The manner in
which the revolting human sacrifices were conducted by the
Khonds is thus described by Mr. Fry, a government agent, who
has rescued numbers from the sacrificial knife :-"The victim,"
he inform us, "is surrounded by a crowd of half-intoxicated
Khonds, and is dragged around some open space, when the savages,
with loud shouts, rush on the victim, cutting the living flesh piece-
meal from the bones, till nothing remains but the head and bowels,
which are left untouched. Death has by this time released the
unhappy victim from his torture; the head and bowels are burnt,
and the ashes mixed with grain." These Meriah sacrifices, as they
are called, are almost abolished.
Khyati- Celebrity,' a young and bright-eyed daughter of
KHU-KIR
335
Daksha married to the Muni Bhrigu. Khyáti is also the faculty
of discriminating objects by appropriate designations; or the
means of individual fruition.-Wilson's Notes to Vishnu Purána.
Khumbandas-An order of beings among the Buddhists who
are believed to be the attendants of Virádha who is one of the
four guardian Devas. They are of great size and disgusting form,
have blue garments, hold a sword in one hand, and ride on blue
horses. They form one of the thirteen orders of intelligence,
exclusive of the supreme Buddhas.
He
Kichaka-The brother of the Ráuí of Rája Viráta.
insulted Draupadi, and on her complaining to the Rája, followed
her to the Council hall, where his influence was so great that the
Rája refused to interfere. Draupadi then professed to receive his
offers and engaged to meet him at midnight in the dancing room.
On his arrival he was seized by Bhíma, who, after a fight, slew
him and rolled the body into a ball.
Kikatas-A tribe of aborigines who lived to the east of Saras-
wati, "they drew no milk to mix with the soma, and by them the
sacrificial kettle was never heated."
Kilakila-See Kailakila.
Kimpurusha-One of the nine sons of Agnídhra, king of
Jambu-dwipa, to whom his father gave the country of Hémakúta.
Kimpurushas-Demigods, attached to the service of Kuvera,
the god of wealth, celestial musicians, represented like centaurs
reversed, with human figures and horses' heads.
Kinnaru-A prince, the son of Sunakshatra, of the family of
Ikshwáku.
Kinnaras-A race of beings of human shape but with the heads
of horses; different to Naras, which are centaurs, or beings with
the limbs of horses and human bodies; created from the limbs of
Brahmá. Called also Kimpurushas.
Kiratarjuniya-A poem written by Bláravi on the subject of
Arjuna's obtaining celestial arms from Siva, Indra, and other gods,
336
KIR-KOD
by a rigid observance of severe austerities, and afterwards by
his prowess in a conflict with Śiva, in which Arjuna prevails :
this is the whole subject of the poem, which is ranked among
the six excellent compositions in Sanscrit.
Kiratas-Aboriginal tribes dwelling in the East of Bhárata ;
foresters and mountaineers are intended, the inhabitants to the
present day of the mountains east of Hindustan.
Kirtaratha-The son of Rája Pratíndhak, and thirteenth in
descent from Mahárája Janaka.
Kirtirat-The great grandson of the above;
"Mahándhrak's son of boundless might,
Was Kírtirát who loved the right."
Kirtti—“ Fame." A daughter of Daksha, married to Dharma.
Kirttimat-1, A son of the patriarch Angiras. 2, A son of
the Manu Uttánapáda. 3, A son of Vasudeva and Devaki, who
was killed by Kansa.
Kishkindhya-The monkey city of Báli, the elder brother
and enemy of Sugríva. Kishkindhya is supposed to have been
situated north of Mysore: "somewhere in that strip of British
territory which separates the kingdom of Mysore from the Nizam's
territory."-Cal. Rev.
Klesa-In the Patanjala philosophy Kleșa is the term employed
to desiguate the five afflictions of the soul, viz., Ignorance,
Selfishness, Love, Hatred, Dread of temporal suffering.
Kodagu-Steep mountains; the name of the country which has
been anglicised into Coorg : a country formed by the summits and
eastern declivities of the Western Ghauts; about 60 miles in
length and 40 in breadth. It comprises 1,585 square miles:
covered by forest, save here and there where the clearing of a
coffee plantation, or ragi patch, or the park like open glades with
their beautiful green sward and varied foliage, afford a charming
variety to the landscape. The Kodagus or Coorgs are supposed to
belong to the Dravidian family; and not to have descended from
the Pándavas as some have argued, but for which no evidence has
been adduced. The Coorgs were probably connected with the
KOK-KOS
337
Pándya kingdom which flourished in the South of India perhaps
in the fifth century before Christ; but the Mahábhárata Pándavas
have nothing to do with this Pándyan kingdom, whose rulers were
not Kshatriyas but belonged to the agricultural class.-Richter's
Manual of Coorg, 1870.
Kokanakas, Kokarakas-The names of aboriginal tribes
enumerated in the Vishnu Purána.
Kolaria-The ancient name for India. In the modern map of
India we find indications of the same name in every province from
Burmah to Malabar, viz., the Kols of Central India; the Kolas of
Katwar; See Dr. Keith Johnston's Index to his Map of India from
the Royal Atlas, for a full confirmation of this view, as stated in
Mr. W. Hunter's Dissertation in his Dictionary of Non-Aryan
Languages.
Kolikod-The ancient and present native name of Calicut.
Kosala―The Rámáyana contains the following description of
Koşala: "In ancient times there was a great country named
Koṣala; and that country was happy and joyous, and abounded in
cattle, and grain, and riches. And in that country on the banks of
the river Sarayú, was a famous city named Ayodhyá; and there
all the houses were large and beautifully arranged, and the streets
were always watered, and there were very many temples richly
decorated, and stately palaces with domes like the tops of
mountains, with pleasant gardens full of birds and flowers, and
shady groves of trees loaded with delicious fruits, and above all
there were the sacred and resplendent chariots of the gods. And
the tanks in that city were magnificent beyond all description, and
covered with the white lotus; and the bees thirsted for the honey,
and the wind drove the white lotuses from the bees as modesty
drives away the coy bride from her husband. And the ducks and
the geese swam upon the surface of the tanks, or dived under the
clear waters; and the brilliant kingfishers, wroth as they beheld
their own reflection in the bright wave, and under pretence of
catching the fish, they beat the water with their wings. And the
plantain trees round the tanks were bending with the weight of the
fruit, like reverential pupils bowing at the feet of their preceptors.
43
338
KOS
The whole city was adorned with gems, so that it resembled a
mine of jewels, and it was like unto Amaravati, the city of Indra.
It was perfumed with flowers and incense, and decked out with
gorgeous banners; and it was ever filled with the sweet sound of
music, the sharp twanging of bows, and the holy chaunting of
Vedic hymns. The city was encompassed round about with very
lofty walls, which were set in with variously-coloured jewels; and
all round the walls was a moat filled with water, deep and
impassable; and the city gates were strongly barred, and the
porticoes of the gates and the towers on the walls were filled with
archers, and stored with weapons of every description. Every
quarter of the city was guarded by mighty heroes, who were as
strong as the eight gods who rule the eight points of the universe,
and as vigilant as the many-headed serpents who watch at the
entrance of the regions below."
"On Sarju's bank of ample size,
The happy realm of Koșal lies,
With fertile length of fair champaign
And flocks and herds and wealth of grain,
There, famous in her old renown
Ayodhya* stands, the royal town
In bygone ages built and planned
By sainted Manu's princely hand.
Imperial seat her walls extend
Twelve measured leagues from end to end.
And three in width from side to side,
With square and palace beautified.
Her gates at even distance stand ;
Her ample roads are wisely planned.
Right glorious is her royal street,
Where streams allay the dust and heat.
On level ground in even row,
Her houses rise in goodly show:
*« The ruins of the ancient capital of Rama and the children of the Sun,
may still be traced in the present Ajudhya near Fyzabad. Ajudhya is the
Jerusalem or Mecca of the Hindus."-Griffiths.
KOT-KRA
339
Terrace and palace, arch and gate,
The queenly city decorate.
High are her ramparts, strong and vast,
By ways at even distance passed,
With circling moat both deep and wide,
And store of weapons fortified."— Griffiths.
The name Koşala is variously applied. Its earliest and most
celebrated application is that given above, to the country on the
banks of the Sarayú, the kingdom of Ráma, of which Ayodha was
the capital. In the Mahabharata we have one Koşala in the east,
and another in the south; besides the Prak-kosalas and Uttara-
koṣalas in the east and north. The Puránas place the Kosalas in
the back of Vindhya; and it would appear from the Váyu, that
Kusa, the son of Ráma, transferred his kingdom to a more central
position; he ruled over Koşala at his capital of Kusasthali, or
Kusávati, built upon the Vindhyau precipices. In later times the
country of Koşala lay south of Oude, for in the Ratnávalí the
general of Vatsa surrounds the king of Kosala in the Vindhyan
mountains Ptolemy has a Kouta Koşala in the south, probably
one of the Koşalas of the Hindus. Wilson's Notes to Vishņu
Purána and Hindu Theatre, Vol. II.
:
Kotavi-An eighth portion of Rudrání, and the tutelary goddess
of the Daityas, composed of incantations. The Vishnu Purána
states that as Krishna was in the act of casting his discus, to kill
Bána, the mystical goddess Kotaví, the magic lore of the demons,
stood naked before him, in order to prevent him.
Koutsya-A mythical sage, the disciple of Maharishi Varatanta,
who rewarded his tutor with fourteen crores of rupees for the
fourteen branches of study completed under him. For the way in
which the money was obtained, see RAGHU.
Kratha-The son of Vidarbha; and grandson of Jyámagha, q. v.
Kratu-1, A Prajapati, or one of the mind-born sons of
Brahma and one of the seven glorious spirits who abide in the orb
of the sun, scattering light throughout the universe, married to
Saunati, daughter of Daksha; 2, A son of Uru, of the race of
Dhruva.
340
KRA-KRI
Kratusthala-The celestial nymph who resides in the car of
the sun during the month Chaitra, as one its seven guardians.
Krauncha-1, The fifth of the seven great insular continents,
or dwípas; the king of this Dwipa was Dyutirnán : it had sever
boundary mountains, each in succession twice as lofty as the one
preceding it; the inhabitants resided there without apprehension,
associating with the bands of divinities; the Brahmans were called
Pushkaras; the Kshatriyas, Pushkalas; the Vaisy as were termed
Dhanyas; and the Sudras, Trishyas.
Kriaswa-1, A sage, who was married to two of the daughters
of Daksha ; and the deified weapons of the gods were the progeny
of Kriáswa. These are also called the Sastra devatas, gods of the
divine weapons ; a hundred are enumerated in the Rámáyana, and
they are there termed the sons of Kriáswa by Jaya and Vijayá,
daughters of the Prajapati, that is of Daksha; 2, A son of Saha-
deva; 3, A son of Santrataswa.
Krikana, or Krimi-The son of Bhajamána Krimi; also the
name of a son of Usínara, a descendant of Anu.
Krimibhojana, Krimisa-The names of the two of the hells.
or divisions of Naraka below Pátala. The specific punishments
of each are described in the Vishnu Purána, p. 207-9.
Kripa and Kripi-The son and daughter of Satyadhriti, who
was a proficient in Military science. Being enamoured of the
nymph Urvasi he became the parent of two children, a boy and a girl.
The Rája Sántana whilst hunting, found these children exposed
in a clump of long Sara grass; and compassionating their condition
took them and brought them up. As they were nurtured through
pity (Kripá) they were called Kripa and Kripí. The legend of
their birth is thought to be a Puranic invention to explain the
origin of their names. The latter became the wife of Drona and
mother of Aswattháman. Kripa was one of the Kuru generals.
He rebuked Karna for wishing to measure weapons with Arjuna,
and advised Duryodhana to conclude a treaty with the Pándavas.
When Duryodhana was mortally wounded Kripa hastened to him,
fetched him water, and inaugurated Aṣwattháman general. Kripa
is also called Saradvata.
KRI
341
Krisanu-An archer mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Krishna-The Indian Hercules and Apollo combined. The most
renowned demigod of Indian mythology, and most celebrated hero
of Indian history, is the eighth Avatára or incarnation of Vishņu.
Vishnu was born as Krishna for the destruction of Kansa, an
oppressive monarch, and, in fact, an incarnate Daitya or Titan, the
natural enemy of the gods. Kansa being forewarned of his fate
seeks to anticipate his destroyer; but Krishna is conveyed secretly
away from Mathurá, the capital of Kansa, and is brought up as the
child of a cowherd at Vṛindávan, a pastoral district near Mathurá.
It is whilst thus circumstanced that he has been exalted into an
object of adoration, and the mischievous follies of the child, the
boy, and the lad, are the subject of popular delight and wonder.
His male companions are not very prominent in the tale of his
youth; but the females, the deified dairy maids, play a more
important part in the drama. Amongst the most conspicuous is
Rádhá, and she receives scarcely less universal homage than
Krishna himself."*
Krishna cannot be said to belong really to the Epic age, but
almost exclusively to the Puránic. When the story of his life
is divested of the marvellous, he will be found to be au historical
personage, belonging to that epoch when the Áryan race, leaving
the north-western corner of the peninsula, began to make their
way by gradual conquests towards the interior and the east. The
enemies whom he attacks and subdues are the aborigines of the
interior, who, to heighten the glory of the hero, are called giants
and demons, Daityas and Dánavas. The Aryans were still a
nomad people, pasturing their herds of cattle at the foot of the
Himálaya range and in the plains of the Panjáb; and the legend
would further lead us to believe that the primitive elementary
worship now yielded to the more systematic religion of Bráhmanism
and the institutions of caste. His identification with Vishņu
would follow as a natural apotheosis of a monarch and warrior of
such fame; but the very legend itself, even as it is given in the
Puránas, seems to show that he existed long before the my-
• Wilson's Works, Vol. II, pp. 66,67.
342
KRI
thological triad of Brahmá, Vishnu, and Śiva had ever been
dreamed of. The following is a curtailed account of his birth and
actions, borrowed partly from the Puranas, and partly from Monier
Williams' Eng.-Sanskrit Dictionary.
The king of the Daityas or aborignes, Áhuka, had two sons,
Devaka and Ugrasena. The former had a daughter named Devakí,
the latter a son called Kansa. Devaki was married to a nobleman
of the Aryan race named Vasudeva (or Anakadundubhi), the son
of Śúra, a descendant of Yadu, and by him had eight sous.
Vasudeva had also another wife named Rohini. Kansa, the cousin
of Devaki, was informed by the saint and prophet Nárada, that
his cousin would bear a son, who would kill him and overthrow
his kingdom. Kausa was king of Mathurá, and he captured
Vasudeva and his wife Devaki, imprisoned them in his own palace,
set guards over them, and slew the six children whom Devaki had
already borne. She was now about to give birth to the seventh,
who was Bala Ráma, the play fellow of Krishna, and, like him,
supposed to be an incarnation of Vishnu (see Ráma); but by
divine agency, the child was transferred before birth to the womb
of Vasudeva's other wife, Rohini, who was still at liberty, and
was thus saved. Her eighth child was Krishna, who was born
at midnight, with a very black skin (the name Krishna, as an
adjective, means 'black,') and a peculiar curl of hair called the
Shrivatsa, resembling a Saint Andrew's cross, on his breast. The
gods now interposed to preserve the life of this favoured baby
from Kansa's vigilance, and accordingly lulled the guards of the
palace to sleep with the Yoga-nidra, or mysterious slumber.
Taking the infant, its father Vasudeva stole out undiscovered as far
as Yamunâ, or Jumna river, which seems to have been the boundary
between the Áryans and the aborigines. This he crossed, and
on the other side found the cart and team of a nomad Aryan
cowherd, called Nanda, whose wife, Yaşodá, had by strange
coincidence just been delivered of a female child. Vasudeva,
warned of this by divine admonition, stole to her bedside, and
placing Krishna by her, re-crossed the river, and re-entered the
palace, with the female baby of Yaṣodá in his arms, and thus
KRI
343
substituted it for his own son.
When Kansa discovered the cheat,
be for a while gave up the affair, and set the prisoners at liberty,
but ordered all male children to be put to death. Vasudeva then
entrusted Krishna to the care of Nanda, the cowherd, who took
him to the village of Gokula, or Vraja, and there brought him up.
Here Krishna, and his elder brother Bala Ráma, who joined
him, wandered about together as children, and evinced their divine
character by many unruly pranks of surprising strength, such as
kicking over the cart, which served as conveyance and domicile to
Nanda and his family. The female Daitya Pútaná was sent to
suckle him, but the refractory baby discovering the trick, showed
his gratitude by slaying her. Later in life he vanquished the
serpent Káliya in the middle of the Yamuná (Jumna) river. A
demon, Arishta, assuming the form of a bull; another, Keshin
that of a horse; and a third, Kálanemi, all undertook to destroy
the boy, but each fell victims to his superhuman strength.
Krishna now incited Nanda and the cowherds to abandon the
worship of Indra, aud to adopt that of the cows, which sup-
ported them, and the mountains, which afforded them pasturage.
Indra, incensed at the loss of his offerings, opened the gates
of heaven upon the whole race, and would have deluged them,
had not our hero plucked up the mountain Govarddhana,
and held it as a substantial umbrella above the land. He soon
took to repose from his labours, aud amused himself with the
Gopis, or shepherdesses, of whom he married seven or eight,
among whom Rádhá was the favourite, and to whom he taught
the round dance called Rása, or Mandala-nrityam. Meanwhile
Kansa had not forgotten the prophecies of Nárada. He invited
the two boys, Krishna and Balaráma, to stay with him at
Mathurá; they accepted, and went. At the gates, Kansa's washer-
man insulted Krishna, who slew him, and dressed himself in his
yellow clothes. He afterwards slew Kansa himself, and placed
his father Ugrasena on the throne. A foreign king of the Kála-
yavana (Indo-Scythian) race soon invaded the Yadu, or Áryan,
territory, whereupon Krishna built and fortified the town of
Dwaraka, in Guzerat, and thither transferred the inhabitants of
344
KRI
Mathurá. He afterwards married Satyabhámá, daughter of
Satrájit, and carried off Rukmini, daughter of Bhishmaka. His
harem numbered sixty thousand wives, but his progeny was
When afterwards on a visit to
limited to eighteen thousand sons.
Indra's heaven, he behaved, at the persuasion of his wife, Satya-
bhámá, in a manner very unbecoming a guest, by stealing the
famous parijáța tree, which had been produced at the churning of
the ocean, and was then thriving in Indra's garden. A contest
ensued, in which Krishna defeated the gods, and carried off the
sacred tree. At another time, a female Daitya, Ushá, daughter of
Bána, carried off Krishna's grandson, Aniruddha. His grandfather,
accompanied by Ráma, went to the rescue, and though Bána was
defended by Siva and Skanda, proved victorious. Paundraka,
one of Vasudeva's family, afterwards assumed his title and insignia,
supported by the king of Benares. Krishna hurled his flaming
discus (chakra) at this city, and thus destroyed it. He afterwards.
exterminated his own tribe, the Yádavas. He himself was killed
by a chance shot from a hunter. He is described as having curly
black hair, as wearing a club or mace, a sword, a flaming discus,
a jewel, a conch, and a garland. His charioteer is Sátyaki; his
city, Dwaraka; his heaven, Goloka." (Thomson).
Krishna is the principal speaker in the Bhágavat Gita; where
he expounds the Sánkya system of philosophy to Arjuna. In the
great war he took part with the Pandavas, and it was mainly
owing to his powerful assistance that the opposite party were
vanquished.
Krishna is known in the Mahábhárata by the following names :—
Vasudeva, Keṣava, Govinda, Janárdana, Dámodara, Dáṣára,
Nárayana, Hrishikeṣa, Purushottama, Mádhava, Madhusrúdana
and Achyuta.
Krishna-An Asura or Dasyu mentioned in the Rig Veda,
who was slain together with his wives that none of his posterity
might survive. Krishna means black, and the name may, on
this occasion, Professor Wilson thinks, allude to the dark com-
plexioned aborigines. But there is another Krishṇa, even in the
Rig Veda, and he and his son Viswaka are members of the
KRI
345
Angirasa family, who may be called Rig Veda aristocrats of good
old family descent; and both father and son appear among the
Rishis of the hymns."-Mrs. Manning, A. & M. I., Vol. I, p. 65.
Krishna-1, One of the sons of Havirdhána, a descendant of
Prithu; 2, One of the Andhra kings who reigned 10 years.
Krishna--1, The name of one of the Narakas, in which those
who live by fraud, &c., are punished; 2, The name of the Krish-
navéņa river of the Dakhin, meauing the dark river.
Krishna Misra--The author of Prabodha-Chandrodaya; or
Rising of the Moon of Awakened Intellect. This is a theological
and philosophical drama, supposed to have been written about the
twelfth century, with the object of establishing the Vedánta
doctrine. What others have assailed by reason and argument
Krishna Misra combats by ridicule. His work is praised by
Professor Lassen, who calls it peculiarly Indian, and unlike anything
in the literature of other countries.—Mrs. Manning.
Krishnaveni-The river now called the Krishna or Kistna.
Krita-The first Yuga or age; consisting of four thousand
eight hundred divine years, thus:
Krita Yuga ...
Sandhya........
4000
400
Sandhyasana………....... 400
4800
If these divine years be converted into years of mortals, by multi-
plying them by 360, a year of men being a day of the gods, we
obtain one million seven hundred and twenty-eight thousand,
(1,728,000) ordinary years, the duration of the Krita Yuga,
according to the Hindu books.
Krita-1, A prince, the son of Kritaratha, king of Mithila ;
2, A son of Sannatimat, to whom Hiranyanabha taught the philo-
sophy of the Yoga, and who compiled twenty-four Sanhitas for the
use of the Eastern Brahmans who study the Sáma Veda.
Kritadhwaja-The son of Dharmadhwaja ; the Vishnu Purána
says of him that he was a king ever intent upon existent supreme
spirit.
44
346
KRI
Kritagni, Kritavarman, Kritavirya--Three princes, the
sons of Dhanaka, of the Yadava race.
Kritaka-1, One of the sons of Vasudeva by his wife Madirá ;
2, One of the kings of Magadha.
Kritamala--A river that takes its rise in the Malaya hills.
Kritanjaya 1, The Vyása of the seventeenth Dwápara; 2, A
prince, the son of Dharman, of the family of Ikshváku.
Kritanta-The destroyer; a name of Yama, the Hindu Pluto.
Kritanta-dutaru--Yama's officers; frequently represented as
hovering, in a frightful shape, over the beds of the dying, to carry
off the departing spirit to Pátáļa.
Kritaratha-One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Prati-
bhandaka.
Kritavarman--One of the three warriors on the Kaurava side
who survived at the end of the great war; the three visited the
wounded Duryodhana on the plain of Kurukshetra.
He was
ultimately slain by Sátyaki at Prabhása.
Kriti--1, The son of Bahuláṣwa, and the last of the kings of
Mithila, in whom terminated the family of Janaka.
Kritirata--One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Mahádriti.
Krittika--A lunar mansion in Nágavithi in the Northern
Avashtana; when the sun is in the first degree of the lunar
mausion, Krittika, and the moon is in the fourth of Viṣákha, it
is the great equinox, or holy equinoctial season.
Kritwi-The wife of Anaha, one of the descendants of Hastin.
Kriya- Devotion', a daughter of Daksha married to Dharma:
an allegorical personification of religious rite married to the equally
allegorical representation of the Hindu Code, viz., Dharma, moral
and religious duty. Wilson's notes to V. P., p. 55; 2, A magical
creation, represented in the Vishnu Purána as a vast and formidable
female springing from the southern fire, blazing with ruddy light,
aud with fiery radiance streaming amidst her hair.
KRO-KSH
347
6
Krodha-1, 'Passion,' represented as a son of Brahma: one of
the allegorical personages occurring in the list of Brahmá's progeny
amongst the series of virtues and vices;' 2, Wrath', a son of
and
Mritha; called in the Vishnu Purána an inflictor of misery,
one of the progeny of vice; also, as a terrific form of Vishnu,
operating as a cause of the destruction of this world.
Krodhaghara-The chamber of displeasure; an institution
still in vogue in Hindu families, wives resorting to it when
discontented or angry with their husbands.
Krodhavasa-A daughter of Daksha, married to Kasyapa.
Kroshtu-A son of Yadu, the family in which Krishna was born.
Kshana-A measure of time, said in the Vishnu Purána to be
equal to thirty kalas; it is often used to express a very minute
portion of time, a moment, an instant.
Kshama-‘Patience.'
One of the daughters of Daksha who
was married to the Muni Pulaka.
Kshatradharman-A prince, the son of Sankriti, a descendant
of Raji.
Kshatranjas-A king of Magadha, the sou of Kshemadarman.
Kshatravriddha-One of the five sons of Áyus, from whose
family many names of celebrity proceeded.
Kshatriyas-The second of the four castes, said to have been
produced from the breast, some authorities say the arms, of Brahmá ;
their duty being to protect the earth, the cattle, and brahmans.
Kings, governors, and all intrusted with civil and military affairs,
in general belong to the Kshatriya caste. Parasuráma vowed that
he would extirpate the whole Kshatriya race, and thrice seven
times, says the Vishnu Purána, he cleared the earth of them: a
legend, says Professor Wilson, which intimates a violent and
protracted struggle between the Brahmans and Kshatriye.s for
domination in India.
Kshema-Prosperity.' A son of Dharma by his wife Śantí.
Kshemadhanwan-A prince, the son of Pundaríka, a descend-
ant of Kusa.
348
KSH-KUK
Kshemaka-The last prince of the race of Puru: "the race
which gave origin to Brahmans and Kshatriyas, and which was
purified by regal sages, terminated with Kshemaka in the Káli
age."
Kshemya-1, A prince, the son of Ugráyudha, descendant of
Dwimídha; 2, A son of Suchi, king of Magadhá.
Kshetrajna-"Embodied spirit," or that which knows the
Kshetra, body'; a form of Vishnu, implying the combination of
spirit with form or matter, for the purpose of creating.
Kshudraka-A prince, the son of Prasenajit, of the line of
Ikshváku.
Kubja-A deformed young female servant of Kansa. Meeting
her in the high road carrying a pot of unguent, Krishna addressed
her sportively, and said For whom are you carrying that unguent,
tell me lovely maiden, tell me truly.' Kubja, smitten by his
appearance, and well disposed towards Hari, replied mirthfully,
'Know you not beloved, that I am the servant of Kansa, and
appointed, crooked as I am, to prepare his perfumes.' Krishna
asked her for some of it, and she gave him and Balaráma as much
of the unguent as was sufficient for their persons; and they
smeared their bodies with it, till they looked like two clouds, one
white and one black, decorated by the many-tinted bow of Indra.
Then Krishna made her perfectly straight; and when she was
thus relieved from her deformity, she was a most beautiful woman;
and from gratitude invited Govinda to her house. He promised.
to go some other time. V. P.
Kuhu-1, A daughter of Angiras. The name means the last
day of the moon's waue. The four daughters of Angiras designated
phases of the moon; 2, The name of a river in the Himalaya.
Kukkura--A prince, the son of Andhaka. Kukuras, and
Kukkuras, are given in the Vishnu Purána as names of tribes of
Bhárata.
Kukshi--The son and successor of Ikshváku, king of Ayodhya;
the second of the solar line of kings.
KUK-KUM
349
"Manu who life to mortals gave,
Begot Ikshváku good and brave,
First of Ayodhya's kings was he,
Pride of her famous dynasty.
From him the glorious Kukshi sprang
Whose fame through all the regions raug."-Griffiths.
Kukshi--One of the daughters of Priyavrata, the grea
progenitor.
Kuladevata-The deity who is the object of hereditary and
family worship, and is always one of the leading personages of
Hindu mythology, as Siva, Vishnu, or Durgá. No house is
supposed to be without its tutelary divinity, but the notion attached
to this character is now very far from precise.
Kulapavatus-Mountain-ranges in Central India: sometimes
termed family mountains or systems; embracing the various
chains described under Mahendra, Malaya, Riksha, Vindhya, &c.
Kulatthas-Aboriginal mountain tribes, described in the Vishnu
Purána as ferocious and uncivilized races.'
C
Kulindas, Kulindapalyakas, Kulutas-Tribes enumerated
in the V. P. but not identified.
Kumara--1, A Prajapati, of whom there appear to have been
twenty-one; the Vayu Purána states that they are numerous.
Kumara-sambhava--The Birth of the War God; a poem by
Kalidása, that has been translated into English verse by Mr.
Griffiths.
Kumari--A river that rises in the Sáktimat mountains.
Kumbhaka-A suspension of breath by the closing of both
nostrils: being part of the brahmanical ritual for obtaining control
of the external senses.
Kumbhakarna-A Rákshasa, the son of Viṣravas, and brother
of Rávaṇa. He was brought up in the forest with his brothers,
and went about eating Rishis. When Brahma had granted boons
to Ravana and Vibhíshana, and was about to confer one on
Kumbhakarna, the gods interposed, saying he had eaten seven
Apsarases and ten followers of Indra, besides Rishis and men ; and
350
KUM-KUN
begged that under the guise of a boon stupefaction might be
inflicted on him. Brahmá thought on Sarasvatí, who arrived, and
by Brahma's command entered into Kumbhakarna's mouth, to
speak for him. Under this influence he asked that he might
receive the boon of sleeping for many years, which was granted to
him. O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 416.
The description given of Kumbhakarna in the Rámáyana is
ridiculously extravagant and exaggerated. At the siege of Lanka
when Rávana decided to avail himself of the services of his gigantic
brother, the difficulty was to know how to awake him, as he was
buried in sleep for six months together, and then only awoke for a
short time to gorge himself with enormous quantities of food. The
messengers tried to enter his room but were blown away from the
door by the wind caused by the deep breathing of the sleeping
monster. At last, after violent efforts, they forced an entrance;
and ten thousand Rakshasas made every sort of din in his ears by
beating drums, &c. Then they hammered his limbs with mallets,
danced upon him, caused a thousand elephants to walk over his
body, piled heaps of food under his very nose, all without effect.
Nothing availed but the touch of some beautiful women who
eventually succeeded in rousing him. Kumbhakarna consented to
go out to battle, and displayed extraordinary valour, routing,
wounding, and even devouring thousands of the monkey army,
bnt was ultimately conquered and killed by Ráma. The figure of
Kumbhakarna is a favourite one in village representations of the
siege of Lanka, and he is generally exhibited asleep. I. E. P.
Kumuda-1, One of the six minor Dwípas, situated beyond the
sea; 2, A mountain forming the northern buttress of Mount Meru.
Kumudali-A pupil of Pathya and teacher of the Atharva
Veda.
Kumadvati--A river that rises in the Vindhya mountains.
Kundaka--A prince, the son of Kshudraka, and grandfather
of Sumitra, who was the last of the kings of the family of
Ikshváku.
Kundinapur--The capital of Vidarbha, a country of consi-
derable extent and power at varions periods. The name remains
KUN-KUR
351
in Beder, which may have been the ancient capital; but the
kingdom seems to have corresponded with the great part of Berar
and Kandesh. It is mentioned in the Rámáyana amongst the
countries of the south.
Kuntala, Kunthakas--Kuntala is in one place one of the
central countries; in another one of the southern; the name is
applied in inscriptions to the province in which Kurgode is situated;
part of the Adoni district and consistently with this position it is
placed amongst the dependant or allied states of Vidarbha, in the
Dasa Kumára.
:
Kunti or Pritha-The eldest of the five daughters of Súra
and Márishá. Súra had a friend named Kuntibhója, to whom as he
had no children, he presented in due form, his daughter Kunti.
She was married to Pándu, to whom she bore three sons,
Yudhishthira, Bhíma, and Arjúna, Pándu, however, had by the
curse of a deer, been prevented from having progeny, and she
therefore conceived these children by connection with the deities
Dharma, Váyu, and Indra respectively. Yudhishthira, as the son
of Dharma, is considered justest; Bhíma, Váyu's son, the strongest ;
and Arjúna, Indra's son, the best bowshot. See KARNA, for an
account of Kunti's son before her marriage; 2, Kunti was also the
name of a son of Dharmanetra of the Fádava race; and of a son
of Kratha, of the family of Jyámagha.
Kuntibhoja--A friend of Súra's who adopted his daughter
Kunti; he was an ally of the Páṇḍus in the great war.
Kurma Purana-The Purána in which Janárddana, in the
form of a tortoise, in the regions under the earth, explained the
objects of life-duty, wealth, pleasure and liberation-in commu-
nication with Indradyumna, and the Rishis in the proximity of
Sakra; which refers to the Lakshmi Kalpa, and contains seventeen
thousand stanzas. V. P.
Kurma or Tortoise Avatara-The second of the ten
Avatáras of Vishnu. The legend is that at a very remote period
when the gods felt their powers weakened, and were desirous of
obtaining Amrita (q. v.) the beverage of immortality, Vishnu
directed them to churn, together with the demons, the milk-sea,
352
KUR
by taking the mountain Mandara for their staff, and his serpent
Vâsuki for their cord, the gods to stand at the tail, and the demons
at the head of the serpent; while he himself consented to support
the mountain on his back, after having assumed the shape of a
gigantic tortoise. The result of this churning of the sea of milk,
was, besides the ultimate recovery of the Amrita, the appearance
of a variety of miraculous things and beings; but it also led to a
violent contest between the gods and demons, in which the latter
were defeated. The idea of the lord of creation assuming the
shape of a tortoise, and that of sacrificial liquids, especially clari-
fied butter, becoming tortoise-shaped (Karna, the word for
tortoise, meaning literally, badly or slowly going'), occurs also
in the Yajurveda ; but the legend on which the tortoise-Avatára of
Vishnu is based seems to belong entirely to the post-Vedic period
of Hinduism.
Kurmis-Semi-aboriginal cultivators to the south of the Raj-
puts and Jats.
Kuru--1, One of the sons of Agníd'hra, to whom his father
gave the country north of the Sweta mountains, bounded by the
Srinagavan range; 2, An ancient king, the son of Samvarna, who
He was the ancestor
gave his name to the district Kurukshetra.
of Vichitravírya, the grandfather of the Kurus and Páṇḍavas.
Kuru, it is usually supposed, is the prince who gives the designa-
tion to Duryodhana and his brothers, thence called Kauravas, in
opposition to their cousins the sons of Pánḍu, termed Pándavas,
Kuru being a remote ancestor of both. The Mahábhárata however
gives a different account, and derives the term Kaurava from the
country, Kuru-jángala, or Kurukshetra (Lassen, Ind. Alt. I, p.
593,) which was subject to the family of Duryodhana, the upper
part of the Panjáb beyond Delhi, or Panniput, which is still
commonly called by the Hindus Kurukhetr. Kuru, the prince,
was descended from Nahusha, the great grandson of Soma, or the
moon, by his grandson Puru. The thirteenth descendant of Kuru
was Śántanu, who had four sons, Bhishma, Chitrángada, Vichitra-
vírya, and Vyása. Of these Bhishma and Vyása lived unmarried,
and the other two died without offspring; on which, to prevent
KUR
353
the extinction of the family, and conformably to the ancient Hindu
law, Vyása had children by his brother's widows.
The sons
were Dhritarashtra and Pándu, who became the founders of the
two families of the Kauravas and Pandavas. Wilson's Works,
Vol. III, p. 290.
Kurus--A very ancient people, who seem to have been origi-
nally situated in Central and Northern Asia, as the Vishnu Purána
says they inhabited the middle districts of Ehárata. They probably
entered India with the Aryans or were a tribe of that great race,
and settled in Kurukshetra. With this meaning the name applies
to both Kurus and Pándavas-hence Arjuna is called the best
of the Kurus. In its particular and exclusive sense the name is
given only to that party which adhered to Duryodhana, and opposed
the Pandavas, Both names belong to the Epic period,
Kurukshetra-The plain of the Kurus. A tract of land to
the east of the Yamuna or Jumna river, in the upper part of the
Doab, near the city of Delhi, and the river Saraswati. Hastiná-
pura was its capital.
"The Sarasvati (Sursooty) is an insignificant stream flowing
through Sirhind, between the Yamuna and the Shatadru. It even-
tually loses itself in the sand of the desert, and is, on that account,
fabled by the Hindus to flow underground into the ocean. It is
held, however, as one of the most sacred streams of India. Lassen
calls the Doab the Belgium of India. It is the gateway of the
peninsula, where the eastern and western races have always met
in battle. Here in later days was fought the battle of Panuiput ;
and here was laid the scene of that war which transferred the
sovereignty of middle India from the Kurus to the Pandavas. As
it was the gate of India so does it in all probability derive its
sacred name from being the first seat of the Aryan race, whence
it worked its way from the Indus to the Ganges, and from being
retained in their memory with all the respect due to a fatherland."
-J. C Thomson.
Kurumbas--The aboriginal cultivators of South Kanara.
Kuruvarnakas--The aboriginal people of the forests in the
upper part of the Doab.
45
354
KUR-KUS
Kuruvatsa--A prince, the son of Anavaratha, a descendant of
Jyámagha.
Kusa--1, Sacrificial grass; which, on occasion of offerings made
to the gods, is placed upon the ground as a seat for them, having
its tips towards the east; 2, the name of the fourth of the great
insular continents, or Dwípas; so named from a clump of Kuşa
grass (Poa) growing there. There reside mankind along with
Daityas and Danavas, as well as with spirits of heaven and gods.
Kusa--1, A son of Ráma " Kuṣa and Lava were the twin sons
of Ráma and Síta, born after Ráma had repudiated Síta, and brought
up in the hermitage of Válmíki. As they were the first rhapso-
dists the combined name Kusilava signifies a reciter of poems,
or an improvisatore, even to the present day." (Griffiths.) Kuşa
built Kusasthali, on the brow of the Vindhya, the capital of
Koşalá; the Ragha Vansa describes Kuşa as returning from
Kuṣavati to Ayodhya, after his father's death; but it seems not
unlikely that the extending power of the princes of the Doab, of
the lunar family, compelled Rama's posterity to retire more to the
west and south; 2, A son of Valákáṣwa, a descendant of Purúravas.
Kusadhwaj-The younger brother of Janaka, king of Vidéha.
Kusadhwaja-The king of Kási in the Epic period. According
to the Vishnu Purána he was the brother, and according to the
Bhagavata, the son, of Síradhwaja.
Kusagra-The son of Vrihadratha, one of the ancient kings of
Kurukshetra.
Kusamba-1, The brother of Vrihadratha, and uncle of
Kuságra; 2, The eldest son of Kușa, aud founder of Kausambi,
afterwards Kanouj.
Kusanabha-The second son of Kușa, who also took part in
building Kausámbi.
Kusasthali-1, The capital of Anartta, which was part of
Kutch of Guzerat ; it appears to have been the same, or in the same
spot, as
as Dwaraka. The Vishnu Purána says,
"that city
Kusasthali which was formerly your capital, and rivalled the city
KUS-KUV
355
of the immortals, is now known as Dwaraka; and there reigns a
portion of Vishnu in the person of Baladeva," &c. ; 2, The city
built by Kusa on the brow of the Vindhya. (See Kusa.)
Kushidi-A pupil of Paushyinji, and teacher of the Śama veda.
Kushmandas-A class of deities mentioned in the Vishnu
Purána and other Puránas. They are described as taking counsel
with Indra how best to interrupt the devout exercises of Dhruva,
when, as a child, he commenced the rigorous penance that caused
alarm in the celestial regions.
Kusika-According to the Brahma and Hari Vansa, the father
of Gádhi, the incarnation of Indra.
Kusumayudha-A name of Kámadeva, the Hindu Cupid. The
word means. "He whose weapons are flowers." O. S. T., Vol.
I, p. 112.
Kuthumi--A pupil of Paushyinji and teacher of the Śama Veda.
Kuvalayaswa-The son of Vrihadaswa. This prince, inspired
with the spirit of Vishnu, destroyed the Asura Dhundu, who had
harassed the pious sage Uttanka; and he was theuce entitled
Dhundumára. In his conflict with the demon he was attended by
his sons to the number of twenty-one thousand; and all these, with
the exception of only three, perished in the engagement, consumed
by the fiery breath of Dhundu; a legend originating probably in
some earthquake or volcano. V. P.
Kuvera-The Hindu Plutus; he is the son of Viṣravas by
Ilavila, and is the god of riches and regent of the north; the
keeper of gold, silver, precious stones, pearls, and all the treasures
in the earth, which he gives to those for whom they are destined
by Isvara. He is the chief of the Yakshas, and Guhyakas, into
whose forms transmigrate the souls of those men who in this life
are absorbed in the pursuit of riches. He is represented in
external appearance as a mere man, but with a deformed body, of
white colour, having three legs and but eight teeth, with a crown
on his head, and a club in one of his hands. His whole body is
adorned with various ornaments, and his vehicle is a self-moving
chariot. The poets have written many stories concerning him, and
356
KUS
when they praise a man on account of his riches they compare him
to Kuvera. His attendants are Kinueras, who are shaped like men
with heads of horses.
Kuvera is said to have performed austerity for thousands of
years, in consequence of which he obtained from Brahma as a boon
that he should be one of the guardians of the world and the god of
riches. He afterwards consulted his father, Viṣravas, about an
abode, and at his suggestion took possession of the city of Lanká,
which had formerly been built by Visvakarman for the Ráksbasas,
but had been abandoned by them through fear of Vishņu, and was
at that time unoccupied. O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 414.
In the Rámáyana Kailása is spoken of as the residence of Kuvera.
"Having quickly passed over that dreadful desert, you shall
then see the white mountain, called Kailása, and there the celestial
palace of Kuvera, formed by Visvakarman, in colour like a brilliant
cloud, and decorated with gold." O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 308. And
in one passage Śiva is represented as paying a visit to Kuvera on
mount Kailása, and as acknowledging the divine character of
Ráma. O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 310. But in general Kuvera is
represented as residing in Alaka, (also in the Himálaya) which is
termed in the Cloud Messenger the city of the blessed, and is
always described as abounding in wealth and magnificence, and
being surrounded with a garden of surpassing loveliness, in which
was a lake covered with lotuses.
L
Laghu-A measure of time equal to fifteen Káshtas.
Lajja-Modesty-One of the daughters of Daksha, who was
married to Dharma.
Lakshmana-One of the sons of Dasaratha, and brother of
Ráma, to whom he was faithfully attached throughout all his
vicissitudes.
Then Lakshman's truth was nobly shown,
Then were his love and courage known,
When for his brother's sake he dared
All perils, and his exile shared.
He followed Ráma to the wilderness and was with him when
crowned. The latest incident recorded of him is that he was
entrusted with the care of Síta, when she was taken to the hermit-
age of Válmíki and delivered of twins, Kusa and Lava. In Dr.
Muir's O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 107, the following legend of Laksh-
mana's death occurs: Time, in the form of an ascetic came to the
palace gate of Ráma ; and asked as the messenger of Brahmá, to
see Ráma. He was admitted and received with honour, but stated
that his message must be delivered in private, and that any one
who witnessed the interview would lose his life. Ráma informed
Lakshmana of this and desired him to stand outside.
Soon after the irritable Rishi Durvásas came, and insisted on
seeing Ráma immediately, under a threat, if refused, of cursing
Ráma and all his family. Lakshmana, preferring to save his
kinsmen, though knowing that his own death must be the conse-
quence of interrupting the interview of Ráma with Time, entered
the palace and reported the Rishi's message to Ráma. Ráma came
out, and when Durvasas had got the food he wished and departed,
Ráma reflected with great distress on the words of Time, which
required that Lakshmana should die. Lakshmana, however,
*
* *
*
358
LAK
exhorted Ráma not to grieve but to abandon him, and not break
his own promise. The counsellors concurring in this advice Ráma
abandoned Lakshmana, who went to the river Sarayú, suppressed
all his senses, and was conveyed bodily by Indra to heaven.
Lakshmana-One of the wives of Krishṇa.
Lakshmi-" Prosperity." The daughter of Brighu, and bride
or Sakti of Vishnu. The goddess of fortune, wealth and prosperity.
She is also represented as the counterpart of Vishnu. Vishnu is
meaning; she is speech. Vishnu is understanding; she is intellect.
He is righteousness; she is devotion. He is the Creator; she is
creation, &c. &c. .... in a word Vishnu is all that is called male ;
Lakshmi is all that is termed female; there is nothing else than
they. V. P., p. 61. She is represented as having been born from
the churning of the ocean, 'rising from the waves, radiant with
beauty.' Indra recited a hymn to her praise, calling her the mother
of all beings.
Mr. Griffiths thus translates the story of her birth from the
Ramáyána and adds a note from Schlegel.
At length when many a year had fled,
Up floated, on her lotus bed,
A maiden fair and tender-eyed,
In the young flush of beauty's pride.
She shone with pearl and golden sheen,
And seals of glory stamped her queen.
On each round arm glowed many a gem,
On her smooth brows, a diadem.
Rolling in waves beneath her crown
The glory of her hair flowed down.
Pearls on her neck of price untold,
The lady shone like burnisht gold.
Queen of the Gods, she leapt to land,
A lotus in her perfect hand,
And fondly, of the lotus sprung,
To lotus-bearing Vishnu clung.
Her, Gods above and meu below
As beauty's Queen and Fortune know.
LAL-LAM
359
That this story of the birth of Lakshmi is of considerable
antiquity is evident from one of her names Kshírábdhi-tanayá,
daughter of the Milky Sea, which is found in Amarasinha, the most
ancient of Indian lexicographers. The similarity to the Greek
myth of Venus being born from the foam of the sea is remarkable.'
'In this description of Lakshmí one thing only offends me, that
she is said to have four arms. Each of Vishnu's arms, single as
far as the elbow, there branches into two; bnt Lakshmí in all the
brass seals that I possess or remember to have seen has two arms
only. Nor does this deformity of redundant limbs suit the pattern
of perfect beauty.' (Schlegel.)
Mr. Griffith has omitted the offensive epithet four-armed. In a
passage quoted by Dr. Muir it is said that when Vishnu was
incarnate as Ráma then Lakshmí became Síta; and that when he
was born as Krishna she became Rukminí. O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 392,
"Lakshmí is not found in the Rig Veda in the sense which the
word bears in the later mythology, of a goddess personifying good
fortune, though the word itself occurs in a kindred signification."
O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 348.
The beautiful goddess is also said to have been produced at the
churning of the ocean. In the Brahmá Vaivartta Purána, Lakshmí
is said to be a portion of Prakriti ; and in another place is made to
issue from the mind of Krishna; in a different part of the work
she is described as one of two goddesses into which the first
Sarasvati was divided, the two being Sarasvati proper, and Kamala
or Lakshmí.-Wilson's Works, Vol. III, p. 102.
2, The name of a daughter of Daksha who was married
to Dharma..
Lalabaksha-One of the Narakas, that in which those are
punished who eat their meals without offering food to the gods, to
the manes, or to guests. V. P., p. 208.
Lalita-A distinguished name of the personified female energy.
See Sakti.
Lamba-One of the daughters of Daksha and wife of Dharma,
Lambodara--One of the Andhra kings who reigned eighteen
years he was the son of Salakarni the 2nd.
360
LAN-LIG
Langalas-One of the aboriginal tribes who dwelt in jungles
and forests.
Langali-A pupil of Paushyinji and teacher of the Sáma Veda.
Langalini--A river that has its source in Mahendra.
Lanka-The island of Ceylon, the ancient capital of Rávana,
described in the Rámáyana as the capital town of the kings of the
race of Pulastya, kuown as Yakshas. Some pandits in the north
of India deny the identity of Lanka and Ceylon.
Laukika-" Worldly," the opposite to Daivika or "Divine'
e. g., The Apsarasas are thus distinguished, thirty-four of them
being specified as Laukíka, and ten as Daivika.
Lauhitya-An ancient river mentioned in the Puranas, now
part of the Brahmaputra.
Lava-The younger of the twin sons of Ráma by Síta, and
king of Sráwastí, in northern Koşala, by which a part of Oude is
commonly understood. He was trained up by his mother in the
hermitage of Válmíki, and appears to have become a strong
muscular man; having also acquired great skill in archery. When
Ráma sent off a horse, previous to its sacrifice, Kusa and Lava
seized it, and maintained their hold till Ráma himself came and
recognised his two sons.
Lavana-1, A Rákshasa Chief, the son of Madhu, who reigned
at Mathura; he was killed by Satrughna, who took possession of
his capital; 2, One of the Narakas, (the salt) in which those are
punished who associate with women in a prohibited degree.
Lekhas-A class of deities of the sixth Man wantara.
Lesa-A son of Suhotra, of the line of the kings of Kási.
Libations-To be offered to the gods, sages, and progenitors,
with the parts of the hand severally sacred to each. The offerer
is first to bathe, dress in clean clothes, and scatter water thrice to
gratify the gods; as many times to please the Rishis; and once to
propitiate Prajapati; he must also make three libations to satisfy
the progenitors. For full details see V. P., pp. 302, 303.
Light, or fire--Sec Tejas.
LIL-LOH
361
Lila--A pastime; but mythologically used of certain libidinous.
amusements of gods among mortals on earth. Krishna's adventures
with the Gopis and Śiva's pastimes at Madura, are termed Lílas in
Sanskrit books.
Linga Purana-The Purána in which Śiva explained the
objects of life, viz., virtue, wealth, pleasure, and final liberation at
the end of the Agui Kalpa. Professor Wilson says there is
nothing in it like the phallic orgies of antiquity: it is all mystical
and spiritual. The Linga is twofold, external and internal…………….
whatever may have been the origin of this form of worship in
India, the notions upon which it was founded, according to the
impure fancies of European writers, are not to be traced in even
Saiva Puránas.
Lingam-In grammar means Gender. Mythologically it
designates a phallic emblem, and is represented by a cylindrical
stone rounded off at the top; and at the other end inserted in
masonry or in the ground, but transfixing another horizontal and
flat stone named Yóni. This emblem is placed in the open field,
on the way side, and in temples, and worshipped from the Himá-
layas to Cape Comorin; and from the mouths of the Ganges to
those of the Indus. The worship of the Lingam and Yóni marks
the Saivas; the worship of the Lingam alone denotes the Vira
Saivas. The latter attach a further meauing to the word, indicating
various heavens or Lokas in the invisible world. The uppermost
is the Brahmá, or sometimes Śiva lingam; concerning which
metaphor is exhausted.
Lingadhari-One who wears a small lingam on his person,
usually in a little silver box, hanging on his breast from a string
round the neck; or sometimes fastened to his right arm.
Lobha" Covetousness," a son of Brahmá-being one of his
progeny of virtues and vices as enumerated in the Vishnu Purána.
In another part of the same Purána, Lobha is described as the son
of Dharma by one of the daughters of Daksha; also as the son of
Adharma (vice) and it states that he was married to Nikriti, and
their progeny was Krodha, Hinsa, &c.
Lohitas-A class of deities in the twelfth Manwantara.
46
362
LOK
Lokakshi-One of the pupils of Paushyinji, and a teacher of
the Sáma Véda.
Lokaloka-The mountain belt beyond the sea of fresh water ;
the circular boundary between the world and void space. The
mountain range encircling the world is termed Lokáloka, because
the world is separated by it from that which is not world. The
Mahommedan legends of Koh Kaf, the stony girdle that surrounds
the world,' are evidently connected with the Lokáloka of the
Hindus. According to the Siva Tantra, the El dorado, at the foot
of the Lokáloka mountains, is the play-ground of the gods. V.
P., p. 202.
Loka Palaka-World-protector, au epithet constantly given by
Hindu writers to a rajah.
Loka-palas-The rulers stationed by Brahmá for the protection
of the different quarters of the world: they are termed the regents
of the east, south, west and north. In another part of the Vishnu
Purána eight are mentioned as regents of the spheres; of eight
deities in that character; Indra, Yama, Varuna, Kuvera, Vivaswat,
Soma, Agui, and Váyu.
Lokas-The seven spheres above the earth.
1. Prajapatya or Pitri loka.
2.
Indra loka, or Swerga.
3.
Marutloka, or Diva loka, heaven.
4. Gandarbha loka, the region of celestial spirits, called also
Maharloka.
5. Janaloka, or the sphere of saints.
6. Tapaloka, or the world of the seven sages.
7.
Bralımá loka, or Satya loka, the world of infinite wisdom
and truth.
For a full account of these lokas, see the Vishnu Purána, pp.
212-215. In the Brahmá Vaivartta Purána another Loka is
mentioned as the residence of Krishna denominated Goloka ; it is
far above the three worlds, and has, at five hundred millions of
LOM
363
yojanas below it, the separate Lokas of Vishnu and Śiva, Vaikunta
and Kailas. This region is indestructible, while all else is subject
to annihilation, and in the centre of it abides Krishna, of the colour
of a dark cloud, in the bloom of youth, clad in yellow raiment,
splendidly adorned with celestial gems, and holding a flute. He is
exempt from Máya and all qualities, eternal, alone, and the Para-
mátma, or supreme soul of the world,
Lomaharshana—A name of Súta.
M
Mabali-A name of Bali,
q. v.
Mabalipuram-A sacred place 34 miles north of Madras called
the Seven Pagodas.
Mada-Insanity. One of the progeny of Brahmá, Vishnu
Purána, p. 50.
Madayanti-The wife of the Rája Saudása, q. v.
Madhava-Madhu-The names of two of the months as they
occur in the Vedas, and belonging to a system now obsolete;
corresponding to the lunar months Mágha and Pálguna, or December
and January.
Madhava-A name of Krishna, which may be either derived
as a patronymic from Matha, who is mentioned among his ancestors,
or be considered equivalent to Madhusúdana. Slayer of Madhu.'
Madhavacharya-The founder of a school of philosophy,
opposed to the system of Vyása in the Brahmá Sútras; and that
contained in the last portion of the Bhagavat Gíta; maintaining
that the Divine being and the soul of man (Paramátma and Jívátma)
are two, separate and distinct. Hence his system is spoken of as
the Dvaita. It closely resembles that termed the Sátwata which
was revived by Rámánuja chárya and is now found to prevail to
some extent in all large communities. See Sátwata.
Madhavas-The name of a tribe, descendants of Madhu the son
of Vrisha,
Madhu-1, One of the sons of Káritavírya; 2, A son of
Vrisha; 3, A son of Devakshatra. All the above are of the race
of Yádu to whose family, the Yádavas, Krishna belonged; 4, The
name of a formidable Rákshasa chief, termed a great demon, pro-
bably one of the aborigines, who was killed by Krishna.
Madhuvana-The grove of Madhu, the demon referred to
above. After his death Satrughua founded a city on the spot,
MAD-MAH
365
which was called Mathura: this became celebrated as a holy shrine,
and it was here that Dhruva performed penance.
Madhwacharya-A celebrated Vaishnava teacher, who is
placed by Professor Wilson in the thirteenth century.
Madhyandina-A teacher of the white Yájush.
Madira - One of the wives of Vasudeva.
&
Madra-1, One of the four sons of Sivi; who has given a
name to a province and tribe in the north of India; 2, The name
of a river that rises in the Vindhya mountains.
Madrabhujingas, Madras, Madreyas-Tribes of people
mentioned in the Puránas but not yet satisfactorily identified.
Madri--One of the wives of Pándu, and mother of Nakula and
Sahadeva, by the celestial twin-sons, the Aswini.
Magadha--The modern Behar. A celebrated country in the
Puránas, which furnish lists of the kings who reigned over it.
Magadha―The bard and herald of the Hindus, being attached
to the state of all men of rank to chaunt their praises, celebrate
their actions, and commemorate their ancestry. Wilson. The
name of a herald, a bard who was produced at the sacrifice per-
formed by Brahmá at the birth of Prithu.
Magha Alunar mansion in Ásharbhí, in the Central Avasthána.
Magha-The name of one of the lunar months corresponding
to December.
Mahabali-A name of Bali,
q. v.
Mahabhadra-One of the four great lakes, the waters of which
are partaken of by the gods. The Bhagavata calls it a lake of honey.
Mahabharata-This huge epic, which is in all probability later
in date than the Rámáyana, and consists of about 220,000 long
lines, is rather a cyclopædia of Hindú mythology, legendary history,
and philosophy, than a poem with a single subject. It is divided
into eighteen books, nearly every one of which would form a large
volume; and the whole is a vast thesaurus of national legends, said
to have been collected and arranged by lyása (the supposed compiler
366
MAH
of the Vedas and Puránas), a name derived from a Sanskrit verb,
meaning "to fit together," or "arrange."
The following is an outline of the leading story, though this
occupies little more than a fifth of the whole work, numerous
episodes and digressions on all varieties of subjects being
interspersed throughout the poem :-
According to the legendary history of India, two dynasties were
originally dominant in the north--called Solar and Lunar, under
whom numerous petty princes held authority, and to whom they
acknowledged fealty. The most celebrated of the Solar line, which
commenced in Ikshváku, and reigned in Oude, was the Ráma of
the Rámáyana. Under this dynasty the Brahmanical system
gained ascendancy more rapidly and completely than under the
Lunar kings in the more northern districts, where fresh arrivals of
martial tribes preserved an independent spirit among the population.
already settled in those parts.
The most famous of the Lunar race, who reigned in Hastinapura,
or ancient Delhi, was Bharata, whose authority is said to have
extended over a great part of India, and from whom India is to
this day called by the natives Bhárat-varsha (the country or domain
of Bharata.) This Bharata was an ancestor of Kuru, the twenty-
third in descent from whom was the Bráhman Krishna Dwaipayuna
Vyása (the supposed author of the Mahábhárata), who had two
sons, Dhritarashtra and Pándu. The former, though blind,
consented to assume the government when resigned by his younger
brother Pándu, and undertook to educate, with his own hundred
sons, the five reputed sons of his brother. These five sons were,
1st, Yudhishthira (i. e., "firm in battle"); 2nd, Bhíma (i. e.,
"terrible"); 3rd, Arjuna (i. e., "upright"); 4th, Nakula (i. e.,
"a mungoose"); 5th, Sahadeva (i. e., "a twining plant.")
The three first were born from Páṇḍu's wife, Pritha, or Kunti,
but were really her children by three gods, viz., Dharma, Váyu and
Indra respectively. The two last were children of his wife Mádrí,
by the Aṣviní-Kumáras, or "twin-sons," i. e., of the Sun. As,
however, Pándu had acknowledged these princes as his sons, the
objection to their birth was overruled by his example. Pándu (i. e.,
"the pale") was probably a leper, and so incapable of succession.
MAH
367
12
To make the genealogy more clear it may be shown in a tabular
form as drawn up by Professor M. Williams.
Atri, the muni, generally reckoned among the seven Rishis or sages.
Soma, (or Chandra) the moon.
Budha (or Mercury) married Ilá, daughter of Ikshwaku.
Pururuvas (or Aila) married the nymph Urvași.
Âyus.
Nahusha.
Yayati (husband of Sarmishtha and Devayani.)
Line of Puru.
Puru (king in Prakshthána.)
Dushyanta (h. of Śakuntala).
Bharata.
Hastin (built Hastinapur).
Kuru.
Sántanu.
Chitrangada.
ד
Line of Yadu.
Yadu.
Vrishni.
Devarata.
Andhaka.
Sura.
Vasudeva, brother of Kunti or Pritha.
Krishna and Balarama, with whom the
line becomes extinct. They were.
contemporary with the sons of Pándu
and Dhritarashtra.
Line of Puru and Kuru-continued.
Santanu
Satyavati.
T
Vichitra-vírya
son of both
died childless.
Т
Vyása
son of Satyavati
married the two
widows of Vichi-
tra-vírya.
Bhishma
called Santanava
and Gangeya
as son of Santanu
by Ganga.
Dhritarashtra--
Gandhari.
T
Kunti or PrithaT Pandu
ד
Madri.
T
ד
Vidura
called Kshattri.
J
୮
Karna, Yudhishthira. Bhima Arjuna Nakula Sahadeva.
Duryodhana
and 99
other sons.
368
MAH
The characters of the five Pandavas are drawn with much
artistic delicacy, and maintained consistently throughout the poem.
The eldest, Yudhishthira, is a pattern of justice, integrity, and
chivalrous honour and firmness. Bhíma is a type of brute courage
and strength, of gigantic stature, impetuous and irascible; he is
capable, however, of warm, uuselfish love, and shows devoted
affection for his mother and brothers. Arjuna, who is the chief
hero of the poem, is represented as a man of undaunted courage,
and, at the same time, generous, modest, and tender-hearted; of
super-human strength, withal, and matchless in arms and athletic
exercises. Nakula and Sahadeva are amiable, noble-minded, and
spirited. All five are as unlike as possible to the hundred sons of
Dhritarashtra, commonly called the Kuru princes, or Kauravas,
who are represented as mean, spiteful, dishonourable, and vicious.
The cousins, though so uncongenial in character, were educated
together at Hastinapur by a Brahman named Drona, who found in
the Páṇḍu princes apt scholars. Their education finished, a grand
tournament is held, at which the cousins display their skill in
archery, the management of chariots, horses, &c.
Arjuna
especially distinguishes himself by prodigies of strength and skill;
but suddenly a stranger enters the lists, named Karna, who, after
performing the same feats, challenges Arjuna to single combat.
But each champion is obliged to tell his name and pedigree, and
Karṇa's parentage being doubtful (he was really the illegitimate
son of Prithá, by Surya (the sun), and, therefore, half-brother of
Arjuna), he is obliged to retire ignominiously from the arena.
Thus publicly humiliated, Karņa joins the party of their enemies,
the Kurus, to whom he renders important service. Enraged at
the result of this contest, the Kurus endeavour to destroy the
Pandavas by setting fire to their house; but they, warned of their
intention, escape by an under-ground passage to the woods. Soon
after, in the disguise of mendicant Brahmans, they repair to the
Swayamvara of Draupadí, daughter of Drupada, king of Panchála.
Arjuna, by the exhibition of his gymnastic skill, wins the favour
of the lovely princess, who becomes his bride. Strengthened by
Drupada's alliance, the Pándu princes throw off their disguise,
and the king, Dhritarashtra, is induced to settle all differences by
MAH
369
dividing his kingdom between them and his own sons, the Kurus,
Yudhishthira, however, afterwards stakes and loses his whole
territory at dice. His brothers then pass twelve years in the woods,
in disguise, after which the war is again renewed. Krishna, king
of Dwaraka, in Guzerat an incarnation of Vishnu), joins the
Páṇḍavas, as charioteer to Arjuna. The rival armies meet near
Delhi. The battle, which lasts for eighteen days, terminates in
favour of the Pandavas, who recover their possessions, and the
elder brother is elevated to the throne; Duryodhana and all the
Kurus being slain in the conflict.
Thus the undivided kingdom of Hastinapur became the posses-
sion of the sons of Pánḍu; but they were so grieved by the
dreadful slaughter which their ambition had occasioned, that they
resigned their power. Their famous ally, Krishna-who previous
to his founding the city of Dwaraka, had been expelled from
Mathura (Muttra), the seat of his family-was accidentally killed
in a thicket, and his sons, driven from their paternal possessions,
sought refuge beyond the Indus.* See Bhagavat Gita, Pandavas,
Arjuna, &c.
Mahabhoja-A pious prince, the son of Sátwatu. The name
is sometimes read Mahabhága.
Mahadeva-A Rudra--the name of the eighth manifestation
of the Rudra-an account which Wilson says is grounded apparently
on Saiva or Yogi mysticism; 2, A name of Śiva.
Mahajwala--The name of one of the Narakas, in which the
crime of incest is punished.
Mahamaya-The king of Atala, the first of the seven regions.
of Pátála.
Mahamoha--" Extreme illusion," causing addiction to the
enjoyments of sense; one of the five kinds of obstruction to the
soul's liberation; or as they are called in the Patanjala philosophy,
one of the five afflictions-the five-fold Ignorance' of the Vishnu
Purána.
Mahan-One of the eleven Rudras.
* Williams. Indian Epic Poetry,
47
370
MAH
Mahanabha--A daitya of great prowess, one of the sons of
Hiranyáksha.
Mahanada--A river in Orissa.
Mahanandi-One of the ten Saisunaga kings of Magadha, the
son of Nandivarddhana.
Mahanila--A powerful many-headed serpent. One of the
progeny of Kadru.
Mahantu-A prince, the son of Dhímat; he lived during the
Swayambhuva Manwantara.
Mahapadma-1, A prince, the son of Mahananda; his name
was Nanda, but he was remarkably avaricious. He was born of a
Súdra woman, and after him the kings of the earth were to be all
Súdras. Like Parasurama he endeavoured to annihilate the
Kshatriya race, and brought the whole earth under one umbrella.
He and his descendants, termed the nine Nandas, reigned a
hundred years; when the dynasty was overturned by the Brahman
Kautilya (also called Chánakya and Chanaki) who placed.Chan-
dragupta on the throne. (See the Mudra Rakshasa, Hindu
Theatre, Vol. 2.)
2. The name of one of the progeny of Kadru, a powerful many-
headed serpent.
Mahapurusha-Great or supreme spirit; purusha meaning
that which abides or is quiescent in body; incorporated spirit. It
is a name applied to Vishņu; who is any form of spiritual being
acknowledged by different philosophical systems: he is the
Brahma of the Vedanta, the Iswara of the Patanjala, and the
Purusha of the Sáukhya school.
Maharashtra--The name in the Puránas of the Mahratta
country.
Mahar-loka-The heaven of celestial spirits, the sphere of
saints, situated at the distance of ten million leagues above Dhruva :
the inhabitants dwell in it throughout a Kalpa or day of Brahmá:
Those who are distinguished for piety, abide, at the time of disso-
lution, in Mahar-loka, with the Pitris, the Manus, the seven Rishis,
the various orders of celestial spirits, and the gods. Then at the
MAH
371
end of a Kalpa, when the heat of the flames that destroy the world
reaches to Mahar-loka, the inhabitants repair to Janaloka, within
subtile forms, destined to become re-embodied, in similar capacities
as their former, when the world is renewed at the beginning of
the succeeding Kalpa. This continues throughout the life of
Brahmá; at the expiration of his life all are destroyed; but those
who have thus attained a residence in the Brahma-loka by having
identified themselves in spirit with the Supreme, are finally resolved
into the sole existing Brahmá. See Wilson's Notes to V. P., p.
633.
Mahamagha-The occurrence of the full moon in or about the
asterism Magha, with other astronomical incidents, which occur
once in twelve years, and which time is auspicious for bathing.
At Khumbak bonam there is a large tank, the water of which is
supposed to rise once in twelve years, on the above occasion, and
when people in great numbers assemble from distant places to
bathe and obtain remission of sins.
Maharoman--One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Kritaráta.
Mahaswat--A prince, the son of Amarsha, a descendant of
Ráma.
Mahat-Intellect; the first product of Pradhána, sensible to
divine, though not to merely human organs, is, both according to
the Sankhya and Purána doctrines, the principle called Mahat,
literally the Great, explained as the production of the manifes-
tation of the qualities:' Mahat, the Great principle, is so termed
from being the first of the created principles, and from its extension
being greater than that of the rest. Mahat is also called Iswara,
from its exercising supremacy over all things. The Puránas
generally attribute to Mahat, or Intelligence, the act of creating.
Mahat is therefore the divine mind in creative operation, the
νους ὁ διακοσμων τε παντων αἴτιος of Anaxagoras; an ordering and
disposing mind, which was the cause of all things. See Wilson's
Notes to V. P., p. 15.
Mahatala-The fifth of the seven divisions of Pátála, with a
sandy soil, embellished with magnificent palaces, in which dwell
numerous Dánavas, Daityas Yakshas, and the great snake-gods.
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MAH
Mahavichi-The name of one of the Narakas beneath the earth.
Mahavira--1, One of the sons of Priyavrata, according to the
Bhagavata; the one who had Krauncha-dwípa assigned to him;
2. A son of Savana, king of the seventh dwípa ; 3, The name of
a division of Pushkara dwípa.
Mahavira-The twenty-fourth Tirthankara of the Jains. His
first birth, which occurred at a period indefinitely remote, was as
Nayasára, headman of a village in the country of Vijaya. His
piety and humanity elevated him next to the heaven called
Saudharma, where he enjoyed happiness for some oceans of years.
He was next born as Marichi, the grandson of the first Tirthankara
Rishaba, thence transferred to the Brahimaloka, whence he returned
to earth as a worldly-minded and sensual brahman, the consequence
of which was his repeated births in the same caste, each birth being
separated by an interval passed in one of the Jain heavens, and
each period of life extending to many lakhs of years. He then
became Vişvabhuta, prince of Rajagriha, and next a Vásudeva
named Triprishta (q. v.) then a chakravartti Priyamitra (q. v.)
then a Nandana leading a life of devotion.
On the return of the spirit of Nandana to earth it first animated
the womb of the wife of a brahmau, but Mahendra, disapproving
of the receptacle as of low caste, transferred it to the womb of
Trisala the wife of Siddhárta, of the family of Iksváku, and prince
of Ravana, in Bharatakshetra. Mahavira was born on the thirteenth
of the light fortnight of Chaitra: the fifty-six nymphs of the
universe assisted at his birth, and his consecration was performed
by Sakra and the other sixty-three Indras. The name given by
his father was Varddhamána, as causing increase of riches and
prosperity, but Śakra gave him also the appellation of Mahávíra
as significant of his power and supremacy over men and gods.
Mahávíra married Yaṣodá, daughter of the prince Samaravíra.
By her he had a daughter Priyadarsana, who was married to
Jamali, a prince, one of the saint's pupils, and founder of a schism.
Siddhartha and his wife died when their son was twenty-eight
years old, on which Mahavíra adopted an
adopted an ascetic life, the
government devolving on his elder brother Nandivarddhana. After
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373
ten years of abstinence and self-denial at home he commenced an
erratic life, and the attainment of the degree of a Jina.
During the first six years of his peregrinations, Mahávíra
observed frequent fasts of several month's duration, during each
of which he kept his eyes fixed upon the tip of his nose, and
maintained perpetual silence. He was invisibly attended by a
Yaksha named Siddhartha, who, at the command of Indra watched
over his personal security, and where speech was necessary acted as
spokesman. In his travels he acquired a singular follower named
Goşála, a man of low caste who acted as a sort of buffoon.
It is not the duty of a Jain ascetic to inflict tortures on himself :
his course of penance is one of self-denial, fasting, and silence; and
pain, however meritorious its endurance, must be inflicted by others,
not himself. Mahávíra voluntarily exposed himself to maltreatment
at the hands of various savage tribes, offering no resistance, but
rather rejoicing in his sufferings. At the end of the ninth year he
relinquished his silence in answer to a question put by Gosála, but
continued engaged in the practice of mortification and in an
erratic life.
In the course of twelve years and six months he attained the
Kevala, or only knowledge. This occurred under a Sál tree, on
the north bank of the Rijupalika. Indra instantly hastened to the
spot accompanied by thousands of deities, who all did homage to
the saint. He commenced his instructions on a stage erected for
the purpose by the deities, a model of which is not uncommonly
represented in Jain temples. The following is the introductory
lecture ascribed to Mahávíra by his biographer.
"The world is without bounds like a formidable ocean; its
cause is action (Karma) which is as the seed of the tree. The
being, (Jwa) invested with body, but devoid of judgment, goes
like a well-sinker ever downwards, by the acts it performs, whilst
the embodied being which has attained purity goes ever upwards
by its own acts, like the builder of a palace. Let not any one
injure life, whilst bound in the bonds of action; but be as assiduous
in cherishing the life of another as his own. Never let any one
speak falsehood, but always speak the truth. Let every one who
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MAH
has a bodily form avoid giving pain to others as much as to
himself. Let no one take property not given to him, for wealth is
like the external life of men, and he who takes away such wealth
commits as it were murder. Associate not with women, for it is
the destruction of life; let the wise observe continence, which
binds them to the Supreme. Be not encumbered with a family, for
by the anxiety it involves the person separated from it falls like an
ox too heavily laden. If it be not in their power to shun these
more subtle destroyers of life, let those who desire so to do avoid
at least the commission of all gross offences."
When Mahávíra's fame began to be widely diffused, it attracted
the notice of the brahmans of Magadha, and several of their most
eminent teachers undertook to refute his doctrines. Instead of
effecting their purpose, however, they became converts, and
constituted his Gaṇadharas, heads of schools, the disciples of
Mahávíra, and teachers of his doctrines, both orally and scripturally.
The period of his liberation having arrived, Mahávíra resigned
his breath, and his body was burned by Sakra and other deities,
who divided amongst them such parts as were not consumed by
the flames, as the teeth and bones, which they preserved as relics ;
the ashes of the pile were distributed amongst the assistants; the
gods erected a splendid monument on the spot, and then returned
to their respective heavens.- Wilson's Works, Vol. I, p. 304.
Mahavirya--1, A prince, the son of Vrihaduktha, one of the
kings of Mithila; 2, A son of Bhavanmanyu, a descendant of
Bharata.
Mahavishuba-The great equinox when the sun is in the third
degree of Viṣakhá and the moon is in the head of Krittiká. At
this time offerings are to be presented to the gods and to the manes,
and gifts are to be made to the Brahmans by serious persons.
Liberality at the equinoxes is always advantageous to the donor.
V. P., p. 225.
Mahayajnas-The great Sacrifices, the great obligations, or as
Sir W. Jones terms them sacraments, are but five: viz :—
1. Bramhayajua, sacred study;
2. Pitriyajna, libations to the manes ;
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375
3. Devayajna, burnt offerings to the gods;
4. Baliyajna, offerings to all creatures;
5. Uriyajua, hospitality.
The Prajapatiyajna, or propagation of offspring, and Satyajna,
observance of truth, are apparently later additions.- Wilson's
Notes to V. P.
Mahayuga-The aggregate of four Yugas or ages: viz:-
Kriti Yuga......... 4000
Sandhya...... 400
Sandhyánsa. 400
4800
Tretá Yuga........3000
Sandhya...... 300
Sandhyánsa. 300
Dwápara Yuga.......2000
Sandhya..... 200
Sandhyánsa. 200
-3600
Kali Yuga........1000
Sandhya..... 100
Sandhyánsa. 100
-2400
-1200
If these divine years are converted into years of mortals, by
multiplying them by 360, a year of men being a day of the gods
we obtain the years of which the Yugas of mortals are respectively
said to consist:
4800×360=1,728,000
3600×360=1,296,000
2400×360= 864,000
1200×360= 432,000
A Maháyuga-4,320,000
So that these periods resolve themselves into very simple elements;
the notion of four ages in a deteriorating series expressed by
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MAH-MAI
descending arithmetical progression, as 4, 3, 2, 1: the conversion
of units into thousands; and the mythological fiction that these
were divine years, each composed of 360 years of men.
It does not seem necessary to refer the invention to any astro-
nomical computations, or to any attempt to represent actual
chronology. Wilson's Notes to V. P.
Mahendra-1, One of the seven main chains of mountains in
Bhárata. Mahendra is the chain of hills that extends from Orissa
and the northern Circars to Gondwana, part of which, near Ganjam,
is still called Mahendra Malei, or hills of Mahendra; 2, The name
of a star in the tail of the celestial porpoise; 3, The name of a
river mentioned in the Puranas.
Maheswara--A name of Śiva,' the great Lord.'
Maheyas--People living near the Mahi river.
Mahi-A river, the Mahy of Western Malwa.
Mahikas, or Mahishas-Supposed to be the ancient name
for the inhabitants of Mysore.
Mahinasa-One of the eleven Rudras.
Mahishakas-An ancient name of the people of Mysore.
Mahishmat-A prince of the Yada race, the son of Sahanji.
Mahishmati—A city on the road to the south (Mahábhárata,
Udyoga Parva) which is commonly identified with Chulí Mahes-
war, on the Narmada.
Mayodaya-The ancient name of the city of Kanouj, q. v.
Mahyuttaras-A people to the north of the river Mahí.
Mainaka-A son of Himávat and Mená; the brother of Ganga
and Párvatí.
Maitreya-1, A disciple of Paráṣara, to whom the Vishnu
Purána is related in reply to his inquiries; he is also one of the
chief interlocutors in the Bhagavata, and is introduced in the
Mahábhárata, (Vana Parva, S. 10) as a great Rishi, or sage, who
denounces Duryodhana's death. In the Bhagavata he is also
termed Kausharavi ; 2, A son of Mítráyu, from whom the Maitreya
Brahmans were descended.
MAI-MAN
377
Maitreyas--A tribe of Brahmans descended from Mitráyu.
Maitri Friendship, daughter of Daksha, wife of Dharma.
Makara--A huge amphibious monster, usually taken to be the
shark or crocodile, but depicted in the signs of the zodiac with the
head and forelegs of an antelope, and the body and tail of a fish.
It is the ensign of the god of love. Varuna, the god of the sea,
rides upon it through the waves, showing it to have been a fish of
some sort. It is now the name of a shark in many parts of India.
Makandi--The capital of Southern Pánchála, the country
north of the Ganges as far as to the Chambal.
Maladas, Malajas, Malas--Tribes of people enumerated in
the Puránas, but not satisfactorily identified.
Malavas--An aboriginal tribe dwelling along the Párípátra
mountains.
Malaya-One of the seven chief chains of mountains in
Bharata; the southern portion of the Western Ghauts.
Malyavan--One of Śiva's principal attendants, who for
interceding for one of his fellow-servants Pushpadanta (q. v.)
was sentenced to a similar punishment-namely, to leave the
paradise of Kailása and be born as a human being. After a due
interval Mályaván was born at Pratishta, under the name of
Gunádhya.-Wilson's Works, Vol. III, p. 152.
Malyavan-A mountain at the base of Meru, to the east.
Malayas-The aboriginal tribes of the Southern Ghauts.
Malina-The son of Tansu, a descendant of Puru.
Mallarashtra--A name given in the Puránas to the Mahratta
country.
Mallas--In Bhima's Dig-Vijaya we have two people of this
name, both in the east, one along the foot of the Himálaya, and
the other more to the south.
Manas-Mind; that which considers the consequences of acts
to all creatures, and provides for their happiness. It is sometimes
used as a synonym of Mahat.
48
378
MAN
Manasa-1, A form of Vishņu, when he was born of Sambhúti,
along with the gods Abhútarajasas, in the Rawala Manwantara ;
2, One of the four great lakes, the waters of which are partaken
of by the gods.
Manasottara-A prodigious range of mountains, running in a
circular direction (forming an outer and an inner circle,) situated
in Pushkara, the seventh Dwipa. The mountains are represented
as 50,000 leagues high, and on the eastern face of the summit, the
city of Indra is situated; that of Yama in the southern face; that
of Varuna in the west, and that of Soma in the north.
Manaswini--The wife of Mikránda, the great Muni.
Manasya-A prince, the son of Mahánta, who reigned over
India in the first, or Swayambhuva Manwantara.
Mancha--A raised platform, with a floor and a roof, ascended
by a ladder. V. P., p. 553.
Mandahara-A minor Dwipa; the Bhagavata and Padma
name eight such islands, peopled for the most part by Mlechchhas,
but who worship Hindu divinities.
Mandara--The mountain which was used by the gods as a
churning stick, at the churning of the sea of milk.
Mandehas-Terrific fiends who attempt every night to devour
the sun.
The night is called Usha, and the day is denominated
Vyushta, and the interval, between them is called Sandhya. On
the occurrence of the awful Sandhya, the Mándehas do their
utmost to devour the sun; for Brahmá denounced this curse upon
these terrific fiends, that without the power to perish they should
die every day (and revive by night,) and therefore a fierce contest
occurs daily between them and the sun.
V. P. The Váyu says
the Mandehas are three crores in number. Professor Wilson says
the story seems to be an ancient legend imperfectly preserved in
some of the Puránas.
Mandhatri-A prince, the son of Yuvanáṣwa, of whose birth
the Vishnu Purána relates the following extraordinary legend.
Yuvanáṣwa had no son, at which he was deeply grieved. The
Munis instituted a religious rite to procure him progeny, one night
MAN
379
during its performance, the sages, having placed a vessel of
consecrated water upon the altar, had retired to repose.
It was
past midnight when the king awoke, exceedingly thirsty; and
unwilling to disturb any of the holy inmates of the dwelling, he
looked about for something to drink. In his search he came to
the water in the jar, which had been endowed with prolific efficacy
by sacred texts, and he drank it. When the Rishis arose and
found that the water had been drunk, they inquired who had taken
it, and said, 'The queen that has drunk this water shall give birth
to a mighty and valiant son.' 'It was I,' exclaimed the Rája
'that unwittingly drank the water;' and accordingly, in due
course, the Rája gave birth to a child from his right side. Indra
became its nurse; and hence the boy was named Mándhátri. The
boy grew up and became a mighty monarch. He married
Bindumatí, and had by her three sons and fifty daughters. The
latter were all married to the sage Saubhari, q. v.
Mandukeya-A teacher of the Rig Veda, the son of Indra-
pramati who imparted his Sanhita to his son, and it thence
descended through successive generations as well as disciples.
Mangala--The fiery-bodied Mars, son of the Rudra Sárva and
his wife Vikesi.
Mani-A powerful serpent, one of the progeny of Kadru.
Manidhanga--The king of a tract of country near the Vindhya
mountains.
Manojava-1, The son of the Rudra Isána; 2, (Hanumán.)
The son of the Vasu Anila (Wind) Manojava means 'swift as
thought; 3, The Indra of the sixth Man wantara was called
Manojava.
Manmatha-A pame of the Indian Cupid, the son of Vishņu,
called also Káma, q. v. He is represented as the cause of sensual
love both in mortals and celestials, but more especially in the female
sex whilst his wife, Rati, inflames the fire in the male sex-like
Venus of old.
Mantra-A hymn of invocation or form of prayer in the
Sanskrit language. Mantras are used in the performance of every
religious rite. They are of various sorts, invocatory, evocatory,
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MAN
deprecatory, conservatory. They are beneficent or hurtful, salutary
or pernicious. By means of them it is believed that great and
various effects may be produced. Some are for casting out evil
spirits; some for inspiring love or hatred, for curing diseases or
bringing them on, for causing death or averting it. Some are of a
contrary nature to others, and counteract their effect the stronger
overcoming the influence of the weaker. Some are potent enough,
it is said, to occasion the destruction of a whole army: while there
are others which the gods themselves are constrained to obey.
The Puróhitas, or domestic chaplains, of all Hindus, understand
them best. They are indispensably necessary to them for accom-
panying the ceremonies which it is their office to conduct. But
Brahmáns generally are conversant with these formulæ ; and when
rallied upon the present state of their Mantras, wholly divested as
they are of their boasted efficacy and power, they answer that this
loss of their influence is to be attributed to the Kali yuga; the age
of the world in which we now live, the iron age, the time of evil
and misfortune in which everything has degenerated. See Dubois.
Manu-The head or ruler of an extensive period of time, termed
a Manwantara. Each Kalpa, or creation of the world, is divided
into fourteen Manwantaras or intervals, over which a Manu
presides. Six of these periods have passed; the first Manu was
Swayambhuva; the second Swarochisa, the third Auttami; the
fourth Tamasa; the fifth Raivata; the sixth Chakshusha ; these
six Manus have passed away; the Manu who presides over the
seventh, which is the present period, is Vaivaswata, the son of the
sun, the wise lord of obsequies. The Vishnu Purána contains an
account of the Manwantaras yet to come; and the names of
the Manus who will preside over each. The Jainas have also
fourteen Manus to whom they give names different to those in the
Hindu Puránas.
Manu--The Noah of the Hindus. The Satapatha Brahmana
contains an important legend of the deluge, but speaks of Manu
simply, without assigning to him any patronymic, such as Vaivas-
wata, so that it is uncertain which Manu is referred to. O. S. T.,
Vol. I, p- 217. Monier Williams writes of him as the seventh Manu,
ΜΑΝ
381
or Manu of the present period, called Vaivaswata, and regarded as
one of the progenitors of the human race. He is represented as
conciliating the favour of the Supreme in an age of universal
depravity. Dr. Muir gives a translation of the legend in his
Orig. Sans. Texts, Vol. I, p. 182; Prof. Max Müller has also
translated it on his An. Sans. Lit., p. 425. The following
translation is from Prof. M. Williams' Indian Epic Poetry.
He said,
'How is thy preservation to
while we are small, we are
It happened one morning that they brought water to Manu, as
usual, for washing his hands. As he was washing a fish came into
his hands. It spake to him thus: "Take care of me and I will
preserve thee.' Manu asked, 'From what wilt thou preserve me.'
The fish answered, 'A flood will carry away all living beings; I
will save thee from that.'
be accomplished'? The fish replied,
liable to constant destruction, and even one fish devours another;
thou must first preserve me in an earthen vessel; when I grow
too large for that dig a trench, and keep me in that. When I
grow
too large for that, thou must convey me to the ocean; I shall then
be beyond the risk of destruction.' So saying, it rapidly became a
great fish, and still grew larger and larger. Then it said, 'After
so many years the deluge will take place; then construct a ship,
and pay me homage, and when the waters rise, go into the ship,
and I will rescue thee.' Manu therefore, after preserving the fish
as he was directed, bore it to the ocean; and at the very time the
fish had declared he built a ship and did homage to the fish. When
the flood rose he embarked in the ship and the fish swam towards
him, and he fastened the ship's cable to its horn. By its means he
passed beyond this northern mountain. The fish then said 'I have
preserved thee; now do thou fasten the ship to a tree. But let
not the water sink from under thee while thou art on the mountain.
As fast as it sinks do thou go down with it'. He therefore so
descended; and this was the manner of Manu's descent from the
northern mountain. The flood had carried away
flood had carried away all living
creatures. Manu alone was left. Wishing for offspring he
diligently performed a sacrifice. In a year's time a female was
produced. She came to Manu. He said to her, Who art thou?"
She answered, Thy daughter.' He asked, 'How lady art thou
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MAN
my daughter?' She replied, "The oblations which thou didst offer
in the waters, viz., clarified butter, thick milk, whey and curds;
from these hast thou begotten me. I can coufer blessings.' With
her he laboriously performed another sacrifice, desirous of children.
By her he had offspring, called the offspring of Manu; and
whatever blessings he prayed for were all granted to him."
"From this interesting legend we learn that, according to its
author's belief, Manu was not the creator of mankind, as some later
accounts considered him to have been, but himself belonged to an
earlier race of living beings, which was entirely destroyed by
the deluge which is described. The legend regards him as a
representative of his generation, who for some reason, perhaps his
superior wisdom, or sanctity, or position, was selected out of the
crowd of ordinary mortals to be rescued from the impending
destruction. That he was regarded as a mere man, and not as a being
of a superior order, is shown by the fact of his requiring the aid
of a higher power to preserve him. A supernatural fish, apparently
some divine person, conceived as taking the form of a creature
which would be perfectly secure and at home in the midst of the
raging waters, undertook to deliver him, and guided the ship on
which he was directed to embark, through all dangers to its
destined haven. No one but Manu took refuge in the ship, for he
alone, the story expressly records, was preserved, while all the
other living beings were overwhelmed. Finding himself the sole
survivor when the waters subsided, he became desirous of progeny ;
and with intense devotion performed certain religious rites in the
hope of realizing his wish through their efficacy. As a result of
his oblations, a woman arose from the waters into which they had
been cast. A male and a female now existed, the destined parents
of a new race of men who sprang from their union,-a union the
fruitfulness of which was assured by their assiduous practice of
sacred ceromonies. From Manu and Iḍā, we are expressly told,
the race known as that of Manu, i. e., the race of men, was
produced. The legend says nothing whatever of this race being
originally characterized by any distinction of castes, or about four
sons, the ancestors of Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras
being born to Manu and Iḍá. We must therefore suppose that the
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383
author of the legend intends to represent the early race of mankind,
or at least the first inhabitants of Bharatavarsha, as descended
from one common progenitor without any original varieties of
caste, however different the professions and social position of their
descendants afterwards became. We are consequently entitled to
regard this legend of the Satapatha Brahmana as at variance with
the common fable regarding the separate origin of the Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras."-Muir. O, S. T., Vol. I, p. 185.
Manu-The great Hindu law-giver who lived about 800 B. C.
The institues of Manu, or code of laws still extant, is sometimes
attributed to Swayambhuva the first Manu. The Manu of the
present period is sometimes considered the author of the Dharma-
shastra, the code which bears his name. "The name belongs to
the Epic and Puranic periods. In the former we may trace in it
the remains of the tradition of a first man, alike progenitor, or even
creator, like Prometheus, of his descendants, and law-giver. We
should conceive its historical value to be the allusion to some
legendary personage, such as every nation can boast of, who first
wakes his country-men from barbarism and a wild life, to the light
of civilization and systematic government." Thomson. Manu
was a legislator and saint, a son of Brahmá, or a personification
of Brahmá himself, the creator of the world and progenitor of
mankind. Derived from the root man to think, the word means
originally man, the thinker, and is found in this sense in the Rig
Veda.
(C
; a8
"Manu as a legislator is identified with the Cretan Minos
progenitor of mankind with the German Mannus : • Celebrant
carminibus antiquis, quod unum apud illos memoriæ et annalium
genus est, Tuisconem deum terra editum, et filium Mannum,
originem gentis conditoresque. TACITUS, Germania, Cap. II."-
Griffiths.
Manu-1, The name, according to the Bhagavata of one of
the eleven Rudras; 2, A sage, the son of Krisáswa and Dhishana.
Manwantara-A period equal to seventy-one times the number
of years contained in the four Yugas, with some additional years:
this is the duration of the Manu, the (attendant) divinities, and the
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MAR
rest, which is equal to 852,000 divine years, or to 306,720,000
years of mortals, independent of the additional period. Fourteen
times this period constitutes a Brahmá day, that is a day of Brahmá,
or a Kalpa.
Margashirsha--The month which comprises the latter half of
November and the former half of December. "It is otherwise
called Agraháyana "the commencement of the year;" and
although the Hindus now begin their year in the month Vaisháka
(April, May) we find in Prinsep's Useful Tables, part II, p. 18,
that in Bentley's opinion, this month would have begun the year,
before the use of a fixed calendar in India, between B. c. 693
and 451.
Maricha-A Daitya, the son of Sunda.
Marichi-1, A Prajapati, one of the nine Brahmá rishis, or
mind-born sons of Brahmá; he was married to Sambhúti (fitness)
one of the daughters of Daksha. Their son, Kasyapa, had an
extensive posterity; 2, The chief of the Maruts, or personified
winds.
Marichigarbhas--A class of deities belonging to the ninth
Manwantara.
Marisha-The daughter of the sage Kandu, and the nymph
Pramlocha. An account of her birth has been given under Kaṇdu :
in a previous existence she was the widow of a prince, and left
childless at her husband's death: she prayed to Vishnu that in
succeeding births she might have honorable husbands and a son
equal to a patriarch amongst men. The prayer was granted and
she was married to the Prachétasas.
Markandeya-The son of the Rishi Mrikanda.
Markandeya Purana-This Purána contains an account of
the nature of Vasudeva, and an explanation of some of the
incidents described in the Mahábhárata. It was narrated in the
first instance by the Muni Márkandeya, and in the second place
by certain fabulous birds, of heavenly descent, profoundly
versed in the Vedas. It contains a long episodical narrative
of the actions of the goddess Durga, and furnished the pomp
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385
and circumstance of the great festival of Bengal, the Dúrga
Pújá, or public worship of that goddess. Professor Wilson says
this Purána has a character different from that of all the
others ; it contains few precepts, moral or ceremonial. Its
leading feature is narrative, and it presents a succession of legends,
most of which, when ancient, are embellished with new circum-
stances; and when new, partake so far of the spirit of the old,
that they are disinterested creations of the imagination, having no
particular motives.
Marriage--The forms of marriage are eight, the Brahmá,
Daiva, the Ársha, Prájápatya, Asura, Gandhiarba, Rak shasa and
Paiṣacha. These different modes of marriage are described by
Manu III, 27, &c. The Vishnu Purána describes the kind of
maiden that should be selected by the man who has finished his
studies, and proposes to enter into the married state. She should
be a third of his own age; one who has not too much hair, but is
not without any; one who is not very black nor yellow com-
plexioned, and who is not from birth a cripple or deformed :
he must not marry a girl who is vicious or unhealthy, of low origin
or labouring under disease; one who has been ill brought up; one
who talks improperly; one who inherits some malady from father
or mother; one who has a beard, or is of a masculine appearance ;
one who speaks thick or thin, or croaks like a raven; one who
keeps her eyes shut, or has the eyes very prominent; one who has
hairy legs, or thick ankles; or one who has dimples in her cheeks
when she laughs ;* let not a wise and prudent man marry a girl
of such a description; nor let a considerate man wed a girl of a
harsh skin; or one with white nails; or one with red eyes; or
with very fat hands and feet; or one who is a dwarf, or who is
very tall
; or one whose eyebrows meet, or whose teeth are far
apart and resemble tusks.
Marshti, Marshtimat-Two of the sons of Sarana of the
family of Vasudeva.
*For the credit of Hindu taste it is to be noticed that the commentator
observes the hemistich in which this clause occurs is not found in all copies
of the text.--Prof. Wilson.
!
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386
MAR
Marttikavatas--Princes of Mrittikavatí,
Maru-1, The son of Síghra, a descendant of Ráma. In the
Vishnu Purána it is stated that Maru is, through the power of
devotion, (Yóga) still living in the village called Kalapa, and in a
future age will be the restorer of the Kshatriya race in the solar
dynasty; 2, The name of the son of Hariyaṣwa, king of Mithila.
Marubhaumas--The inhabitants of Marubhúmi, the desert:
an aboriginal tribe occupying the sandy deserts of Sindh.
Marudeva-A prince, the son of Supratítha, a descendant of
Ikshváku.
Marut-loka--The heaven of the winds and Vaisyas.
Maruts--The winds. The sons of Diti, who having lost her
children prayed for a son of irresistible prowess who should
destroy Indra. The Muni Kasyapa granted his wife the great
boon she solicited, but with one condition; that she should be
pregnant a hundred years, and maintain a rigid observance of all
religious rites during the whole period. Indra watched for an
opportunity of frustrating her intentions, and in the last year of
the century, an opportunity occurred. Diti retired one night to
rest without performing the prescribed ablution of her feet, and
fell asleep on which Indra divided the embryo in her womb into
seven portions. The child, thus mutilated, cried bitterly. Indra
failing to silence it again divided each of the seven portions into
seven, and thus formed the swift-moving deities called Marutas
(winds.) They derived this appellation from the words with
which Indra had addressed them (Marodih, weep not,) and they
became forty-nine subordinate divinities, the associates of the
weilder of the thunderbolt. V. P. This legend, says Professor
Wilson, occurs in all the Puránas in which the account of Kasyapa's
family is related. The Vishnu Purána in another place, says the
winds were the children of Marutwatí. The Maruts are said to
have given Bharata a son named Bharadwaja. q. v. Among the
lesser gods, an important share of adoration is enjoyed by a group
avowedly subordinate to Indra,-involving an obvious allegory,-
the Maruts, or Winds, who are naturally associated with the
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387
firmament. We have, indeed, a god of the wind, in Váyu; but
little is said of him, and that chiefly in association with Indra, with
whom he is identified by scholiasts on the Veda. The Maruts, on
the contrary, are frequently addressed as the attendants and allies
of Indra, confederated with him in the battle with Vritra, and
aiding and encouraging his exertions. They are called the sons
of Prisni, or the earth, and also Rudras, or sons of Rudra: the
meaning of which affiliations is not very clear, although, no doubt,
it is allegorical. They are also associated, on some occasions,
with Agni; an obvious metaphor, expressing the action of wind
upon fire. It is also intimated that they were, originally, mortal,
and became immortal in consequence of worshipping Agui, which
is also easy of explanation. Their share in the production of rain,
and their fierce and impetuous nature, are figurative representa-
tions of physical phenomena.- Wilson.
Marutta-1, A celebrated Chakravartti, or universal monarch,
the son of Avikshit. A Sanskrit verse thus sets forth the splendour
of his proceedings :—
"There never was beheld on earth a sacrifice,
equal to the sacrifice of Marutta: all the implements and utensils
were made of gold. Indra was intoxicated with the libations of
Soma juice, and the Brahmaus were enraptured with the magnifi-
cent donations they received. The winds of heaven encompassed
the rite as guards, and the assembled gods attended to behold it.”
Marutta reigned 85,000 years, according to the Markendaya
Purána; 2, A son of Karandhama, a descendant of Turvasa.
Marutwati-One of the daughters of Daksha, who was married
to Dharma.
Matali-The charioteer of Indra. It was he who was sent to
convey Yayati to heaven, when Indra invited him thither. The
Padma Purána relates a philosophical conversation that took place
between the king and Mátali, iu which the imperfection of all
corporeal existence, and the incomplete felicity of every condition
of life are discussed. These attributes belong, it is said, even to
the gods themselves, for they are affected with disease, subject to
-death, disgraced by the passions of lust and anger, and are
consequently instances of imperfection and of misery. Various
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MAT
degrees of vice are then described, and their prevention or
expiation are declared to be the worship of Śiva or Vishnu,
between whom there is no difference; they are but one, as is the
case indeed with Brahmá also; for Brahmá, Vishnu, and
Maheswara are one form, though three gods; there is no difference
between the three: the difference is that of attributes alone.'
See Yayáti.
Matanga-A brahman mentioned in the Daṣakumára who was
killed while trying to preserve the life of another brahman. On
reaching the city of souls, Yama said to Chandragupta' This
man's hour is not yet come. He died in defence of a brahman.
That one virtuous act effaces all his former sins. Let him behold
the penalty paid to the wicked, and then restore him to his former
body.' Returning to life his adventures were still more remark-
able. Aided by a prince whom he met in the forest he penetrated
the path to Pátála. On arriving near the city, he cast himself
into the flames of a fire he had prepared and rose again in an
angelic form. A damsel richly arrayed and numerously attended,
who said her name was Kálindi, daughter of the king of Asuras,
and that she had come with the concurrence of her council to offer
the kingdom and herself, twin wives, to his espousal. Mátanga
married her and became king of Pátála.-Wilson's Works, Vol.
IV, p. 174.
Mathura--A holy city, founded by Satrughna, (the younger
brother of Ráma.) It is situated in the banks of the Yamuná,
where a demon at one time resided, named Madhu. His son the
Rakshas Lavana, was slain by Satrungha, who afterwards built the
shrine which obtained celebrity as a purifier from all sin. It was
in this place that Dhruva's penance was performed.
Mati--Understanding-that which discriminates and distin-
guishes objects preparatory to their fruition by the soul. It is
often used to signify mind, intelligence, knowledge, wisdom.
Matinara-The son of Rikska, the fifteenth in descent from
Puru. V. P.
Matsya-1, The name of one of the Minor Dwipas; 2, A
teacher of the Rig Veda, a disciple of Vedamitra.
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389
Matsya, or fish Avatara-The first of the ten Avataras of
Vishnu. When, at the end of the last mundane age, the Bhága-
vata Purána relates, Brahmá, the first god of the Trimúrti, had
fallen asleep, a powerful demon, Hayagriva, stole the Vedas
which had issued from the mouth of Brahmá, and lay by his side.
About that time, a royal saint, Satyavrata, had by his penance
attained the rank of a Manu, and Vishņu, who had witnessed the
deed of Hayagrîva, and intended to slay him, assumed for this
purpose the form of a very small fish, and glided into the hands
of the saint when the latter made his daily ablutions in the river.
Manu, about to release the little fish, was addressed and asked by
it not to expose it to the danger that might arise to it from the
larger fish in the river, but to place it in his water-jar. The saint
complied with its wish; but in one night the fish grew so large,
that at its request he had to transfer it to a pond. Yet soon the
pond also becoming insufficient to contain the fish, Manu had to
choose a larger pond for its abode; and, after successive other
changes, he took it to the ocean. Satyavrata now understood
that the fish was no other than Nárayana or Vishņu, and, after
he had paid his adoration to the god, the latter revealed to him
the imminence of a deluge which would destroy the world, and
told him that a large vessel would appear to him, in which he was
to embark together with the seven Rishis, taking with him all the
plants and all the seeds of created things. Manu obeyed the
behest of the god: and when the water covered the surface of the
earth, Vishnu again appeared to him in the shape of a golden fish
with a single horn, 10,000 miles long; and to this horn Manu
attached the vessel, by means of Vishnu's serpent serving as a
cord. While thus floating in the vessel, Manu was instructed by
the fish-god in the philosophical doctrines and the science of the
supreme spirit; and after the deluge had subsided, the fish-god
killed Hayagrîva, restored the Vedas to Brahmá, and taught them
to the Manu Satyavrata, who in the present mundane age was
born under the name of Srâddhadeva, as the son of Vivasvat. A
fuller account of this Avatâra is given in the Matsya-Purâna,
where the instruction imparted to Manu by the fish-god includes
all the usual detail contained in a Purána (q. v.,) that relating to
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MAT
creation, the patriarchs, progenitors, regal dynasties, the duties of
the different orders, and so forth. In the Mahábhárata, where the
same legend occurs, but without either that portion concerning
Hayagrîva, or the instruction imparted by the fish, there is, besides
minor variations, that important difference between its story and
that of the Puránas, that the fish is not a personification of Vishņu,
but of Brahma, and that the deluge occurs in the present mundane
age, under the reign itself of the Manu, who is the son of
Vivasvat. The origin of this Avatára is probably a kindred
legend, which occurs in the Sathapatha brahmana, of the White
Yajurveda; but there the fish does not represent any special
deity, and the purpose of the legend itself is merely to account
for the performance of certain sacrificial ceremonies.-[MANU.]
Matsya Purana--This Purána, after the usual prologue of
Súta and the Rishis, opens with the account of the Matsya or
'fish' Avatára of Vishnu, in which he preserves a king named Manu,
with the seeds of all things, in an ark, from the waters of that
inundation which in the season of a Pralaya overspreads the world.
Whilst the ark floats fastened to the fish (Vishnu) Manu enters
into conversation with him, and his questions, and the replies of
Vishņu, forms the main substance of the compilation. The first
subject is the creation, which is that of Brahma and the patriarchs
the regal dynasties are next described; and then follow chapters
on the duties of the different orders, &c. The account of the
universe is given in the usual strain. Saiva legends ensue ; as
the destruction of Triparásura; the war of the gods with Taraka
and the Daityas, and the consequent birth of Kartikeya, with the
various circumstances of Uma's birth and marriage, the burning of
Kamadeva; the destruction of the Asuras Maya and Andhaka ;
interspersed with the Vaishnava legends of the Avatáras. There
are also chapters on law and morals, and one which furnishes
directions for building houses and making images. See Vishņu
Purána, Preface.
Matsyas-The people of Dinajpur, Rangpur, and Cooch Behar.
There are, however, two Matsyas, one of which according to the
Yantra Samrát, is identifiable with Jaypur. In the Dig Vijaya of
Nakula the Matsyas are placed farther to the west or in Guzerat.
MAU-MAY
391
Maudga-A teacher of the Sáma Veda, and disciple of
Devadersa.
Maudgalyas--A class of Brahmans descended from Mudgala :
they, as well as the Kanwas, were all followers or partisans of
Angiras.
Maunas-A dynasty of kings, consisting of eleven sovereigns;
and forming part of the seventy-nine princes mentioned in the
Vishnu Purána as to reign over the earth for one thousand three
hundred and ninety years.
Mauneyas-A name of the Gandharbas, dwelling in the regions
below the earth, sixty millions in number, who defeated the tribes
of the Nágas, or snake-gods, seizing upon their most precious
jewels and usurping their dominion.
Mauryas-A race of kings of Magadha commencing with
Chandragupta, whose dynasty lasted for a hundred and thirty-
seven years.
Maya-A powerful Dánava, of some note as the father of
Vajrakámá and Mahodárí.
Maya-Illusion. "Know that matter is illusion, and the great
deity the possessor of illusion. The vedantists say that Brahmá, the
self-resplendent, the supremely happy, and the one sole essence,
assumes, unreally, the form of the world through the influence of
his own illusion." O. S. T., Vol. III, p. 195. "In the spirit of
the Berkeleyan theory they affirm that matter exists not independent
of perception; and that substances are indebted for their seeming
reality to the ideas of the mind. All that we see is Máya,
deception, illusion. There are no two things in existence; there
is but one in all. There is no second; no matter; there is spirit
alone. The world is not God, but there is nothing but God in the
world."-Wilson's Works, Vol. II, p. 98.
Maya-'Deceit'; 1, A daughter of Adharma (vice); 2, A
daughter of Anrita (falsehood).
Mayadevi-The supposed wife of the Asura Sambara, who
rescued Pradyumna when he was thrown into the sea as an infant,
and swallowed by a fish (See Pradyumna.) She had deluded
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MED-MER
Sambara for the purpose of protecting and rearing Pradyumna to
whom she was afterwards married, and returned with him to
Dwaraka to the great joy of Rukmini and Krishna.
Medha-Intelligence'; 1, One of the three sons of Priyavrata
who adopted a religious life; remembering the occurrences of a
prior existence they did not covet dominion, but diligently
practised the rites of devotion, in due season, wholly disinterested,
and looking for no reward. V. P. 2, A daughter of Daksha who
was married to Dharma.
Medatithi-One of the sons of Priyavrata who became king of
Plaksha dwípa. He had seven sons, and the Dwipa was divided
amongst them, each division being named after the prince to whom
it was subject, the people enjoyed uninterrupted felicity, being
sinless, V. P., p. 197.
Medhavin-A prince, the son of Sunaya, of the race of Puru.
Mekala-A Rishi, the father of the river Narmadá; thence
called Mekala and Mekalakanya : the mountain where it rises is
also called Mekaládri.
Mekalas--A tribe which according to the Puránas live in the
Vindhya mountains: this locality is confirmed by mythological
personations. The Rámáyana places the Mekalas amongst the
Southern tribes.
Mena-A daughter of the Pitris, acquainted with theological
truth and addicted to religious meditation; accomplished in perfect
wisdom and adorned with all estimable qualities. She was married
to Himávat, and was the mother of Maináka and of Ganga, and of
Párvati or Umá; 2, A river.
Menaka--A divine nymph; one of the ten Apsarasas who are
specified as of the Daivika or divine class, and whose principal.
occupation is the interruption of the penances of holy sages.
Mendicant-See Vánaprastha.
Meru-In the earlier Epic period this is probably the name
given to the high table-land of Tartary, to the north of the
Himálaya range, from the neighbourhood of which the Aryan race
may originally have pushed their way southwards into the
MER
393
peninsula, and thus have preserved the name in their traditions as a
relic of the old mountain worship.* In the Puránas it is described
as the golden mountain in the centre of Jambu-dwípa. Its height
is eighty-four thousand Yojanas; and its depth below the surface
of the earth sixteen thousand. Its diameter at the summit is
thirty-two thousand Yojanas; (the yojana is nine miles) and at its
base sixteen thousand; so that this mountain is like the seed cup
of the lotus of the earth. V. P. Prof. Wilson in a note states
"the shape of Meru according to this description, is that of an
inverted cone; and by the comparison to the seed cup its form
should be circular: but there seems to be some uncertainty upon
this subject amongst the Pauránics. The Pádma compares its
form to the bell-shaped flower of the Dhatura. The Váyu
represents it has having four sides of different colours; or white
on the east, yellow on the south, black on the west, and red on the
north but notices also various opinions of the outline of the
mountain, which, according to Atri, had a hundred angles : to
Bhrigu a thousand; Savarni calls it octangular; Bhaguri quadran-
gular; and Varsháyani says it has a thousand angles: Gálana
makes it saucer-shaped; Garga, twisted, like braided hair: and
others maintain that it is circular. The Linga makes its eastern
face of the colour of ruby; its southern, that of the lotus; its
western, golden; and its southern coral. The Matsya has the
same colours as the Váyu and both contain this line 'Four-
coloured, golden, four cornered, lofty: but the Váyu compares its
summit in one place to a saucer; and observes that its circumference
must be thrice its diameter. The Matsya also says the measure-
ment is that of a circular form but it is considered quadrangular.
According to the Buddhists of Ceylon, Meru is said to be of the
same diameter throughout. Those of Nepal consider it to be
shaped like a drum.”
:
On the summit of Meru is the vast city of Brahmá, extending
fourteen thousand leagues and renowned in heaven; aud around it
in the cardinal points and the intermediate quarters; are situated
*Thomson.
50
394
MER-MIM
the stately cities of Indra and the other regents of the spheres.
Mount Meru is in short the Olympus of India.
Merubhutas-See Marubhaumas.
Merumandara--A mountain to the south of Meru with a large
Pípal tree on its summit.
Meru-savarnis--The Manus from the ninth to the twelfth
Manwantaras; described in the Váyu as the mind-engendered sons
of a daughter of Daksha, by himself and the three gods Brahmá,
Dharma, and Rudra, to whom he presented her on Mount Meru;
whence they are called Meru-sávarnis. They are termed Sávarņis
from their being of one family.
Mimansa Darsana-" The founder of the Mímánsá School
was Jaimini, of whose history very little is known. He is
described as a short young man, of light complexion, wearing the
dress of a mendicant, and living at Nílavata-Múla. He was born
at Dwaita-vana. His father, Šákatayana, was author of a Sanskrit
dictionary, and his son, Krití, wrote certain verses in the Deví-
Bhagavata.
There are about twenty-six works extant, illustrating the
Mímánsá system, the chief of which are the Sútras of Jaimini;
the Bhashya, by Shávara (and comments thereon by Bhatta,
Váchaspati Mishra and Ránaka); the Satíka-Śástra-Dípiká, by
Sóma-Nátha; the Dharma-Dípiká; the Mímánsá-Sára; and the
Mímánsá Sangraha.
From the three last-named works chiefly we gather the following
abridgment of the system of Jaimini. He taught that God is to
be worshipped only through the incantations of the Vedas: that
the Vedas were uncreated, and contained in themselves the proofs
of their own divinity, the very words of which were unchangeable.
His reasonings on the nature of material things were similar to
those of Gautama, insisting that truth is capable of the clearest
demonstration, without the possibility of mistake. Creation,
preservation, and destruction, he represented as regulated by the
merit and demerit of works; while he rejected the doctrine of the
total destruction of the universe. He maintained that the images
of the gods were not real representations of these beings, but only
MIM
395
given to assist the mind of the worshipper; that the mere forms
of worship had neither merit nor demerit in them; and that the
promises of the Sástra to persons who presented so many offerings,
so many prayers, &c., were only given as allurements to duty.
He directed the person, who sought final emancipation, to
cherish a firm belief in the Vedas, as well as persuasion of the
benefits of religion, and the desire of being engaged in the service
of the gods; and then, by entering upon the duties of religion,
and by degrees ascending through the states of a student, a secular,
and a hermit, he would be sure to obtain final absorption in
Brahmá.
Of the three divisions of the Veda, the first, called the Karma
Kánda, or "practical part," relates to religious ceremonies
(including moral and religious obligations.) This portion Jaimini
has attempted to explain in his Sútras, and in the Púrva Mímánsá
(i. e., former "Mímánsá," which is commonly referred to when
the term "Mimánsa" simply is used,) so called in distinction from
the Uttara (or latter) Mímánsá ascribed to Vyása, which is the
the same as the Vedánta, and is founded on the Juána Kánda (or
theological part) of the Vedas, treating of the spiritual worship
of the Supreme Being or soul of the Universe.
Sound, says Jaimini, in opposition to the Nyaiyikas, who deny
this, is uncreated and eternal, and is of two kinds, viz., simple
sound, or that which is produced by au impression on the air
without requiring an agent, as the name of God; aud compound
(smybolized or audible) sound. Thus, the state of the sea, in a
perfect calm, represents simple, uncreated sound; but the sea, in
a state of agitation, illustrates sound as made known by an agent.
Symbols, of sounds, or letters, are eternal and uncreated; as is
also the meaning of sounds. For instance, when a person has
pronounced ka, however long he may continue to utter ka, ka, it
is the same sound, sometimes present and sometimes absent; but
sound is never new. Its manifestation alone is new by an impres-
sion made upon the air. Therefore sound is God (Bralımá), and
the world is nothing but name.
The Veda has no human origin, but contains in itself the
evidence of divine authorship, and comes forth as the command of
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MIM
a monarch. It is incumbent on men to receive also, as divine,
those works (of the sages) which are found to agree with the
Veda, to contain clear definitions of duty, and to be free from
contradictions.
What is religion? That which secures happiness. And it is
the duty of man to attend to the duties of religion, not only ou
this account, but in obedience to the commands of God. The
divine law is called Vidhi.
Should any one say, then I have nothing to do with other kinds
of instruction, since this alone is divine. To that it is replied,
that forms of praise, motives to duty, and religious observances,
are auxiliaries to the divine law, and have, therefore, a relative
sanctity and obligation.
There are five modes of ascertaining the commands of God,
viz: (1), the subject to be discussed is brought forward; (2),
questions respecting it are stated; (3), objections are started; (4),
replies to these objections are given; and (5), the question is
decided. He who acts in religion according to tlie decision thus
come to, does well; and so does he who rejects what will not bear
this examination; but he who follows rules which have been
hereby condemned, labours in vain.
Those actions from which future happiness will arise are called
religious, or good, because productive of happiness; and those
which tend to future misery are called evil, on account of their
evil fruits. Hence, according to Jaimini, actions of themselves
have in them neither good nor evil. Their nature can only be
inferred from the declarations of the Veda respecting them, or
from future consequences. The Hindús appear to have no just
idea of moral evil.
Of all the works on the Civil and Canon Law, that of Manu is
to be held in the greatest reverence, for Manu composed his work
after a personal study of the Veda. Other sages have composed
theirs from mere comments.
From the evidence of things which God has afforded, especially
the evidence of the senses, mistakes cannot arise either respecting
sccular or religious affairs. When there may exist error in this
evidence, it will diminish, but cannot destroy the nature of things.
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397
If there be an imperfection in seed, the production may be
imperfect, but its nature will not be changed. The seat of error
and inattention is to be found in this reasoning faculty, and not in
the senses; error arising from the confused union of present ideas
(anubhava) with recollection.
Some affirm that ideas are received into the understanding
separately, and never two at the same instant. This is incorrect
for it must be admitted, that while one idea is retained, there is
an opening left in the understanding for the admission of another.
Thus, in arithmetical calculations, "one added to one makes two."
The Veda has, in some parts, forbidden all injury to sentient
beings, and in others has prescribed the offering of bloody sacrifices,
Jaimini explains this apparent contradiction by observing that
some commands are general, and others particular: that the
former must give way to the latter, as a second knot always
loosens, in a degree, the first. So, when it is said that Saraswati
is altogether white, it is to be understood, not literally, but
generally, for the hair and eyebrows of the goddess are not white.
Therefore, in cases where general commands are given, they must
be observed with those limitations which are found in the S'ástra.
The promises of reward contained in the S'ástra upon a minute
attention to the different parts of duty, have been given rather as
an incitement to its performance than with the intention of entire
fulfilment. He who has begun a ceremony, but has, by circum-
stances, been unable to finish it, shall yet not be unrewarded.
The benefits resulting from the due performance of civil and
social duties are confined to this life. Those connected with the
performance of religious duties are to be enjoyed in a future state,
while some meritorious actious, or virtues, reap their reward both
in the present and the future life.
Works give birth to invisible consequences-either propitious
or otherwise according to their nature; and, besides works, there
is no other sovereign or judge. These consequences, ever accom-
panying the individual, as the shadow the body, appear in the next
birth, in accordance with the time and manner in which those
actions were performed in the preceding birth. "Works rule, and
men by them are led or driven, as the ox with a hook in its nose.”
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MIN-MIT
The progress of all actions, whether they originate in the
commands of the Sástras, or in the customs of a country, are as
follows-First, the act is considered and resolved on in the
mind; then it is pursued by means of words; and, lastly, it is
accomplished by executing the different constituent parts of the
action. Hence it follows that religion and irreligion refer to
thoughts, words, and actions. Some actions, however, are purely
those of the mind, or of the voice, or of the body. The virtue or
vice of all actions depend on the state of the heart.
The doctrine that, at a certain period, the whole universe will
be destroyed at once, is incorrect. The world had no beginning,
and will have no end. As long as there are works, there must be
birth, as well as a world like the present, to form a theatre on
which they may be performed, and their consequences either
enjoyed or endured.
:
One of the sages of the Mímánsá school thus expresses
himself God is simple sound. To assist the pious in their
forms of meditation (or incantations). He is represented as light;
but the power of liberation lies in the sound God-God.' When
the repeater is perfect, the incantation, or name repeated, appears
to him in the form of simple light or glory.
<
The objects of worship, which are within the cognisance of
the senses, are to be received; for without faith religious actions
are destitute of fruit. Therefore, let no one treat an incantation
as a mere form of alphabetic signs, nor an image as composed of
the inanimate material, lest he should be guilty of a serious crime.'
-Small, H. S. L.
Minaratha-A prince, the son of Anenas, a king of Mithila,
of the family of Janaka.
Misrakesi-One of the Apsarasas, a Laukíka nymph.
Mithi--A prince, the son of Nimi, the legend of whose birth is
thus related in the Vishnu Purána. As Nimi left no successor,
the Munis, apprehensive of the consequences of the earth being
without a ruler, agitated the embalmed body of Nimi, and produced
from it a prince who was called Janaka, from being born without
a progenitor. In consequence of being produced by agitation.
MIT
399
(Mathana) he was further termed Mithi.
The Rámáyana places
a prince named Mithi between Nimi and Janaka, whence comes
the name Mithila.
Mithila-The modern Tirùoot. Mithila is celebrated in the
Puránas as the country over which the descendants of Ikshváku
reigned for a long period. Mithi, from whom the country derived
its name, was the grandson of Ikshváku.
Mitra-1, One of the twelve Adityas, the one who presides
over the organs of excretion; 2, A sage, one of the seven sons of
Vasishtha. V. P.
Mitra is the god of the day. Mitra is said to represent the sun
by day, and Varuna the setting luminary. "Mitra re-appears in
the Zendavesta as the well-known Mithra, who is the angel
presiding over and directing the course of the sun."-Quarterly
Review, July 1870.
Mitrasaha-A prince, the son of Sudása. Having gone into
the woods to hunt, he fell in with two tigers by whom the forest
had been cleared of the deer. The prince slew one of these tigers
with an arrow. At the moment of expiring the form of the
animal was changed, and it became that of a fiend of a fearful
figure and hideous aspect. Its companion, threatening the prince
with its vengeance, disappeared. After some interval Saudása
celebrated a sacrifice which was conducted by Vasishtha. At the
close of the rite Vasishtha went out; when the Rákshasa, the
fellow of the one that had been killed in the figure of a tiger,
assumed the semblance of Vasishtha, and came and said to the
king now that the sacrifice is ended, you must give me flesh to
eat; let it be cooked and I will presently return. Having said
this he withdrew, and transforming himself into the shape of the
cook, dressed some human flesh which he brought to the king,
who, receiving it on a plate of gold, awaited the re-appearance of
Vasishtha; as soon as the Muni returned the king offered to him
the dish. Vasishtha knowing it to be human flesh was surprised
at such an insult, aud in his anger denounced a curse upon the
Rája, transforming him into a cannibal. "It was yourself replied
the Rája to the indignant sage, who commanded this food to be
CC
400
MIT-MOK
prepared." Vasishtha, having recourse to meditation then detected
the whole truth: but though the curse was partially withdrawn,
the Raja became a cannibal every sixth watch of the day for
twelve years, and in that state wandered through the forests and
devoured multitudes of men. On one occasion he met with a
brahman and his wife seizing the husband, and regardless of the
wife's reiterated supplications, he ate the brahman as a tiger
devours a deer. He returned to his wife Madayanti at the expira-
tion of the period of his curse, but suffered from the imprecation
of the brahman's wife. V. P.
Mitravrinda-One of the seven beautiful wives of Krishna.
Mitraya--1, A scholar of Súta's and teacher of the Puránas
and legendary lore: he was also a composer of one of the Sanhitas
afterwards collected into the Vishnu Purána; 2, The son of
Divodáșa, from whom the Maitreya brahmans were descended.
Mlechchas--Outcastes. The Vishnu Purána states that
various Kshatriya races were degraded by Sagara, by being
deprived of established usages and the study of the Vedas; and
thus separated from religious rites, and abandoned by the brahmans,
these different tribes became Mlechchaś.
C
6
Moha--1, Dulness' or Stupefaction,' a property of sensible
objects; a kind of ignorance; or illusion produced by the notion.
of property or possession, and consequent attachment to objects,
as children and the like, as being one's own. Moha also occurs in
the Bhagavata and Matsya Purána amongst a series of Brahma's
progeny, or virtues and vices; Moha is there trauslated by Wilson
to mean Infatuation.
Mohini--Vishnu in a female form. The product of Siva's
union with Móhini was Ayenar, the only male among the Gráma-
dévatas.
Moksha-Absorption into the Deity. The Hindu idea of
supreme blessedness. It is only those who attain to a full know-
ledge of the nature of the deity, the soul, the intellect, &c., derived
from meditation, the teaching of the guru, experience, penance,
&c., or the exalted ascetic, who, by. austerities is said to have
MON-MRI
401
annihilated his passions, and freed his soul from earthly desire,
that is considered ripe for this final emancipation or Móksha.
6
Monotheism-In the Vishnu Purána it is said, the only one
God, Janárddana takes the designation of Brahmá, Vishnu, and
Śiva, accordingly as he creates, preserves or destroys. This, says
Professor Wilson, is the invariable doctrine of the Puránas,
diversified only according to the individual divinity to whom they
ascribe identity with Paramátmá or Parameswara. In the Vishņu
Purána this is Vishnu ; in the Saiva Paránas, as in the Linga, it
is Śiva; in the Brahmá-vaivartta it is Krishna. The identifica-
tion of one of the hypostases with the common source, the triad,
was an incongruity not unknown to the other theogonies; for
Cneph amongst the Egyptians, appears on the one haud to have
been identified with the Supreme Being, the indivisible unity,
whilst on the other he is confounded with both Eureph and Ptha,
the second and third persons of the triad of hypostases. Cudworth,
Vol. I, p. 4–18.
Moon--The Vishnu, Váyu, and Pádma Puránas all relate in
detail the legend of the churning of the ocean, and state that the
cool-rayed moon was one of the products of the operation; it was
seized by Mahadeva. The Vishnu Purána says that the chariot
of the moon has three wheels, and is drawn by ten horses, of the
whiteness of the jasmine, five in the right half of the yoke and five
in the left. The horses drag the car for a whole Kalpa. During
the dark half of the month nectar and ambrosia are accumulated
in the moon, and these are drunk by thirty-six thousand divinities
during the light fortnight; the Pitris are nourished by it in the
dark fortnight; vegetables with the cool nectary aqueous atoms
it sheds on them; and through their development it sustains men,
animals, and insects; at the same time gratifying them with its
radiance. V. P., p. 239. The orb of the Moon, according to the
Linga Purána is only congealed water.
Mrigavithi--A division of the lunar mansions, in the southern
Avashtána.
Mrida-A prince, the son of Nripanjaya, of the race of Puru.
51
402
MRI-MUC
Mrigasiras—A lunar mansion, in Gajavithi of the northern
Avashtána.
Mrigavyadha-One of the eleven Rudras, according to the
enumeration in the Matsya Purána.
Mrikanda-The son of Vidhátri and Niryati, descendants of
the daughters of Daksha who were married to the Rishis.
Mrittikavati-A city in Malwa, near the Parnásá river, whose
sovereigns were the Bhojas, descendants of Satwata.
Mritya-1, 'Death,' one of the progeny of Brahmá; he is also
represented in the same work, the Vishnu Purána, as the son of
Bhaya and Maya; and his children are thus given Vyadhi
(disease), Jará (decay), Soka (sorrow), Trishna (greediness), and
Krodha (wrath); 2, The name of one of the eleven Rudras, in the
Váyu list; 3, A Vyasa in the sixth Dwápara age.
Muchukunda-One of the sons of Mándhátri, called the 'king,
of men,' who in a battle between the gods and demons, had
contributed to the defeat of the latter; and being overcome with
sleep he solicited of the gods as a boon, that he should enjoy a long
repose. Sleep long and soundly, said the gods, and whoever
disturbs you shall be instantly burnt to ashes by fire emanating
from your body.' The black king, Kályavana, met with this fate,
by a stratagem of Krishna; and Muchukunda having fallen down
and worshipped Krishna as the undecaying, illimitable and
imperishable being, departed to Gandhamádana to perform penance,
and obtain emancipation from all existence. Another account
states that "Muchukunda carried on war against the Buddhists
till he was too weary to fight any longer; whereupon he sought
the grateful seclusion of the Guttikonda cave.
In this peaceful
and salubrious spot he fell asleep; it was a sleep of the greatest
profundity, and lasted for some centuries. In an evil moment for
the Buddhists they entered the cave in pursnit of Krishna, and
disturbed the placid slumbers of Muchukunda, After a nap of
some hundreds of years, he was not a man to be trifled with; so
he rose up in the exuberance of his renovated energies and
extirpated the obnoxious Buddhists." A. & M. I.
MUD
403
Muda-'Pleasure,' a son of Dharma by one of the daughters of
Daksha, Santósha (Joy).
Mudgala-1, A sage mentioned in the Mahábhárata, who had
lived a life of poverty, piety, and self-restraint, offering hospitality
to thousands of brahmans, according to his humble means, with the
grain which he gleaned like a pigeon, and which (like the widow
of Zarephath's oil) never underwent diminution. At length another
sage
called Durvásas, famous in Hindu tradition for his irascible
temper, came to prove Mudgala's powers of endurance; and six
times devoured all the food which the hospitable saint possessed.
Finding that the temper of his host was altogether unaffected by
these trials, Durvásas expressed the highest admiration of his
virtue, and declared that he would go bodily to heaven. As he
spoke these words a messenger of the gods arrived in a celestial
car, and called upon Mudgala to ascend to a state of complete
perfection. The sage, however desired first to learn the advantages
and drawbacks of the heavenly state, and the messenger proceeded
; those
to tell him first what kind of people go there, viz
who have performed austerities or celebrated great sacrifices,
the truthful, the orthodox, the righteous, the self-restrained, the
meek, the liberal, the brave, &c. These celestial abodes were, he
said, shining, glorious, and filled with all delights. There is seen
the vast-golden mountain Meru, and the holy garden Nandana, &c.,
where the righteous disport. There hunger, thirst, weariness,
cold, heat, fear, are unknown; there is nothing disgusting or
disagreeable; the scents are delightful; the sounds are pleasant to
the ear and mind; there is no sorrow, nor lamentation, nor decay,
nor labour, nor envy, nor jealousy, nor delusion. There the
blessed are clothed with glorious bodies, which are produced by
their works, and not generated by any father or mother. Their
garlands are fragrant and unfading; they ride in aerial cars.
Beyond these regions there are, however, others of a higher
character-those to which the Rishis, who have been purified by
their works, proceed. Still further on are those where the Ribhus,
who are gods even to the gods, dwell, and where there is no
annoyance occasioned by women, or by envy arising from the sight
of worldly grandeur. The blessed there do not subsist on oblations,
404
MUD
;
nor do they feed upon ambrosia; they have celestial and not coarse
material bodies. These eternal gods of gods do not desire
pleasure; they do not change with the revolutions of Kalpas
(great mundane ages). How can they then be subject either to
decay or death? They experience neither joy, nor pleasure, nor
delight, neither happiness nor suffering, neither love nor hatred.
That highest state, so difficult to attain, and which is beyond the
reach of those who seek after pleasure, is desired even by the gods.
This celestial felicity, the messenger says, is now within Mudgala's
reach, the fruit of his good deeds. The speaker next, according
to his promise, explains the drawbacks of the heavenly state. As
the fruit of works done on earth is enjoyed in heaven, whilst no
other new works are performed there from which new rewards
could spring, this enjoyment is cut off from its root, and must
therefore come to an end. For this world is the place for works,
while the other is the place for reward. This loss of gratifications
to which the heart has become devoted, and the dissatisfaction and
paiu which arise in the minds of those who have sunk to a lower
estate, from beholding the more brilliant prosperity of others, is
intolerable. To this must be added the consciousness and the
bewilderment of those who so descend, and the fear of falling which
they experience when their garlands begin to fade. Such are the
defects which attach to all existence till it is absorbed in Brahmá.
But the state of those who have fallen from heaven is not
altogether without compensation. As a result of their previous
good deeds they are born in a condition of happiness; though, if
they are not vigilant, they sink still lower. Having given this
explanation, the messenger of the gods invites Mudgala to
accompany him to paradise. The saint, however, after consideration,
replies that he can have nothing to do with a state of happiness
which is vitiated by so great defects, and the termination of
which is followed by so great misery. He has therefore no desire
for heaven; and will seek only that eternal abode where there is
no sorrow, nor distress, nor change. He then asks the celestial
messenger what other sphere there is which is free from all defects.
The messenger replies, that above the abode of Brahmá is the pure
eternal light, the highest sphere of Vishnu who is regarded as the
MUD-MUL
405
supreme Brahma. Thither none can proceed who are devoted to
objects of sense, or who are the slaves of dishonesty, avarice,
anger, delusion or malice; but only the unselfish, the humble,
those who are indifferent to pain and pleasure, those whose senses
are under restraint, and those who practice contemplation and fix
their minds on the deity. The sage then dismissed the messenger
of the gods, began to practise ascetic virtues, becoming indifferent
to praise and blame, regarding clouds, stones and gold as alike.
Pure knowledge led to fixed contemplation; and that again imparted
strength and complete comprehension, whereby he attained supreme
eternal perfection. O. S. T., Vol. V, pp. 324-6.
Mudgala--2, A teacher of the Rig Veda; 3, One of the five
sons of Hariyaswa, king of Panchála.
Mudita--One of the five kinds of BHAVANA or meditation, in
which the Buddhist priests are required to engage. The mudita
is the meditation of joy, but it is not the joy arising from earthly
possessions. It feels indifferent to individuals, and refers to all
sentient beings. In the exercise of this mode of meditation, the
priest must express the wish, " May the good fortune of the
prosperous never pass away; may each one receive his own
appointed reward.”
Muhurtta-1, A measure of time, thirty Kalás, according to
the Vishnu Purána. Other Puránas say that a Muburtta is
twelve kshanas, and that one kshana contains thirty kalás. The
Bhagavata states that two Narikas make one Muhurtta; 2, The
name of a daughter of Daksha.
Muka-A Daitya, the son of Upasanada, famous in Puránic
legend.
Mukhyas-A class of deities to come in the ensuing or eighth
Manwantara.
Mula--The nineteenth lunar mansion, in Ajavíthi, of the
Southern Avashthána.
Mulaka-The son of Aşmaka. The Vishnu Purána states
that when the warrior tribe was extirpated upon earth, he was
surrounded and concealed by a number of females; whence he was
406
MUM-MUR
denominated Nárí-kavacha (having women for armour.) Múlaka,
or 'the root' refers also to his being the stem whence the Kshatriya
races again proceeded. V. P. and note, p. 383.
Mummies-The Vishnu Purána states that the corpse of Nimi
was preserved from decay by being embalmed with fragrant oils
and resins, and it remained entire as if it were immortal. This,
says Professor Wilson, shows that the Hindus were not unac-
quainted with the Egyptian art of embalming dead bodies, though
such a practice would be thought impure in the present day.
Mundas-A dynasty of kings, consisting of thirteen, who are
said in the Vishnu Purána to be sovereigns of the earth for
upwards of two hundred years; Wilford regards them as Huns,
the Morunda of Ptolemy. Notes to Vishnu Purána.
Muni--1, Any great sage or Rishi. In Southern India they
are said to be forty-eight thousand they are supposed to be holy
persons who by different kinds of austerities have acquired great
gifts, and power to bless and curse most effectually. The accounts
given of them are rather contradictory; they are said to need
neither sleep nor rest, neither food nor drink; and yet that they
perform severe penance before God continually; 2, The name
of a daughter of Daksha who was married to Kasyapa.
Munjakesa—A teacher of the Atharva Veda, and founder of a
school. Sometimes Munjakeșa is regarded as another name for
Babhra.
Mura-A demon of great power who had seven thousand sous.
He defended Pragjyotisha by surrounding the environs with
nooses as sharp as razors, but Krishna cut them to pieces by
throwing his discus, Sudarsana, amongst them. He afterwards
slew the demon and burnt all his sous, like moths, with the flame
of the edge of his discus.
Murdhabhishikta--An anointed Rájah. Hindu rájahs were
formerly consecrated by having water from a sacred stream mixed
with honey, ghee, and spirituous liquor, as well as two sorts of
grass and the spirits of corn, poured on their heads while seated
on a throne prepared for the purpose. The term applies to the
Kshatriya as the caste from which kings are taken.
MUR-MUS
407
Murtti-Form' a daughter of Daksha, married to Dharma.
Murundas--See Mundas.
Musala-A club, born of Sambu for the destruction of the
Yadavas. Ugrasena had the club, which was of iron, ground to
dust, and thrown into the sea; but the particles of dust there
became rushes (eraká). There was one part of the iron club
which was like the blade of a lance, and which the Andhakas could
not break; this, when thrown into the sea, was swallowed by a
fish; the fish was caught, the iron spike was extracted from its
belly, and was taken by a hunter named Jará, by whom Krishna
was subsequently killed.
Mushtika-A demon celebrated as a great wrestler. At the
games of Mathura, when Kansa hoped to destroy Krishna, Bala-
bhadra wrestled with Mushtika and at last killed him.
*
N
Nabha-A powerful Danava, the son of Viprachitti by Sinhika,
the sister of Hiranyakasipu.
Nabhaga-nedishta--One of the sons of the Manu Vaivaswata ;
his name means 'no share,' and in the Aitareya Brahmana he is
said to have been excluded from all share of his inheritance on the
plea of his being wholly devoted to a religious life. The Bhagavata
says that having protracted his period of study beyond the usual
age, his brothers appropriated his share of the patrimony. On
his applying for his portion they consigned their father to him, by
whose advice he assisted the descendants of Angiras in a sacrifice,
and they presented him with all the wealth that was left at its
termination. Rudra claimed it as his; and Nabhaga acquiescing,
the god confirmed the gift, by which he became possessed of an
equivalent for the loss of territory.
Nabhaga-1, The son of the preceding; he became a Vaisya
through carrying off and marrying the daughter of a Vaisya; it
appears from this that a race of Vaisya princes was recognised by
early traditions; 2, A son of Sruta, a descendant of Sagara; 3,
A son of Yayáti.
Nabhas, Nabhasya-1, A name of the months, Srávana and
Bhádra, corresponding to July and August, the names occur in
the Vedas and belong to a system now obsolete; 2, The son of
Nala, a descendant of Kusa.
Nabaswati-The wife of Antarddhána, a descendant of Pritha.
Nabhi—One of the nine sons of Agnídhra, to whom the country
of Hímahwa was assigned.
Nachiketas-A philosopher, the son of Gautama, mentioned
in the Katha Upanishad, of whom Dr. Roer says, "the enthusiasm
and intimate conviction which Nachiketas shows about the infinite
superiority of what is good to the pleasures of the world, and the
NAG
409
firmness which he maintains amidst all the allurements which are
placed before him, bears some resemblance to the energy of mind
with which Plato, in the first and second books of his ' Republic,'
shows that justice has an incomparable worth, and ought to be
preserved under any circumstances."* In an interview with
Yama, who promised Nachiketas any boon, the latter requested to
be instructed in the nature of the soul, Yama objected saying, even
gods have doubted and disputed on this subject, for it is not easy
to understand it. But Nachiketas could not be persuaded to think
any other boon worth asking for.†
Naga-1, A mountainous ridge in the north of Meru; 2, A
serpent, one of the progeny of Kadru ; 3, Originally the Cobra-
capella, or Colubernaga.
Nagadwipa—A division of Bhárata Varsha.
<
Nagas-The Snake gods,' children of Kadru. In mythology
these beings have human heads and the bodies of serpents: they
are one thousand in number and bear jewels in their heads. They
are the sons of Kasyapa and Kadru, subject to Vishnu's bird,
Garuda, and inhabiting part of Pátála, called Naga-loka, the
capital of which is Bhógavati. When they were deprived of their
power by the Gandharbas, they despatched their sister, Narmadá,
to solicit the aid of Purukutsa, and she conducted him to the
regions below the earth where being filled with the might of the
deity he destroyed the Gandharbas. The snake gods, in acknow-
ledgment of Narmadá's services, conferred upon her as a blessing,
that whoever should think of her and invoke her name, should
never have any dread of the venom of snakes.
Nagas-"The Saiva Sannyasis who go naked are distinguished
by this term. They smear their bodies with ashes, allow their
hair, beards, and whiskers to grow, and wear the projecting braid
of hair, called the Játá; like the Vairaji Nigas, they carry arms,
and wander about in troops, soliciting alms, or levying contribu-
tions. The Saiva Nigas are chiefly the refuse of the Dandi and
* Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. XV, p. 91.
+ A, and M. I., Vol. I, p. 136.
52
410
NAG-NAI
:
Atit orders, or men who have no inclination for a life of study or
business when weary of the vagrant and violent habits of the
Naga, they re-enter the better disposed classes, which they had
first quitted. The Saiva Nágas are very numerous in many parts
of India."- Wilson.
Nagas-The designation of nine kings who reigned in Paḍ-
mávati.
Nagavithi-1, A division of the lunar mansions in the Northern
Avashthána; 2, The milky way, daughter of Yámí (night).
Nagna-A Jain mendicant; a naked ascetic.
Nagnas-Apostates. The Rig, Yajur, and Sáma Vedas,
constitute the triple covering of the several castes, and the sinner
who throws this off is said to be naked or apostate. The three
Vedas are the raiment of all orders of men, and when that is
discarded they are left bare. (V. P.) Wilson in his notes, adds,
ascetics whether of the Buddha or Digambara order of Jains, are
literally Naguas, "going naked." The qualified application of
it, however, was rendered necessary by the same practice being
familiar to ascetics of the orthodox faith. To go naked was not
necessarily the sign of a heretic, and therefore his nudity was
understood to be rejecting the raiment of holy writ. Thus the
Váyu Purána extends the word to all ascetics, including naked
brahmans, who practice austerities fruitlessly, that is heretically
or hypocritically.
Nagnajiti—One of the wives of Krishna, termed in the Vishnu
Purána the virtuous Naguajití.
Nahusha-1, The son of Ambarísha; 2, The eldest of the five
sons of Ayus, who having attained the rank of Indra, compelled
the Rishis to bear his litter, and was cursed by them to fall from
his state and re-appear upon earth as a serpent. From this form
he was set free by philosophical discussions with Yudhishtira, and
received final liberation; 3, The name of one of the progeny of
Kadru, a powerful many-headed serpent.
Naigama--A teacher of the Rig Veda, a pupil of Sákapúrņi.
Naigameya-One of the sons of Kumára.
NAI-NAK
411
Naikaprishtas-Au aboriginal tribe mentioned in the Puránas,
so termed probably in derision; it means having more than one back.
Naishadha-A tract of country near the Vindhya mountains.
Nakhis-Religious mendicants who practice various austerities,
never cut their finger nails, and wear the Saiva marks.
Nakshatra-Yoginis--The chief stars of the lunar mansions, or
asterisms in the moon's path: these are fabled to have been the
twenty-seven daughters of Daksha, who became the virtuous wives
of the moon.
There are twenty-seven divisions of the lunar orbit; each
marking the motion of the moon in one lunar day. Such is their
simple reference, astronomically; but the Hindu astrologers make
them of great practical consequence, from their assumed good or
evil influence. They reckon from the first degree of Aries, in the
old Astronomy.
1.
Asvini, the ram's head....
2.. Bharini. …….
...good.
bad.
3. Critica, Pleiades.....
•
4. Rohini, hyades.....
5. Mrigasiras, a triple star.
very bad.
.good.
.good.
6. Ardra, one star...
.bad.
7.
Punar vasu, four stars.....
...good.
8.
Pushya, nebula in Cancer.
...good.
9. Aslesha, five stars
bad.
10.
Magha, cor leonis
..good..
11. Purvap'halguni, two stars..
12. Uttara P'halguni, two stars..
13. Hasta, five stars...
..medium.
..medium.
good.
14. Chitra, one star
15.
Swati, one star....
.bad.
16. Visáka, four stars..
..good.
..bad.
17.
Anuradha, four stars...
18. Jyeshta, three stars....
19. Mula, eleven stars, cor scorpionis.........very bad.
20.
Purvashadha, four stars.......
21. Uttara shadha, three stars...
..good.
..bad.
...medium.
..good.
412
NAK-NAL
22: Sravana, three stars....
...good.
23. Dhanishta, four stars......
24. Satabhisha, a hundred stars.....
25. Purva bhadrapada, two stars.....
26. Uttara bhadrapada, two stars...
27. Revati, thirty-two stars...
...bad.
...bad.
medium.
...medium.
....good.
These influences refer principally to marriages. The Nakshatras
are classified as deva, divine; manushya, human; rakshasa, savage;
if the two parties to be married are born in the same class, it is
well if one asterism be divine, the other human, it may pass ; but
divine and savage is a cross that may not be permitted.
An intercalary abhijit, one-fourth of a Nakshatra, is sometimes
introduced between 21 and 22 for astrological purposes, or to
make up a complete cycle of the moon's motion.- Taylor.
Nakta-A prince, the son of Prithu, who reigned over one of
the divisions of Bharatavarsha in the first or Swayambhuva
Manwantara.
Nakula-One of the sons of Páṇḍu by his wife Mádrí, though
really begotten by the elder of the two Asvinan (see Páṇḍu).
He is half-brother to Sahadeva, the son of Dasra, by the same
mother, and nominally brother to the three other Pándavas, He
is always referred to as one of the wisest of mortals.
Nala-The king of Nishada, whose history forms part of the
third book of the Mahábhárata and is called the Nalopakhyanam.
Nala possessed all the noble qualities and acquirements that could
distinguish an Indian monarch. The king of Berar had an only
daughter, the most beautiful and accomplished of her sex-the
gentle Damayanti. Nala and Damayantí became mutually
enamoured of each other from the mere fame of each other's
virtues. Damayanti preferred Nala to Indra, Sani, and two other
demi-gods who became incarnate for the purpose of attending the
Swayamvara of the princess. Incensed at Damayanti's refusal to
marry him, Sani, a malevolent being, persecuted the royal couple
with great hatred, and caused Nala to lose his kingdom by
gambling, and to be banished to the wilderness; and as his faithful
NAL-NAM
413
consort could not be persuaded to return to her father, he took her
with him into the forest; but not being willing to cause her so
much suffering as a life in the woods involves, he resolved to leave
her alone when she was sleeping under a tree, thinking she would
then return to her father's house. But this she did not do;
lamenting, she sought her husband, and when she could not find
him she went to a certain king and became maid of honour to the
queen; whilst Nala wandered about and became so black he could
no longer be recognised as king Nala. Finally he became cook to
the king at whose court Damayanti lived; and was such a skilful
cook that his skill in cooking has become a proverb; and after all
he was recognised by his faithful spouse as king Nala ; and having
soon recovered his former pleasing appearance he also regained his
throne. See Damayanti; 2, The name of a prince, the son of
Yadu; 3, The name of a river that falls into the Ganges.
Nalakanakas-A people mentioned in the Puránic lists but
not identified.
Nalini-The name of one of the five streams formed by the
Ganges after it escaped from Śiva.
6
Nama-Literally name! the term applied to the tridental mark
which the Vaishnavas wear on their forehead, the mark, or figure,
is called Tirunáma, holy name' it is an imitation of Vishnu's
trident almost like the Hebrew character shin. It consists of
two white lines, extending from the hair to the eyebrows, and then
leading to the nose where they meet, and a red perpendicular line
between them from the nose to the hair.
Namasivaya-The principal Mantra of the Saivas, called
Panchakshara five characters, and means 'O Śiva, be praised :"
or Adoration to Śiva.'
Namuchi-A powerful Danava, one of the sons of Viprachitti.
This Asura was a friend of Iudra; and taking advantage of his
friend's confidence, he drank up Indra's strength along with a
Indra then told the Asvins and
draught of wine and soma.
Sarasvati that Namuchi had drunk up his strength. The Aṣvins
and Sarasvatí, in consequence gave Indra a thunderbolt in the
414
NAN
#
form of a foam, with which he smote off the head of Namuchi.
The Aşvins then drauk. the soma mixed with blood and wine,
from the belly of Namuchi and transferred it pure to Indra; and
by transferring it they delivered Indra. O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 94.
Nanda-1, The chief of the cowherds, and brother of Radha.
He was the foster father of Krishna, as it was to his care the
infant Krishna was committed when Kansa sought to destroy
the child; 2, One of the sons of Vasudeva; 3, The son of
Mahananda, and sometimes called Mahapadma, because he was
avaricious. He brought the whole earth under one umbrella, and
had eight sons, or descendants rather, according to Professor
Wilson, who governed for a hundred years; when the brahman
Kautilya overthrew the dynasty and placed Chandragupta on the
throne. The Mudra Rakshasa illustrates this affair.
Nandana―The grove of Indra, situated to the north of Mount
Meru.
Nandayania-A pupil of Báshkali and teacher of the Rig
Veda.
Nandi-The snow white bull, the attendant and favourite
vehicle of Śiva. It is represented on a pedestal crouching in
front of Saiva fanes; the head turned towards the small door of
the shrine. On one occasion Nandi, by assuming the likeness of
Śiva, caused a blush on the cheeks of Párvati, and for this offence,
Śiva sent his vehicle down to earth to do penance; hence the
mountain Nandi-durga-(Nandidroog.) Another mission to earth
was in the person of the elder Basava.
Nandi- Delight,' the wife of Dharma and mother of Hersha
(joy.)
Nandimukhas-A class of Pitris: there seems to be some
uncertainty about the character of the Nándímukhas; and they
are addressed both as Pitris and gods; being in the former case
either the ancestors prior to the great grand-father, ancestors
collectively, or a certain class of them; and in the latter being
identified with the Viswadevas. The term Nándímukha is also
applied to the rite itself, or to the Vriddhi Śrádda, and to one
NAN-NAR
415
addressed to maternal ancestors. See Wilson's Notes to Vishnu
Purána, p. 315.
Nandivardhana-1, The son of Urdávasu, king of Mithila;
2, The son of Janaka, king of Magadha; The son of Udayaṣwa,
king of Magadha.
Nara-Paramátma: the waters it is said were the progeny of
Nara; that is they were the first productions of God in creation.
Nara-1, A pious sage, the son of Dharma by Múrtti; 2, A
prince, the son of Gaya; 3, A prince, the son of Sudhriti; 4,
One of the sons of Bhavaumanyas of the royal family of Bharata.
Nara Bodily forms' in which spirit is enshrined; and of
which the waters, with Vishnu resting upon them, are a type.
Waters, the first product of Nara. Vishnu Purána, p. 28.
Narada-A Prajapati or divine Rishi, born from the hip of
Brahmá; the invention of the véna, or Indian lyre, is attributed
to Nárada; also a code of laws, and one of the eighteen Puránas
entitled Náradiya Purána. In the Brahmá Purána he is called
the smooth-speaking Nárada, and his likeness to Orpheus is carried
still further by a descent which he made from heaven to visit
Pátáļa, the nether regions. In Manu and in the Vishnu Purána
he is called a Prajapati, in the Mahábhárata he is one of the
Gandharbhas. It was he who dissuaded the sons of Daksha from
multiplying their race; they accordingly scattered themselves
through the regions of the universe to ascertain its extent, &c.,
and the patriarch Daksha finding, that all his sons had vanished
was incensed and denounced an imprecation on Nárada. It was
Nárada who informed Kansa that the supporter of the earth
Vishnu, was going to become incarnate as the eighth child of
Devaki. When Nárada visited Krishna he presented him with
the flower Párijáta from the world of the gods. Krishna gave it
to Rúkmini, which so excited the jealousy of one of his favourite
mistresses Satyabhama, that in order to appease her, Krishna went
to the heaven of the gods and brought away the tree itself that
bore the flower. In mythology Nárada is often described as
bearing a resemblance to Hermes or Mercury, being engaged in
416
NAR
conveying messages and causing discord among the gods aud men.
He is usually represented as sitting in a fire, having his hands
folded over his head, and stretching his legs also towards his
head, his arms and legs being tied together with a girdle.
Narada Purana-This Purána is related by Nárada and gives
an account of the Vrihas Kalpa. It is communicated to the Rishis
at Naimisháranya, on the Gamati river. Professor Wilson regards
it as a sectarial and modern compilation intended to support the
doctrine of Bhakti, or faith in Vishnu. It contains a number of
prayers addressed to one or other form of that divinity; a variety
of observances and holidays connected with his adoration; and
different legends, some perhaps of an early, others of a more recent
date, illustrative of the efficacy of devotion to Hari. There are
the stories of Dhruva and Prahláda, the latter told in the words of
the Vishnu Purána; whilst the second portion of it is occupied
with a legend of Mohiní, the will-born daughter of a king called
Rukmangada; beguiled by whom the king offers to perform for
her whatever she may desire. She calls upon him either to violate
the rule of fasting on the eleventh day of the fortnight, a day
sacred to Vishņu, or to put his son to death; and he kills his son,
as the lesser sin of the two. This shews the spirit of the work.
Its date may also be inferred from its tenor, as such monstrous
extravagancies in praise of Bhakti are certainly of modern origin.
One limit it furnishes itself, for it refers to Suka and Paríkshit,
the interlocutors of the Bhágavata, and it is consequently
subsequent to the date of that Purána: it is probably considerably
later, for it affords evidence that it was written after India was in
the hands of the Mohammedans. In the concluding passage it is
said, "Let not this Purána be repeated in the presence of the
'killers of cows' and contemners of the gods." It is possibly a
compilation of the sixteenth or seventeenth century. Vishnu
Purána. Preface.
Naraka-Hell; of which twenty-eight different divisions are
enumerated, said to be situated beneath the earth, below Pȧtála
and to be terrific regions of darkness, of deep gloom, of fear, and
of great terror. In the Vishnu Purána, Vol. II, c. 6, they are
NAR
417
particularly described, with the crimes punished in them respec-
tively. The gods in heaven are beheld by the inhabitants of hell as
they move with their heads inverted; whilst the gods, as they cast
their eyes downwards, behold the sufferings of those in hell ; the
commentator observes that the sight of heavenly bliss is given to
the lost to exacerbate their sufferings; whilst the inflictions of hell
are exhibited to the gods, to teach them disregard of even heavenly
enjoyments, as they are but of temporary duration. Heaven is that
which delights the mind; hell is that which gives it pain; hence
vice is called hell; virtue is called heaven. V. P.
Naraka-1, A son of Anrita (falsehood) and Nikriti
(immorality); 2, A Danava, one of the sons of Viprachitti; 3, A
son of the Earth who ruled over the city of Prágjyotisha. Indra
went to Dwaraka and reported to Krishna the tyranny of Naraka.
Having heard this account, the divine Hari, mounting Garuda,
flew to Prágjyotisha; there a fierce conflict took place with the
troops of Naraka, in which Govinda destroyed thousands of
demons; and when Naraka came into the field, showering upon
the deity all sorts of weapons, the wielder of the discus cut him in
two with his celestial missile. Naraka being slain, Earth bearing
the two earrings of Aditi, approached the lord of the world and
said, "When I was upheld by thee in the form of a boar, thy contact
then engendered this my son. He whom thou gavest me has now
been killed by thee; take therefore these two earrings and
cherish his progeny. Forgive the sins which Naraka has
committed." Krishna then proceeded to redeem the various gems
from the dwelling of Naraka. In the apartments of the women
he found sixteen thousand and one hundred damsels, who became
Krishna's wives; in the palace were six thousand large elephants
each having four tusks; twenty-one lakhs of horses of Kámbója
and other excellent breeds; these Goviuda dispatched to Dwáraka,
in charge of the servants of Naraka. The umbrella of Varuna, the
jewel mountain which he also recovered, he placed upon Garuda ;
and mounting himself, and taking Satyabhama with him, he set off
to the heaven of the gods to restore the earrings of Aditi. V. P.
Narantaka-One of the sons of the giant Rávaṇa who was
killed at the seige of Lanka.
53
418
NAR
Naras-Centaurs,' or beings with the limbs of horses and
human bodies, created by Brahmá along with Kinnaras, Rakshasas,
&c. V. P., p. 42.
Narasinha Avatara -The fourth incarnation of Vishnu, in the
form of a man-lion (nara a man, and Sinha a lion.) One of the
two doorkeepers of Vishnu's paradise, (see Varaha) came down to
earth as a monarch, named Hiranyakasipu. He was cruel,
tyrannical, unjust; particularly so towards his son
son named
Prahláda. But he had obtained from Bramhá, by severe penance,
the boon that he should not be slain by any created being;
in consequence of which he became very proud, and required all
persons to honor him by saying. "Om Hiranya" (Adoration to
Hiranya); and those who would not say so he ordered to be
punished. His sou Prahláda, who was a devout worshipper of
Vishnu, would not obey his father's order, but continued to say
"Om namah" (meaning by Om Vishnu). Hiranya remonstrated
with him because of this, but in vain. Then he attempted to
punish and kill him, but in vain : Prahláda was struck heavily but
did not feel the strokes ; he was cast into the fire, but was not
burnt; he was trampled on by elephants, but continuing to think
of Vishnu he was not hurt: he was thrown fettered into the sea,
but a fish carried him safely to shore. At last, when Prahláda did
not cease praising Vishnu, and asserted that he was everywhere
and in everything, Hiranya retorted. "If so why dost thou not
show him unto me?" Upon this Prahláda rose and struck a
column of the hall in which they were assembled ; and behold,
there issued from it Vishnu, in a form which was half-man and
half-lion, and tore Hiranya to pieces. V. P.
Narayana-1, A name of Vishnu, meaning 'he whose place.
of abiding was the deep.' The waters are called Nárá, because
they were the offspring of Nárá (the supreme spirit); and as in
them his first (Ayana progress (in the character of Brahmá) took
place, he is thence named Nárayana; 2, A sage, the son of
Dharma by Murtti; 3, A prince, the son of Bhumimitra, of the
Kanwa dynasty.
Narishyanta-1, One of the sons of the Manu Vaivaswata;
2, The son of Marutta, the fourteenth of the posterity of Dishța.
NAR-NID
419
Narika-A measure of time, fifteen Laghus.
Narikavacha-A name of Múlaka, q. v.
Narmada-The river Narbadda, the Namadus of Ptolemy. It
rises in the Vindhya, or in the Riksha mountains, taking its origin
in Gondwana. Mythologically the personified Narmada was the
sister of the Nágas, and had a son named Trasadasya.
Narttaka-A dancer, who also performs extraordinary feats
of strength and agility.
Nata-An actor; in popular acceptation it comprehends
jugglers, buffoons, and persons practising sleight of hand, and
exhibiting feats of agility. Wilson.
Navala-The daughter of the patriarch Vairája, and wife of
the Manu Chakshusha.
Navaratha-A prince, the son of Bhímaratha.
Naya-(Polity) a son of Dharma by Kriya.
Nedishta-One of the sons of the Manu Vaivaswata.
Nichakra-A prince, the son of Asíma Krishna, who when
Hastinapura was washed away by the Ganges, removed the capital
to Kausámbí.
Nidagha-A son of Pulastya and disciple of Ribhu; to him
Ribhu willingly communicated perfect knowledge. The residence
of Pulastya was at Víranagara, on the banks of the Devíká river.
In a beautiful grove adjoining to the stream, the pupil of Ribhu,
Nidágha, conversant with devotional practices, abode. When a
thousand divine years had elapsed, Ribhu went to the city of
Pulastya, to visit his disciple. Standing at the doorway, at the
end of a sacrifice to the Viswadevas, he was seen by his scholar,
who hastened to present him the usual offering, or Arghya, and
conducted him into the house; and when his hands and feet were
washed, and he was seated, Nídágha invited him respectfully to
eat, (when the following dialogue ensued)
“ Ribhu.
Tell me, illustrious Brahman, what food there is in
in your house; for I am not fond of indifferent viands.'
420
NID
"Nidágha. There are cakes of meal, rice, barley, and pulse
in the house; partake, venerable sir, of whichever best pleases you.'
"Ribhu. None of these do I like; give me rice boiled with
sugar, wheaten cakes, and milk with curds and molasses.'
"Nidágha. Ho dame, be quick, and prepare whatever is
most delicate and sweet in the house, to feed our guest.'
"Having thus spoken, the wife of Nidágha, in obedience to her
husband's commands, prepared sweet and savoury food, and set it
before the Brahman; and Nidágha, having stood before him until
he had eaten of the meal which he had desired, thus reverentially
addressed him :-
،،
Nidágha. Have you eaten sufficiently, and with pleasure,
great Brahman? and has your mind received contentment from
your food? Where is your present residence? Whither do you
purpose going? and whence, holy sir, have you now come?
}
“Ribhu. ‘A hungry man, Brahman, must needs be satisfied
when he has finished his meal. Why should you inquire if my
hunger has been appeased? When the earthly element is parched
by fire, then hunger is engendered; and thirst is produced wheu
the moisture of the body has been absorbed (by internal or
digestive heat.) Hunger aud thirst are the functions of the body,
and satisfaction must always be afforded me by that by which they
are removed; for when hunger is no longer sensible, pleasure and
contentment of mind are faculties of the intellect; ask their condi-
tion of the mind then, for man is not affected by them. For your
three other questions, Where I dwell? Whither I go? and whence
I come? hear this reply. Mau, (the soul of man) goes every-
where, and penetrates everywhere, like the ether; and is it
rational to inquire where it is? or whence or whither thou goest?
I neither am going nor coming, nor is my dwelling in any one
place; nor art thou, thou; nor are others, others; nor am
I, I. If you wonder what reply I should make to your inquiry
why I made any distinction between sweetened and unsweetened
food, you shall hear my explanation. What is there that is
really sweet or not sweet to one eating a meal? That which
is sweet, is no longer so when it occasions the sense of
NID-NIL
421
As a house built
repletion; and that which is not sweet, becomes sweet when a
mau (being very hungry) fancies that it is so. What food is there
that first, middle, and last is equally grateful.
of clay is strengthened by fresh plaster, so is this earthly body
supported by earthly particles; and barley, wheat, pulse, butter,
oil, milk, curds, treacle, fruits, and the like, are composed of atoms
of earth. This therefore is to be understood by you, that the
mind which properly judges of what is or is not sweet is impressed
with the notion of identity, and that this effect of identity tends to
liberation,'
"Having heard these words, conveying the substance of ultimate
truth, Nidágha fell at the feet of his visitor, and said, Shew
favour unto me, illustrious Brahman, and tell me who it is that
for my good has come hither, and by whose words the infatuation
of my mind is dissipated.' To this, Ribhu answered, 'I am Ribhu,
your preceptor, come hither to communicate to you true wisdom;
and having declared to you what that is, I shall depart. Know
this whole universe to be the one undivided nature of the supreme
spirit, entitled Vasudeva.' Thus having spoken, and receiving the
prostrate homage of Nidágha, rendered with fervent faith, Ribhu
went his way." V. P., p. 53-55.
Nidra-Sleep; a form of Brahmá. In the Uttara Khanda of
the Pádma Purána, Nidrá is entered as one of the products of
the churning of the ocean.
Nighna-The son of Anamitra, and father of Satrájit, to whom
the divine Áditya, the sun, presented the Syamantaka gem.
Nikriti (Immorality.) A daughter of Adharma (vice.)
Nikumbha-A prince, the son of Haryyasva.
Nila-Blue. 1, A range of mountains in Orissa; 2, A central
range to the north of Meru, running east and west; 3, A son of
Yadu; 4, A son of Ajamídha.
Nilalohita-A name of Rudra, from the Vaishnava Puránas,
which give only one original form, instead of eight as in the Vishņu
Purána, and to which the name of Nílalohita, the blue and red or
purple complexioned, is assigned.
422
NIL-NIM
Nilini-The wife of Ajamídha.
Nimisha—A measure of time-a twinkle of the eye—a second ;
according to the Bhagavata, three Lavas.
Nimi-One of the three distinguished sous of Ikshváku. He
instituted a sacrifice that was to endure a thousand years, and
applied to Vasishtha to offer the oblations. Vasishtha in answer
said, that he had been pre-engaged by Indra for five hundred
years, but that if the Rája would wait for some time, he would
come and officiate as superintending priest. The king made no
answer, and Vasishtha went away, supposing that he had assented.
When the sage had completed the performance of the ceremonies
he had conducted for Indra, he returned with all speed to Nimi,
purposing to render him the like office. When he arrived,
however, and found that Nimi had retained Gautama and other
priests to minister at his sacrifice, he was much displeased and
pronounced upon the king, who was then asleep, a curse to this
effect, that since he had not intimated his intention, but transferred
to Gautama the duty he had first entrusted to himself, Vasishtha,
Nimi should thenceforth cease to exist in a corporeal form. When
Nimi woke, and knew what had happened, he in return denounced
as an imprecation upon his unjust preceptor, that he also should
lose his bodily existence, as the punishment of uttering a curse
upon him without previously communicating with him. Nimi
then abandoned his bodily condition. The spirit of Vasishtha also
leaving his body, was united with the spirits of Mitra and Varuna
for a season, until, through their passion for the nymph Urvasí,
the sage was born again in a different shape. The corpse of Nimi
was preserved from decay by being embalmed with fragrant oils
and resins, and it remained as entire as if it were immortal. When
the sacrifice was concluded, the priests applied to the gods, who
had come to receive their portions, that they would confer a blessing
upon the author of the sacrifice. The gods were willing to restore
him to bodily life, but Nimi declined its acceptance, saying, “ O
deities, who are the alleviators of all worldly suffering, there is not
in the world a deeper cause of distress than the separation of soul
and body it is therefore my wish to dwell in the eyes of all
:
NIP-NIR
423
*
beings, but never more to resume a corporeal shape!" To this
desire the gods assented, and Nimi was placed by them in the eyes
of all living creatures; in consequence of which their eyelids are
ever opening and shutting. V. P.
Nipa-A prince, the son of Para, a descendant of Hastin.
Niramitra-1, One of the Pandavas, the son of Nakulá; 2,
The son of Khandapáni; 3, The son of Ayutayus.
Nirmalas-One of the divisions of the SIKHS who profess
to dedicate themselves exclusively to a religious life. They
lead a life of celibacy, and disregard their personal appearance,
often going nearly naked. They do not assemble together in
colleges, nor do they observe any particular form of Divine service,
but confine their devotion to speculative meditation on the perusal
of the writings of Nának, Kábír, and other unitarian teachers.
They are always solitary, supported by their disciples, or wealthy
persons who may happen to favour the sect. The Nirmalas are
known as able expounders of the Vedanta philosophy, in which
Brahmans do not disdain to accept of their instructions. They
are not a very numerous body on the whole; but a few are almost
always to be found at the principal seats of Hindu wealth, and
particularly at Benares.- Wilson's Worhs, Vol. I.
Nirmanaratis-A class of deities who belong to the eleventh
Manwantara.
Nirrita-One of the eleven Rudras, according to the Váyu list.
Nirukta-An Anga of the Vedas, containing a glossarial
comment.
Niruktakrit-The name of the pupil to whom Sákapúrņi
gave his glossary (Nirukta) of the Rig Veda.
Niruta-A giant; a regent or guardian of the south-west point
of the world. He is represented as of a green colour, and is said
to have been raised to the diguity he enjoys in consequence of his
severe penance, On his head he wears a crown, and on his
forehead Śiva's sign of sacred ashes. Of his four hands one is
empty, and in the other three he holds respectively a banner with
the sign of a fish, a ring, and a wine jug: his vehicle is a crocodile
424
NIR
Nirvritti-A prince, the son of Vrishni, a descendant of
Jyámagha.
Nirwana-The blowing out. Extinction. The summum-
bonum of Buddhism. It was long thought that Nirwána simply
meant final beatitude, the emancipation of the soul from the body :
its exemption from further transmigration, and re-union with the
deity. Some still maintain this view, and regard Nirwána as
synonymous with Móksha; the absorption of the individual soul
into the divine essence; which the Hindus represent as the
highest goal of their religion and philosophy. But it has been
shown by Mr. Spence Hardy, Mr. Max Müller, and other high
authorities, that Nirwána means utter annihilation, or the
destruction of all elements which constitute existence.
There are
four paths, an entrance into any of which secures either
immediately, or more remotely, the attainment of Nirwana. They
are; (1,) Sowán, which is divided into twenty-four sections, and
after it has been entered there can be only seven more births
between that period and the attainment of Nirwana, which may be
in any world but the four hells; (2,) Sakradágámi, into which he
who enters will receive one more birth. He may enter this path
in the world of men, and afterwards be born in déva-lóka; or he
may enter it in a déva-lóka, and afterwards be born in the world
of men.
It is divided into twelve sections; (3,) Anágámi, into
which he who enters will not again be born in a káma-lóka; he
may, by the apparitional birth, enter into a brahma-lóka, and from
that world attain Nirwana. This path is divided into forty-eight
sections; (4,) Arya or Aryahat, into which he who enters has
overcome or destroyed all evil desire. It is divided into twelve
sections.
Those who have entered into any of the paths can discern the
thoughts of all in the same, or preceding paths. Each path is
divided into two grades; 1, The perception of the path; 2, Its
fruition or enjoyment. The mode in which. Nirwána, or the
destruction of al. the elements of existence, may be reached, is thus
pointed out by Mr. Spence Hardy, in his 'Eastern Monachism :'
"The unwise being who has not yet arrived at a state of purity,
or who is subject to future birth, overcome by the excess of evil
NIS-NIT
425
desire, rejoices in the organs of sense, Áyatana, and their relative
objects, and commends them. The Ayatanas therefore become to
him like a rapid stream to carry him onward toward the sea of
repeated existence; they are not released from old age, decay,
death, sorrow, &c. But the being who is purified, perceiving the
evils arising from the sensual orgaus and their relative objects,
does not rejoice therein, nor does he commend them, or allow
himself to be swallowed up by them. By the destruction of the
108 modes of evil desire he has released himself from birth, as
from the jaws of an alligator; he has overcome all attachment to
. outward objects; he does not regard the unauthorized precepts,
nor is he a sceptic; and he knows that there is no ego, no self.
Ey overcoming these four errors, he has released himself from the
cleaving to existing objects. By the destruction of the cleaving to
existing objects he is released from birth, whether as a brahmá,
man, or any other being. By the destruction of birth he is
released from old age, decay, death, sorrow, &c. All the afflictions
connected with the repetition of existence are overcome. Thus
all the principles of existence are annihilated, and that annihilation
is Nirwana."
Nisatha--A son of Balaráma by his wife Revatí.
Nischara-One of the seven Rishis in the second Manwantara.
Nishadas-Inhabitants of the Vindhya mountains-barbariaus.
Nishadha was the country of Nala, and has consequently attained
celebrity, but its situation has not been certainly determined; it
was not far from Vidarbha (Berar) as that was the country of
Damayanti.
Nishadha-1, A range of mountains to the south of Meru
one of the central ranges, next to Meru, running east and west,
and extending one hundred thousand Yojanas; 2, A prince, the
son of Atithi, and grandson of Kusa.
Nisitha-A son of Kalpa; the name means 'the middle of night.'
Nisunda-A Daitya, the son of Hláda.
Nitala-One of the seven regions of Pátála.
;
54
426
NIV-NYA
Nivata-kavachas-Dauavas, to the number of thirty millions,
residing in the depths of the sea. The Mahábhárata describes
their destruction as one of the exploits of Arjuna. The Vishnu
Purána says they were born in the family of the Daitya Prahláda.
Niyama-The second stage of Yoga, being self-restraint, of
which five kinds are specified :
1. Purity of mind and body
2.
Cheerfulness under all circumstances
3. Religious austerity
The repetition of incantations
5. The association of all religious ceremonies with the
Supreme Being.
These are also designated five duties or obligations, namely
purity, contentment, devotion, study of the Vedas, and adoration of
the Supreme.
Niyama-Precept. A son of Dharma by one of the daughters
of Daksha.
Niyati-The daughter of Meru who was married to Vidhátri.
Niyat-The wife of Mahán one of the eleven Rudras.
Niyodhaka--A prize-fighter, either as a wrestler or boxer or a
swordsman—in some parts of India he also fights with gauntlets
armed with steel spikes.- Wilson.
Nrichaksha-A prince, the son of Richa, of the race of Puru.
Nriga-A son of the Manu Vaivaswata; the Linga Purána
relates his transformation to a lizard by the curse of a brahman.
Nripanjaya-1, A prince, the son of Suvíra; 2, The son of
Medhavin of the race of Puru.
Nriyajna-One of the five great obligations or sacrifices, viz.,
that of hospitality; a duty on which great stress is laid.
Nyagrodha-One of the sons of Ugrasena.
Nyaya-Logic. One of the six schools or systems of Philo-
sophy of the Hindus.
The Nyaya system was originally taught by Gautama, of whose
personal history, however, but little is known. From the Rámá-
NYA
427
yana and the Puránas, we learn that he was born at Himálaya,
about the same time as Ráma, i. e., at the commencement of the
Treta Yuga (or second age of the world); that he married
Ahalya, the daughter of Brahmá (q. v.) He is said to have lived
as a very austere ascetic, first at Pryága (now Allahabad), then in
a forest at Mithila (Muttra), and latterly (after the repudiation of
of his wife) in the Himalayan mountains. His son, Satánanda,
was priest to Janaka, king of Mithila the father of Sítá, the wife
of Ráma. From the above statements we may see how little
reliance can be placed on the historical veracity of the Puránas.
These works assure us that Gautama, though he lived in the
second or silver age, married a daughter of Brahmá; but they
meet the anachronism by affirming that all the sages live
through the four Yugas (the Satya, Treta, Dwápas, and Kalí,)
into which the Hindus divide the whole course of the world's
existence.
"The Nyaya offers the sensational aspect of Hindu Philosophy.
In saying this, it is not meant that the Nyaya confines itself to
sensation, excluding emotion and intellection; nor that the other
systems ignore the fact of sensation; but that the arrangement of
this system has a more pointed regard to the fact of the five senses
than the others have, and treats the external more frankly as a
solid reality.
<
"The word Nyáya means propriety or fitness,' and the system
undertakes to declare the proper method of arriving at that know-
ledge of the truth, the fruit of which, it promises, is the c ef end
of man. The name is also used, in a more limited application, to
denominate the proper method of setting forth argument. This
has led to the practice of calling the Nyáya the Hindu Logic,' a
name which suggests a very inadequate conception of the scope of
the system. The Nyaya system was delivered by Gautama in a
set of aphorisms, so very concise, that they must, from the first,
have been accompanied by a commentary, oral or written. The
aphorisms of the several Hindu systems, in fact, appear designed,
not so much to communicate the doctrine of the particular schools,
as to aid, by the briefest possible suggestions, the memory of him
to whom the doctrine shall have been already communicated. To
1
428
NYA
this end they are in general admirably adapted. The sixty
aphorisms, for example, which constitute the first of Gautama's
Five Lectures, present a methodical summary of the whole system,
while the first aphorism, again, of the sixty, presents a summary
of these sixty. The first aphorism is as follows:- From know-
ledge of the truth in regard to evidence, the ascertainable, doubt,
motive, example, dogma, confutation, ascertainment, disquisition,
controversy, cavil, fallacy, perversion, futility, and occasion for
rebuke, there is the attainment of the Summum Bonum.
(
6
"In the next aphorism, it is declared how knowledge operates
mediately in producing this result. Pain, birth, activity, fault,
false notions, since, on the successive departure of these in turu,
there is the departure of the antecedent one, there is Beatitude.'
That is to say, when knowledge of the truth is attained to, ‘false
notions' depart; on their departure, the fault' of concerning
one's-self about any external object ceases; thereupon the enlight-
ened sage ceases to act ;' then, there being no actions that call
for either reward or punishment, there is no occasion, after his
death, for his being born again to receive reward or punishment;
then, not being born again, so as to be liable to pain, there is
no room for pain,' and the absence of pain is the Nyaya concep-
tion of the Summum Bonum."
As to the instruments adapted to the acquisition of a knowledge
of the truth, Gautama teaches that " proofs" i. e., (instruments
of right knowledge,)" are the senses, the recognition of signs, the
recognition of likenesses, and speech (or testimony.")
The objects in regard to which we have to obtain right know-
ledge, by means of the appropriate instruments, he enumerates as
follows:-"Soul, body, sense, sense-object, knowledge, the mind,
activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, pain, and beatitude,-these
are the objects regarding which we are to seek for right kuow-
ledge." Here it is to be carefully observed that the soul is spoken
of as an entirely different entity from the mind. Dugald Stewart
tells us that the mind can attend to only one thought at a time.
Gautama, recoguising the same fact, but speaking of the known
invariably as the soul, accounts for the fact in question by
assuming that there is an instrument, or internal organ, termed
NYA
429
the mind, through which alone knowledge can reach the soul, and
which, admitting only one thought at a time, the Naiyáyika
inferred must be no larger than an atom.
(C
"Pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, volition, and knowledge,"
says Gautama, "are that whereby we recognise the (átman);"
and, again," the sign" (whereby we infer the existence) " of the
mind" (manas)" is the not arising of cognitions" (in the soul)
simultaneously." Thus the soul may be practically fegarded as
corresponding to the thinking principle, and the mind (manas)
to the faculty of attending to one, and only one, thing at a time;
it being further kept in remembrance that the Naiyáyika reckons
the mind to be a substance and not a faculty.
6
"In the list of the objects regarding which right knowledge is
to be obtained, the next after mind, is activity. This is defined
as that which originates the [utterance of the] voice, the [cogui-
tions of the] understanding, and the [gestures of the] body.' This
activity, we have seen under Aph. II., Gautama regards with an
evil eye, as the cause of birth, which is the cause of pain, which it
is the summum bonum to get permanently rid of.
He further holds that it is through our own fault' that we arc
active; and he tells us that faults (or failings) have this charac-
teristic, that they cause 'activity.' These faults are classed under
the heads of affection, aversion, and stolidity or delusion, each of
which he regards as a fault or defect, inasmuch as it leads to
actions, the recompense of which, whether good or evil, must be
received in some birth, or state of mundane existence, to the
postponement of the great end of entire emancipation."
The immediate obstacle to "emancipation" moksha, or apavarga,
namely, "transmigration" pretyabháva, he next defines as "the
arising again” punarutpatti. "Pain," duhka, he defines as "that
which is characterised by uneasiness," and absolute deliverance
therefrom is " emancipation." This summum bonam is to be
obtained by an abuegation of all action, good or bad."-Small,
H. S. L.
Oblations--The householder after pouring libations to the
gods, sages, and progenitors, is to offer oblations with fire, not
preceded by any other rite, to Brahmá. Oblations are made with
such ceremonies, and in such form, as are adapted to the religious.
rite which is intended to be subsequently performed. The residue
of oblations to be offered to Indra, Yama, Varuna, and Soma, at the
four cardinal parts of his dwelling; and in the north-east quarter
is to be presented to Dhanwantari. See V. P., p. 304.
Obsequies-See Sráddha.
Ocean-Churning of. See Amrita.
Odra-The ancient name of Orissa.
Oghavati-The name of a river in the Puránas, that has not
been identified.
Om or Omkara--A combination of letters invested by Hindu
mysticism with peculiar sanctity. In the Vedas it is said to
comprehend all the gods; and in the Puránas it is directed to be
prefixed to many sacred formulas. The syllable Om, says the
Pádma Purána is the leader of all prayers; and to be employed in
the beginning of all prayers. According to the same authority one.
of the mystical imports of the term is the collective enunciation of
Vishnu expressed by A, of Srí, his bride, intimated by U, and of
their joint worshipper designated by M. A whole chapter of the
Váyu Purána is devoted to this term. It is said to typify the
three spheres of the world, the three holy fires, the three steps of
Vishnu, &c. It is identified with the supreme undefinable deity,
or Brahmá. In the Bhagavat Gita it is said "Repeating Om, the
monosyllable, which is Brahma, and calling me to mind;" The
form or sensible type of Vasudeva, is considered to be the
monosyllable Om. Mr. J. C. Thomson says, a more probable
origin of the word is that it is composed of the initials of the three
OSH-OXY
431
personifications of the triad of elements, which is a much more
ancient trinity than that of Brahmá, Vishnu and Śiva. The A
would then represent Agui, or fire; the U Varuna, water; and the
M Marut, wind or air. The reverence attached to this monosyllable
may be inferred from the fact that some transcribers of MSS.
have been afraid to write the awful word itself, and have
substituted some other.
Oshta-karnakas-A nickname or term of derision, or derived
from some exaggeration of national ugliness, applied to some of the
aborigines of India. It means having lips extending to their ears.
Oxydraca-The Sudra people of in the west, or north-west,
towards the Indus. Pliny has Sudraci for the people who formed
the limit of Alexander's eastern conquests, or those hitherto
inaccurately called Oxydracæ.
P
Padmakalpa—A Maha Kalpa-a day of Brahmá already
expired.
Padmanabha-Lotus-navel; with the addition of Svámi, a
name of Nárayana in the Malayalam country. One of the titles of
the Travancore rajah was the slave of Padmanábla.'
Padmapurana-A very voluminous work containing fifty-five
thousand slokas. These are divided amongst five books or
Khaudas; 1, The Srishti Khanda, or section on Creation ; the
Bhumi Khanda, a description of the Earth; the Swarga Khanda,
a chapter on Heaven; Pátála Khanda, a chapter on the regions.
below the earth; and 5, Uttara Khanda, the last or supplementary
chapter. There is also current a sixth division, the Kriya Yoga
Sára, a treatise on the practice of devotion.
The denominations of these divisions of the Pádma Purána
convey but an imperfect and partial notion of their contents. In
the first, or section which treats of creation, the narrator is Ugras-
ravas the Súta, the son of Lomaharshaṇa, who is sent by his father
to the Rishis at Naimisháránya to communicate to them the
Purána, which, from its containing an account of the lotus (padma),
in which Brahmá appeared at creation, is termed the Padma or
Pádma Purána. The Súta repeats what was originally communi-
cated by Brahmá to Pulastya, and by him to Bhishma. The
early chapters narrate the cosmogony, and the genealogy of the
patriarchal families, much in the same style, and often in the same
words, as the Vishnu; and short accounts of the Manwantaras
and regal dynasties: but these, which are legitimate Pauráṇik
matters, soon make way for new and unauthentic inventions,
illustrative of the virtues of the lake of Pushkara, or Pokher in
Ajmir, as a place of pilgrimage.
The Bhúmi Khánda, or section of the earth, defers any descrip-
tion of the earth until near its close, filling up one hundred and
PAD
433
twenty-seven chapters with legends of a very mixed description,
some ancient and common to other Puránas, but the greater part
peculiar to itself, illustrative of Tírthas, either figuratively so
termed as a wife, a parent, or a guru, considered as a sacred
object-or places to which actual pilgrimage should be performed.
The Swarga Khánda describes in the first chapters the relative
positions of the Lokas or spheres above the earth, placing above all
Vaikuntha, the sphere of Vishnu; an addition which is not
warranted by what appears to be the oldest cosmology. Miscella-
neous notices of some of the most celebrated princes then succeed,
conformably to the usual narratives; and these are followed by
rules of conduct for the several castes, and at different stages of
life. The rest of the book is occupied by legends of a diversified
description, introduced without much method or contrivance ; a
few of which, as Daksha's sacrifice, are of ancient date, but of
which the most are original and modern.
The Pátála Khánda devotes a brief introduction to the descrip-
tion of. Pátála, the regions of the snake-gods; but the name of
Ráma having been mentioned, Śesha, who has succeeded Pulastya
as spokesman, proceeds to narrate the history of Ráma, his descent
and his posterity; in which the compiler seems to have taken the
poem of Kálidása, the Raghu Vansa, for his chief authority. An
originality of addition may be suspected, however, in the adven-
tures of the horse destined by Ráma for an Aśwamedha, which
form the subject of a great many chapters. When about to be
sacrificed, the horse turns out to be a Brahman, condemned by an
imprecation of Durvásas, a sage, to assume the equine nature, and
who, by having been sanctified by connexion with Ráma, is
released from his metamorphosis, and despatched as a spirit of
light to heaven. This piece of Vaishnava fiction is followed by
praises of the Śrí Bhagavata, an account of Krishna's juvenilities,
and the merits of worshipping Vishņu. These accounts are
communicated through a machinery borrowed from the Tantras :
they are told by Sadáśiva to Párvati, the ordinary interlocutors of
Tantrika compositions.
The Uttara Khánda is a most voluminous aggregation of very
heterogeneous matters, but it is consistent in adopting a decidedly
55
434
PAD
臭
​Vaishnava tone, and admitting no compromise with any other
form of faith. The chief subjects are first discussed in a dialogue
between king Dilípa and the Muni Vasishtha; such as the merits
of bathing in the month of Mágha, and the potency of the Mantra
or prayer addressed to Lakshmi Nárayana. But the nature of
Bhakti, faith in Vishņu-the use of Vaishnava marks on the body
-the legends of Vishnu's Avatáras, and especially of Ráma-and
the construction of images of Vishnu-are too important to be left
to mortal discretion: they are explained by Śiva to Párvati, and
wound up by the adoration of Vishnu by those divinities. The
dialogue theu reverts to the king and the sage; and the latter
states why Vishnu is the only one of the triad entitled to respect ;
Śiva being licentious, Brahmá arrogant, and Vishnu alone pure.
Vasishtha then repeats, after Śiva, the Mahatmya of the Bhagavat
Gíta; the merit of each book of which is illustrated by legends of
the good consequences to individuals from perusing or hearing it.
Other Vaishnava Mahatmyas occupy considerable portions of this
Khánda, especially the Kártíka Mahatmya, or holiness of the
month Kártíka, illustrated as usual by stories, a few of which are
of an early origin, but the greater part modern, and peculiar to
this Purána,
The Kriya Yoga Sára is repeated by Súta to the Rishis, after
Vyása's communication of it to Jaimini, in answer to an inquiry
how religious merit might be secured in the Kalí age, in which
men have become incapable of the penances and abstraction by
which final liberation was formerly to be attained. The answer
is, of course, that which is intimated in the last book of the Vishņu
Purána-personal devotion to Vishņu: thinking of him, repeating
his names, wearing his marks, worshipping in his temples, are a
full substitute for all other acts of moral or devotional or contem-
plative merit.
The different portions of the Pádma Purána are in all proba-
bility as many different works, neither of which approaches to the
original definition of a Purána. There may be some connexion
between the three first portions, at least as to time; but there is
no reason to consider them as of high antiquity. They specify
the Jains both by name and practices; they talk of Mlechchhas,
PAD-PAI
435
'barbarians,' flourishing in India; they commend the use of the
frontal and other Vaishuava marks; and they notice other subjects
which, like these, are of no remote origin. The Pátála Khánda
dwells copiously upon the Bhagavata, and is consequently posterior
to it. The Uttara Khánda is intolerantly Vaishnava, and is there-
fore unquestionably modern. It enjoins the veneration of the
Sálágram stone and Tulasí plant, the use of the Tapta-mudra, or
stamping with a hot iron the name of Vishņu on the skin, and a
variety of practices and observances undoubtedly no part of the
original system. It speaks of the shrines of Srí-rangam and
Venkatádri in the Dekhin, temples that have no pretension to
remote antiquity; and it names Haripur on the Tungabhadra,
which is in all likelihood the city of Vijayanagar, founded in the
middle of the fourteenth century. The Kriya Yoga Sára is
equally a modern, and apparently a Bengali composition. No
portion of the Pádma Purána is probably older than the twelfth
century, and the last parts may be as recent as the fifteenth or
sixteenth.-Wilson.
Padmavati-A titular name which may be understood of
Lakshmi, as seated on a lotus-flower (padma) it is commonly used
to designate a goddess of the Jainas; especially at some shrines of
the eastern and western Chalukyas; corresponding with the
northern part of Telingana and the southern Mahratta provinces.
Padmavati-A city amongst the Vindhya hills.
Pahlavas--A northern or north-western nation, often men-
tioned in Hindu writings, in Manu, the Rámáyana, the Puránas,
&c. They were not a Hindu people, and may have been some of
the tribes between India and Persia.
Pahnavas-Probably the same as the Pallavas. Border tribes
on the confines of Persia. They were conquered by Sagara, but
spared on the intercession of Vasishtha, the family priest of Sagara.
Paila-The compiler of the Rig Veda; a disciple or co-adjutor
of Vyása in arranging the Vedas. Professor Wilson thinks the
tradition records the first establishment of a school, of which the
Vyása was the head, and Paila and the other persons named were
the teachers.
436
PAK-PAN
Pakayajna-A sacrifice, in which food is offered; one that
may be made by a Súdrà. It implies either the worship of the
Viswadevas, the rites of hospitality, or occasional oblations, as
building a house, the birth of a child, or any occasion of rejoicing.
Paksha-A lunar fortnight; fifteen days of thirty Muhúrttas
cach.
Pakshaja-One of the three classes of clouds; those which
were originally the wings of the mountains, and which were cut
off by Indra.
Palaka-A protector or ruler; loka palaka is an epithet
applied to a king. Dik-palaka is a regent of one of the eight
points of the heavens: each point being supported by one of the
ashta dik gajas, or elephant caryatides. The names of the dik-
palakas are Indra, E., Varuna, W., Kuvera, N., Yama, S., Isáni,
N.E., Niruta, S.W., Váyu, N.W., Agni, S.E.
•
Palaka-The son of Pradyóta, king of Magadhá. There were
five kings of the house of Pradyóta, who reigned for a hundred
and thirty-eight years.
Palasini-A river from the eastern portion of the Himálaya, a
feeder of the Mahánada.
Palin-One of the sons of Prithu.
Palita-A prince, the son of Parávrit: he was the brother of
Jyámagha, and ruled over Videha.
Pampa-A river, that rises in Rishyamuka in the Dekkin.
Panchadasa hymns-A collection of hymns, created along
with the Yajur Veda from the southern mouth of Brahmá.
Panchajana-A demon in the form of a couch shell, who lived
in the sea of Prabhása, and was killed by Krishna, in order that
the son of Sandípani might be rescued.
Panchajanya-The name of Krishna's conch. It was made
of the bones of the giant Panchajana. When Krishna was getting
up his military acquirements, the son of his áchárya, or tutor,
Saudípani, was drowned in the sea of Prabhása, and carried down
PAN
437
to the bottom by the said giant. Krishna plunged in, dived down,
slew the giant, brought up his. bones to make a conch of, and
restored his son to the grieving tutor.
Panchanga-The Hindu Calendar, Panchánga means five
members. It contains five principal heads, namely, the days of the
month, the sign in which the moon is each day to be found, the
day of the week, the eclipses, and the place of the planets. It
likewise marks the good days and the evil; those on which one
may journey towards any of the four cardinal points; for each
point of the compass has its lucky and unlucky days; and a person
who might to-day travel very successfully towards the north,
would expose himself to some grievous danger if he took a south-
ward course.
It farther contains a vast number of predictions of
all sorts which would be too tedious for this place.
Panchala--The country north and west of Delhi, between the
foot of the Himálaya and the Chambal. It was afterwards divided
into northern and southern Pánchála separated by the Ganges.
The name is derived from the five (pánchá) sons of Hariyaswa,
who were able (alam) to protect the countries; and hence they
were termed the Pánchálas.
Pancha-lakshana--An epithet applied to the Puránas, mean-
ing that which has five characteristic topics;' these are primary
creation, or cosmogony; secondary creation, or the destruction and
renovation of worlds; including chronology; 3, Genealogy of
gods and patriarchs; 4, Reigns of the Manus, or periods called
Manwantaras; and, 5, History, or such particulars as have been
preserved of the princes of the solar and lunar races, and of their
descendants to modern times.
Pancha Tantra-The collection of Fables and stories termed
Paucha Tantra or Panchopákhyána, is one of the oldest in the
world. It was translated from Sanskrit into Persian in the sixth
century; and from Persian into Arabic in the ninth century; it
was afterwards rendered into Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Syriac ;
from these versions successive translations were made into all the
languages of modern Europe, until it became universally known
as Pilpay's Fables.
438
PAN
The narrator of the stories is in the Arabic version called Bidpai ;
in the Sanscrit original no name similar to this occurs; but it is
certain that the name Pilpay, by which the work is known in
Europe, is a corruption of Bidpai.
The Arabic translation of the Pancha Tantra is called Kalila
wa Damua; it is thus designated in allusion to two jackals which
act a conspicuous part in the first story of the Arabic version, and
which we recognise in the Sanskrit and Canarese under the forms
Karataka and Damauaka.
The most admired Persian translation is not that which was
first made, but the one written at the beginning of the sixteenth
century, and known under the title of Anwár-i-soheili; which was
afterwards rendered into Turkish with the designation of Humayun
Námeh.
With the exception of the Bible and the Pilgrim's Progress, there
is probably no work that has been translated into so many lan-
guages as the Paucha Tantra. In India it has retained its popu-
larity to the present time, and is found in some form in all the
spoken dialects of the country.
The Sanskrit epitome of the Pancha Tantra is termed the
Hitópadésa," or "Salutary Instruction." This has been translated
into English by Sir William Jones and by Sir Charles Wilkins.
"Its popularity" says Professor Johnson, "through so many
ages, amidst such various nations, is evidence of intrinsic merit ;
and the pictures of domestic manners and human nature which it
presents, however tinctured by national peculiarities, must have
been recognised as universally true, as well as diverting; or they
would not have been naturalized in the west as well as in the east.
In the maxims also which the tales serve to illustrate, there must
have been much which secured the acquiescence of all mankind,
or the remarks would have been left to enlighten the moralists of
India alone. These merits, however, were such as admitted of
transfusion into other languages; the merits of its composition are
those which have chiefly recommended its preservation by the
Press, and its circulation amongst the cultivators of Sanskrit
literature."
PAN
439
There is a great diversity in the manuscript copies of the Pancha
Tantra. Many differences occur in the various stories. In some
versions the residence of the king is in Mahilaropya, a city in the
south of India, which Professor Wilson identifies with St. Thomé.
The Canarese version of the Pancha Tantra follows the Hitópadésa
in making the residence of the king in Pátaliputra on the Ganges.
The king had three sons who were deficient in ability and
application. He made this known to his counsellors and sought.
their advice; asking them "of what use is a son who has neither
knowledge nor virtue? of what use is a cow who has no milk with
her calf, &c.? A learued brahman who was present offered to
relieve the king of his anxiety by taking the princes to his house
and instructing them perfectly. He then composed in their benefit
these five chapters; Mitra Bhéda, Dissension of friends; Mitra
Prápti, acquisition of friends; Kakolukíya, inveterate enmity;
Labda Nashta, loss of advantage; Asamprekshya karitwa, incon-
siderateness. Through reading these the princes became in six.
months highly accomplished, and the five tantras were famous
throughout the world.
An analytical account ofe Pancha Tantra is contained in the
Works of H. H. Wilson, Vol. IV.
Pandava-Patronymic from Pánḍu, applied first to his five
sons, and then generally to their party or army. Also to Arjuna
in particular.
with
Pandavas-The five sons of the Rája Páṇḍu. After their
father's death they returned to Hastinapur, and were kindly
received by their uncle Dritarashtra ; they were brought up
their cousins the Kauravas, in the old palace of Hastinapur; but
from the days of their early youth the sons of Dritaráshtra were
ever jealous of the sons of Pándu. Duryodhana, the eldest of the
Kauravas, attempted to take the life of Bhíma. Soon after, a
famous Brahman preceptor, named Drona, arrived at the city of
Hastinapur. Their Uncle Bhishma engaged him to instruct the
Kauravas and Páṇḍavas in arms and sciences. Drona took great
pains in teaching all the young men, but especially in teaching the
Pandavas. To Yudhishthira he imparted the use of the spear, but
į
440
PAN
that
To
young prince became more renowned for wisdom and good-
ness than for deeds of arms. To Arjuna he taught the use of the
bow, and Arjuna became the most famous archer of his time.
Bhíma he taught the use of the club, for Bhíma was a young man
of great appetite and enormous strength, and could wield the club
right lustily. To Nakula he taught the whole art of taming and
managing horses, and to Sahadeva Astronomy and the use of the
sword. Drona instructed the Kauravas in like manner, as well as
his own son Aswattháma. But of all his pupils the most beloved
was Arjuna, for he was the most perfect of all; and thus, while
Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas was jealous of all the
Pandavas, he was the most jealous of Arjuna.
;
This feeling increased and led to many quarrels ; ultimately to
the exile of the Pandavas, who were sent by Dritaráshtra to the
city of Varanávata. Here Duryodhana plotted their destruction
by having them invited to a house built of combustible materials,
with the intention of setting it on fire at night when they were
all asleep. A retainer of his, Purochaua, was the agent sent to
effect this. The plot was discover an underground passage
was dug through which they migh escape; and Bhíma set on
fire the house of Purochana; the flames reached the house of the
Páṇḍavas, who were conducted by Bhíma through the passage
underground, and went into the jungle with their mother Kuntí.
They afterwards lived as mendicant brahmans in the city of
Ekachakra (q. v.) Their subsequent history embraces the events
which led to the Great War in the plain of Kurukshetra; the
details of which will be found under the names of the various
actors in it. The brothers at last assumed the garb of devotees,
and after passing through many lands, they reached the Himálaya
mountains, and there died one after the other, and were transported
to the heaven of Indra. The fine description of the renunciation
of their kingdom by the five brothers, and their journey towards
Indra's heaven, has been well translated by Monier Williams :
When the four brothers knew the high resolve of king Yudhishthira,
Forthwith with Draupadi they issued forth, and after them a dog
Followed; the king himself went out the seventh from the royal city,
And all the citizens and women of the palace walked behind:
PAN
441
But none could find it in their heart to say unto the king, 'Return.'
And so at length the train of citizens went back, bidding adieu.
Then the high-minded sons of Pándu and the noble Draupadi
Roamed onwards, fasting with their faces towards the east; their hearts.
Yearning for union with the Infinite; bent on abandonment
Of worldly things. They wandered on to many countries, many a sea
And river. Yudhishthira walked in front, and next to him came Bhima,
And Arjuna came after him, and then, in order, the twin brothers.
And last of all came Draupadi, with her dark skin and lotus-eyes-
The faithful Draupadí, loveliest of woman, best of wives-
Behind them walked the only living thing that shared their pilgrimage,
The dog-And by degrees they reached the briny sea. There Arjuna
Cast in the waves his bow and quivers. Then with souls well-disciplined
They reached the northern region, and beheld with heaven-aspiring hearts
The mighty mountain Himavat. Beyond its lofty peak they passed
Towards the sea of sand, and saw at last the rocky Meru, king
T
Of mountains. As wit eager steps they hastened on, their souls intent
On union with the Eternal, Draupadí lost hold of her high hope,
And faltering fell upon the earth.
"One by one the others also drop, till only Bhíma, Yudhishthira,
and the dog are left. Still Yudhishthira walks steadily in front,
calm and unmoved, looking neither to the right hand nor to the
left, and gathering up his soul in inflexible resolution. Bhíma,
shocked at the fall of his companions, and unable to understaud
how beings so apparently guileless should be struck down by fate,
appeals to his brother, who without looking back explains that
death is the consequence of sinful thoughts and too great attach-
ment to worldly objects; and that Draupadí's fall was owing to
her excessive affection for Arjuna; Sahadeva's (who is supposed to
be the most humble-minded of the five brothers) to his pride in his
own knowledge; Nakula's (who is very handsome) to feelings of
personal vanity; and Arjuna's to a boastful confidence in his
power to destroy his foes. Bhíma then feels himself falling, and
is told that he suffers death for his selfishness, pride, and too great
love of enjoyment. The sole survivor is now Yudhishthira, who
still walks steadily forward, followed only by the dog.
When with a sudden sound that rang through earth and heaven, came the god
Towards him in a chariot, and he cried, "Ascend, O resolute prince."
Then did the king look back upon his fallen brothers, and address'd
These words unto the Thousand-eyed, in anguish-"Let my brothers herc
Come with me. Without them, O God of Gods, I would not wish to enter
E'en heaven; and yonder tender princess Draupadi, the faithful wife,
Worthy of happiness, let her too come. In mercy hear my prayer."
Upon this, Indra informs him that the spirits of Draupadi and his
56
442
PAN
brothers are already in heaven, and that he alone is permitted to
ascend there in bodily form. Yudhishthira now stipulates that his
dog shall be admitted with him. Indra says sternly, "Heaven has
no place for those who are accompanied by dogs (Śwavatám) ;”
but Yudhishthira is unshaken in his resolution, and declines
abandoning the faithful animal. Indra remonstrates-" You have
abandoned your brothers and Draupadí ; why not forsake the dog ?”
To this Yudhishthira haughtily replies, "I had no power to bring
them back to life; how can there be abandonment of those who no
longer live ?"
The dog, it appears, was his own father Dharma in disguise
(Mahaprasthánika-parva.) Reassuming now his proper form he
praises Yudhishthira for his constancy, and they enter heaven
together. There, to his surprise, he finds Duryodhana and his
cousins, but not his brothers or Draupadí. Hereupon he declines
remaining in heaven without them. An angel is then sent to
conduct him across the Indian Styx (Vaitariņí) to the hell where
they are supposed to be. The scene which now follows may be
compared to the Necyomanteia in the eleventh book of the Odyssey,
or to parts of Dante.
"The particular hell to which Yudhishthira is taken is a dense
wood, whose leaves are sharp swords, and its ground paved with
razors. The way to it is strewed with foul and mutilated corpses.
Hideous shapes flit across the air and hover over him. Here there
is a horror of palpable darkness. There the wicked are burning in
flames of blazing fire. Suddenly he hears the voices of his brothers
and companions imploring him to assuage their torments, and not
desert them. His resolution is taken. Deeply affected, he bids
the angel leave him to share their miseries. This is his last trial.
The whole scene now vanishes. It was a mere illusion, to test his
constancy to the utmost. He is now directed to bathe in the
heavenly Ganges; and having plunged into the sacred stream, he
enters the real heaven, where at length, in company with Draupadí
and his brothers, he finds that rest and happiness which were
unattainable on earth.”*
Indian Epic Poetry, p. 29 to 31.
PAN
443
Pandu-The second son of the Vyása, Krishna Dwaipayana
and Ambáliká one of the widows of Rája Vichitravirya,-the Pale,
was the half-brother of Dhritáráshtra who was blind.
"The
reason given for these defects is curious. Ambiká, (the mother of
Dhritarashtra) was so terrified by the swarthy complexion and
shaggy aspect of the sage Vyása, that when he visited her she
closed her eyes, and did not venture to open them while he was
with her. In consequence of this assumed blindness her child was
born blind. Ambáliká, on the other hand, though she kept her
eyes open, became so colourless with fright, that her son was born
with a pale complexion, Páṇḍu seems in other respects to have
been good looking."* He was the father of the five Pándava princes
Yudhishthira, Bhíma, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva. He married
Kunti, or Pritha, and sometime afterwards his uncle Bhíshma,
wishing him to take a second wife, "made an expedition to
Salya, king of Madra, and prevailed upon him to bestow his sister
Mádri upon Páṇḍu, in exchange for vast sums of money and
jewels." But as Páṇḍu had incurred a curse from a deer which
he shot, he was prevented from having progeny himself, and the
Pandava princes were therefore begotten respectively by the gods
Dharma, Vayu, Indra, and the twin Aswinau.
Páṇḍu was carefully educated by his uncle Bhíshma, who
afterwards installed him as Rája of Bhárata. The Rája Pánḍu was
a great warrior, and is said to have undertaken a campaign which
would have extended his empire over all Hindustan, from the
Punjab to Bengal, and from
imalayas to the
Vindhya mountains. But he was addicted to hunting, and he went
with his two wives to the Himalaya mountains; but his life there
is filled with mythical details which may be passed over. While
the five princes were still children, Pándu, forgetting the curse of
the sage whom he had killed in the form of a deer, ventured one
day to embrace his wife Mádri, and died in her arms. She and
Kunti then had a dispute for the honour of becoming a sati (suttee)
which ended with Mâdri burning herself with her husband's corpse.‡
Pandu or Prana—A son of Dhatrí and Áyatí, who was
*Indian Epic Poetry, p. 92.
+ Ibid.
ተ
+ Ibid.
444
PAN
married to Pundaríka, and was the ancestor of Uṣanas the
preceptor of the Daityas.
Panini-" The greatest known grammarian of ancient India,
whose work on the Sanskrit language has up to the present day
remained the standard of Sanskrit grammar. Its merits are so
great, that Pánini was ranked among the Rishis, or inspired seers,
and at a later period of Sanskrit literature, was supposed to have
received the fundamental rules of his work from the god Śiva
himself. Of the personal history of Pánini nothing positive is
known, except that he was a native of the village Salâtura,
situated north-west of Attock, on the Indus-whence he is also
surnamed Sálaturíya-and that his mother was called Dâkshî,
wherefore, on his mother's side, he must have been a descendant
of the celebrated family of Daksha. A tale-book, the Kathâsa-
ritságara (i. e., the ocean for the rivers of tales,) gives, indeed,
some circumstantial account of the life and death of Páņini; but
its narrative is so absurd, and the work itself of so modern a date
-it was written in Cashmere, at the beginning of the twelfth
century-that no credit whatever can be attached to the facts
related by it, or to the inferences which modern scholars have
drawn from them. According to the views expressed by Gold-
stücker (Pánini, his place in Sanskrit Literature: London,
1861,) it is probable that Panini lived before Sâkyamuni, the
founder of the Buddhist religion, whose death took place about
543 B. C., but that a more definite date of the great grammarian
has but little chance of ascertainment in the actual condition of
Sanskrit philosophy. The grammar of Pánini consists of eight
Adhyâyas, or books, each book comprising four Pádas, or chapters,
and each chapter a number of Sûtras (q. v.,) or aphoristical rules.
The latter amount in the whole to 3996; but three, perhaps four,
of them did not originally belong to the work of Pánini. The
arrangement of these rules differs completely from what a European
would expect in a grammatical work, for it is based on the
principle of tracing linguistic phenomena, and not concerned in
the classification of the linguistic material, according to the
so-called parts of speech. A chapter, for instance, treating of a
prolongation of vowels, will deal with such a fact whenever it
}
PAN
445
occurs, be it in the formation of bases, or in conjugation,
declension, composition, &c. The rules of conjugation, declension,
&c., are, for the same reason, not to be met with in the same
chapter or in the same order in which European graminars would
teach them; nor would any single book or chapter, however
apparently more systematically arranged-from a European point
of view such as the chapters on affixes or composition, suffice by
itself to convey the full linguistic material concerned in it, apart
from the rest of the work. In a general manner, Páņini's work
may therefore be called a natural history of the Sanskrit language,
in the sense that it has the strict tendency of giving an accurate
description of facts, instead of making such a description subser-
vient to the theories according to which the linguistic material
is usually distributed by European grammarians. Whatever
objections may be raised against such an arrangement, the
very fact of its differing from that in our grammars makes it
peculiarly instructive to the European student, as it accustoms his
mind to survey language from another point of view than that
usually presented to him, and as it must induce him, too, to
question the soundness of many linguistic theories now looked
upon as axiomatic truths. As the method of Páņini requires in a
student the power of combining many rules scattered all over the
work, and of combining, also, many inferences to be drawn from
these rules, it exercises, moreover, on the mind of the student an
effect analogous to that which is supposed to be the peculiar
advantage of the study of mathematics. The rules of Pánini were
criticised and completed by Kátyáyana, who, according to all
probability, was the teacher, and therefore the contemporary of
Patanjali; and he, in his turn, was criticised by Patanjali, (q. v.,)
who sides frequently with Pánini. These three authors are the
canonical triad of the grammarians of India; and their works are,
in truth, so remarkable in their own department, that they exceed
in literary merit nearly all, if not all, grammatical productions of
other nations, so far as the two classes are comparable. The rules
of Páṇini were commented on by many authors. The best existing
commentary on them is that called the Kasikavritti, by Vámana
Jayaditya, which follows these rules in their original order. At
-
446
PAN-PAR
a later period, attempts were made to arrange the rules of Pánini
in a manner which approaches more to the European method; the
chief work of this category is the Siddhanta Kaumutí, by Bhattóji-
díkshita. Pánini mentions, in his Sútras, several grammarians
who preceded him, amongst others, Sákatayana. Manuscripts of
a grammar ascribed to a grammarian of this name exist in the
Library of the India Office in London, and in the Library of the
Board of Examiners at Madras. On the ground of a few pages
only of the latter an attempt has been very recently made to
prove that this grammar is the one referred to by Pánini, and
therefore older than the work of the latter. But the facts adduced
in proof of this hypothesis are so ludicrously weak, and the
reasoning upon them so feeble and inconclusive, whereas the
evidence in favour of the comparatively recent date of this work
is so strong, that no value whatever can be attached to this hasty
hypothesis. For the present, therefore, Pánini's work still remains
the oldest existing grammatical work of India, and probably of
the human race. The Sútras of Páṇini with a modern commentary
by two native pandits, and with extracts from the Vârttikas of
Kâtyâyana and the Mahâbhâshya of Patanjali, were edited at
Calcutta in 1809. This edition, together with the modern com-
mentary, but with garbled extracts from the extracts mentioned,
was re-printed at Bonn in 1839-1840 by Dr. O. Bochtlingk, who
added to it remarks of his own and some indices. For the
literature connected with Pánini, see Colebrooke's preface to his
Grammar of the Sanskrit Language (Calc. 1805,) and Gold-
stücker's Pánini, &c., as mentioned above."-Chambers' Ency-
clopædia, VII, 231.
Pannagari-A teacher of the Rig Veda, who was previously
a pupil of Bashkáli.
Papa-The name of one of the Narakas.
Para-The son of Anga, a descendant of Anu; also a son of
Prithusena, a descendant of Hastin; and of Samara, in the same
line.
Para or Para-A river in Malwa, the Párvatí.
PAR
447
Para-Supreme, infinite; and Pára, the farther bank or limit,
the point that is to be attained by crossing a river or sea, or
figuratively the world or existence. Vishnu, then, is Pára, that
which nothing surpasses; and Pára, the end or object of existence;
he is Apára pára, the farthest bound of that which is illimitable,
or space and time: he is Param parabhyah, above or beyond the
highest being, beyond or superior to all the elements: he is
Paramartha rúpí, or identical with final truth, or knowledge of
soul he is Brahmá pára, the object or essence of spiritual wisdom.
Parapárabhuta is said to imply the farther limit (Pára) of rudi-
mental matter. See Wilson's Notes to Vishnu Purána, 113.
Paradas-See Pahlavas.
Paramanu-A measure of time, equal to one Anu.
Param―The duration of Brahmá's life, consisting of a hundred
of his years.
Paramatma-A name of Vishņu, meaning 'supreme spirit.'
Parameshthin-The son of Indrayumna, a descendant of
Bharata.
Paramiksha-A son of Anu.
Paran-The heavenly one, in Tamil. It corresponds with
Brahm, or Para Brahm of the Upanishads. In the South there
has been a controversy whether Vishnu or Śiva is Paran, or the
supreme Being.
Pararddham-1, Half of the duration of Brahmá's life; 2,
That number which occurs in the eighteenth place of figures,
enumerated according to the rule of decimal notation.
Paras-A class of deities, consisting of twelve, to appear in the
ninth Manwantara.
Parasara—A great sage, the son of Sakti, and grandson of
Vasishtha. In order to avenge the death of his father, who had
been devoured by a Rákshas, he commenced a sacrifice to effect
the destruction of all the Rákshasas, but was dissuaded from it by
his graudsire; who showed him that his father's death was the
work of destiny. Pulastya taught him the Vishnu Purána, which
448
PAR
he related to Maitareya, to convey the truths that the world was
produced from Vishņu; that it exists in him; that he is the cause
of its continuance and cessation; that he is the world.
that he is the world. Paráşara
was also the Vyása of the twenty-sixth Dwápara, and a teacher of
a branch of the Rig Veda, and of the Sáma Veda.
Buchanan has noticed the incompatibility of Paráṣara's genealogy
with his being, as it is stated, cotemporary with Sántanu, king of
Hastinapur, that prince being the 44th in descent from Atri, who
is cotemporary with Vasishtha, who again is but three generations
anterior to Paráṣara; he supposes therefore that many generations
It is not
in the line of Vasishtha must have been omitted.
necessary, however, to attempt to reconcile these incongruities, for
the coetaneous existence of Atri and Vașishtha is less chronological
than mythological, or perhaps, as they are both enumerated
amongst the stars of the great bear, astronomical; it extends
throughout the Manwantara; their immediate successors, who
hold a sacred character, enjoy a like longevity, and are similarly
cotemporary, at any period, with their ancestry and posterity; if
we consider them as mere mortals we must suppose that Paráṣara
preceded the great war by three generations, Krishna Dwaipayana
Vyása, his son, being the father of Dhritarashtra, Pánḍu, and
Vidura, by the widows of Vichitravírya. Vyása was, however,
cotemporary with his grandson and their descendants, agreeably to
the above system of saintly immortality. Mr. Bentley places
Paráṣara, about 575, B. C., (Hindu Astronomy); Buchanan, about
1300, B.C., (Genealogies of the Hindus); and Wilford, 1391, B.C.,
(As. Res. IX, 87); Wilson's Works, III, 123.
;
2, A second Paráṣara is the author of a celebrated code of laws
he is mentioned by Yajnavalka in his standard work, and often
quoted by the commentaries; 3, There is a third of the same name
the reputed author of a Tantra; and, 4, A fourth, the author of
an astronomical work.
Parasikas-The people of Pars, or Persians.
Parasarama or Rama-of the axe (Parusa). Sce Ráma.
Paravatas A class of deities of the Second Manwantara.
{
PAR
449
Paravrij-An outcast mentioned in the Rig Veda who was
blind and lame, but restored to sight and the power of walking by
the Aṣvins. O. S. T., V, 246,
Paravrit-A prince, the son of Rukmakavacha, and father of
Jyámagha.
Parijata tree-A celestial tree, produced at the churning of
the ocean, from the whirlpool of the deep, the delight of the
nymphs of heaven, perfuming the world with its blossoms.
Krishna, at the desire of his wife Satyabháma carried off this tree
from the gardens of Indra. Śachí excited Indra to prevent its
removal. A conflict ensued between the gods and Krishna, which
is narrated at great length in the Hari V., and with some
variations in the Vishnu Purána. Krishna was victorious, and
took the tree to Dwaraka where it was planted in Satyabhama's
garden. When Krishna abandoned his mortal body the tree
proceeded to heaven again along with the Sudharman palace.
Parikshit-The son of Abhimanyu and grandson of Arjuna.
After the destruction of the Kurus the child (Parikshit) was
killed in the womb of his mother Uttará, by the magic Brahmá
weapon hurled by Aswattháman, but restored to life again by
Krishṇa. When the Pándava princes determined to renounce the
world and retire into the forest, the Rájah Yudhishthira gave the
Ráj of Hastinapur to Paríkshit. The commencement of the Kali
age is placed at the beginning of the reign of Paríkshit, though
according to the usual notions it commenced from the death of
Krishna. The Vyása who arranged or compiled the Puránas
flourished during the reign of Paríkshit. The prince himself died
of the bite of a snake, according to the Maha Bhárata, and it is
said the Bhagavata Purána was related to him between the bite and
its fatal effect. The king had incurred the imprecation of a hermit
by which he was sentenced to die of the bite of a venomous snake,
at the expiration of seven days; and in preparation for this event,
he repaired to the banks of the Ganges; thither also went the
gods and sages to witness his death. Amongst the latter was
Suka the son of Vyása; and it was in reply to Parikshit's question
"what should a man do who is about to die" that he narrated the
57
450
PAR
1
Bhagavata, as he had heard it from Vyása; believing that nothing
secures final happiness so certainly as to die while the thoughts are
wholly engrossed by Vishnu. V. P.
Parinamin-That which may be modified, one of the defini-
tions of Pradhana, q. v.
Paripatra-1, A range of mountains the northern portion of
the Vindhya chain; 2, A prince, the son of Ahínagu, a descendant
of Kusa.
Pariplava- A prince, the son of Sukhibala, or Sukhinala, of
the race of Puru.
Pariyatra--A mountain range, to the west of Meru, called in
the Vishnu Purána the limitative mountains in the west. It is
said in Wilson's notes to be the same as Paripátra, the northern
and western portion of the Vindhya.
Parivatsara-One of the five Cyclic years, or Yugas, q. v.
Parjanya-The thundering rain god. There are several hymns
in the Rig Veda which celebrate Parjanya, as the procreative and
stimulating fructifier. "The winds blow, the lightnings fall, the
plants shoot up; the heaven fructifies; food is produced for all
created things, when Parjanya, thundering, replenishes the earth
with moisture." Parjanya forms the subject of two papers by
Dr. G. Bühler, containing a comparison of Parjanya with the
Lithuanian god Perkunas, the god of thunder. Dr. Bühler holds
Parjanya to have been decidedly distinct from Indra. "Taking a
review of the whole, we find that Parjanya is a god who presides
over the lightning, the thunder, the rain, and the procreation of
plants and living creatures. But it is by no means clear whether
he is originally a god of the rain or a god of the thunder." He
inclines, however, to think that from the etymology of his name, and
the analogy between him and Perkunas, he was originally the
thunder god. In his German essay, his conclusion is that Parjanya
is "the god of thunderstorms and rain, the generator and nourisher
of plants and living creatures."- Muir, O. S. T., V, 142.
Parjanya is also represented as the brother of Aditi, and husband
of Prithiví, the Earth. He is also described as the father of Soma,
and the protector of the Soma plant.
PAR-PAT
451
2, A Lókapála, the regent of the north and king of clouds ; 4,
The wife of Maríchi, whose son became a Lókapála.
Parna-One of the fifteen teachers of the White Yajush.
Parswanatha-The twenty-third of the Tirthankaras, or
deified saints of the Jainas in the present era. He and Mahávíra,
the twenty-fourth, are regarded with the greatest veneration
throughout Hindustan. At Belupura, near Benares, there is a
temple honoured as the birth-place of Páraswanátha.
Parvana Sraddhas-Ancestral oblations, or the worship of
progenitors, at certain lunar periods.
Parvas-Days of periodical impurity when a wise man must
desist from the study of the Vedas.
Parvasa-Called also Sarvagas the son of Paurnamása, and
brother of Kasyapa.
Parvasi-The wife of Parvaga, and mother of Yajnaváma and
Kaṣyata, who were both founders of Gotras or families.
Parvati--The daughter of Himálaya and spouse of Mahadeva.
Her name was changed to Durgá (q. v.); she is also called Deví,
Uma, &c. Dr. Muir quotes various passages to show the dignity
to which this goddess has eventually been elevated in the estima-
tion of her worshippers; and that she has now attained a far
higher rank in the Indian pantheon than was originally enjoyed by
the daughter of Daksha and Himavat. O. S. T., IV, 372.
Parvatiyas-A designation of many of the aboriginal tribes
of India, mearing "dwellers in mountains," from Parvati, a
mountain.
Pasupati-A name of Śiva. There is a treatise on the
Páṣupata worship, or worship of Śiva by Páṣupati.
Pasupati-One of the eight Rudras, the one who has the place
of fire.
Pasuyajna-One of the five great sacrificial ceremonies; the
sacrifice of a horse or animal. See Aswamedha.
Patala-The lowest of the seven regions in the interior of the
earth, extending downwards ten thousand yojanas. These seven
!
452
PAT-PAU
are Atala, Vitala, Nitala, Gabhastimat, Mahátala, Sútala, and
Pátála. Their soil is severally white, black, purple, yellow, sandy,
stony, and of gold. They are embellished with magnificent.
palaces, in which dwell numerous Dánavas, Daityas, Yakshas,
and great snake gods. The Muni Nárada, after his return from
those regions to the skies, declared amongst the celestials that
Pátála was much more delightful than Indra's heaven. 'What'
exclaimed the sage, can be compared to Pátála, where the Nágas
are decorated with brilliant and beautiful and pleasure-shedding
jewels; and who will not delight in Pátála where the lovely
daughters of the Daityas and Danavas wander about, fascinating
even the most austere ; where the rays of the sun diffuse light, and
not heat, by day; and where the moon shines by night for illumina-
tion, not for cold; where the sons of Danu, happy in the enjoy-
ment of delicious viands and strong wines, know not how the time
passes? There are beautiful groves and streams and lakes where
the lotus blows; and the skies are resonant with Köil's song.
Splendid ornaments, fragrant perfumes, rich unguents, the blended
music of the lute and pipe and tabor; these and many other enjoy-
ments are the common portion of the Danavas, Daityas, and snake-
gods, who inhabit the regions of Pátáļa.
Below the seven Pátálas is the form of Vishnu, from the quality
of darkness, which is called Sesha. Vishnu Purána, p. 205.
Patala, Patanga-The names of two of the seven suns into
which the solar rays dilate at the great Pralaya, when Vishņu
assumes the character of Rudra the destroyer, and descends to re-
unite all his creatures with himself.
Pataliputra or Palibothra-The metropolis of Magadha.
Pathya-A teacher of the Sáma Veda.
Patumat-One of the Andhra kings of Magadha, the son of
Meghaswáti.
Patumitra-One of the kings of Mekalá, a country in the
Narbada. Vishnu Purána, p. 479.
Paulomi-The wife of Brighu, a descendant of the daughters
of Daksha.
PAU-PAV
453
Paulomas-Distinguished Danavas ; powerful, ferocious and
cruel. The Vishnu Purána states that Puloma, who was married
to Kasyapa, bore him thirty thousand of them.
Paundraka-A Vasudeva, who assumed the insignia and style
of Krishna, and was supported by his friend and ally the king of
Kásí. Krishna marched against them and destroyed them both.
The son of the king of Kásí then sent a magical being against
Krishna; but the discus, Sudarsana, speedily destroyed it, with the
army of Kásí, and the demi-gods attendant upon Śiva: the discus
afterwards set on fire the city of Benares consuming it and its
inhabitants. In this legend, says Professor Wilson, we have a
contest between the followers of Vishnu and Śiva intimated, as,
besides the assistance given by the latter to Paundraka, Benares
has been from all time, as it is at present, the high place of the
Saiva worship.
Paundras-The inhabitants of Pundra, a western province of
Bengal.
Pauras-A race of kings whose dynasty continued three hun-
dred years. Vishnu Purána, p. 477.
Puravas-Descendants of Puru.
Pauravi-A title, attached to the second Rohini, wife of
Vasudeva, to distinguish her from the first, the mother of Balaráma.
Paurnamasa-The son of Maríchi and Sambhuʊ,.
Paurnamasi―The day of full moon one of the sc
gifts are meritorious.
~ when
Pausha-The name of one of the lunar months, correspondı.¸*
to December.
Paushinji-A teacher of the Sáma Veda.
Pavaka, Pavamana--Two of the brilliant sons of Agni.
According to the Váyu Purána Pauvamána is the fire produced by
friction, or Nirmathaya; and Pávaka is electric or Vaidyata fire.
The Bhagavata makes these two fires the sons of Antarddhána.
When dominion over different provinces of creation was assigned
to different beings, Pávaka was made chief of the Vásus.
454
PAV-PIN
Pavitras-One of the five classes of deities of the fourteenth
Manwantara.
Payoshni--A river which the Vishnu Purána says rises from
the Riksha mountains; but the Váyu and Kúrma bring it from
the Vindhya range. There are several indications of its position
in the Mahabharata, but none very precise. Its source appears to
be near that of the Krishúa; it flows near the beginning of the
Dandaka forest, which should place it rather near to the sources
of the Godáverí; it passes through Vidarbha or Berar, and
Yudhishthira having bathed in it, comes to the Vaidúrya mountain
and the Narbadá river. These circumstances make it likely that
the Payín Gangá is the river in question.
Phalguna--A lunar month corresponding nearly to January.
Pindaraka-A Tírtha. A village in Guzerat, still held in
reverence from the following legend connected with it. The three
sages Viswamitra, Kanwa, and Nárada were here observed by
some boys who determined to play a trick upon them. They
accordingly took a boy named Sámba, and having dressed him as
a damsel, conducted him to the sages, and with deep respect
enquired, what child will this female, the wife of Babhra, who is
anxious to have a son give birth to. The sages, knowing what
was done, replied, "She will bring forth a club that shall crush
the whole of the Yádava race." The boys related all that had
occurred to Ugrasena; and as foretold a club was produced from
the belly of Samba. Ugrasena had the club which was of iron,
ground to dust, and thrown into the sea; but the particles of dust
there became rushes; one part, which could not be broken, was
swallowed by a fish; the fish was caught, the iron spike was
extracted from its belly, and was taken by a hunter named Jará.
This hunter afterwards shot Krishṇa with an arrow tipped with
the iron spike. So was it determined by fate.
V. P.
Pindas-Balls of food, offered at Sráddas. They are made of
boiled rice, sesamum seeds, honey and butter; various kinds of
fruit of pulse, and of grain, water, frankincense, sugar and milk,
are also mixed up in them at times; the size differs from that of a
PIN-PIS
455
fowl's egg to that of a cocoanut; but the Pinda is usually of such
a magnitude as to be conveniently held in the hand.
Pingala-One of the eleven Rudras, according to the enumer-
ation in the Matsya Purána.
Pipal Tree-Ficus religiosa: the one in Vipula mountain, on
the west of Meru, is said in the Vishnu Purána to spread over
eleven hundred yójanás.
Pippala--The name of one portion of Jambu-dwípa, according
to the Mahábhárata; the other portion is called Sása; the two
are reflected in the lunar orb as in a mirror.
Pippalada A disciple of Devadarsa and teacher of the
Atharva Veda.
Pipru-One of the demons of drought, represented in the
Rig Veda as one of the malevolent powers in the atmosphere, to
encounter whom Indra marches forth accompanied by the Maruts,
and sometimes attended by Vishņu. The dreadful battles which
are described are evidently personifications of the storms which
occur at the bursting of the monsoons in India.
Pisacha-A daughter of Daksha, and wife of Kasyapa.
Pisacha Marriage-A marriage in which a damsel is neither
purchased, nor seduced, nor carried away captive, but simply
taken at a disadvantage; an outrage, says Mr. Wheeler, "far
more likely to be committed amongst a peacefu! community than
amongst a race of chivalrous warriors, like the Kshatriyas."
6. If
a damsel found herself likely to become a mother, without being
able to furnish a satisfactory reason for her maternity, she would
naturally plead that she had been victimised by a Pisácha; and
probably from this circumstance the term came to be applied to
all cases in which a damsel had been taken at a disadvantage by a
mortal lover." In modern times the belief is still common in the
rural districts of India that such events occur.
Pisachas--Evil spirits or demons, supposed to haunt the earth
and inhabit trees and forests. The term is constantly applied to
the wild mountain tribes, the aborigines. One of the hymns of
456
PIS-PIV
the Rig Veda calls upon Indra to destroy the tawny coloured
fearfully roaring Pisáchas, and to annihilate the Rákshasas.
Pisachika--A river that has its rise on the Riksha mountains.
Pithastanas--Fifty-one places where, according to the
Tantras, the limbs of Satí fell, when scattered by her husband Śiva,
as he bore her dead body about, and tore it to pieces, after
she had put an end to her existence at Daksha's sacrifice. This
part of the legend seems to be an addition to the original fable,
and bears some analogy to the Egyptian fable of Isis and
Osiris. At the Pitha stánas of Jiválákmukhí, Vindhyavásini,
Kálighát, and others, temples are erected to the different forms of
Devi or Satí, not to the phallic emblem of Śiva, which if present,
is there as an accessory and embellishment, not as a principal, and
the chief object of worship is a figure of the goddess; a circum-
stance in which there is an essential difference between the temples
of Dúrga and shrines of Osiris.- Wilson's Notes to Vishnu
Purána.
Pitri-loka--One of the seven spheres above the earth, the
heaven of Pitris and Erahmans.
Pitris-Progenitors; born from the side of Brahmá; they are
also called the sons of Angiras. In the divisions of the celestial
sphere the path of the Pitris is said in the Vishnu Purána to be
in the north of Agastya, and south of the line of the Goat;
exterior to the Vaiswánara path. The Pitris derive satisfaction
from ancestral offerings in the day of the new moon. A Srádda
at certain seasons will content them for a thousand years.
songs of the Pitris are said to confer purity of heart, integrity of
wealth, prosperous seasons, perfect rites, and devout faith; all
that men can desire. The various descriptions of food, &c., that
should be offered to deceased ancestors, are mentioned in the
Vishnu Purána.
The
Pitrayajna--Obsequial rites; or libations to the manes; one
of the great obligations or sacrifices.
Pivari--The wife of Vedașiras; they had many children, who
constituted the family, or Brahmanical tribe of Bhargavas, sons of
Bhrigu.
PIY-PON
457
Piyadasi, or Piyadasano-An Indian king identified both
by name and circumstances, with Aşóka. There are many inscrip-
tions on columns and rocks, by a Buddhist prince, in an ancient
form of letter and the Pálí language, found in India; and many
of these are attributed to Aṣóka. Their purport agrees with his
character, and their wide diffusion with the traditionary report of
the number of his monuments. His date is near that of Antiochus
the Great. See Wilson's Notes to Vishnu Purána, p. 470.
Plaksha-One of the seven Dwipas, or great insular continents;
surrounded with a sea of sugar cane juice or Ikshu; the king was
named Midhatithe; the Dwípa was divided amongst his seven
sons, and each division was named after the prince to whom it was
subject. The several kingdoms were bounded by as many ranges
of mountains, in which the sinless inhabitants ever dwell, along
with celestial spirits and gods; in them are many holy places;
and the people there live for a long period, exempt from care and
pain, and enjoying uninterrupted felicity. There are also in the
seven divisions of Plaksha seven rivers flowing to the sea, whose
names alone are sufficient to take away sin; the people who drink
of their waters are always contented and happy; and there is
neither decrease nor increase amongst them. Vishnu Purána,
p. 197.
Pongal, or Sankranti-The Pongal is the greatest of the
unsectarian festivals of the Hindus. It is celebrated at their
astronomical new year when the sun enters Capricorn about the
11th of January; and lasts three days; during which the Hindus
employ themselves in mutual visits and compliments, something in
the same manner as the Europeans do on the first day of the year.
The feast of the Pongal is a season of rejoicing for two special
reasons. The first is, that the month of Magha, i. e., December
-January, every day in which is unlucky, is now over; and the
other, that it is succeeded by a month, each day of which is lucky.
For the purpose of averting the evil effect of the baleful month
of Magha, about four o'clock in the morning, a sort of Sannyásis,
i. e., penitents, go from door to door of every house, beating on a
plate of iron or copper, which produces a piercing sound. All
58
458
PON
who sleep, being thus roused, are counselled to take wise precau-
tions, and to guard against the evil presages of the month, by
expiatory offerings, and sacrifices to Siva, who presides over it.
With this view, every morning, the women scour a space of about
two feet square before the door of the house, upon which they
draw several white lines with flowers; and upon these they place
several little balls of cow-dung, sticking in each a citron blossom.
These little balls are probably designed to represent Vighnéṣvara,
the remover of obstacles, whom they desire to propitiate with the
flower. Each day these little lumps of cow-dung, with their
flowers, are picked up and preserved in a private place, till the
last day of the month Magha; and when that comes, the women,
who are alone charged with this ceremony, put the whole in a
basket, and march from the house, with musical instruments before
them, clapping their hands, till they reach some waste place where
they dispose of the relics.
Then, with the first day of the new month begins the festival,
the first day of which is called Bhogi Pongal, i. e., Indra's Pongal,
and it is kept by inviting the near relations to an entertainment,
which passes off with hilarity and mirth.
The second day is called Surya Pongal, i. e. Pongal of the sun,
because it is set apart in honour of the sun. Married women, after
purifying themselves by bathing, which they perform by plunging
into the water without taking off their clothes, and coming out all
wet, set about boiling rice with milk, in the open air, and not
under any cover; and when it begins to simmer, they make a loud
cry, all at once, repeating the words: Pongal, Pougal! The
vessel is then lifted off the fire, and set before the idol of Vighnés-
vara, which is placed close by, and after having been offered to the
image, part of the rice is given to the cow; and the remainder
distributed among the people.
This is the great day of visits among the Hindus. The saluta-
tion begins with the question, "has the milk boiled ?" to which the
answer is, "it has boiled;" and from this the festival takes its
name "Pongal" i. e. "boiling."
The third day is called the Pongal of cows. On it they mix in
a great vessel filled with water, some saffron, cotton seeds, and
PRA
459
leaves of the Margosa tree; and then going several times round all
the cows and oxen belonging to the house, they springle them with
the water, as they turn to the four cardinal points; and make the
Sáshtanga, or prostration of the eight members, before them four
times. This ceremony is performed by the men only. Next the
cows are all dressed out, their horns being painted with various
colours, and garlauds of flowers and foliage put round their necks
and over their backs. They likewise add strings of cocoanuts
and other fruits, which are soon shaken off by the brisk motion of
the animals, which these trappings occasion, and are picked up by
children and others, who follow the cattle on purpose, and greedily
eat what they gather, as something sacred. The cattle then, being
driven in herds through the villages, and made to scamper about
from side to side by the jarring noise of many sounding instru-
ments, are, during the remainder of the day, allowed to feed at
large without a keeper; and whatever trespasses they commit are
suffered to pass without notice or restraint.
At the conclusion of the festival they take the idols from the
temples, and carry them in pomp to the place where the cattle
have been again collected. The girls of pleasure, named Devada-
sis, who are found at all ceremonies, are also not wanting here.
Abbé Dubois.
Prabha-The daughter of Swarbhána, and wife of Namuchi;
according to the Matsya Purána she was the wife of the sun, by
whom he had Prabhata; according to the Bhagavata she was the
wife of Kalpa, who had by her Pratáh, (dawn) Madhyadina, (noon)
and Sáya, (evening.)
Prabhakara-A Rishi of the house of Atri, who married the
ten daughters of Raudráswa, a descendant of Puru.
Prabhasa-(Light.) 1, One of the deities called Vásus, because
they are always present in light, or luminous irradiation; 2, A
place of pilgrimage in the west of India on the coast of Guzerat,
near the temple of Sómanath, and town of Pattan Sómanath. In
the Mahábhárata it is placed near Dwaraka. It was visited by
Arjuna, and afterwards by Balaráma during the great war. Before
the destruction of Dwaraka Krishna issued a proclamation that all
460
PRA
the people of the city should go to the sea-shore at Prabhása and
pay their devotions to the deity of Dwaraka.
Prabhata-A son of Vivaswat, the Sun, by his wife Prabhá.
Prachetas-1, A deity who presides over the tongue ; 2, A son
of Duryaman, a descendant of Druhya; 3,
Prachetasas-The ten sons of Práchínaverhis, who, instructed
by their father, plunged into the depths of the ocean, and with
minds wholly devoted to Náráyana, the sovereign of the universe,
were engrossed by religious austerity for ten thousand years: on
which, Vishņu, being pleased with them, appeared to them amidst
the waters, of the complexion of the full-blown lotus leaf. Behold-
ing him mounted on the king of birds, Garuda, the Prachetásas
bowed down their heads in devout homage; when Vishnu said to
them, "Receive the boon you have desired; for I, the giver of
good, am content with you, and am present." The Prachetásas
replied to him with reverence, and told him that the cause of their
devotions was the command of their father to effect the multiplica-
tion of mankind. The god, having accordingly granted to them
the object of their prayers, disappeared, and they came up from
the water.
The Prachetásas took to wife Márishá (q. v.) and from her was
born the eminent patriarch Daksha, who had in a former life been
born as a son of Brahma. Vishnu Purána.
Prachinaverhis-The eldest of the six sons of Havirdhána ; he
was a great prince and patriarch by whom mankind was multiplied
after the death of Havirdhana; he was called Prachínaverhis from
his placing upon the earth the sacred grass, pointing to the east.
He married Savarná, the daughter of the ocean, who was the
mother of ten sons, styled Prachetásas, who were in the sea for ten
thousand years. Vishnu Purána.
Prachinvat-A prince, the son of Janamejaya, and grandson of
Puru.
Pradarsanas-A class of deities of the third Manwantara.
Pradhana-Primary or crude matter; a form of Vishņu; it is
also designated Prakriti, Nature; it comprehends both causes and
PRA
461
effects; it is durable, self-sustained, undecaying; the mother of
the world; without beginning; and that into which all that is
produced is resolved. Pradhána, when unmodified, is according to
the Sankhyas and Pauránics, nothing more than the three qualities
in equilibrio, or goodness, foulness, and darkness neutralising each
other. Sankhya Karika, p. 52.
Pradhanatma-A name of Vishņu, meaning, one with crude
nature, or Viswabhávana.
Pradosha-A son of Kalpa, and Doshá. Pradosha had two
brothers Nisítha and Vyushta; the three names mean the begin-
ning, middle and end of night.
Pradyota-A king of Magadha, son of the minister Simika,
who having killed his sovereign placed his son Pradyóta on the
throne; the dynasty lasted one hundred and thirty-eight years.
Pradyumna-The son of Krishņa and Rukminí—the incarnate
Indian Cupid. He is called in the South Manmatha (the con-
founder of the mind) and in the North of India, Káma (Desire.)
He is said to be the mental son of Vishnu, and to have become
incarnate in Pradyumna, the first born of the 108,000 sons of
Krishna. His history is thus related ine Vishņu Purána.
"When Pradyumna was but six days id, he was stolen from
the lying-in chamber by Sambara, terrible as death; for the demon
foreknew that Pradyumna, if he lived, would be his destroyer.
Taking away the boy, Sambara cast him into the ocean, swarming
with monsters, into a whirlpool of roaring waves, the haunt of the
huge creatures of the deep. A large fish swallowed the child, but
he died not, and was born anew from its belly for that fish, with
others, was caught by the fishermen, and delivered by them to the
great Asura Sambara. His wife Máyádeví, the mistress of his
household, superintended the operations of the cooks, and saw,
when the fish was cut open, a beautiful child, looking like a new
shoot of the blighted tree of love. Whilst wondering who this
should be, and how he could have got into the belly of the fish,
Nárada came to satisfy her curiosity, and said to the graceful
dame, "This is the son of him by whom the whole world is
created and destroyed, the son of Vishnu, who was stolen by
462
PRA
:
Sambara from the lying-in chamber, and tossed by him into the
sea, where he was swallowed by the fish. He is now in thy power;
do thou, beautiful woman, tenderly rear this jewel of mankind.”
Thus counselled by Nárada, Máyádeví took charge of the boy, and
carefully reared him from childhood, being fascinated by the
beauty of his person. Her affection became still more impassioned
when he was decorated with the bloom of adolescence. The grace-
fully moving Máyávatí then, fixing her heart and eyes upon the
light-minded Pradyumna, gave him, whom she regarded as her-
self, all her magic (and illusive) powers.
Observing these marks of passionate affection, the son of
Krishna said to the lotus-eyed Máyádeví, "Why do you indulge
in feelings so unbecoming the character of a mother?" To which
she replied, "Thou art not a son of mine; thou art the son of
Vishnu, whom Kála Sambara carried away, and threw into the
sea: thou wast swallowed by a fish, but wast rescued by me from
its belly. Thy fond mother, O beloved, is still weeping for thee."
When the valiant Pradyumna heard this he was filled with wrath,
and defied Sambara to battle. In the conflict that ensued, the
son of Mádhava slew t
he foiled the delusion
whole host of Sambara. Seven times
of the enchanter, and making himself
master of the eighth, turned it against Sambara, and killed him.
By the same faculty he ascended into the air, and proceeded to his
father's house, where he alighted, along with Máyávatí, in the
inner apartments. When the women beheld Pradyumna, they
thought it was Krishna himself. Rukminí, her eyes dimmed with
tears, spoke tenderly to him, and said, "Happy is she who has a
son like this, in the bloom of youth. Such would be the age of my
Who is the fortunate mother
son Pradyumna, if he was alive.
adorned by thee? and yet from thy appearance, and from the
affection I feel for thee, thou art assuredly the son of Hari.”
At this moment Krishna accompanied by Nárada, arrived; and
the latter said to the delighted Rukminí, "This is thine own son,
who has come hither after killing Sambara, by whom, when an
infant, he was stolen from the lying-in chamber. This is the
virtuous Máyávatí, his wife, and not the wife of Sambara. Hear
ᏢᎡᎪ
463
*
the reason. When Manmatha, the deity of love, had perished,*
the goddess of beauty, desirous to secure his revival, assumed a
delusive form, and by her charms fascinated the demon Sambara,
and exhibited herself to him in various illusory enjoyments. This
thy son is the descended Káma ; and this is the goddess Ratí, his
wife. There is no occasion for any uncertainty: this is thy
daughter-in-law." Then Rukminí was glad, and Kesava also;
the whole city resounded with exclamations of joy, and all the
people of Dwaraká were surprised at Rukminí's recovering a son
who had so long been lost.
Pradyumna is represented as a man, with a crown on his head;
and his ears, neck, breast, arms, hands, feet, and the remaining
part of his body, are adorned with various ornaments of pearls,
precious stones, gold and silver. On his shoulders he wears a
Bahupattai, i. e., a shoulder-girdle. In one of his hands he holds
a bow of sugar-cane, with a string of insects; and in the other an
arrow, ready for discharge. On his back he carries a quiver,
with five sorts of arrows, consisting of five kinds of flowers.
standard is a fish; his vehicle, a parrot; and the color of his body,
yellow. Ratí his wife, is represented as a female with long black
hair, braided into a pigtail that reaches to the ground. Like her
husband, she wears also a crown, and is on the whole adorned and
equipped similar to him,
His
Prahlada-The son of Hiranyakaṣipu, a daitya, but from the
influence of a prior existence, a worshipper of Vishņu. In the
war between the gods and demons, however, he takes part with his
family, and is killed by the discus of Vishņu. He is again born
of the same parents, and with the same name, and is then the
Prabláda who is the hero of the usual story, the pious son of an
impious father, the latter of whom was destroyed by Vishņu in the
Narisinha or man-lion avatára, and the former was raised to the
rank of Indra for life, and finally united with Vishnu. The V. P.,
contains a full account of the cruelties to which Prahláda was
subjected by his father in order to compel him to renounce the
*When he was reduced to ashes by a fiery glance from Siva, in resentment
of his inflaming him with passion for Uma.
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PRA
worship of Vishņu; but all in vain; he remains firm throughout.
It is said in the Bhagavata that Hiranyakaṣipu at last asks his son,
why, if Vishnu is everywhere, he is not visible in a pillar in the
hall where they are assembled. He then rises and strikes the
column with his fist, on which Vishnu, in a form which is neither
wholly a lion nor a man, issues from it, and a conflict ensues, which
ends in Hiranyakaṣipu's being torn to pieces. V. P., Book I,
Chap. XX.-Wilson's Notes.
Prajani-A prince, the son of Pransa, descendant of Nedishta.
Prajapatis-Progenitors of mankind. The seven mind-born
sons of Brahmá, viz; Brighu, Pulastya, Angíras, Maríchi, Daksha,
Atri, and Vasishta. Considerable variety prevails in this list;
"but the variations are of the nature of additions made to an
apparently original enumeration of but seven." The names of
Pulaka and Kratu, occur in some. The Vishnu Purána gives nine
names. The Padma Purána substitutes Kardama for Vasishtha.
The Matsya agrees with Manu in adding Nárada to the list.
Others include Adharma, and Ruchi, and Gautama. "Altogether
therefore we have seventeen instead of seven. The simple
statement that the first prajapatis sprang from the mind or will of
Brahmá, has not contented the depraved taste of the mystics; and
in some of the Puránas they are derived from various parts of
Brahma's body.--See Wilson's Notes, p. 50.
Prajapati-yajna-Propagation of offspring; a recent addition
to the five great obligations of Manu.
Prajapatya--1, A particular sacrifice performed before
appointing a daughter to raise issue in default of male heirs ; 2,
A sort of penance, eating once a day for three days in the
mornings, once in the night for three nights, subsisting three days
on food given as alms, and fasting three days more.
Prajna-A synonymn of Mahat. That by which the proper-
ties of things are known.
Prakrita--Primary Creation: Elemental Dissolution: Nature.
The general resolution of the elements into their primitive source.
Prakrita is generally translated Nature. See Pradhána.
PRA
465
Prakriti-The goddess nature; the female principle; the
passive agent in creation. Vishnu as Purusha, combines with
Prakrití, and engenders creation.
Pralaya" Dissolution." The dissolution of all things is of
four kinds: Naimittaka, occasional; Prakrittika, elemental;
Atyantika, absolute; Nitya, perpetual. 1, The first occurs when
the sovereign of the world reclines in sleep; 2, In the second the
muudane egg resolves into the primary element from whence it
was derived; 3, Absolute non-existence of the world is the
absorption of the sage through knowledge, into the supreme spirit ;
4, Perpetual destruction is the constant disappearance, day and
night, of all that are born. Vishnu Purána.
Professor Wilsou states, "the first is called Naimittaka, ‘occa-
sional' or 'incidental,' or Bráhmya, as occasioned by the intervals
of Brahma's days; the destruction of creatures, though not of the
substance of the world, occurring during his night. The general
resolution of the elements into their primitive source, or Prakriti,
is the Prákritika destruction, and occurs at the end of Brahmá's
life. The third, the Absolute or final, is individual annihilation ;
Móksha; exemption for ever from future existence. The Bhága-
vata here notices the fourth kind, Nitya, or constant dissolution;
explaining it to be the imperceptible change that all things suffer,
in the various stages of growth and decay, life and death. The
various conditions of beings subject to change are occasioned by
that constant dissolution of life which is rapidly produced by the
resistless stream of time, taking everything perpetually away."
Pramlocha--A celestial nymph. One of the Apsarasas, of
the Daivika, or divine class, of whom there are teu enumerated.
It was Pramlocha, who interrupted the penance of Káṇḍu, and
remained on earth with him for so many years. See Kándu.
Pramoda-Pleasure. A son of Brahmá. The virtues and
vices are enumerated as the progeny of Brahmá.
Prana-1, A measure of time equal to a respiration, six respi-
rations make one vikála ; 2, A son of Dhátri and Ayati; 3, One
of the seven Rishis of the third Manwantara.
59
466
PRA
Pranayama--Suppression of breathing. It is performed by
three modifications of breathing: the first act is expiration, which
is performed through the right nostril, whilst the left is closed
with the fingers of the right hand: this is called Rechakas, the
thumb is then placed upon the right nostril, and the fingers raised
from the left, through which breath is inhaled; this is called
Púraka in the third act both nostrils are closed, and breathing
suspended; this is 'Kumbhaka: and a succession of these operations
is the practice of Práṇáyáma.
:
Pransu-1, One of the ten sons of the Manu Vaivaswata; 2,
The son of Vatsapri.
Prapti-One of the wives of Kansa.
Prasada-(Favour) one of the sons of Dharma.
Prasena-The son of Nighana and brother of Satrájit. It was
to Satrájit the Sun presented the Syamautaka gem which he wore
on his neck. Satrájit, fearing that Krishna would ask him for the
jewel transferred it to his brother Prasena. But though the jewel
was an inexhaustible source of good to a virtuous person, if it
were worn by a man of bad character it would cause his death.
Prasena having taken the gem, and hung it about his neck,
mounted his horse and went to the woods to hunt. In the chase
he was killed by á lion. The precious gem afterwards came into
the possession of Akrúra.
Prasenajit--1, A prince, the son of Kusáswa; 2, The son of
Susandhi, of the family of Ikshváku.
"Susandhi fortunate and wise.
Two noble sons had he, to wit
Dhruvasandhi and Prasenajit."
Professor Wilson places this prince, the twenty-fourth of the
line of Ikshváku, in the sixth century before Christ.
Prasraya--(Affection.) One of the allegorical sons of Dharma
(moral and religious duty.)
Prastara--A prince, the son of Udgítha, a descendant of
Bharata.
Prastutas-A class of deities of the sixth Man wantara.
PRA
467
1
Prasusraka—A prince, the son of Maru, a descendant of Kușa.
In the Vishnu Purána it is said that Maru is still living in the
village called Kalápa.
Prasuti One of the daughters of the Manu Swayambhuva,
who was married to Daksha; they had twenty-four daughters, all
plainly allegorical, being personifications of intelligence and virtues
and religious rites.
Pratah--(Dawn.) The son of Kalpa and Prabliah.
C
Pratarddana--The son of Divodása, (king of Benares) so
named from destroying the race of Bhadraṣrenya. He had various
other appellations, as Satrájit, the victor over his foes,' from
having vanquished all his enemies: Vatsa, or child,' from his
father's frequently calling him by that name; Ritadhwaja, he
whose emblem is truth,' being a great observer of veracity; and
Kuvalayáṣwa, because he had a horse called Kuvalaya. Vishnu
Purána, p. 408. In the notes it is said that from the scanty and
ill-digested notices in other Puránas it appears that Divodása, on
being expelled from Benares, took some city and district on the
Gomati, from the family of Bhadraṣrenya; that Durdama
recovered the country; and that Pratarddana again conquered it
from his descendants.
•
Pratibandhaka-A king of Mithila, the son of Maru, of the
family of Janaka.
Pratibimba- Reflection' a form of Brahmá. V. P., p. 40,
note 15.
Pratihara-A prince, the son of Parameshtin, of the race of
Bharata.
Pratihartta--The son of Pratihára, and father of Bhava, of
the race of Bharata.
Pratikshatra-1, A kiug of Kási, the son of Kshatravriddha ;
2, A son of Saíma, of the Yadava race.
Pratipa-The son of Dilípa, a descendaut of Kurn.
Pratisarga-Secondary creation-that which took place at the
commencement of the present Kalpa; water, and even the earth,
468
ᏢᎡᎪ
being in existence, and consequently having been preceded by the
creation of Mahat and the elements.
Pratisukya--A short section of the Vedas; or more strictly,
a collection of phonetic rules, peculiar to one of the different
branches of the four Vedas.-Müller, A. S. L., p. 119.
Pratishthana-The capital city of Sudyumua; situated on the
eastern side of the confluence of the Ganges and Jumna; the
country between which rivers was the territory of the direct male
descendants of Vaivaswata. In consequence of his having been a
female formerly, Sudyumna was excluded from any share in his
paternal dominions; but his father, at the suggestion of Vasishtha,
bestowed upon him the city Pratishthána, and he gave it to
Purúravas.
Prativahu-The youngest son of Swaphalka.
Prativindya--One of the sous of Yudhishthira by Draupadi.
Prativyoman-A prince, the son of Vatsavyuha, of the family
of Ikshváku.
Pratyahara-Restraining the organs of sense from susceptibi-
lity to outward impressions, and directing them entirely to mental
perceptions. This is one of the means for effecting the entire
subjugation of the senses; and if they are not completely control-
led the sage cannot accomplish his devotions.
Pratyaya Sarga-Intellectual creation of the Sankhya phi-
losophy; the creation of which we have a notion, or to which we
give assent; in contradistinction to organic creation, or that
existence of which we have no sensible perception. In its specific
sub-divisions it is the notion of certain inseparable properties in the
four different orders of beings: obstruction, or solidity in inani-
mate things; inability or imperfection in animals; perfectibility
in man; and acquiescence or tranquil enjoyment in gods. V. P.,
Notes. 37.
Pratyusha--(Daybreak.) One of the deities called Vásús.
Prava -One of the daughters of Daksha who was married to
Kasyapa.
+
PRA-PRI
469
Pravaha-The name of one of the winds; so termed because
it bears along the planets, which turn round, like a disc of fire,
driven by the aerial wheel.
Pravilasena--One of the kings of Andhra, the son of Tálaka.
Pravira--1, The son of Prachin vat, or according to the Mahá-
bhárata the son of Puru; 2, One of the sons of Hariyaṣwa, a
descendant of Hastin.
Prayag--The Hindu name of Allahabad.
Prayaschitta--Expiation' or 'sacred philosophy,' created
from the eastern mouth of Brahmá.
Prekshagara--House of seeing; a sort of theatre; a place
made for seeing the sacrifice; a sort of stockade used as a place•
where spectacles could be witnessed.
Preta-rat--The Lord of the dead; a name of Yama, the
Hindu Pluto.
Prishadaswa--A prince, the son of Auaranya.
Prishadhra--One of the sons of the Manu Vaivaswata, who,
in consequence of the crime of killing a cow was degraded to the
condition of a Súdra. This story, says Professor Wilson, has been
modified apparently at different periods, according to a progressive
horror of the crime. The Vishnu Purána simply states the fact.
The Vayu says he was hungry, and not only killed, but ate the
cow of his spiritual preceptor Chyavana. In the Markaṇḍeya he
is described as being out a hunting, and killing the cow of the
father of Babhravya, mistaking it for a Gavaya or Gayal. The
Bhagavata, as usual, improves upon the story, and says that
Prishadhra was appointed by his Guru Vasishtha to protect his
cattle. In the night a tiger made his way into the fold, and the
prince in his haste, and in the dark, killed the cow upon which he
had fastened, instead of the tiger. In all the authorities the effect
is the same, and the imprecation of the offended sage degraded
Prishadhra to the caste of a Súdra. According to the Bhagavata,
the prince led a life of devotion, and perishing in the flame of a
forest, obtained final liberation. The obvious purport of this
legend, and of some that follow, is to account for the origin of the
different castes from one common ancestor,
470
PRI
Prishata--The youngest of the hundred sons of Somaka.
Prishtaja-One of the sons of Kumára.
Prisni--A prince, the son of Anamitra.
Pritha, or Kunti--The daughter of Súra, and wife of Pandu.
For her history see KUNTI; also KARNA.
Prithivi--Earth, as one of the elements in Hindu philosophy,
where it is said to be produced from the rudiment of smell. The
waters becoming productive, engendered the rudiment of smell;
whence an aggregate (carth) originates, of which smell is the
property. V. P., p. 16.
Prithivi--Earth personified as a goddess. The Vishnu
•Purána contains a hymu of adoration addressed by the goddess to
Nárayana when he was incarnate as a boar, and descended to the
subterrene regions. When Prithu took up his divine bow Ajagava,
and marched forth to assail the Earth, the latter, assuming the
figure of a cow, fled hastily from him, and traversed, through fear
of the king, the regions of Brahma and the heavenly spheres; but
wherever went the supporter of living things, there she beheld
Vainya with uplifted weapons; overcome with apprehension the
goddess Earth addressed Prithu, who made Swayambhuva Manu,
a calf to milk the Earth for the benefit of mankind. By granting
life to the Earth, Prithu was as her father, and she thence derived
the patronymic Prithivi/(the daughter of Prithu). There are
many mystifications in the Puránas of the original simple allegory,
which typified the Earth as a cow who yielded to every class of
beings the milk they desired, or the object of their wishes. V. P.,
Notes. See DYAUS.
Prithu--1, The most distinguished individual of this name was
the son of Veņa (q. v.) engendered by friction from the right arm
of his dead father (V.P., 101.) He was resplendent in person as
if the blazing deity of Fire had been manifested. At the birth of
Prithu all living creatures rejoiced and Veņa, delivered by his
birth from the hell named Put, ascended to the realms above.
mighty Prithu was invested by the gods with universal dominion,
and soon removed the grievances of the people whom his father
had oppressed. They complained of the want of edible fruits and
The
PRI
471
plants, and said they were suffering from famine. On hearing this
Prithu took up his divine bow, Ajagava, and soon extorted a pro-
mise from the Earth to supply mankind with all that was neces-
sary for their sustenance. The legend of Prithu occurs in most of
the Puránas, and all the
Vishnu Purána, p. 104.
versions are essentially the same.
2. A prince, the son of Prastára.
See
3. A prince, the son of Anenas, and grandson of Kakutsha.
4. A prince, the son of Para, a descendant of Hastin.
5. A prince, the son of Anaranya, and father of Trisanku of the
line of Ikshváku.
"Anaranya, strong to fight,
His son was Prithu, glorious name,
From him the wise Triṣauku came.'
Prithudana, Prithujaya, Prithukarman, Prithukirtti,
Prithusravas, Prithyasas-Six princes, the most renowned of
the million sons of Saṣavindu.
Prithugas-A class of deities of the sixth Man wantara.
Prithuloksha-A prince, the son of Chaturanga, a descendant
of Anu.
son of
Prithurukman-The brother of Jayámagha, and son
Parávrit, a descendant of Sasavindu.
Priti-' Affection'-One of the daughters of Daksha who was
married to the sage Pulastya.
Priya-A princess in the city of Kapila, who was seized with
white leprosy and taken to a distant jungle, and placed in a large
cave where she was supplied with fire, fuel, and all kinds of food.
At the same time, Ráma, Rája of Benares, was seized with the
same disorder, and abandoned his Ráj, retiring to the same jungle.
Subsequently he found a remedy in the root, leaves, fruit, and
bark of a certain tree, and his body became pure as gold.
Ultimately he fell in with Priya, cured her leprosy, and married
her; and they resided in the city of Koli. Wheeler's Notes to
the Mahábhárata.
Priyamitra-After Triprishta, (q. v.), had been born as a
472
PRI-PUJ
!
lion, and had migrated through various forms, he became the
Chakravartti Priyamitra in the division of the world Mahavideha.
After a victorious reign of eighty-four lakhs of years he became
an ascetic for a further period of a hundred lakhs, and was then
translated to one of the higher heavens.-Wilson, I, 292.
Priyavrata-The eldest son of the divine Manu Swayambhuva.
He married Kámya the daughter of the patriarch Kardama, and
had by her two daughters, Samrat and Kukshi, and teu sons, wise,
valiant, modest and dutiful, named Agnídhra, Agnibáhu, Vapush-
mat, Dyutimat, Medha, Medha tithi, Bhavya, Savala, Putra, and
the tenth was Jyotishmat, illustrious by nature as by name. These
were the sons of Priyavrata, famous for strength and prowess. Of
these, three, or Medha, Putra, and Agnibáhu, adopted a religious
life remembering the occurrences of a prior existence, they did
not covet dominion, but diligently practised the rites of devotion in
due season, wholly disinterested, and looking for no reward. V. P.
:
Priyavrata having divided the earth into seven continents, gave
them respectively to his other seven sons. According to the
Bhagavata, he drove his chariot seven times round the earth, and
the ruts left by the wheels became the beds of the oceans,
separating it into seven Dwipas. To Aguídhra he gave Jambu-
dwipa; to Medhatithi he gave Plaksha-dwípa: he installed
Vapushmat in the sovereignty over the Dwípa of Sálmali; and
made Jyotishmat king of Kusa-dwípa: he appointed Dyutimat to
rule over Krauncha-dwípa; Bhavya to reign over Sáka-dwípa :
and Savala he nominated the monarch of the Dwípa of Pushkara.
Proshakas, Proshtas-Inhabiters of valleys, a designation of
some aboriginal tribes.
Pudkalai-One of the wives of Ayanas.
Pujari-An inferior priest who officiates in the pagodas,
offering sacrifices, and receiving those offerings which are brought
by the people in fulfilment of vows.
Puje-Adoration of the deity; worship of the gods with various
ceremonies and offerings: the term is also applied to the respect
or homage paid to superiors.
PUL
473
Pulaka-A Prajapati. One of the mind-born sous of Brahmá ;
he was married to Kshamá (Patience) one of the daughters of
Daksha, by whom he had three sous, Karmasa, Arvarivat, and
Sahishna.
Pulastya--Another Prajapati who was also one of the mind-
born sons of Brahmá. It was he who appeared to Paráṣara, and
communicated to him the Vishnu Purána, as a summary or
compendium of Puranic traditions. Pulastya was married to Príti,
(Affection) one of the daughters of Daksha. In the Vishnu
Purána it is said their son, now known as the sage Agastya, was
called in a former birth, or in the Swayambhuva Manwantara,
Dattoli. The Váyu specifies three sons of Pulastya Dattoli,
Vedabāhu, and Viníta ; also a daughter, Sadwati, married to Agni.
Pulastya is considered as the ancestor of the Rákshasas, as he is
the father of Visravas, the father of Rávana and his brethren.
Pulimat-One of the Andhra kings, the son of Gomatiputra :
he reigned twenty-eight years.
Pulindaka-One of the ten Sungas, who reigned at Magadha
for a hundred and ten years after the Mauryan dynasty. Pulindaka
was the son of Ardraka, and only reigned three years.
Pulindas-A name applied to any wild or barbarous tribe ; in
the Vishnu Purána it refers to the people of the deserts along the
Indus: but Pulindas are met with in many other positions,
especially in the mountains and forests across Central India, the
haunts of the Bhíls and Gonds, Ptolemy places the Pulindai along
the banks of the Narmada. Notes to Vishnu Purána, 186.
Puloma—One of the daughters of Vaiswánara; the other was
named Kálika; both were married to Kasyapa, and became the
mothers of sixty-thousand distinguished Dánavas, who were
powerful, ferocious, and cruel.
Puloman-1, A Dánava; one of the distinguished sons of
Kaşyapa and Danu; 2, A son of Viprachitti, and father of Sáchí
the wife of Indra.
Pulomarchish-The last of the Andhrabhritya kings; the
60
474
PUL-PUN
Vishnu Purána states that there were thirty of them whose united
reigns amounted to four hundred and fifty-six years.
Pulomavit-One of the Andhra kings, the son of Swátikarna :
he reigned thirty-six years.
Puman-Incorporated spirit; the same as Purusha. In the
Notes to the Vishnu Purána it is said the meaning is that Vishņu
is any form of spiritual being that is acknowledged by different
philosophical systems; or that he is the Brahmá of the Vedánta,
the Iswara of the Patanjala, and the Purusha of the Sánkhya school.
Punarvasu-1, A lunar mansion in Airávati, in the Northern
Avashthána; 2, A Yádava chief, the son of Abhijit.
Pundarika-1, One of the serpent-kings, of the progeny of
Kádru; 2, A prince, the son of Nabhas, a descendant of Kúṣa.
Pundarika-(Pundaríká.) 1, A daughter of Vasishtha, and
wife of Prána ; 2, One of the Apsarases.
Pundarikaksha-A name of Vishnu, occurring in the first line
of the Vishnu Purána ; it means having eyes like a lotus, or heart-
pervading; or Pundaríka is explained, 'supreme glory,' and Aksha
imperishable.
Pundra-1, A prince, one of the sons of Bali a descendant of
Anu; 2, The name of a fabulous city between the Himavat and
Hemakúta mountains.
Pundras-The inhabitants of the western provinces of Bengal ;
sometimes the term designates the provinces themselves, and
includes the districts of Dinajpur, Rangpur, Bírbhúm, Burdwan,
Midnapur, the jungle Mehats, &c.
Punul-The Tamil name of the sacred thread worn by the
Brahmáns, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas.
Punya-1, (Merit.) A daughter of the sage Kratu, according
to the váyu list; 2, A river in Behar, now termed Pun-pun.
Punyajanas-A class of Rákshasas, who destroyed Kusasthali,
the capital of Kakudmin, surnamed Raivata, whilst he was on a
visit to the region of Brahmá.
PUR
475
Pur-One of the synonyms of Mahat, defined in the Vishņu
Purána to be “ that by which the concurrence of nature occupies
and fills all bodies."
Puraka--A modification of breathing so termed; the act is
performed as follows: the thumb is placed in the right nostril,
and the fingers raised from the left, through which breath is
inhaled.
Puranas--There are eighteen large treatises so designated.
The following is a list of them :-
1. Brahmá Purána.
1
2.
Pádma Purána.
3. Vishnu Purána.
4. Vayaviya Purána.
5. Sri Bhagavata.
6. Nárada, or Náradíya Purána.!
7. Markaṇḍa, or Markandeya Purána.
8.
Agni Purána.
9. Bhavishya Purána.
10. Brahmá Vaivartta Purána,
11.
Linga Purána.
12. Varáha Purána.
13. Skanda Purána.
14. Vámana Purána,
15. Kúrma Purána
16. Matsya Purána.
17.
Gáruda Purána.
18.
Brahmánda Purána.
A brief account of the contents of each of the above will be
found under their separate titles. The Preface to the Vishņu
Purána by Dr. Wilson contains the following excellent remarks
on their general character.
"The different works known by the name of Puránas are
evidently derived from the same religious system as the Rámáyana
and Mahábhárata, or from the mytho-heroic stage of Hindu belief.
They present, however, peculiarities which designate their
belonging to a later period, and to an important modification in the
476
PUR
progress of opinion. They repeat the theoretical cosmogony of the
two great poems; they expand and systematize the chronological
computations; and they give a more definite and connected repre-
sentation of the mythological fictions, and the historical traditions.
But besides these and other particulars, which may be derivable
from an old, if not from a primitive era, they offer characteristic
peculiarities of a more modern description, in the paramount
importance which they assign to individual divinities, in the
variety and purport of the rites and observances addressed to them,
and in the invention of new legends illustrative of the power
and graciousness of those deities, and of the efficacy of implicit
devotion to them. Śiva and Vishņu, under one or other form, are
almost the sole objects that claim the homage of the Hindus in the
Puránas; departing from the domestic and elemental ritual of the
Vedas, and exhibiting a sectarial fervour and exclusiveness not
traceable in the Rámáyana, and only to a qualified extent in the
Mahábhárata. They are no longer authorities for Hindu belief as
a whole; they are special guides for separate and sometimes.
conflicting branches of it, compiled for the evident purpose of
promoting the preferential, or in some cases the sole worship of
Vishnu or of Śiva.
"That the Puránas always bore the character here given of
them, may admit of reasonable doubt; that it correctly applies
to them as they now are met with, the following pages will
irrefragably substantiae. It is possible, however, that there may
have been an earlier class of Puránas, of which those we now have
are but the partial and adulterated representatives. The identity
of the legends in many of them, and still more the identity of the
words-for in several of them long passages are literally the same
-is a sufficient proof that in all such cases they must be copied
either from some other similar work, or from a common and prior
original. It is not unusual also for a fact to be stated upon the
authority of an old stanza,' which is cited accordingly; shewing
the existence of an earlier source of information: and in very
many instances legends are alluded to, not told; evincing acquaint-
ance with their prior narration somewhere else. The name itself,
Purána, which implies old,' indicates the object of the compilation
PUR
477
to be the preservation of ancient traditions, a purpose in the present
condition of the Puránas very imperfectly fulfilled. Whatever
weight may be attached to these considerations, there is no
disputing evidence to the like effect afforded by other and unques-
tionable authority. The description given by Mr. Colebrooke of
the contents of a Purána is taken from Sanskrit writers. The'
Lexicon of Amara Sinha gives as a synonym of Purána, Pancha-
lakshanam, that which has five characteristic topics:' and there
is no difference of opinion amongst the scholiasts as to what these
are. They are, as Mr. Colebrooke mentions; 1, Primary creation,
or cosmogony; 2, Secondary creation, or the destruction and reno-
vation of worlds, including chronology; 3, Genealogy of gods and
patriarchs; 4, Reigus of the Manus, or periods called Manwan-
taras; and 5, History, or such particulars as have been preserved
of the princes of the solar and lunar races, and of their descendants
to modern times. Such, at any rate, were the constituent and
characteristic portions of a Purána in the days of Amara Sinha,
fifty-six years before the Christian era; and if the Puránas had
undergone no change since his time, such we should expect to
find them still. Do they conform to this description? Not
exactly in any one instance; to some of them it is utterly inappli-
cable ; to others it only partially applies. There is not one to
which it belongs so entirely as to the Vishnu Purána, and it is one
of the circumstances which gives to this work a more authentic
character than most of its fellows can pretend to. Yet even in
this instance we have a book upon the institutes of society and
obsequial rites interposed between the Manwantaras and the
genealogies of princes, and a life of Krishna separating the latter
from an account of the end of the world, besides the insertion of
various legends of a manifestly popular and sectarial character.
No doubt many of the Puránas, as they now are, correspond with
the view which Col. Vans Kennedy takes of their purport. "I
cannot discover in them," he remarks, "any other object than that
of religious instruction." The description of the earth and of the
planetary system, and the lists of royal races which occur in them,
he asserts to be "evidently extraneous, and not essential circum-
stances, as they are entirely omitted in some Puránas, and very
478
PUR
concisely illustrated in others; while, on the contrary, in all the
Puránas some or other of the leading principles, rites, and observ-
ances of the Hindu religion are fully dwelt upon, and illustrated
either by suitable legends or by prescribing the ceremonies to be
practised, and the prayers and invocations to be employed, in
the worship of different deities." Now, however accurate this
description may be of the Puránas as they are, it is clear that it
does not apply to what they were when they were synonymously
designated as Pancha-lakshanas, or treatises on five topics;' not
one of which five is ever specified by text or comment to be
"religious instruction." In the knowledge of Amara Sinha the
lists of princes were not extraneous and unessential, and their
being now so considered by a writer so well acquainted with the
contents of the Puránas as Col. Vans Kennedy, is a decisive proof
that since the days of the lexicographer they have undergone some
material alteration, and that we have not at present the same works
in all respects that were current under the denomination of Puránas
in the century prior to Christianity.
"The inference deduced from the discrepancy between the
actual form and the older definition of a Purána, unfavourable to
the antiquity of the extant works generally, is converted into
certainty when we come to examine them in detail; for although
they have no dates attached to them, yet circumstances are
sometimes mentioned or alluded to, or references to authorities are
made, or legends are narrated, or places are particularized, of
which the comparatively recent date is indisputable, and which
enforce a corresponding reduction of the antiquity of the work in
which they are discovered. At the same time they may be
acquitted of subservience to any but sectarial imposture. They
were pious frauds for temporary purposes: they never emanated
from any impossible combination of the Brahmans to fabricate for
the antiquity of the entire Hindu system any claims which it
cannot fully support. A very great portion of the contents of
many, some portion of the contents of all, is genuine and old. The
sectarial interpolation or embellishment is always sufficiently
palpable to be set aside, without injury to the more authentic and
primitive material; and the Puránas, although they belong
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479
especially to that stage of the Hindu religion in which faith in
some one divinity was the prevailing principle, are also a valuable
record of the form of Hindu belief which came next in order to
that of the Vedas; which grafted hero-worship upon the simpler
ritual of the latter; and which had been adopted, and was exten-
sively, perhaps universally, established in India at the time of the
Greek invasion. The Hercules of the Greek writers was indubi-
tably the Balaráma of the Hindus; and their notices of Mathurá
on the Jumna, and of the kingdom of the Suraseni and the
Pandæan country, evidence the prior currency of the traditions
which constitute the argument of the Mahábhárata, and which are
constantly repeated in the Puránas, relating to the Pandava and
Yádava races, to Krishna and his contemporary heroes, and to the
"dynasties of the solar and lunar kings.
"The theogony and cosmogony of the Puránas may probably be
traced to the Vedas. They are not, as far as is yet known,
described in detail in those works, but they are frequently alluded
to in a strain more or less mystical and obscure, which indicates
acquaintance with their existence, and which seems to have
supplied the Puránas with the groundwork of their systems. The
scheme of primary or elementary creation they borrow from the
Sánkhya philosophy, which is probably one of the oldest forms of
speculation on man and nature amongst the Hindus. Agreeably,
however, to that part of the Pauránik character which there is
reason to suspect of later origin, their inculcation of the worship
of a favourite deity, they combine the interposition of a creator
with the independent evolution of matter, in a somewhat contra-
dictory and unintelligible style. It is evident too that their
accounts of secondary creation, or the developement of the existing
forms of things, and the disposition of the universe, are derived
from several and different sources; and it appears very likely that
they are to be accused of some of the incongruities and absurdities
by which the narrative is disfigured, in consequence of having
attempted to assign reality and significancy to what was merely
metaphor or mysticism. There is, however, amidst the unneces-
sary complexity of the description, a general agreement amongst
them as to the origin of things, and their final distribution; and in
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many of the circumstances there is a striking concurrence with the
ideas which seem to have pervaded the whole of the ancient world,
and which we may therefore believe to be faithfully represented
in the Puránas.
"The Pantheism of the Puránas in one of their invariable
characteristics, although the particular divinity, who is all things,
from whom all things proceed, and to whom all things return, be
diversified according to their individual sectarial bias. They seem
to have derived the notion from the Vedas: but in them the one
universal Being is of a higher order than a personification of
attributes or elements, and, however imperfectly conceived, or
unworthily described, is God. In the Puránas the one only
Supreme Being is supposed to be manifest in the person of Śiva or
Vishņu, either in the way of illusion or in sport; and one or other ·
of these divinities is therefore also the cause of all that is, is
himself all that exists. The identity of God and nature is not a
new notion; it was very general in the speculations of antiquity,
but it assumed a new vigour in the early ages of Christianity, and
was carried to an equal pitch of extravagance by the Platonic
Christians as by the Saiva or Vaishṇava Hindus. It seems not
impossible that there was some communication between them. We
know that there was an active communication between India and
the Red Sea in the early ages of the Christian era, and that
doctrines, as well as articles of merchandise, were brought to
Alexandria from the former. Epiphanius and Eusebius accuse
Scythianus of having imported from India, in the second century,
books on magic, and heretical notions leading to Manichæism, and
it was at the same period that Ammonius instituted the sect of the
new Platonists at Alexandria. The basis of his heresy was, that
true philosophy derived its origin from the eastern nations: his
doctrine of the identity of God and the universe is that of the
Vedas and Puránas; and the practices he enjoined, as well as
their object, were precisely those described in several of the
Puránas under the name of Yóga. His disciples were taught " to
extenuate by mortification and contemplation the bodily restraints.
upon the immortal spirit, so that in his life they might enjoy
communion with the Supreme Being, and ascend after death to
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481
the universal parent." That these are Hindu teuets the following
pages will testify; and by the admission of their Alexandrian
teacher, they originated in India. The importation was perhaps
not wholly unrequited; the loan may not have been left unpaid.
It is not impossible that the Hindu doctrines received fresh
· animation from their adoption by the successors of Ammonius, and
especially by the mystics, who may have prompted, as well as
employed, the expressions of the Puránas. Anquetil du Perron.
has given, in the introduction to his translation of the Oupnekhat,'
several hymns by Synesius, a bishop of the beginning of the fifth
century, which may serve as parallels to many of the hymns and
prayers addressed to Vishnu in the Vishnu Purána.
But the ascription to individual and personal deities of the
attributes of the one universal and spiritual Supreme Being,
is an indication of a later date than the Vedas certainly, and
apparently also than the Rámáyana, where Ráma, although an
incarnation of Vishnu, commonly appears in his human character
alone.. There is something of the kind in the Mahábhárata in
respect to Krishna, especially in the philosophical episode known
as the Bhagavat Gítá. In other places the divine nature of
Krishna is less decidedly affirmed; in some it is disputed or
denied; and in most of the situations in which he is exhibited in
action, it is as a prince and warrior, not as a divinity. He
exercises no superhuman faculties in the defence of himself or his
friends, or in the defeat and destruction of his foes. The Mahá-
bharata, however, is evidently a work of various periods, and
requires to be read throughout carefully and critically before its
weight as an authority can be accurately appreciated. As it is
now in type--thanks to the public spirit of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, and their Secretary, Mr. J. Prinsep-it will not be loug
before the Sanskrit scholars of the continent will accurately appre-
ciate its value.
"The Puránas are also works of evidently different ages, and
have been compiled under different circumstances, the precise
nature of which we can imperfectly conjecture from internal
evidence, and from what we know of the history of religious opinion
in India. It is highly probable, that of the present popular forms
!
61
482
PUR
of the Hindu religion, none assumed their actual state earlier than
the time of Śankara Áchárya, the great Śaiva reformer, who
flourished, in all likelihood, in the eighth or ninth century. Of the
Vaishnava teachers, Rámánuja dates in the twelfth century,
Madhwáchárya in the thirteenth, and Vallabha in the sixteenth;
and the Puránas seem to have accompanied or followed their
innovations, being obviously intended to advocate the doctrines
they taught. This is to assign to some of them a very modern
date, it is true; but I cannot think that a higher can with justice
be ascribed to them. This, however, applies to some only out of
the number, as I shall presently proceed to specify.
"Another evidence of a comparatively modern date must be
admitted in those chapters of the Puránas which, assuming a
prophetic tone, foretell what dynasties of kings will reign in the
Kalí age. These chapters, it is true, are found but in four of the
Puráņas, but they are conclusive in bringing down the date of
those four to a period considerably subsequent to Christianity.
It is also to be remarked, that the Váyu, Vishnu, Bhagavata, and
Matsya Puráņas, in which these particulars are foretold, have in
all other respects the character of as great antiquity as any works
of their class.
The invariable form of the Puráņas is that of a dialogue, in
which some person relates its contents in reply to the inquiries of
another. This dialogue is interwoven with others, which are
repeated as having been held on other occasions between different
individuals, in consequence of similar questions having been asked.
The immediate narrator is commonly, though not constantly,
Lomaharshana or Romaharshana, the disciple of Vyása, who is
supposed to communicate what was imparted to him by his
preceptor, as he had heard it from some other sage. Vyása, as
will be seen in the body of the work, is a generic title, meaning
an arranger' or 'compiler.' It is in this age applied to Krishna
Dwaipayana, the son of Paráșara, who is said to have taught the
Vedas and Puránas to various disciples, but who appears to have
been the head of a college or school, under whom various learned
men gave to the sacred literature of the Hindus the form in which
it now presents itself. In this task the disciples, as they are
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483
termed, of Vyása were rather his colleagues and coadjutors, for
they were already conversant with what he is fabled to have
taught them; and amongst them, Lomaharshana represents the
class of persons who were especially charged with the record of
political and temporal events. He is called Súta, as if it was a
proper name; but it is more correctly a title; and Lomaharshana
was a Súta,' that is, a bard or panegyrist, who was created,
according to the text, to celebrate the exploits of princes; and
who, according to the Váyu and Pádma Puráņas, has a right by
birth and profession to narrate the Puranas, in preference even to
the Brahmans. It is not unlikely therefore that we are to
understand, by his being represented as the disciple of Vyása, the
institution of some attempt, made under the direction of the latter,
to collect from the heralds and annalists of his day the scattered
traditions which they had imperfectly preserved; and hence the
consequent appropriation of the Puráņas, in a great measure, to
the genealogies of regal dynasties, and descriptions of the universe.
Howeyer this may be, the machinery has been but loosely adhered
to, and many of the Puráņas, like the Vishnu, are referred to a
different narrator." Preface to V. P.
"The Puráņas are uniformly stated to be eighteen in number.
It is said that there are also eighteen Upa-Puráņas, or minor
Puráņas, but many of them are not now procurable. The following
eighteen are specified in the Deví Bhágavata :-
1. Sanatkumára.
2. Nárasinha.
3. Naradiya.
4. Śiva.
5.
Durvasasa.
6. Kapila.
7. Manava.
10. Kálika.
11.
*
Sámba.
12.
Nandi.
13. Saura.
14.
Párásara.
15. Áditya.
16.
Maheswara.
8. Ausanașa.
9. Varuna.
17. Bhargava.
18.
Vasishtha.
Of the contents of these books very little is known.
There are
many local legends of particular temples which are sometimes
designated Upa-Puránas. Many ancient notions and traditions are
preserved in the Puránas, but they have been so much mixed up
484
PUR
with sectarian views, intended to favour the popularity of
particular forms of worship, or articles of faith, that they cannot
be received as authorities for the mythological religion of the
Hindus at any remote period."
Furandara-The Indra of the seventh (the present) Manwan-
tara.
Puranjaya-1, A king of Ayodhya; son of Vikukshi, whose
reign preceded that of Ikshváku. Puranjaya assisted the gods.
in their contest with the Asuras. As he destroyed the demon
host whilst seated on the hump of a bull, he obtained the appellation
Kakutstha, q. v; 2, A prince, the son of Srinjaya; 3, A Yavana
chief, the son of Vindhyasakti.
Puravati-A river not identified.
Purohita-A family priest, or chaplain. "The most ancient.
name for a priest by profession," says Prof. Max Müller "is
Purohita, which means prepositus or præses. The Puróhita,
however, was more than a priest. He was the friend and
counsellor of the chief, the minister of the king, and his companion
in peace and war. The original occupation of the Puróhita may
have consisted in the performance of the usual sacrifices; but,
with the ambitious policy of the Brahmaus, it soon became a
stepping stone to political power."
The office of a Purohita now-a-days is, in the words of the
Abbé Dubois, to prognosticate what are good and what are evil
days for beginning any affair, or for putting it off; to avert, by
Mantras or prayers, the pernicious effects of maledictions or the
influence of malign constellations; to assign names to new born
children and calculate their nativity; to bless new houses, wells,
or tanks; to purify temples and consecrate them; to imbue idols
with the divine essence: all these ceremonies, and many others of
smaller importance, are the province of the Brahmans called
Purohitas.
The most important of the ceremonies over which they preside
are those of marriages and burials. They are so complex that an
ordinary Brahman would be found incapable of performing them.
A regular study is necessary for the exactness and precision which
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485
they require; and Mantras are requisite of which the greater part
are ignorant. The Purohitas alone are accomplished in the
management of these rites, the detail of which they have in writing,
in certain formularies, which they permit nobody to see, not even
the other Brahmans. Indeed the principal Mantras that are used
åre not reduced into writing, from the fear that some other
Brahmans might acquire them, and so become their rivals, to the
diminution of their exclusive profits. The father teaches them to
his son, and thus they pass from generation to generation in one
family. This shows that it is self-interest rather than superstition
which occasions this reserve. By hindering the other Brahmans
from learning these ceremonies and the corresponding Mantras,
the Purohitas render themselves more necessary to the people, and
to the Brahmans themselves, who cannot dispense with their
services on many occasions.
One of the highest privileges attached to the profession of the
Purohita is the exclusive right of publishing the Hindu Almanac.
There are but few who are found capable of making the calcula-
tions; perhaps one or two only in a district. It is not upon a
knowledge of the motions of the heavenly bodies that the Hindu
Almanac is compiled, but upon the approximation and agreement
of numerous tables and formulæ of great antiquity, and therefore
the calculation is very complicated, and much time, attention, and
labour is required to arrive at exact conclusions.
On the first day of the year, the Purohita assembles the principal
inhabitants of the place where he lives. In their presence he
announces, by sound of trumpet, who is to be supreme over the
stars. He determines also the quantity of rain and of drought,
and foretells, in short, whether it is to be a year of health or of
disease; whether the deaths or the births shall predominate, and
many other contingencies of equal importance.
The Purohita is essentially a family priest and a religious
preceptor. Amongst the poorer classes he may officiate for very
many families, in which case he employs assistants, and gives them
a stipulated share of the gifts and other perquisites which he may
receive. But amongst the richer classes, the duties of a Puróhita
are confined to a single family, and under such circumstances his
486
PUR
influence becomes paramount in the household. He performs all
the necessary religious rites and ceremonies for the members of the
family, and imparts religious instruction from the sacred books.
At the same time, he is the repository of all the family secrets,
and the confidential and authoritative counsellor in all times of
doubt and difficulty. He is also frequently engaged in morė
secular matters, such as the settlement of disputes; and in modern
times a Hindu Zemindar or Rája has occasionally employed his
Purohita as an ambassador or envoy.
Purnasa (Parnasa). A river that rises in the Páripátra
mountain.
Purnotsanga-One of the thirty Andhrabhritya kings, the
son of Sri Satakarni; his reign lasted eighteen years.
Puru—1, One of the sons of the Manu Chakshusha; 2, the
youngest son of king Yayáti, who consented to give his youth and
vigour to his father, and receive in exchange Yayáti's infirmities.
After Yayáti had had a thousand years experience of the vanity of
sensual pleasures, he restored his youth to Puru, and installed him
in the sovereignty of Pratishthána. The descendants of Puru were
numerous and celebrated
and celebrated; and included the Pandavas and
Kauravas. See page 367.
Puruhotia-A prince, the son of Anuratha, one of the descend-
ants of Jyámagha.
Purujanu-One of the kings of Kámpilya, the son of Susanti.
Purukutsa-A king, who reigned in the banks of the Narmada,
to whom the Vishnu Puráṇa was repeated. He was the son of
Mándhátri, and assisted the snake-gods by destroying the
Gandharbas in the regions below the earth.
Purumidha-One of the sons of Hastin, the founder of
Hastinapur.
Pururavas-The son of Budha and Sudyumna (Ila.) He was
a prince renowned for liberality, devotion, magnificence, love of
truth, and for personal beauty. Urvasí having incurred the
imprecation of Mitra and Varuṇa, determined to take up her abode
PUR
487
in the world of mortals; and descending accordingly, beheld
Purúravas. As soon as she saw him she forgot all reserve, and
disregarding the delights of Swarga, became deeply enamoured of
the prince. Beholding her infinitely superior to all other females
in grace, elegance, symmetry, delicacy, and beauty, Purúravas was
equally fascinated by Urvasí: both were inspired by similar senti-
ments, and mutually feeling that each was every thing to the other,
thought no more of any other object. Confiding in his merits,
Purúravas addressed the nymph, and said, "Fair creature, I love
you; have compassion on me, and return my affection." Urvasí,
half averting her face through modesty, replied, "I will do so,
if
"What are
will observe the conditions I have to propose."
you
they?" inquired the prince; "declare them.”
rams," said the nymph, "which I love as children; they must be
kept near my bedside, and never suffered to be carried away you
must also take care never to be seen by me undressed; and
clarified butter alone must be my food." To these terms the king
readily gave assent.
"I have two
:
After this, Purúravas and Urvasí dwelt together in Alaká, sport-
ing amidst the groves and lotus-crowned lakes of Chaitraratha,
and the other forests there situated, for sixty-one thousand years.
The love of Purúravas for his bride increased every day of
its duration; and the affection of Urvasí augmenting equally in
fervour, she never called to recollection residence amongst the
immortals. Not so with the attendant spirits at the court of Indra ;
and nymphs, genii, and quiristers, found heaven itself but dull
whilst Urvașí was away. Knowing the agreement that Urvasí had
made with the king, Viswavasu was appointed by the Gandharbas
to effect its violation; and he, coming by night to the chamber
where they slept, carried off one of the rams. Urvasi was awaken-
ed by its cries, and exclaimed, "Ah me! who has stolen one of
my
children? Had I a husband, this would not have happened!
To whom shall I apply for aid ?" The Rája overheard her lamenta-
tion, but recollecting that he was undressed, and that Urvașí might
see him in that state, did not move from the couch. Then the
Gandharbas came and stole the other ram; and Urvasí, hearing it
bleat, cried out that a woman had no protector who was the bride
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PUR
of a prince so dastardly as to submit to this outrage. This incensed
Purúravas highly, and trusting that the nymph would not see
his person, as it was dark, he rose, and took his sword, and
pursued the robbers, calling upon them to stop, and receive their
punishment. At that moment the Gandharbas caused a flash of
brilliant lightning to play upon the chamber, and Urvasí beheld
the king undressed the compact was violated, and the nymph
immediately disappeared. The Gandharbas, abandoning the rams,
departed to the region of the gods.
66
Having recovered the animals, the king returned delighted
to his couch, but there he beheld no Urvașí; and not finding
her anywhere, he wandered naked over the world, like one
insane. At length coming to Kurukshetra, he saw Urvași
sporting with four other nymphs of heaven in a lake beautified
with lotuses, and he ran to her, and called her his wife, and wildly
implored her to return. Mighty monarch," said the nymph,
"refrain from this extravagance. I am now pregnant: depart at
present, and come hither again at the end of a year, when I will
deliver to you a son, and remain with you for
Purúravas, thus comforted, returned to his capital.
to her companions, "This prince is a most excellent mortal: I
lived with him long and affectionately united." "It was well
done of you," they replied; "he is indeed of comely appearance,
and one with whom we could live happily for ever."
one night."
Urvașí said
When the year had expired, Urvasí and the monarch met at
Kurukshetra, and she consigned to him his first-born Áyus; and
these annual interviews were repeated, until she had borne to him
five sons.
She then said to Purúravas, "Through regard for me,
all the Gandharbas have expressed their joint purpose to bestow
upon my lord their benediction: let him therefore demand a boon.”
The Rája replied, "My enemies are all destroyed, my faculties
are ail entire ; I have friends and kindred, armies and treasures:
there is nothing which I may not attain except living in the same
region with my Urvasí. My only desire therefore is, to pass my
life with her." When he had thus spoken, the Gandharbas
brought to Purúravas a vessel with fire, and said to him, "Take
this fire, and, according to the precepts of the Vedas, divide it iuto
PUR
489
three fires; then fixing your mind upon the idea of living with
Urvasí, offer oblations, and you shall assuredly obtain your wishes."
The Rája took the brasier, and departed, and came to a forest.
Then he began to reflect that he had committed a great folly in
bringing away the vessel of fire instead of his bride; and leaving
the vessel in the wood, he went disconsolate to his palace. In the
middle of the night he awoke, and considered that the Gandharbas
had given him the brasier to enable him to obtain the felicity of
living with Urvasí, and that it was absurd in him to have left it
by the way. Resolving therefore to recover it, he rose, and went.
to the place where he had deposited the vessel; but it was gone.
In its stead he saw a young Aswattha tree growing out of a
Śami
plant, and he reasoned with himself, and said, "I left in this spot a
vessel of fire, and now behold a young Áswattha tree growing out
of a Śami plant. Verily I will take these types of fire to my
capital, and there, having engendered fire by their attrition, I will
worship it." V. P.
Having thus determined, he took the plants to his city, and
prepared their wood for attrition, with pieces of as many inches
long as there are syllables in the Gáyatrí; he recited that holy
verse, and rubbed together sticks of as many inches as he recited
syllables in the Gáyatrí. Having thence 'elicited fire, he made it
threefold, according to the injunctions of the Vedas, and offered
oblations with it, proposing as the end of the ceremony reunion
with Urvasí. In this way, celebrating many sacrifices agreeably
to the form in which offerings are presented with fire, Purúravas
obtained a seat in the sphere of the Gandharbas, and was no more
separated from his beloved. Thus fire, that was at first but one,
was made threefold in the present M. vantara by the son of Ilá."
Purúravas is also called Vikrama; and the legend forms the
subject of Kálidása's drama. "Vikrama and Urvașí; or the
Hero and Nymph." The legend as related in the Satapatha
Brahmana differs from the above in several particulars. An expla-
nation of the myth is given by Max Müller in his Comparative
Mythology," One of the myths of the Veda which expresses this
Chips from a German Workshop, Vol. II, p. 101.
62
490
PUR-PUS
correlation of the Dawn and the Sun, this love between the mortal
and the immortal, and the identity of the morning dawn and the
evening twilight, is the story of Urvasí and Purúravas......Urvasí
was originally an appellation and meant dawn." Another expla-
nation is that Purúravas personifies the sun; while Urvașí is the
morning mist. Urvasí is an Apsarasas; and the Apsarasas are
"personifications of the vapours which are attracted by the sun,
and form into mists or clouds." Dr. Goldstücker holds therefore
that the legend represents the absorption by the sun of the vapour
floating in the air. When Purúravas becomes distinctly visible,
Urvasí vanishes; because when the sun shines forth, the mist is
absorbed.
Purusha-Spirit. The first form of Vishnu. Mahat is also
called Purusha from its abiding within the body.
Purushottama-A common title of Vishņu, implying supreme
best spirit.
Purva-bhadrapada--A lunar mansion in Vaiswánarí, in the
Southern Avashthána.
Purvachitti--One of the Apsarasas; of the Daivika or divine
class.
Purvaja-An appellation of Vishnu, meaning produced or
appearing before creation; the Orphic #pwToyovos animating
nature and existing before it.
Purvashada-A lunar mansion in Ajávithi, in the Southern
Avashthána.
Purvaphalguni-A lunar mansion in Arshabhi, in the Central
Avashthána,
Pushan-A solar deity. "Púshan is a protector and multiplier
of cattle and of human possessions in general. As a cow-herd he
carries an ox-goad, and he is drawn by goats. In character he is
a solar deity, beholds the entire universe, and is a guide on roads
and journeys, and to the other world. He is called the lover of
his sister Súrya. He aids in the revolutions of day and night;
and shares with Soma the guardianship of living creatures. He
is invoked along with the most various deities, but most frequently
with Indra." He is the lord of all things moving and stationary,
PUS
491
the inspirer of the soul, an unconquerable protector and defender,
and is besought to give increase of wealth. He is said to regard
and to see clearly and at once all creatures. He is not only the
tutelary god of travellers, but also, like Savitri and Agni, and the
Greek Hermes, aчνxотоμпоя, who conducts departed spirits on
their way to the other world. Many hymns are addressed to
Púshan, some of which are translated by Dr. Muir, (O. S. T., V,
p. 174)
"from which it will appear that the character of this god
is not very distinctly defined; and that it is difficult to declare
positively what province of nature or of physical action he is
designed to represent, as is at once manifest in the case of Dyaus,
Prithivi, Agni, Indra, Parjanya, and Súrya.”
6
-
Some of the hymns in the Rig Veda are exclusively devoted to
the celebration of Púshan. The single or detached verses of
other hymns in which he is mentioned are numerous. He is
mentioned as 'abounding in wealth,' as 'bringing blessings' as
'most bountiful,' beneficient,' 'distinguished by all divine
attributes.' He is associated with Savitri, and is described as
moving onward under his impulse, and as knowing and perceiving
all creatures. In some hymns Púshan is connected with the
marriage ceremonial, being besought to take the bride's hand and
lead her away, and to bless her in her confugal relation.
Pushkalas-The designation of Kshatriyas in Krauncha Dwipa.
Pushkara-The last of the seven great insular continents, or
Dwipas, encompassing the sea of milk, and being itself surrounded
by a sea of fresh water. Pushkara is represented as a terrestial
paradise; where all the inhabitants are happy, and rejoice in total
exemption from sickness and decay. They live a thousand years.
undisturbed by anger or affection. There is neither virtue nor
vice, killer nor slain: there is no jealousy, envy, fear, hatred,
covetousness, nor any moral defect; neither is there truth or
falsehood. V. P. 201.
Pushkara--1, One of the sons of Bharata; he was king of
Gandhára, residing at Pushkaravat; 2, The brother of Nala, who
engaged him in the gambling match which cost him his kingdom.
(See NALA.).
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PUS
Pushkaras--The designation of brahmans in Krauncha Dwípa.
Pushkaravarttakas-A designation of the class of clouds
Pakshaja; so termed from their including water in their vortices;
they are the largest and most formidable of all, and are those
which, at the end of the Yugas and Kalpas, pour down the waters
of the deluge.
Pushkarin-A prince the son of Urukshaya, a descendant of
Bharata.
Pushkarini--The daughter of the patriarch Anaranya, and
mother of the Manu Chákshusha.
Pushpadanta—One of Śiva's principal attendants. "On the
summit of Kailása, a lofty peak of the Himálaya range, resided the
mighty deity Maheswara, attended by innumerable spirits and
genii, and worshipped even by the superior divinities. The
daughter of the mountain monarch, and the spouse of Mahadeva,
propitiated her lord by her celestial strains; and, being pleased by
her adulations, he proffered her whatever boon she might request.
Her only demand was to receive instruction from his lips, and to
hear from him such narrations as were yet unknown to the
immortals or herself. Śiva, giving orders that no person should
be admitted, proceeded to reveal to the goddess those narratives
which illustrate the felicity of the gods, the troubles of mankind,
and the intermediate and varying conditions of the spirits of earth
and heaven.
It happened that Pushpadanta came to the palace gate and was
refused admission by the warder. As he was a great favourite
with his master and had always ready access to his person, the
refusal excited his astonishment and curiosity; and, rendering
himself invisible, he passed in, determined to ascertain why
entrance was so rigorously barred. In this manner having come
to where Śiva and Bhaváni were seated, he over-heard all the
marvellous stories repeated by the deity. When these were
concluded, he retired as he had entered, unobserved, and going
home communicated the narrative to his wife Jayá, it being
impossible to keep wealth or secrets from a woman. Jayá,
equally unable to preserve silence, communicated what she had
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493
heard to her fellow attendants on Párvatí; and the affair soon
became known to the goddess and her lord. As the punishment
of impertinence, Pushpadanta was condemned to a human birth,
and his friend Mályavan, who presumed to intercede for him, was
sentenced to a like fate. Being, however, subdued by the distress
of Jayá, the offended goddess fixed a term to their degradation,
and thus spake. When Pushpadanta, encountering a Yaksha, who
has been doomed by Kuvera to haunt the Vindhya mountains as a
goblin, shall recollect his original condition, and shall repeat the
tales he has rashly over-heard, the curse shall no more prevail.'
So saying, she ceased, and the two culprits, instantly, like a flash
of lightning, blazed and disappeared.
After a due interval Pushpadanta was born at Kauṣámbí as
Vararuchi, and when arrived at years of discretion found the
goblin, and recollecting his origin, repeated to him the seven great
narratives of Śiva, each comprehending a hundred thousand
verses.- Wilson's Works, III, 160-163.
Pushpadantha-One of the serpent kings; of the progeny of
Kadru.
Pushpaka-The name of Ráma's car.
Pushpatmitra-The first king of the Sunga Dynasty; he
reigned at Mekala, a country on the Narbada; he was the general
of the last Maurya prince, whom he put to death, and ascended the
throne himself; the dynasty lasted a hundred and twelve years.
Pushpavat-A prince, the son of Rishabha.
When
Pushpottara-One of the heavens of the Jainas.
Priyamitra returned to the earth in the Bhárata division as
Nandana, after an existence of twenty-five lakhs of years, he was
raised to the dignity of king of the gods in the Pushpottara
heaven, in which capacity he preserved his ancient faith, offering
flowers to, and bathing daily, the hundred and eighty images of the
Arhats. Such exalted piety was now to meet with its reward, and
the pains of existence were to be terminated in the person of the
Tirthankara Mahávíra or Varddhamana. - Wilson, I, 293.
Pushti-Thriving'; 1, A daughter of Daksha and wife of
Dharma 2, A daughter of Paurṇamása.
•
494
PUS-PUY
Pushya-1, A prince, the son of the saintly king Yajnawalkya;
2, The eighth lunar mansion; in Airávata, in the Northern
Avashthana.
"The morning dawned with cloudless ray
On Pushya's high auspicious day,
And Cancer with benignant power
Looked down on Ráma's natal hour."
Puskola-The palm leaf upon which the native books are
written in Ceylon.
Putana-A female fiend or Asura, the daughter of Bali; she
was known as a child killer, and attempted the life of Krishna
when he was an infant, but was killed herself in the act.
Putra-One of the three sons of Priyavrata who adopted a
religious life; remembering the occurrences of a prior existence,
he did not covet dominion, but diligently practiced the rites of
devotion.
Puyavaha-One of the Narakas, that ip which crimes of
violence, &c., are punished.
:
:
R
The Gíta
The poet
Radha--One of Krishna's favourite mistresses.
Govinda is a poem on their attachment to each other.
opens the first interview of Krishna and Radha with an animated
description of a night in the rainy season, in which Krishna is
represented as a wanderer, and Rádha, daughter of the shepherd
Nanda, is sent to offer him shelter in their cottage. Nanda thus
speaks to Rádha" The firmament is obscured by clouds; the
woodlands are black with Tamála trees; that youth who roves in
the forest will be fearful in the gloom of night; go, my daughter,
bring the wanderer to my rustic mansion." Such was the
command of Nanda the herdsman, and hence arose the love of
Rádha and Madhava.*
Raga-Love. One of" the five afflictions" in the Patanjala
philosophy; the other four are Avidya, Asmitá, Dwesha, and
Abhinivesa.
Raghu-A distinguished mythical Mahárája of the solar race,
the son of Dilípa, and sovereign of Ayodhya, celebrated for his
learning, his riches, his bravery, and his uniform success. The
Raghuvansa narrates his wonderful achievements and varied
conquests, and concludes with the following legend. A brahman
named Koutsya, a disciple of the great Rishi Varatanta, having
completed his course of studies, asked his guru what acknowledg-
ment he should make to show his gratitude. The tutor professed
himself satisfied with the services the disciple had rendered; the
latter, however, insisting on bestowing a gift, the guru asked for
fourteen crores of rupees. For this enormous sum Koutsya applied
to Mahárája Raghu, who having just emptied his treasury by the
performance of the sacrifice termed Visvajit-yajna, determined to
conquer Kubera (the god of riches), who was so alarmed at the
prospect that he at once sent innumerable crores to the Mahárája.
* Tod's Rajast'han, Vol. I, p. 540, which contains a beautiful engraving of
Krishna and Rádha.
496
RAG-RAH
The money was then given to the brahman, who in return blessed
the king with the promise of a good sou, and in due course the
illustrious Aja was born.
Raghu--1, A prince of the lunar race, the son of Dírgha-
báhu ; 2, One of the sons of Yadu, the founder of the Yádava race.
Raghuvansa-An epic poem by Kálidása. The poem describes.
the exploits of a line of princes descended from the Sun, of whom
Ráma was the boast and ornament. It has been translated into
Latin by Stenzler, and into French by M. Hippolyte Fauche.
The Idylls from the Sanskrit by Mr. T. H. Griffiths are chiefly
taken from the Raghuvansa. See DILIPA.
Rahat-One who is entirely free from evil desire, and in conse-
quence possessed of supernatural powers.
Rahu-One of the nine planets of the Hindus; an imaginary
being supposed to cause the eclipses of the sun and moon. Ráhu
according to the Pádma Purána and Bhagavata, was the son of the
Dánava Viprachitti; at the churning of the sea of milk he
insinuated himself amongst the gods, and obtained a portion of the
Amrita or nectar; the sun and the moon observed the theft, and
informed Vishnu of it, who, as a punishment beheaded the Daitya ;
the head became immortal in consequence of the Amrita having
reached the throat, and was transferred as a constellation to the
skies; and as the sun and moon detected his presence amongst the
gods and made known his theft, Ráhu pursues them with implacable
hatred, and his efforts to seize them are the causes of eclipses ;
Ráhu typifying the ascending and descending nodes. Ráhu is also
called the king of meteors. The Vishnu Purána states that eight
black horses draw the dusky chariot of Ráhu, and ouce harnessed
are attached to it for ever. On the Parvas (the nodes, or lunar and
solar eclipses) Ráhu directs his course from the sun to the moon
and back again from the moon to the sun, taking up the circular
shadow of the earth.
Rahula--A prince, the son of Sákya. A name, says Dr.
Wilson, of considerable chronological interest; for Sákya is the
name of the author or reviver of Buddhism, whose birth appears
to have occurred in the seventh, and death in the sixth century
RAI-RAJ
497
before Christ (B. c. 621-543.) Sákya, as the twenty-second of
the line of Ikshváku is contemporary with Ripunjaya, the last of
the kings of Magadha. The chronology is not easily adjusted, but
it is not altogether incompatible. The Buddhists always consider
their teacher Sákya to be descended from Ikshváku. In Tibet,
where several sects of Buddhists are found, some of them profess
themselves to be followers of Ráhula.
Raivata--1, One of the sons of Priyavrata according to the
Bhagavata list, and the Manu of the fifth Manwantara. Four
Manus were descended from Priyavrata, who in consequence of
propitiating Vishnu by his devotions, obtained these rulerships of
the Manwantara, for his posterity. The Markandeya contaius a
legend of the birth of Raivata, as the son of king Durgama, by the
nymph Revatí, sprung from the constellation Revatí.
2. An appellation of one of the eleven Rudras.
3. A name of Kakudmin (q. v.) the eldest of the sons ef
Revatí; he visited Brahmá, and gave his daughter in
marriage to Balaráma.
4. The name of a mountain.
Raja--A prince, the son of Virája a descendant of Bharata.
Rája is derived from Ráj, to shine or be splendid.
Rajadhidevi-A daughter of Súra, who was married to
Jayasena, king of Avantí.
Rajagaha--A city near Benares, celebrated as the residence of
Gautama Buddha, and the place where he died.
Rajagriha-The ancient capital of Magadha or Behár, contain-
ing many remarkable ruins.
Rajarshis-Royal Rishis, or princes who have adopted a life of
devotion, as Viswámitra, Ikshváku, and others; they dwell in the
heaven of Indra.
Rajas-The quality of foulness, passion, activity.
Rajas--One of the seven sages, according to the enumeration
in the Vishnu Purána; they were all the sons of Vașishta.
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498
RAJ-RAK
...
Rajyavarddhana--A prince, the son of Dama, a descendant
of Marutta.
Rajavat--The son of Dyutimat, of the race of Bhrigu.
Raji-One of the five sons of Ayus. He is celebrated for
having assisted the gods in their contest with the demons, and
"by his numerous and formidable weapons" securing to them the
victory. In consequence of this Indra resigned his throne to Raji.
Rajni―The daughter of Raivata and wife of Vivaswat.
Raka-1, One of the phases of the moon, represented as one of
the four daughters of Angiras; 2, The day when the moon is
quite round.
Rakhi-A bracelet used as an armlet, or preservative against
evil (Ráksha) consisting of a piece of thread or silk or some more
costly material, bound round the wrist or arm, with an appropriate
prayer. Besides its application to children to avert the effects
of evil eyes, or to protect them against Dains or witches, there is
one day in the year, the Rákhí Puruimá, or full moon in the month
of Sravan (July-August) when it is bound upon the wrists of
adults, by friendly or kindred brahmans, with a short prayer or
benediction. The Rákhí is also sent sometimes by persons of
distinction, and especially by females, to members of a different
family or race to intimate a sort of brotherly or sisterly adoption.
Colonel Tod received the bracelet from three queens in Rajasthan,
and after he returned to his own country set a high value on these
testimonies of friendly regard.-(Wilson.)
In his Annals he says, "The festival of the Rákhí is in spring,
and whatever its origin it is one of the few when an intercourse of
gallantry of the most delicate nature is established between the fair
sex and the cavaliers of Rajasthan. Though the bracelet may be
sent by maidens, it is only on occasion of urgent necessity or danger.
The Rajput dame bestows with the Rákhí the title of adopted
brother; and while its acceptance secures to her all the protection
of a 'cavaliere serventé,' scandal itself never suggests any other
tie to his devotion. He may hazard his life in her cause, and yet
never receive a smile in reward, for he cannot even see the fair
object who, as the brother of her adoption, has constituted him her
RAK
499
defender. But there is a charm in the mystery of such connexions,
never endangered by close observation, and the loyal to the fair
may well attach a value to the public recognition of being the
Rákhí-bund Bháe, the bracelet-bound-brother' of a princess. The
intrinsic value of such pledge is never looked to, nor is it requisite
it should be costly, though it varies with the means and rauk of
the donor, and may be of flock silk and spangles, or gilt chains.
and gems.
The acceptance of the pledge and its return is by the
kalchli or corset of simple silk, or satin, or gold brocade and
pearls. In shape or application there is nothing similar in Europe,
and as defending the most delicate part of the structure of the fair,
it is peculiarly appropriate as an emblem of devotion.
The emperor Humáyún was so pleased with this courteous
delicacy in the customs of Rajasthan, on receiving the bracelet of
the princess Kurnavati, which invested him with the title of her
brother, and uncle and protector to her infant, that he pledged
himself to her service. He proved himself a true knight, and
abandoned his conquests in Bengal when called on to redeem his
pledge. Many romantic tales are founded on the gift of the Rákhí.
See Tod's Rajasthan, I, 312.
Rakshas-The son of Khasá, and father of the Rákshasas.
Rakshasa-ritual-By violence. Manu says, the seizure of a
maiden by force, whilst she weeps and calls for assistance, after
her kinsmen and friends have been slain in battle or wounded, and
their houses broken open, is the marriage called Rákshasa.
Rakshasas-Giants. They are said in the Vishnu Purána to
be the descendants of Pulastya, through Rákshas. They are also
represented in the same work as having proceeded from Brahmá;
beings of hideous aspect, and with long beards. They hastened
to the deity; such of them as exclaimed "Oh! prescrve us," were
thence called Rákshasas (from Raksha to preserve); others who
cried out, "let us eat," were denominated Yakshas from (yaksha
to eat.)
"In their earliest conception," says Mr. J. C. Thomson, "they
seem to be those unknown creatures of darkness, to which the
superstition of all ages and races has attributed the evils that
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RAM
attend this life, and a malignant desire to injure mankind. In the
Epic period they seem to be personifications of the aborigines of
India, presented under the terrible aspect of vampires flying
through the air, sucking blood, &c., in order to heighten the
triumphs of the Aryan heroes who subdued them. In this
character they play a very prominent part on the Rámáyana, the
beautiful epic of Válmíki. Here they are led by Rávana, the king
of Lanka, which is supposed to be the island of Ceylon and its
capital, and they are subdued by Dasaratha Ráma the hero of the
poem. In the Puránic period they are infernal giants, the children
of the Rishi Pulastya, and enemies of the gods. They are then
divided into three classes :-
1. The slaves of Kuvera the god of wealth, and guardians of
of his treasures.
2. Malevolent imps whose chief delight is to disturb the pious
in their devotions.
3.
Giants of enormous proportions, inhabiting Naraka, or hell,
and hostile to the gods. In the second Manwantara
they are the sons of Kasyapa and Khasá.”
The most celebrated, Rákshakas are Rávana, and his brothers
Kumbhakarna and Vibhíshana, an account of whom will be found
under their respective names.
Rama-This name belongs altogether to the epic period, and
is given to three persons of considerable historical importance,
whose mighty deeds won for them the privilege of being considered
incarnations of Vishnu. The first is Parasuráma, or Rama of the
Axe. He is considered as the sixth Avatára of Vishņu, and
belongs to the period of the first struggle between the Brahmans
and the Kshatriyas, the hierarchy and the government.
He is said to have been the son of a certain Muni called
Jamadagni ; (q. v.) but as his mother Kenuka was a lady of the
Kshatriya caste, and as the children follow the caste of their
mother, he is not, like his father, a Brahman by birth, although he
espoused the Brahman cause, and afterward himself became a
Muni. The legend relates that the princess, his mother, having
committed a sin, his father commanded his sons to put her to death,
.....
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501
All refused except Ráma, the youngest, who seized his axe and
felled her to the ground. In reward for this triumph of duty over
feeling he received the gift of invincibility. Afterwards when
Kártavírya, king of the Haiheyas, coveted the divine cow Kámad-
hénu which belonged to the Muni, and took it from him by force,
when he was on a visit to Jamadagni, Ráma went forth to recover
the cow, and soon killed the robber king. The sons of Kártavírya,
to revenge his death, attacked the hermitage of Jamadagui, when
Ráma was away, and slew the pious and unresisting sage, who
called repeatedly but fruitlessly, upon his valiant son. Ráma
returned to bewail his father's unmerited fate, and having lighted
his funeral pile, vowed that he would extirpate the whole
Kshatriya race. "Thrice seven times did he clear the earth of
the Kshatriya caste," says the Mahábhárata; Paraṣuráma was
born at the beginning of the Treta Yuga (Second age.)
2. The second Ráma is the most celebrated of all. He is
sometimes designated Dasaratha Ráma or Ramachandra, the
son of Dasaratha, king of Ayodhya (Oude), born at the close of
the Tréta Yuga. He belongs historically to the age when the
Áryan race, already settled in the north, pushed their conquests
towards the southern part of the peninsula, and introduced into
those wild districts civilization and agriculture, which are typified
as Sítá, to whom Ráma was married, and who is represented in
the Vishnu Purána as having been found in the earth. She was
the daughter of Janaka, king of Mithila (q. v.) and Ráma received
her for his strength in breaking the bow of Mahéshwara, in that
king's palace. She was carried off by Rávaṇa, and the war which
ensued for her recovery is the subject of Válmiki's epic, the
Rámáyana. Having built a bridge across the ocean, and destroyed
the whole Rakshasa nation, he recovered his bride Sítá, whom
their ten-headed king Rávana had carried off, and returned to
Ayodhya with her, after she had been purified by the fiery ordeal
from the soil contracted by her captivity, and had been honoured
by the assembled gods who bore witness to her virtue. Rama-
chandra (the moon-like-Ráma) is the seventh incarnation of Vishņu,
born into the world at the end of the second or Treta age, for the
purpose of destroying the demons who infested the earth.
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ᎡᎪᎷ
3. Balarama, the strong Ráma, born at the end of the Dwápara,
or third age, as the seventh son of Vasudeva and Devakí, but
mystically transferred from the womb of the latter to that of
Vasudeva's other wife Rohini, and thus saved from the hands of
Kansa. He was the brother and playfellow of Krishna; the
sharer in his toils and his glory. He is sometimes regarded as an
incarnation of the serpent Ananta or Sesha; sometimes called the
eighth incarnation of Vishnu. He is also termed the Hercules of
Indian Mythology.
Ramagiri-A mountain near Nagpur, now called Ram-tek.
Ramanaka-One of the eight islands enumerated in the Bhága-
vata, as peopled by Mlechchhas, who worship Hindu divinities.
Ramanuja--A celebrated Vaishnava teacher, who lived some
time in the twelfth century.
Ramayana-One of the great Epic poems of the Hindus, the
other being the Mahábhárata. It is perhaps impossible to fix the
exact period at which either of them was composed; though it is
evident from internal evidence that both are productions of a post-
vedic age. The Rámáyana was the more ancient of the two Indian
Epics. Probably neither it nor the Mahábhárata, nor any of the
productions of antecedent ages, were committed to writing till long
after their original composition. In the fourth chapter of the first
book of the Rámáyaṇa, we meet with special reference to the
ministrels and reciters, by whom, like the Greek paywooí, the
ancient Hindu poems, previous to the invention of writing in
India, were preserved and transmitted from age to age.
The word Rámáyana means the adventures of Ráma, who was
one of the incarnations of Vishnu, the Preserver, and is still a
favourite deity in most parts of India, more especially in the
districts of Oude and Bahár, where Krishna has not supplanted
him. There were three Rámas in Hindu mythology, viz., Parasu-
Ráma, Ráma-Chandra, and Bala-Rama, all avatars (or incarna-
tions) of Vishnu. The last is the Indian Hercules, and as the
elder brother of Krishna, appears frequently in the Mahábhárata.
Parasu-Ráma, as the son of the sage Jamadagni, is the type of
Brahmanism, arrayed in opposition to the Kshatriyas, or military
RAM
503
•
caste. He is introduced once into the Rámáyana, but only to
exhibit his inferiority to the real hero of the work, viz., Ráma-
Chandra, who, as the son of Dasaratha, a prince of the solar
dynasty, typifies the conquering Kshatriyas, advancing towards
the south, and subjugating the barbarous aborigines, who are
represented by Rávana and his followers.
There are many poems bearing the name of Rámáyaṇa-all
relating to the same hero-but by far the most complete and
famous is the lengthy epic, the authorship of which is attributed
to Vâlmíki.
It narrates the banishment of Ráma, under the surname of
Chandra (the moon,) a prince belonging to the dynasty of the
kings of Ayodhya; his wanderings through the southern penin-
sula; the seizure of his wife, Sítá, by the giant ruler of Ceylon
(Rávana); the miraculous conquest of this island by Ráma, aided
by Sugríva, king of the monkeys (or foresters-the word bandar
meaning both,) or Rakshasas as they are also called, and by
Vibhíshana, the brother of Rávana; the slaying of the ravishing
demon by Ráma, and recovering of Sítá; and the restoration of
Ráma-Chandra to the empire of his ancestors at Ayodhya.
No mention is made of Ráma in the Vedas, but he may be
regarded as the first real Kshatriya hero of the post-vedic age;
and looking to the great simplicity of the style of the Rámáyana,
the absence of any reliable allusion to Buddhism as an established
fact, and to the practices known to have prevailed in India as
early as the fourth century before Christ, as well as from other
considerations, "we cannot," says Mouier Williams (Essay on
Indian Epic Poetry,)" be far wrong is asserting that a great
portion, if not the whole, of the Rámáyana, as we have now it,
must have been current in India as early as the fifth century
before Christ."
It
Válmiki's work consists of 24,000 slokas (or distichs,) divided
into seven books, which are again sub-divided into chapters.
may be divided into three principal parts, or periods, correspond-
ing to the thrce chief epochs in the life of Ráma. (I.) The
account of his youthful days; his education and residence at the
court of his father Dasaratha, king of Ayodhya; his happy
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RAM-RAN
marriage to Sítá; and his inauguration as heir-apparent or Crown
Prince. (II.) The circumstances that led to his banishment; the
description of his exile and residence in the forests of Central
India. (III.) His war with the giants or demons of the south for
the recovery of his wife Sítá, who had been carried off by their
chief Rávaṇa; his conquest and destruction of Rávaṇa, and his
restoration to the throne of his father.
In the first two sections of the poem, there is little of extrava-
gant fiction; but in the third, the poet mars the beauty of the
descriptions by the wildest exaggeration and hyperbole.
The poem seems to be founded on historical fact; and the
traditions of the south of India uniformly ascribe its civilization,
the subjugation, or dispersion of its forest tribes of barbarians,
and the settlement of civilised Hindus, to the conquest of Lanká
(Ceylon) by Ráma.
[A good analysis of the Rámáyana will be found in Monier
Williams' Indian Epic Poetry, 1863. An abridged English trans-
lation has been published by Mr. Talboys Wheeler, forming the
second volume of his History of India, 1869. The first English
translation was made by Carey and Marshman, at Serampore,
when they printed the first volume containing the first book of the
poem, in 1806.
An excellent translation, into English verse, of the First and
Second Books has just been published (1870-71) by Mr. R. T.
Griffiths, M. A., Principal of the Benares College, already favorably
known by his Idylls from the Sanskrit.]
Rambha-1, One of the five sons of Áyus; 2, One of the
Apsarasas, of the Laukika class, of whom thirty-four are specified.
Ramya-One of the nine sons of king Aguídhra, and who
became king of the countries situated between mount Meru and
the Níla mountain.
Ramyaka-A district to the north of Meru, extending from
the Níla or blue mountains to the Sweta or white mountains.
Rananjaya-A prince, the son of Kritanjaya, of the family of
Ikshváku.
RAN-RAS
505
Ranastambha-A country to the west of the jungle Mehals
towards Nagpur; known in the Puránas as Chedí.
Rantideva-The son of Sankrití, who is described in the
Bhagavata as a prince of great liberality. According to a legend
preserved in the Megha Dúta his sacrifices of kine were so numer-
ous that their blood formed the river Charmanvati, the modern
Chambal.
Rantinara-A prince, the son of Riteya, descendant of Puru.
Rasa dance-A fabled dance of Krishna with the Gopis, in
which it is said the circle of the dance could not be constructed,
as each of the Gopis attempted to keep in one place, close to the
side of Krishņa; he therefore took each by the hand, and when
their eyelids were shut, by the effects of such touch, the circle
was formed. Professor Wilson says, Krishna, in order to form
the circle takes each damsel by the hand and leads her to her
place; there he quits her; but the effect of the contact is such
that it deprives her of the power of perception, and she contentedly
takes the hand of her female neighbour, thinking it to be Krishna's.
The Bhagavata is bolder and asserts that Krishna multiplied
himself, and actually stood between each pair of damsels.
Rasaloma-The wife of one of the eleven Rudras, Mahinasa.
Rasatala.-One of the divisions of Pátála, as enumerated in
the Bhagavata, Pádma Purána and Váyu.
Rasayana-One of the eight branches of medical science, that
which treats of alchemical therapeutics.
Rasa Yatra-An annual festival celebrated in various parts
of India, in the month of Kártika, upon the sun's entrance into
Libra, by nocturnal dances, and representations of the sports of
Krishna. Some of the earliest labourers in the field of Hindu
mythology have thought this circular dance to typify the dance of
the planets round the sun, (Maurice) but there seems to be no
foundation for such a notion. See Wilson's Notes to Vishņu
Purána, 534.
Rasollasa-The spontaneous or prompt evolution of the juices
64
506
RAS-RAU
of the body, independently of nutriment from without; this is
termed one of the eight perfections or Siddhis.
Rashtrapala-One of the sons of Ugrasena.
Rashtrapali-A daughter of Ugrasena.
Rathachitra-A river mentioned in the Puránas but not yet
identified.
Rathakrit-One of the Yakshas, or guardians of the sun for
the month of Sukra.
Rathantara-1, A teacher of the Rig Veda and pupil of
Satyasri; 2, The portion of the Sáma Veda which proceeded from
the eastern mouth of Brahmá.
Rathinara-One of the Angirasas, or warrior priests, a
Kshatriya by both parents, who became a brahman by profession.
Rati-The wife of Káma, the Hindu Cupid who was killed by
Śiva for daring to discharge an arrow at him. Rati's Lament is
one of the Idylls from the Sanskrit, translated by Mr. Griffiths from
the fourth canto of Kálidása's Kumára Sambhava, or Birth of
the War-god.
Ratnagarbha-A commentator on the Visnnu Purána. His
book is entitled Vaishnavakúta Chandriká, 'the moon-light of
devotion to Vishnu ;' but his date has not been ascertained.
Ratri-Night. One of the forms of Brahmá. Prof. Wilson
says "the notions of night, day, twilight, and moon-light, being
derived from Brahmá, seem to have originated with the Vedas.
All the authorities place night before day, and the Asuras or
Titans before the gods, in the order of appearance, as did Hesiod,
and other ancient theogonists."
Ratula-A prince, the son of Suddhodana of the family of
Ikshváku.
Rauchya-The Manu of the thirteenth Manwantara, and son
of the Prajapati Ruchi by the nymph Mániní. According to the
Matsya and Pádma, the ninth Manu was named Rauchya.
Raudraswa-A prince, the son of Ahamyáti, descendant
of Puru.
RAU-RAV
507
Raurava-One of the Narakas, that in which falsehood and
perjury are punished.
Ravana--A celebrated Rákshaka, the son of Visravas. He
was the king of Ceylon, and his great power and influence have
been represented in Hindu poetry by the ascription to him of ten
heads and twenty arms. His character is described as libidinous
and cruel. His great exploit was the abduction of Síta, the wife
of Ráma, in whose absence she was carried through the air by
Rávaṇa to Ceylon. He was ultimately, after a hard struggle,
killed by Ráma, who invaded the island in order to rescue Síta.
But as this terrible Rákshasa occupies a large space in the
mythology of India it is necessary to relate his story in more detail.
Rávaṇa was the Rája of the Rakshasas. He devoted many years
of
to the performance of religious austerities; and by the power
those austerities he secured the favour of Brahmá, who at his
request rendered him invulnerable to gods and demons. Rávaṇa
then considered himself to be immortal; the gods and demons were
unable to harm him; men and beasts were so much beneath his
notice that he had not stooped to pray for immunity from their
attacks. Accordingly he oppressed the gods; not indeed the
Brahmanical gods Brahmá, Vishnu, aud Śiva, but the ancient gods.
of the Rig Veda, whom he compelled to do as he pleased. Death
was not allowed to afflict his subjects the Rákshasas; the burning
sun was required to shine mildly over his city; the Moon was
obliged to be always at the full throughout his Ráj; the seasons
came and went at his command; Fire ceased to burn in his
presence; and the Wind was forced to blow gently. Accordingly
the gods, with Indra at their head, complained to Brahmá of
Rávana's insolence. Brahmá, who acknowledged the superiority
of Vishnu, by conducting them to the ocean of milk, where he
abode, and the gods propitiated Vishnu whom they could not see,
with loud praises. Then Vishnu the Lord of the world, appeared
with his shell, chakra, mace, and lotus, in his four hands; and his
wife Lakshmí sitting upon his knees. The gods fell prostrate
before him and sought relief from Rávana; as Brahma was unable
to recall the gift of invulnerability, Vishnu promised to overthrow
him by mortals and monkeys, as Rávana in his pride, had not
508
RAY-REC
requested Brahmá to secure his life from them. Vishnu further
said, "I will take advantage of this omission, and cause the
destruction of Rávana without casting aside the blessing which has
been bestowed on him by Brahmá; I will go to Ayodhya, and
divide myself into four parts, and take my birth as the four sons
of Mahárája Dasaratha. Thus by becoming man I shall conquer
in battle Ravana, the teror of the universe, who is invulnerable to
the gods; go you meantime upon the earth, and assume the shape
of monkeys and bears, that you may render me service in my
battle with Rávaṇa.”
Accordingly Vishnu became incarnate as Ráma, and early in
life began to destroy the Rákshasas. When Rávana heard that
Ráma had slain the two celebrated Rákshasa chiefs, Kara and
Dúshana, he entered the arena of conflict, proceeded to Panchavati,
and visited the hermitage of Ráma as a mendicant brahman, and
made proposals to Síta, declaring that he was Rávana and that she
should be his chief Rání. When the proposal was rejected with
indignation and disdain, he assumed his proper shape, and carried
off Sita by force through the air to Lanka; his chariot was
stopped by Jatayus, whom he slew, and conducted Síta to his
palace. All his efforts to seduce Síta were ineffectual, and after
long fighting, in which the army of monkeys and bears were
engaged against the Rákshasas, Rávaṇa was slain by Ráma. See
Ráma, Síta, &c.
Raya-The name of one of the six sons of Purúravas, according
to the list in the Bhagavata.
Rayananiya-The son of Lokákshi, a distinguished teacher of
the Sáma-veda, and author of a Sanhita still extant.
Rebha-A Rishi who had been hidden by maglignant demons,
bound, overwhelmed in the waters, (a well, according to the
commentator,) for ten nights and nine days, and abandoned until
he was nearly if not entirely dead; the Asvins drew him up as
soma juice is raised with a ladle.-O. S. T., V, 245.
Rechaka-One of the three modifications of breathing in the
practice of Pránáyáma: the first act is expiration, which is
REN-REV
509
24
performed through the right nostril whilst the left is closed with
the fingers of the right hand; this is called Rechaka.
Renuka--The daughter of Reņu, and wife of Jamadagni, q. v
She was the mother of Paraṣuráma, and an account of her death
and restoration to life will be found under Jamadagui.
Revanta-In the Vishnu Purána Revanta is said to be a son of
the sun by his wife Sanjna; according to other accounts he was
the sou of Vivaswat and Rajui.
Revata―The son of Ánartta, king of the country called after
his father Anartta, who dwelt at the capital denominated Kusas-
thali-in Guzerat.
Her
Revali-The daughter of Raivata, whose loveliness was such
that no one could be found on earth worthy of her hand.
father therefore repaired with her to Brahmá, to consult the god
where a fit bridegroom was to be met with. When they arrived
the quiristers Háhá, Húhú, and others, were singing before
Brahma; and Raivata, waiting till they had finished, imagined the
ages that elapsed during their performance, to be but as a moment.
At the end of their singing Raivata prostrated himself before
Brahmá and explained his errand. He was informed that many
successions of ages had passed away while he had been listening
to the heavenly songsters; that a portion of Vishnu was then
reigning on earth in the person of Balaráma at Dwaraka which
had formerly been his own capital of Kusasthali. Raivata returned
with his daughter to earth, where he found the race of men
dwindled in stature, reduced in vigour, and enfeebled in intellect.
He bestowed his unequalled daughter on Balaráma, who beholding
the damsel of excessively lofty height, shortened her with the end
of his ploughshare and she became his wife. The object of this
legend, says Professor Wilson, is obviously to account for the
anachronism of making Balaráma cotemporary with Raivata; the
one early in the Treta age, and the other at the close of the
Dwápara. V. P.
Revati-A lunar mansion in Vaiswánarí, in the southern
A vasthana.
510
RIB
"The
Ribhu-An ancient vedic deity, not now worshipped.
practical portion of the Vedas consists of little else than detached
prayers addressed with a few exceptions to divinities no longer
worshipped, some of whom are even unknown. There is one for
instance named Ribhu, of whose history, office, or even name, a
person might ask in vain from one end of India to the other."
Wilson's Works, Vol. II, p. 48.
Ribhu-One of the mind-born sons of Brahmá; of the ninth or
Kaumára creation; these, declining to create progeny, remained,
as the name of the first implies, ever boys, Kumáras; that is,
ever pure and innocent; whence their creation is called the
Kaumára. Ribhu, being a son of the supreme Brahmá was of a
holy character and acquainted with true wisdom. Nidágha, the
son of Pulastya, was his disciple, and to him Ribhu communicated
perfect knowledge. The residence of Pulastya was at Víranagara,
a large handsome city on the banks of the Devíka river. Nidágha
lived in a grove adjoining to the stream. When a thousand years
had elapsed, Ribhu went to the city of Pulastya to visit his
disciple; and after having fully explained to him the principles of
unity departed. After the expiration of another thousand years
Ribhu returned to his disciple and perfected him in divine know-
ledge.
Ribhus-The sons of Sudhanvan, who on account of their
artistic skill attained to immortality and divine honours. They
are said to have made Indra's chariot and horses, restored their
own parents to youth, &c. They are represented as fabricating
hymns also. "These Ribhus are said to have made into four a
single new sacrificial cup which Tvashtri had formed. This exhi-
bition of skill was performed by command of the gods, and in
consequence of a promise that its accomplishment should be
rewarded by exaltation to divine honours. Tvashtri is represented
as becoming ashamed, and hiding himself among the goddesses,
when he saw this alteration of his work, and as resenting this
change in his own manufacture as a slight to himself, and as having
in consequence sought to slay his rivals. In another place, on the
contrary, he is said to have applauded their design, and admired the
brilliant results of their skill."-Muir, O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 227.
RIB-RIG
511
"It was part of the Vedic creed that holy men, as in the case
of Ribhus, might attain the condition of gods. These intimations,
however, are incidental and vague, and all that we can positively
conclude from them is that the Vedas recognised after the dissolu-
tion of the body, the life of the soul which animated it, and its
continued existence in some heavenly sphere.”—Wilson, V, 345.
Ribhus--A class of deities of the sixth Manwantara.
Richa--A prince, the son of Suníta, of the race of Puru.
Richas--The hymns of the Rig Veda, which were recited by
the priests termed Hotri.
Richeya--One of the sons of Raudraswa, of the race of Puru.
Richika--A sage, of the descendants of Bhrigu, who demand-
ed in marriage Śatyavatí, the daughter of king Gádhi. The king
was very unwilling to give his daughter to a peevish old brahman,
and demanded of him as the nuptial present, a thousand fleet horses,
whose colour should be white, with one black ear. Richíka,
having.propitiated Varuna, the god of ocean, obtained from him,
at the holy place called Aswatírtha, a thousand such steeds; and
giving them to the king espoused his daughter. See JAMADAGNI,
also SATYAVATI.
Rig Veda-The oldest and most important of the four Vedas.
"As long as man continues to take an interest in the history of
his race, and as long as we collect in libraries and museums the
relics of former ages, the first place in that long row of books
which contains the records of the Áryan branch of mankind, will
belong for ever to the Rig Veda."* The hymns of the Rig Veda
are amongst the oldest writings known to mankind, they are
generally short, and are addressed to the great powers of nature, to
Indra, the god of the firmament; to Fire, to the Sun, to the Moon ;
and as regards the latter, they are more especially devoted to the
praise of the Sóma, or Moon plant, the juice of which plays a pro-
minent part in many of the Vedic hymns. This juice was probably
fermented, and formed into an exhilarating or intoxicating
beverage, which was held in very high esteem.
* Max Muller.
512
RIG
"The total number of hymns in the Rig Veda is about 1,020.
Their composition was doubtleess the work of many men and of
long periods of time. They bear evident marks of having been
handed down by tradition, and although they were collected and
arranged in their present forms about ten centuries before the
Christian era, a long time must have passed before they were
brought together by the sage, who from his performance of this
work is called Vyása, the arranger.
"The language of the hymns, besides being archaic, is very
involved and elliptical, abounding with epithets of which it is
difficult to see the force, and with metaphors and comparisons
which are by no means obvious. It'teems with words which
require a justification.' The hymns consequently demand, as Mr.
Müller observes, a similar treatment to that bestowed upon the
interpretation of ancient inscriptions; a careful collection of all
grammatical forms, and a thorough comparison of all passages
in which the same word occurs. The metre of the hymns is a
very important guide to the correct reading of the text, but this
presents so many apparent anomalies that its rules are variously
explained. The hymus of the Rig Veda contain very little poetry
of an agreeable or elevated order. The chief desires expressed
are for riches, victory, and various temporal blessings. Moral
sentiments rarely occur; the hymns addressed to Varuua contain
the most.
Often passages among the Mantras of the Veda are in the form
of a dialogue, and in such cases, the discoursers were alternately
considered as Rishi and Devata.
Mr. Müller after working for more than twenty years at his
translation of the Rig Veda, thus writes :-" My work is a mere
contribution towards a better understanding of the Vedic hymns,
and though I hope it may give in the main, a right rendering of
the sense of the Vedic poets, I feel that in many points my
translation is liable to correction, and will sooner or later be
replaced by a more satisfactory one."
"With regard to the character and style of these hymns on
which so much labour has been expended, it may be remarked
RIJ
513
that they contain very little poetry of an agreeable or elevated
order nothing whatever that could be compared for a moment
with the Psalms of David. "As mere literary productions, apart
from their archaic value, we doubt if any man could be found to
read them. Snatches of poetry may here and there be found; a
grand and elevated tone mixed with the most familiar and, to
modern taste, most ignoble and unsuitable allusions. The mere
reading of some of them conveys the impression that they are not
fully understood, and sets the mind inquiring as to the meaning
which may lie concealed in them. The following hymn, addressed
to Agni the god of fire, and the Maruts, or the Storm-gods, is one
of the most readable in the present volume :-
1. Thou art called forth to this fair sacrifice for a draugh tof
milk; with the Maruts come hither O Agni !
2. No god indeed, no mortal, is beyond the might of thee, the
mighty one; with the Maruts, &c., &c.
3. They who know of the great sky, the Visve Devas without
guile; with the Maruts, &c.
4. The wild ones who sing their song, unconquerable by force;
with the Maruts, &c.
5. They who are brilliant, of awful shape, powerful, and
devourers of foes; with the Maruts, &c.
6. They who in heaven are enthroned as gods, in the light of
the firmament; with the Maruts, &c.
7. They who toss the clouds across the surging sea; with the
Maruts come hither, &c.
8. They who shoot with their darts across the sea with might;
with the Maruts, &c.
9. I pour out to thee for the early draught the sweet juice of
Soma; with the Maruts, &c.”—Sat. Review, 1869.
Rijiswan--A king mentioned in the Rig Veda, the friend of
Indra, and who conquered the Dasyu Krishna on the banks of the
Ansumatí.
Rijrasva--A person mentioned in the Rig Veda, who had been
made blind by his cruel father, for slaughtering one hundred and
one sheep, and giving them to a she-wolf to eat the wolf having
65
514
RIJ-RIS
supplicated the Asvins on behalf of her blind benefactor, they
restored sight to Rijráşva.-O. S. T., V, 245.
Rijudesa-A son of Vasudeva by his wife Devakí.
Riksha-1, A descendant of Bhrigu, the Vyása of the twenty-
fourth Dwápara, sometimes called also Valmíka.
2. A prince, the son of Ajamídha.
3. A prince, the son of Akrodhána, a descendant of Kuru.
4. A chain of mountains in Gondwána.
Rina--A Vyása in the eighteenth Dwápara.
Ripu, Ripunjaya--Two of the sons of Slishti and Suchcháya,
grandsons of Dhruva.
Rishabha-The son of king Nabhi by his queen Meru.
Rishabha had a hundred sons, the eldest of whom was Bharata ;
having ruled with equity and wisdom and celebrated many sacri-
ficial rites, he resigned the sovereignty of the earth to the heroic
Bharata, and, retiring to the hermitage of Pulastya, adopted the
life of an anchoret, practising religious penance, and performing
all prescribed ceremonies, until, emaciated by his austerities so as
to be but a collection of skin and fibres, he put a pebble in his
mouth and naked went the way of all flesh. V. P. In a note
Wilson adds the great road' the road of heroes.' The pebble
was intended either to compel perpetual silence, or to prevent his
eating. The Bhagavata adverts to the same circumstances, and
gives more details of Rishabha's devotion, and connects him with
the spread of Jain doctrines in the western parts of the peninsula.
Rishabha is the name of the first Tirthankara, or Jain saint of the
present era.
6
Rishabha--2, One of the seven Rishis of the second Manwan-
tara; 3, A prince, the son of Kuságra; 4, A mountain on the
north of Meru.
Rishabha-5, One of the generals in Ráma's army at the siege
of Lanka; he was severely wounded by the magical weapons of
Indrajit, and left apparently dead on the battle field; but was
restored to life by the healing plants brought by Hanuman from
the golden hill called Rishabha.
RIS
515
Rishabha--6, The name of a golden hill on the very crest of
Kailása; on which grew four medicinal herbs, by virtue of which
the dead and wounded might be restored to life.
Rishis-Great Sages. Seven are enumerated; they are the
same as the Prajapatis, q. v. One of the Rishis is an attendant on
the sun in each month of the year, along with one of the Adityas,
Gandharbhas, Apsarasas, Yakshas, etc. The Vishnu Purána says
there are three kinds of Rishis, or inspired sages; royal Rishis, or
princes who have adopted a life of devotion, as Viswamitra ;
divine Rishis, or sages who are demi-gods also, as Nárada; and
Brahman Rishis, or sages who are the sons of Brahmá, or Brah-
mans, as Vasishtha and others. Mr. J. C. Thomson writes “in
the Epic period Rishi is merely a name for historical personages,
distinguished for their piety and wisdom, either by their acts or
their writings. In the Puránic period the Rishis, par excellence,

are
seven primeval personages, born of Brahma's mind, and
presiding, under different forms, over each Manwantara." The
word Rishi is derived from rish, an old vedic root meaning to see.'
C
Rishis-The constellation of the Great Bear. For an account
of its revolutions see the Vishnu Purána, p. 485, and Wilson's
learned notes on the subject.
Rishika, Rishikulya-A river that rises in the Mahendra
mountain and flows into the sea near Gaujam.
Rishikas--A people placed by the Rámáyana both in the north
and in the south; Arjuna visits the former and exacts from them
eight horses.
Rishyamukha--A mountain in the Dekhin where the Pampa.
rises, the abode of the monkeys, and the temporary abode of Ráma.
Rishya-sringa--A horned sage, celebrated in the first book of
the Rámáyana.
He was the son of Vibháṇḍak, a Rishi descended from Kaşyapa.
"Bred with the deer that round him roam,
The wood shall be that hermit's home.
To him no mortal shall be known
Except his holy sire alone."
516
RIS
He was thus brought up in the forest with his father and saw
no other human being until he attained early manhood. At a
season of great drought, Somapád, king of Anga, enquired what
should be done to cause rain, when the brahmans said,
66
By every art O monarch try
Hither to bring Vibhánḍak's child,
Persuaded, captured or beguiled,
And when the boy is hither led
To him thy daughter duly wed."
After much deliberation as to the way in which the "wondrous
boy" should be induced to leave his father's home, the poem
proceeds,
"Then this shall be the plan agreed,
That damsels shall be sent,
Attired in holy hermit's weed
And skilled in blandishment,
That they the hermit may beguile
With every art and amorous wile,
Whose use they know so well,
And by their witcheries seduce
The unsuspecting young recluse
To leave his father's cell.
Then when the boy with willing feet
Shall wander from his calm retreat,
And in that city stand,
The troubles of the king shall end
And streams of blessed rain descend
Upon the thirsty land.
Thus shall the holy Rishyasring
To Somapád the mighty king
By wedlock be allied;
For Sántá, fairest of the fair,
In mind and grace beyond compare,
Shall be his royal bride."
RIS
517
All this took place accordingly.
"In ships with wondrous art prepared
Away the lovely women fared,
And soon beneath the shade they stood
Of the wild lonely dreary wood.
And there the leafy cot they found
Where dwelt the devotee
And looked with eager eyes around
The hermit's son to see.
*
*
*
*
*
*
Forth came the hermit's son to view
The wondrous sight to him so new,
And gazed in rapt surprise,
For from his natal hour till then
On woman or the sons of men
He ne'er had cast his eyes.
The scheme was successful. On the following day when his
father went as usual to the forest, Rishyaṣring eagerly sought his
charming visitants and accompanied them to their "lovely home."
Vibhánḍak returned to his cottage in the evening to learn the
will of fate-
"A stately ship, at early morn,
The hermit's son away had borne.
Loud roared the clouds as on he sped,
The sky grew blacker overhead ;
Till as he reached the royal town,
A mighty flood of rain came down,
By the great rain the monarch's mind
The coming of his guest divined.
To meet the honoured youth he went,
And low to earth his head he bent.
And sought, with all who dwelt within
The city walls, his grace to win.
He fed him with the daintiest fare,
He served him with unceasing care,
518
RIT-ROH
And gave to be the Brahman's bride
His own fair daughter, lotus-eyed.
Thus loved and honoured by the king,
The glorious Brahman Rishyaṣring
Passed in that royal town his life
With Sántá his beloved wife.”— Griffiths' Rȧmáyana.
Rita-1, Truth. The son of Dharma, by one of the daughters.
of Daksha; 2, A king of Mithila, the son of Vijaya.
Ritadhaman-The Manu of the thirteenth Manwantara,
according to the list in the Pádma and Matsya Puránas.
Ritadhwaja-1, One of the eleven Rudras, according to the
enumeration in the Bhagavata; 2, One of the designations of
Pratarddana, meaning he whose emblem was truth, being a great
observer of veracity.
Riteya-A prince, the eldest of the ten sons of Raudraṣwa,
a descendant of Púru.
Ritu-The Manu of the twelfth Manwantara.
Ritudhaman-The Indra of the twelfth Manwantara.
Ritujit--One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Anjana.
Rituparna-A prince, the son of Ayutáṣwa.
Rochana-A wife of Vasudeva.
Rodha--One of the Narakas; that for the punishment of the
crimes of causing abortion, killing a cow, plundering, &c.
Rohini-1, The wife of Vasudeva. Kansa, king of Mathura,
captured Vasudeva and his wife Devakí, imprisoned them in his
own palace, set guards over them, and slew the six children whom
Devakí had already borne. She was now about to give birth to the
seventh, who was Balaráma, the playfellow of Krishna, and like
him, supposed to be an incarnation of Vishnu; but by divine
agency the child was transferred before birth to the womb of
Vasudeva's other wife, Rohini, who was living in Gokula.
2. One of the wives of Krishna.
3. The name of the wife of one of the Rudras.
4. The daughter of Surabhi, and parent of horned cattle.
5. A lunar mansion in Gajavithi, in the northern Avashthána.
}
ROH-RUD
519
Rohita-1, The Manu, according to some of the Puránas, of
the ninth Manwantara; 2, The son of Harischandra, q. v.
Rohitaswa--Called also Rohita. The son of Harischandra,
q. v.
Traces of his name appear in the strongholds of Rotas, in
Behar, and in the Panjab. The Bhagavata has a legend of his
having been devoted to Varuna before his birth, by his father, who
having on various pleas deferred offering his son as promised, was
afflicted by a dropsy. Rohita at last purchased Sunahṣephas who
was offered as a victim in his stead.
Romaharshana--A disciple of Vyása, and the narrator of the
Puránas. See Súta.
Romanas, Ropanas-A people mentioned in the Puránas; it
has been conjectured that the Romans may be meant.
Romapada-1, A son of Vidarbha and the princess rescued by
Jyámagha, (q. v.); 2, A prince, the son of Chitraratha.
Ruchi--One of the Prajapatis or mind-born sons of Brahmá.
He was married to Akúti, who bore him twins, Yajna and Dak-
shina, who afterwards became husband and wife, and had twelve
sons, the deities called Yámas, in the Manwantara of Swá yam-
bhuva.
Ruchiradhi--A prince, the son of Sankrite, of the race of
Bharata.
Ruchiraswa-A prince, the son of Senajit, descendant of
Hastin.
Rudhirandha-One of the Narakas, designed for incendiaries,
treacherous friends, soothsayers, &c.
Rudra--An agent in creation; who sprang from the forehead
of Brahmá, radiant as the noontide sun, fierce, and of vast bulk,
and of a figure which was half-male, half-female. At the com-
mand of Brahmá, Rudra became two-folds disjoining his male and
female natures. His male being he again divided into eleven
persons, of whom some were agreeable, some hideous, some fierce,
some mild: and he multiplied his female nature manifold, of com-
plexions black or white. This is considered by Professor Wilson
to be the primitive form of the legend.
520
RUD
The Vishnu Purána gives another account, as follows :
In the beginning of the Kalpa, as Brahmá purposed to create a
son, who should be like himself, a youth of a purple complexion
appeared, crying with a low cry, and running about. Brahmá,
when he beheld him thus afflicted, said to him, "Why dost thou
weep?" "Give me a name," replied the boy.
"Rudra be thy
name," rejoined the great father of all creatures: "be composed;
desist from tears." But, thus addressed, the boy still wept seven
times, and Brahmá therefore gave to him seven other denomina-
tions; and to these eight persons regions and wives and posterity
belong. The eight manifestations, then, are named Rudra,
Bhava, Sarva, Isána, Pasupati, Bhíma, Ugra, and Mahádeva,
which were given to them by their great progenitor. He also
assigned to them their respective stations, the sun, water, earth,
air, fire, ether, the ministrant Brahman, and the moon; for these
are their several forms.
The Vayu details the application of each name severally. These
eight Rudras are therefore but one, under as many appellations,
and in as many types. The Pádma, Márkandeya, Kúrma, Linga,
and Vayu agree with the V. P., in the nomenclature of the Rudras,
and their types, their wives, and progeny.
Rudra--A A name of Śiva ; one of the five great lords or faces
of Śiva, the name Rudra occurs in the Rig Veda as one of the
inferior gods.
Rudrakali--A form of Uma, in which she accompanied
Vírabhadra when he was sent by Śiva to spoil the sacrifice of
Daksha.
Rudraksha-A rosary, or string of beads, the fruit of the
eleocarpus, resembling in form, size, and colour, the nutmeg, but
with a rough surface. The meaning of the word is Rudra's (i. e.,
Śiva's) eye, and then also tear. It is said that Śiva once, in a war
with the Asúras, having burned three cities, wept at the loss of
lives involved, and the tears falling to the ground, sprung up as
shrubs, producing berries, which were thence called Rudraksha.
Rudra-loka-The heaven above Brahmá-loka.
Rudrani-The wife of the Rudra Dhritavrata.
RUK-RUS
521
Rukmakavacha-A Yádava prince, the son of Siteyas.
Rukmisha-The grandson of the preceding Yádava king.
Rukmin-The son of Bhishmaka, king of Vidarbha. He had
a beautiful sister named Rukminí, with whom Krishņa fell in love
and selected in marriage; but her brother, who hated Krishṇa,
would not assent to the espousals. The father then affianced
Rukminí to Sisupála. In other to celebrate the nuptials,
Jarasandha and other princes, the friends of Sișupála, assembled
in Kundina, the capital of Vidarbha; and Krishna, attended by
Balarama and many other Yadavas, also went to witness the
wedding. When there Krishna contrived to carry off the princess,
leaving Ráma and his kinsmen to sustain the weight of his enemies.
The sovereigns who had assembled to be present at the marriage,
indignant at the insult, exerted themselves to kill Krishņa; and
Rukmin, vowing that he would never enter Kundina until he had
slain him in fight, pursued and overtook him. In the combat that
ensued Krishna destroyed with his discus the whole host of
Rukmin, and would have put him to death, but was withheld by
the entreaties of Rukminí. Rukmin, thus spared, built the city
Bhojakata, and in pursuance of his vow, ever after dwelt therein.
He was ultimately killed by Balaráma in a quarrel which occurred
at a game of dice.
Rukmini-The sister of the above. After the defeat of
Rukmin, Krishņa married Rukminí in due form, having first made
her his own by the Rákshasa ritual, V. P. According to the
Bhagavata, Rukminí sent to invite Krishna to carry her off, and
instructed him how to proceed. She was the mother of Prad-
yumna. On the death of Krishna she and four other of his wives
burnt themselves with his body.
Rupa-A river, from the Saktimat mountain.
Rupavahikas, Rupavasikas-People mentioned in the
Puránas as Southern tribes, probably in the vicinity of the
Rupa river.
Ruruka-A prince, the son of Vijaya, and ancestor of Sagara.
Rushadra-The son of Swáhi, and grandfather of Sasavinda.
66
S
Sabhanara-One of the sons of Anu.
Sadacharas-Fixed observances; the institutions or obser-
vances of the pious; the perpetual obligations of a householder,
consisting of daily purifications, ablutions, libations, and oblations;
hospitality, obsequial rites, ceremonies to be observed at meals, at
morning and evening worship, and on going to rest,
Sadakanta, Sadanira-Puránic rivers, the latter is said to
flow from Páripátra.
Sadaswa-A prince, the son of Samara.
Sadhus-Saints; just or pious men ; those who are free from
all defects.
Sadhya-A daughter of Daksha and one of the wives of
Dharma.
Sadhyas-A class of demi-gods, the sons of Sádhya; according
to the Váyu the Sádhyas are the personified rites and prayers of
the Vedas, born of the metres and partakers of the sacrifices. It
also enumerates them amongst the gods of the present Manwantara.
Sadnova-The youngest son of the Rája of Chitapur, who was
thrown into a cauldron of boiling oil for delaying to join his father
in an expedition against Arjuna. Sadnova prayed to God, and
the oil became quite cold. Sadnova came out unhurt and went
with the army to fight against Arjuna, but he and all his brethren
were slain.
Sadwati-The daughter of Pulastya and wife of Agni.
Sagara-The son of Báhu or Báhuka. His birth is thus
narrated in the Vishnu Purána. Báhu was vanquished by the
tribes of Haihayas and Tálajanghas, and his country overrun by
them ; in consequence of which he fled into the forests with
his wives.
One of these was pregnant, and being an object of
"
SAG
523
jealousy to a rival queen, the latter gave her poison to prevent her
delivery. The poison had the effect of confining the child in the
womb for seven years. Báhu, having waxed old, died in the
neighbourhood of the residence of the Muni Aurva. His queen
having constructed his pile, ascended it with the determination of
accompanying him in death; but the sage Aurva, who knew all
things, past, present, and to come, issued forth from his hermitage,
and forbade her, saying, "Hold! hold! this is unrighteous; a
valiant prince, the monarch of many realms, the offerer of many
sacrifices, the destroyer of his foes, a universal emperor, is in thy
womb; think not of committing so desperate an act !" Accordingly,
in obedience to his injunctions, she relinquished her intention,
The sage then conducted her to his abode, and after some time a
very splendid boy was there born. Along with him the poison
that had been given to his mother was expelled; and Aurva, after
performing the ceremonies required at birth, gave him on that
account the name of Sagara (from Sa, 'with,' and Gara, 'poison.')
The same holy sage celebrated his investure with the cord of his
class, instructed him fully in the Vedas, and taught him the use of
arms, especially those of fire, called after Bhargava.
When the boy had grown up, and was capable of reflection, he
said to his mother one day, "Why are we dwelling in this
hermitage? where is my father? and who is he?" His mother,
in reply, related to him all that had happened. Upon hearing
which he was highly incensed, and vowed to recover his patrimonial
kingdom, and exterminate the Haihayas and Tálajanghas, by
whom it had been overrun. Accordingly when he became a man
he put nearly the whole of the Haihayas to death, and would have.
also destroyed the Śakas, the Yavanas, Kámbojas, Páradas, and
Pahnavas, but that they applied to Vasishtha, the family priest of
Sagara, for protection. Vasishtha regarding them as aunihilated
(or deprived of power), though living, thus spake to Sagara:
Enough, enough, my son, pursue no farther these objects of
your wrath, whom you may look upon as no more. In order to
fulfil your vow I have separated them from affinity to the
regenerate tribes, and from the duties of their castes." Sagara,
in compliance with the injunctions of his spiritual guide, contented
6
524
SAG
himself therefore with imposing upon the vanquished nations.
peculiar distinguishing marks. He made the Yavanas shave their
heads entirely the Sakas he compelled to shave (the upper) half
of their heads; the Páradas wore their hair long; and the
Pahuavas let their beards grow, in obedience to his commands.
Them also, and other Kshatriya races, he deprived of the
established usages of oblations to fire and the study of the Vedas
and thus separated from religious rites, and abandoned by the
Brahmans, these different tribes became Mlechchhas. Sagara,
after the recovery of his kingdom, reigned over the seven-zoned
earth with undisputed dominion.
Sumati the daughter of Kasyapa, and Keşiní the daughter of
Rája Viderbha, were the two wives of Sagara. Being without
progeny, the king solicited the aid of the sage Aurva with great
earnestness, and the Muni pronounced this boon, that one wife
should bear one squ, the upholder of his race, and the other should
give birth to sixty thousand sons; and he left it to them to make
their election. Keşiní chose to have the single son; Sumati the
multitude and it came to pass in a short time that the former
bore Asamanjas, a prince through whom the dynasty continued ;
and the daughter of Vinatá (Sumati) had sixty thousand sons.
:
"The elder consort bare
A son called Asamanj, the heir.
Then Sumati, the younger, gave
Birth to a gourd,* O, hero brave,
Whose rind, when burst and cleft in two,
Gave sixty thousand babes to view."
The son of Asamanjas was Anṣumat.
Asamanjas was from his boyhood of very irregular conduct.
His father hoped that as he grew up to manhood he would reform;
but finding that he continued guilty of the same immorality,
Sagara abandoned him. The sixty thousand sons of Sagara
followed the example of their brother Asamanjas. The path of
virtue and piety being obstructed in the world by the sons of
* Ikshváku, the name of a king of Ayodhya, who is regarded as the founder
of the solar race, means also a gourd. Hence perhaps the myth.—GRIFFITHS.
SAG
525
Sagara, the gods repaired to the Muni Kapila, who was a portion.
of Vishnu, free from fault, and endowed with all true wisdom.
Having approached him with respect, they said, "Oglord, what
will become of the world, if these sons of Sagara are permitted to
go on in the evil ways which they have learned from Asamaujas!
Do thou, then, assume a visible form, for the protection of the
afflicted universe." "Be satisfied," replied the sage, "in a brief
time the sons of Sagara shall be all destroyed."
At that period Sagara commenced the performance of the
solemn sacrifice of a horse, which was guarded by his own sons :
nevertheless some one stole the animal, and carried it off into a
chasm in the earth. Sagara commanded his sons to search for the
steed; and they, tracing him by the impressions of his hoofs,
followed his course with perseverance, until coming to the chasm
where he had entered, they proceeded to enlarge it, and dug
downwards each for a league. Coming to Pátila, they beheld the
horse wandering freely about, and at no great distance from him
they saw the Rishi Kapila sitting, with his head declined in
meditation, and illuminating the surrounding space with radiance
as bright as the splendours of the autumnal sun, shining in
an unclouded sky. Exclaiming, "This is the villain who has
maliciously interrupted our sacrifice, and stolen the horse! kill
him! kill him!" they ran towards him with uplifted weapons.
The Muni slowly raised his eyes, and for an instant looked upon
them, and they were reduced to ashes by the sacred flame that
darted from his person.
"Then all the princes lofty souled,
Of wondrous vigour, strong and bold,
Saw Vasudeva standing there
In Kapil's form he loved to wear,
And near the everlasting God,
The victim charger cropped the sod.
They saw with joy and eager eyes
The fancied robber and the prize,
And on him rushed the furious band
Crying aloud, stand, villain stand!
526
SAG
'Avaunt! avaunt! great Kapil cried,
His bosom flushed with passion's tide ;
Then by his might that proud array
All scorched to heaps of ashes lay."
>> '*
When Sagara learned that his sons, whom he had sent in pursuit
of the sacrificial steed, had been destroyed by the might of the
great Rishi Kapila, he despatched Anṣumat, the son of Asamanjas,
to effect the animal's recovery. The youth, proceeding by the
deep path which the princes had dug, arrived where Kapila was,
and bowing respectfully, prayed to him, and so propitiated him,
that the saint said, "Go, my son, deliver the horse to your
grandfather; and demand a boon; thy grandson shall bring down
the river of heaven on the earth." Anṣumat requested as a boon
that his uncles, who had perished through the sage's displeasure,
might, although unworthy of it, he raised to heaven through his
favour. "I have told you," replied Kapila, "that your grandson
shall bring down upon earth the Ganges of the gods; and when
her waters shall wash the boues and ashes of thy grandfather's
sons, they shall be raised to Swarga. Such is the efficacy of the
stream that flows from the toe of Vishnu, that it confers heaven
upon all who bathe in it designedly, or who even become
accidentally immersed in it: those even shall obtain Swarga,
whose bones, skin, fibres, hair or any other part, shall be left after
death upon the earth which is contiguous to the Ganges." Having
acknowledged reverentially the kindness of the sage, Ansumat
returned to his grandfather, and delivered to him the horse.
Sagara, on recovering the steed, completed his sacrifice; and in
affectionate memory of his sons, denominated Sagara the chasm
which they had dug.
Sagara is still the name of the ocean, and especially of the Bay
of Bengal, at the mouth of the Ganges. V. P.
* It appears to me that this my third story has reference to the volcanic
phenomena of nature. Kapil may very possibly be that hidden fiery force
which suddenly unprisons itself and bursts forth in volcanic effects. Kapil
is, moreover, one of the names of Agni, the god of Fire.- GORRESIO.
SAH-SAI
527
Sahadeva-1, The fifth and youngest son of Páṇḍu by his wife
Madri, but mystically begotten by Dasra, the younger of the two
Aswinau. He is considered as the beau ideal of masculine beauty.
He was taught Astronomy and the use of the sword by Drona.
When the Pandavas applied for service to the Rája Viráta, Saha-
deva was made master of the cattle, and caster of nativities and
teller of fortunes; 2, A prince, the son of Srinjaya; 3, The son of
Harshavarddhana ; 4, A son of Sudása ; 5, A son of Jarásandha ;
6, The son of Divákara, of the family of Ikshváku.
Sahajanya-A divine nymph; one of the ten in the class
termed Daivika.
Sahanji-A prince, the son of Kuntí.
Saharaksha-The fire of the Asuras; the Bhagavata explains
the different fires to be so many appellations of fire employed in
the invocations with which different oblations to fire are offered
in the ritual of the Vedas.
Sahas, Sahasya-The names of two of the months, occurring
in the Vedas and belonging to a system now obsolete.
Sahasrabala—A prince, a descendant of Kusa, according to
the lists in the Matysa, Linga, &c.
Sahasrajit 1, The eldest son of Yadu; 2, One of the sons of
Bhajamána.
Sahishna--1, One of the sons of the patriarch Pulaka; 2, A
son of Vanakapívat, and father of Kámadeva.
Sahya--One of the seven principal chains of mountains in
Bharata; the northern portions of the Western Ghauts, the moun-
tains of the Konkan.
Saindhava, or Saindhavayana--A teacher of the Atharva
Veda, and founder of a school of brahmaus.
Saindhavas-1, The inhabitants of Sindh, and Western Raj-
pootána; 2, A school of brahmaus.
Saineyas--The descendants of Siní, a branch of the Yádavas.
Sainhikeyas--A class of Dánavas, the sons of Viprachitti and
Sinhiká.
528
SAI
Saisikatas-Inhabitants of mountainous regions and sandy
deserts.
Saisiri-A teacher of the White Yajush. V. P., 281.
Saisiriya--A teacher of the Rig Veda, a disciple of Vedamitra,
called also Sákalya.
Saisunaga--A king of Magadha, and founder of the dynasty
of that name, consisting of ten kings. He relinquished Benares to
his son and established himself at Girivraja in Behar, where he is
said to have reigned forty years.
Saiva Purana--The fourth Purána in the enumeration given.
in the Vishnu Purána. In some lists
In some lists it is omitted, and when that
is the case it is replaced by the Váyu, or Vayuvíya. When the
Saiva is specified, as in the Bhagavata, then the Váyu is omitted;
intimating the possible identity of these two works. This Purána
contains the genealogies of the patriarchs, a description of the
universe, and the incidents of the first six Manwantaras ; inter-
mixed with legends and praises of Śiva. A long account of the
Pitris or progenitors is also peculiar to this Purána; as are stories
of some of the most celebrated Rishis, who were engaged in the
distribution of the Vedas. See VAYU Purána.
Saivya--The wife of king Satadhanu, and a woman of great.
virtue. The legend of her life is peculiar to the Vishnu Purána
and is thus narrated. She was devoted to her husband, benevo-
lent, sincere, pure, adorned with every female excellence, with
humility, and discretion. The Rája and his wife daily worshipped
the god of gods, Janárddana, with pious meditations, oblations to
fire, prayers, gifts, fasting, and every other mark of entire faith,
and exclusive devotion. On one occasion when they had fasted
on the full moon of Kártika, and had bathed in the Bhagirathí,
they beheld, as they came up from the water, a heretic approach
them, who was the friend of the Rája's military preceptor. The
Rája, out of respect to the latter, entered into conversation with
the heretic; but not so did the princess; reflecting that she was
observing a fast, she turned from him, and cast her eyes up to the
sun. On their arrival at home, the husband and wife, as usual,
performed the worship of Vishnu, agreeably to the ritual. After
SAI
529
a time the Rája, triumphant over his enemies, died; and the
princess ascended the funeral pile of her husband.
In consequence of the fault committed by Satadhanu, by speaking
to an infidel when he was engaged in a solemn fast, he was born
again as a dog. His wife was born as the daughter of the Rája
of Kásí, with the knowledge of the events of her pre-existence,
accomplished in every science, and endowed with every virtue.
Her father was anxious to give her in marriage to some suitable
husband, but she constantly opposed his design, and the king was
prevented by her from accomplishing her nuptials. With the eye
of divine intelligence she knew that her own husband had been
regenerate as a dog, and going once to the city of Vaidișá, she
saw the dog, and recognised her former lord in him. Knowing
that the animal was her husband, she placed upon his neck the
bridal garland, accompanying it with the marriage rites and prayers:
but he, eating the delicate food presented to him, expressed his
delight after the fashion of his species; at which she was much
ashamed, and, bowing reverently to him, thus spake to her
degraded spouse: "Recall to memory, illustrious prince, the
ill-timed politeness on account of which you have been born as a
dog, and are now fawning upon me. In consequence of speaking
to a heretic, after bathing in a sacred river, you have been
condemned to this abject birth. Do you not remember it ?" Thus
reminded, the Rája recollected his former condition, and was lost
in thought, and felt deep humiliation. With a broken spirit he
went forth from the city, and falling dead in the desert, was born
anew as a jackal. In the course of the following year the princess
knew what had happened, and went to the mountain Koláhala to
seek for her husband. Finding him there, the lovely daughter of
the king of the earth said to her lord, thus disguised as a jackal,
"Dost thou not remember, oh king, the circumstance of conversing
with a heretic, which I called to thy recollection when thou wast
a dog?" The Rája, thus addressed, knew that what the princess
had spoken was true, and thereupon desisted from food, and died.
He then became a wolf; but his blameless wife knew it, and came
to him in the lonely forest, and awakened his remembrance of his
original state. "No wolf art thou," she said, "but the illustrious
67
530
SAI
}
sovereign Satadhanu. Thou wast then a dog, then a jackal, and
art now a wolf." Upon this, recollecting himself, the prince
abandoned his life, and became a vulture; in which form his
lovely queen still found him, and aroused him to a knowledge of
the past. "Prince," she exclaimed, "recollect yourself: away
with this uncouth form, to which the sin of conversing with a
heretic has condemned you!" The Rája was next born as a crow;
when the princess, who through her mystical powers was aware of
it, said to him, "Thou art now thyself the eater of tributary grain,
to whom, in a prior existence, all the kings of the earth paid
tribute." Having abandoned his body, in consequence of the
recollections excited by these words, the king next became a
peacock, which the princess took to herself, and petted, and fed
constantly with such food as is agreeable to birds of its class. The
king of Kásí instituted at that time the solemn sacrifice of a horse.
In the ablutions with which it terminated the princess caused her
peacock to be bathed, bathing also herself; and she then reminded
Satadhanu how he had been successively born as various animals.
On recollecting this, he resigned his life. He was then born as
the son of a person of distinction; and the princess now assenting
to the wishes of her father to see her wedded, the king of Káșí
caused it to be made known that she would elect a bridegroom
from those who should present themselves as suitors for her hand.
When the election took place, the princess made choice of her
former lord, who appeared amongst the candidates, and again
invested him with the character of her husband. They lived
happily together, and upon her father's decease, Satadhanu ruled
over the country of Videha. He offered many sacrifices, and gave
away many gifts, and begot sons, and subdued his enemies in war;
and having duly exercised the sovereign power, and cherished
benignantly the earth, he died, as became his warrior birth, in
battle. His queen again followed him in death, and, conformably
to sacred precepts, once more mounted cheerfully his funeral pile.
The king then, along with his princess, ascended beyond the sphere
of Indra to the regions where all desires are for ever gratified, obtain-
ing ever-during and unequalled happiness in heaven, the perfect
felicity that is the rarely realised reward of conjugal fidelity."
SAI
531
Saivya-A celebrated legendary king of ancient India, of whom
an affecting story is related of a hawk and a dove.
66
Saivya, a king whom earth obeyed,
Once to a hawk a promise made,
Gave to the bird his flesh and bone
And by his truth made heaven his own."
"Learn from that tale, the Hawk and Dove,
How strong for truth was Saivya's love
Pledged by his word the monarch gave
His flesh the suppliant bird to save."
"The following is a free version of this very ancient story,
which occurs more than once in the Mahábhárata.
THE SUPPLIANT Dove.
Chased by a hawk there came a dove
With worn and weary wing,
And took her stand upon the hand
Of Kásí's mighty king.
The monarch smoothed her ruffled plumes
And laid her on his breast,
6
And cried, No fear shall vex thee here,
Rest, pretty egg-born, rest!
Fair Kásí's realm is rich and wide,
With golden harvests gay,
But all that's mine will I resign
Ere I my guest betray.'
But panting for his half-won spoil
The hawk was close behind,
And with wild cry and eager eye
Came swooping down the wind:
This bird,' he cried, my destined prize,
'Tis not for thee to shield :
"Tis mine by right and toilsome flight.
O'er hill and dale and field.
532
SAI
Hunger and thirst oppress me sore,
And I am faint with toil :
Thou shouldst not stay a bird of
Who claims his rightful spoil.
prey
They say thou art a glorious king,
And justice is thy care:
Then justly reign in thy domain,
Nor rob the birds of air.'
Then cried the king : 'A cow or deer
For thee shall straightway bleed,
Or let a ram or tender lamb
Be slain, for thee to feed.
Mine oath forbids me to betray
My little twice-born guest:
See how she clings with trembling wings.
To her protector's breast.'
'No flesh of lambs,' the hawk replied,
!
'No blood of deer for me;
The falcon loves to feed on doves,
And such is Heaven's decree.
But if affection for the dove
Thy pitying heart has stirred,
Let thine own flesh my maw refresh,
Weighed down against the bird.'
He carved the flesh from off his side,
And threw it in the scale,
While women's cries smote on the skies
With loud lament and wail.
He hacked the flesh from side and arm,
From chest and back and thigh,
But still above the little dove
The monarch's scale stood high.
He heaped the scale with piles of flesh,
With sinews, blood, and skin,
•
1
SAI
533
And when alone was left him bone
He threw himself therein.
Then thundered voices through the air;
The sky grew black as night;
And fever took the earth that shook
To see that wondrous sight.
The blessed Gods, from every sphere,
By Indra led, came nigh;
While drum and flute and shell and lute
Made music in the sky.
They rained immortal chaplets down,
Which hands celestial twine,
And softly shed upon his head
Pure Amrit, drink divine.
Then God and Seraph, Bard and Nymph
Their heavenly voices raised,
And a glad throng with dance and song
The glorious monarch praised.
They set him on a golden car
That blazed with many a gem ;
Then swiftly through the air they flew,
And bore him home with them.
Thus Kásí's lord, by noble deed,
Won heaven and deathless fame;
And when the weak protection seek
From thee, do thou the same.
GRIFFITHS. Scenes from the Rámáyan, &c.
2. Saivya was also the name of a king of the Sivis, who was
an ally of the Pandavas; the Silex of the Greeks.
Saivya-1, The wife of Harischandra, (q. v.) whose heroic
fortitude was shown in her patient endurance of the long series of
severe trials to which she and her husband were subjected by
Visvamitra.
534
SAI
"According to the Markandeya Purána, Harischandra gave up
his whole country, and sold his wife and son, and finally himself,
in satisfaction of Visvamitra's demands for money. The sufferings.
of Harischandra, his wife, and son, are very pathetically depicted,
and the effect of the various incidents is heightened with great
artistic skill. The story, in fact, appears to me one of the most
touching to be found in Indian literature. Harischandra, the
Purána tells us, was a royal Rishi who lived in the 'Tretá age, and
was renowned for his virtues, and the universal prosperity, moral
and physical, which prevailed during his reign. On one occasion,
when hunting, the king heard a sound of female lamentation which
proceeded, it appears, from the sciences who were becoming
mastered by the austerely-fervid sage Visvamitra, in a way they
had never been before by any one else; and were consequently
crying out in alarm at his superiority. In fulfilment of his duty
as a Kshattriya to defend the weak, and inspired by the god
Ganeṣa, who had entered into him, Harischandra exclaimed .
"What sinner is this who is binding fire in the hem of his gar-
ment, while I, his lord, am present, resplendent with force and
fiery vigour?' He shall to-day enter on his long sleep, pierced in
all his limbs by arrows, which, by their discharge from my bow,
illuminate all the quarters of the firmament." Visvamitra was
provoked by this address.. In consequence of his wrath the sciences
instantly perished, and Harischandra, trembling like the leaf of an
aṣvattha tree, submissively represented that he had merely done
his duty as a king, which he defined as consisting in the bestowal
of gifts on eminent Brahmans and other persons of slender means,
the protection of the timid, and war against enemies. Visvamitra
hereupon demands a gift as a Brahman intent upon receiving one.
The king offers him whatever he may ask Gold, his own son,
wife, body, life, kingdom, good fortune. The saint first requires
the present for the Rájasúya sacrifice. On this being promised,
and still more offered, he asks for the empire of the whole earth,
including everything but Harischandra himself, his wife and
son, and his virtue which follows its possessor wherever he
SAI
535
*
goes. Harischandra joyfully agrees. Visvamitra then requires
him to strip off all his ornaments, to clothe himself in the bark of
trees, and to quit the kingdom with his wife Saivyá and his son.
When he is departing the sage stops him and demands payment
f his yet unpaid sacrificial fee. The king replies that he has only
the persons of his wife, his son, and himself left. Visvamitra
insists that he must nevertheless pay; and that "uufulfilled
promises of gifts to Brahmans bring destruction." The unfortu-
nate prince, after being threatened with a curse, engages to make
the payment in a month; and commences his journey with a wife
unused to such fatigues, amid the universal lamentations of his
subjects. While he lingers, listening to their affectionate remon-
strances against his desertion of his kingdom, Visvamitra comes up,
and being incensed at the delay and the king's apparent hesitation,
strikes the queen with his staff, as she is dragged on by her hus-
band. All this Harischandra endures with patience, uttering not
complaint. Then the five Vişvedevas, merciful gods, exclaimed,
"To what worlds shall this sinner Visvamitra go, who has
thrust down this most excellent of sacrifices from the royal
dignity? Whose faith shall now sanctify the soma-juice poured
out with recitation of texts at the great sacrifice, that we may
drink it, and become exhilarated'? Visvamitra heard what they
said, and by a curse doomed them to become men; he relented,
however, so far as to exempt them from having offspring, and from
other family ties and human weaknesses, and promised that they
should eventually be restored to their pristine position as gods.
""
* Compare Manu's very striking verses, which may be freely rendered as
follows:-
CC
Our virtue is the only friend that follows us in death;
All other ties and friendships end with our departing breath.
Nor father, mother, wife, nor son beside us then can stay,
Nor kinsfolk :-virtue is the one companion of our way.
Alone each creature sees the light, alone the world he leaves ;
Alone of actions, wrong or right, the recompense receives.
Like log or clod, beneath the sod their lifeless kinsman laid,
His friends turn round and quit the ground; but virtue tends the dead.
Be then a hoard of virtue stored, to help in day of doom ;
By virtue led, we cross the dread, immeasurable gloom."
536
SAI
They in consequence became partailly incarnate as the five Pándus,
the sons of Draupadí. Resuming the story of Harischandra, the
writer tells us that he then proceeded with his wife and little sou
to Benares, imagining that this divine city, as the special property
of Śiva, could not be possessed by any mortal. Here he found the
relentless Visvamitra waiting for him, and ready to press his
demand for the payment of his sacrificial gift, even before the
expiration of the full period of grace. In this extremity Saivyá
the queen suggests with a sobbing voice that her husband
should sell her. On hearing this proposal Harischandra swoons,
then recovers, utters lamentations, and swoons again, and his
wife, seeing his sad condition, swoons also. While they are
in a state of unconsciousness, their famished child exclaims in
distress, "O father, father, give me bread; O mother, mother,
give me food: hunger everpowers me; and my tongue is parch-
ed." At this moment Visvamitra returns, and after recalling
Harischandra to consciousness by sprinkling water over him, again
urges payment of the present. The king again swoons, and is
again restored. The sage threatens to curse him if his engage-
ment is not fulfilled by sunset. Being now pressed by his wife,
the king agrees to sell her, adding, however, "If my voice cau
utter such a wicked word, I do what the most inhuman wretches
cannot perpetrate." He then goes into the city, and in self-
accusing language offers his queen for sale as a slave. A rich old
Brahman offers to buy her at a price corresponding to her value,
to do his household work. Harischandra's heart was torn, and he
could make no reply. The Brahman paid down the money, and
was dragging away the queen by the hair of her head, when her
little son Rohitáṣva, seeing his mother about to be taken away
from him, began to cry, and laid hold of her skirts. The mother
then exclaims: "Let me go, let me go, venerable sir, till I look
I shall hardly ever behold him again. Come, my
upon my son.
darling, see thy mother now become a slave. Touch me not,
young prince; I may no longer be handled by thee.' Seeing his
mother dragged away, the child ran after her, his eyes dimmed
with tears, and crying 'mother.' The Brahman purchaser kicked
him when he came up; but he would not let his mother go, and
·
*
SAK
537
6
continued crying "mother, mother.' The queen then said to the
Brahman, 'Be so kind, my master, as to buy also this child, as
without him I shall prove to thee but a useless purchase. Be
thus merciful to me in my wretchedness; unite me with my son,
like a cow to her calf.'* The Brahman agrees: Take this
money and give me the boy.'" When his wife and son were
being carried away, Harischandra broke out into lamentations :
"She, my spouse, whom neither air, nor sun, nor moon, nor
stranger had beheld, is now gone into slavery. This my son, a
scion of the solar race, with his delicate hands and fingers, has
been sold. Woe to me, wicked wretch that I am.""—0. S. T.,
Vol. I, pp. 379-383.
2. Saivyá was the name of the wife of king Jyámagha. Her
history will be found in the account of her husband. [JYÁMAGHA.]
Saka-One of the seven Dwipas, or great insular continents;
it is surrounded with a sea of milk. In this Dwipa there are
seven mountains and seven sacred rivers. There grows a large
Saka (teak) tree, frequented by the Siddhas and Gandharbas, the
wind from which, as produced by its fluttering leaves, diffuses
delight. The inhabitants are described as sinless and happy.
Sakalya--A teacher of the Rig Veda. He is said in the
Vishnu Purána to have divided the Sanhita, or collection of hymns,
given to him, into five Sanhitas, which he distributed amongst as
many disciples, who became founders of schools for teaching the
truths of the Veda.
Sakapurni--(Called also Rathantara.) A teacher of the Rig
Veda, who divided the original Sanhita into three portions, and
added a glossary (Nirukta) constituting a fourth. See Vishnu
Purána, 277.
Sakas-The Sakai and Saca of classical writers; the Indo-
Scythians of Ptolemy; Turks or Tartar tribes, who established
themselves about a century and a half before our cra, along the
western districts of India, from the Hindu Koh to the mouths of
the Indus. Professor Wilson thinks they were not improbably
* The whole of this reads like a scene from "Uncle Tom's Cabin."
68
538
SAK
38
connected with our Saxon forefathers.
Sixteen kings of this race
are mentioned in the Vishnu Purána which also mentions their
conquest by Sagara, along with the Yavanas and Kambojas.
Sakha--One of the sons of Kumára, and grandson of Agni.
Sakha--A branch (i. e., of the Veda considered as a tree); it
means sometimes a division or part; sometimes an edition or
recension. A Sákhá generally comprised a Sanhita and a Bráh-
mana.
Sakra-1, A name of Indra, (q. v.); 2, One of the twelve.
Ádityas.
Sakra-The powerful god, au epithet of Indra.
Saktas--The worshippers of the SAKTI, the power or energy
of the divine nature in action, are exceedingly numerous amongst
all classes of Hindus. This active energy is, agreeably to the spirit
of the mythological system, personified, and the form with which
it is invested, considered as the especial object of veneration,
depends upon the bias entertained by the individuals towards the
adoration of VISHNU or SIVA. In the former case the personified
ŚAKTI is termed Lakshmí, or Ma¤Á LAKSHMÍ, and in the latter,
PARVATÍ, Bhavání, or DURGA. Even SARASVATí enjoys some
portion of homage, much more than her lord, BRAHMA, whilst a
vast variety of inferior beings of malevolent character and formi-
dable aspect receive the worship of the multitude. The bride of
ŚIVA, however, in one or other of her many and varied forms, is
by far the most popular emblem in Bengal and along the Ganges.
The worship of the female principle, as distinct from the
divinity, appears to have originated in the literal interpretation
of the metaphorical language of the Vedas, in which the will or
purpose to create the universe is represented as originating from
the creator, and co-existent with him as his bride, and part of
himself. Thus in the Rig Veda it is said, "That divine spirit
breathed without afflation, single with (Svadha) her who is
sustained within him; other than him nothing existed. First
desire was formed in his mind, and that became the original
productive seed," and the Sáma Veda, speaking of the divine cause
of creation, says, "He felt not delight, being alone. He wished.
SAK
539
another, and instantly became such. He caused his own self to
fall in twain, and thus became husband and wife. He approached
her, and thus were human beings produced." In these passages
it is not unlikely that reference is made to the primitive tradition
of the origin of mankind, but there is also a figurative representa-
tion of the first indication of wish or will in the Supreme Being.
Being devoid of all qualities whatever, he was alone, until he
permitted the wish to be multiplied, to be generated within himself.
This wish being put into action, it is said, became united with its
parent, and then created beings were produced. Thus this first
manifestation of divine power is termed Ichchhárúpa, personified
desire, and the creator is designated as Svechchhámaya, united
with his own will, whilst in the Vedanta philosophy, and the
popular sects, such as that of KABIR, and others, in which all
created things are held to be illusory, the Sakti, or active will of
the deity, is always designated and spoken of as Máyá or Mahá-
máyá, origiual deceit or illusion.
Another set of notions of some antiquity which contributed to
form the character of the Śakti, whether general or particular,
were derived from the Sánkhya philosophy. In this system
nature, Prakriti, or Múla Prakriti, is defined to be of eternal
existence and independent origin, distinct from the supreme spirit,
productive though no production, and the plastic origin of all
things, including even the gods. Hence Prakriti has come to be
regarded as the mother of gods and men, whilst as one with matter,
the source of error, it is again identified with Maya, or delusion,
and as co-existent with the supreme as his Sakti, his personified
energy, or his bride.
These mythological fancies have been principally disseminated
by the Puranas, in all which Prakriti, or Máya bears a prominent
part. The aggregate of the whole is given in the Brahmâ
Vaivartta Purana, one section of which, the Prakriti Khanda, is
devoted to the subject, and in which the legends relating to the
principal modifications of the female principle are narrated.-
Wilson.
Sakti-Energy. Potency. Mythologically the word means
consort of a deity. Parvati is the Sakti of Śiva. Sarasvati the
540
SAK
Sakti of Brahmá. The Sakti is said to have originated in God, the
Supreme Being. From the first Śakti nine others are derived who
are called Navasakti. They for their arrogance, were banished
from heaven to earth; and when here obtained the office of
protecting mankind from demons; hence temples are erected and
festivals celebrated in their honour. They are in fact the
Grámadevatas so often mentioned. The Śakti is worshipped in
the pagodas under the form of the Sivalinga. There are many
special forms of Sakti-worship, some of them accompanied with
the grossest obscenities. The Abbé Dubois terms one of them an
"occult sacrifice, secret and abominable." The Sakti worship is to
a certain extent sanctioned by the Puránas, but it is especially
prescribed in certain works called Tantras. The female forms of
Rudra, white and black, are termed in the Vishnu Purána, Śaktis.
Sakti, Saktri—A celebrated sage, the son of Vaṣiṣhtha. King
Kalmáshapáda, one day met Sakti, in a narrow path in a thicket
and desired him to stand out of his way. The sage refused; ou
which the rája beat him with his whip, and Sakti cursed him to
become a Rakshas, or cannibal. The Rája in this transformation
killed and ate its author, Sakti, and all the other sons of Vasishtha.
Paráṣara was a posthumous son of Śakti. In the twenty-fifth
Dwápara Sakti was the Vyása.
Sakuni-1, The son of the Rája of Gandhára, who conducted
his sister Gandhárí to the city of Hastinápur to be married to
Rája Dritarashtra. He was very skilful in throwing dice, and in
playing with dice that were loaded; so that he always won the
game. At the celebrated gambling match when Yudhishthira lost
all his property, himself, his brothers and his wife, it was Sakuni
who threw the dice and won every game, and obliged the Pandavas
to go into exile. Sakuni plotted with Duryodhana to seize
Krishna, when the latter revealed his divinity and disconcerted
the whole.
Sakuni-2, A Daitya of great prowess, one of the sous of
Hiranyáksha.
Sakuni--A female fiend or Asura, the daughter of Bali, and
sister of Pútaná.
SAK-SAL
541
Sakuntala-The daughter of the celebrated Rishi Visvamitra,
by one of the Apsarasas named Menaka, who was sent from
heaven by Indra to allure the sage from his solitary penance.
"Visvamitra yielded and lived with Menaká in connubial bliss for
some years. When Visvamitra returned to his ambitious austerities,
Menaká went back to heaven, and their child, Sakuntala, was
adopted by the Rishi Kanwa, and brought up at his hermitage, in
a forest to the south of Hastinapura, the city in which were
reigning the princes of the Lunar line. To Dushyanta, the
reigning monarch, it was decreed by the celestials, the daughter
of Menaká should be married ;"* the plot of Kálidása's drama of
"Sakuntala or the Lost Ring," is arranged to bring about the
marriage.
Sakwala-A mundane system; being the space to which the
light of a sun extends, each sakwala, of which there is a great
number, including a heaven, earth, hells, &c.
Sakya, or Sakyamuni-The author or reviver of Buddhism,
whose birth appears to have occurred in the seventh, and death in
the sixth century before Christ (B. c. 621-543). He was the son
of Suddhodana, king of Kapila-vastu, or of Magadha (Behar.)
See Buddha and Gautama.
Sala-One of the sons of Báblíka, of the family of Kuru.
Salagrama-A holy place of pilgrimage, often mentioned, but
the locality is unknown. The kings Agnídhra, Bharata, and
others, are said to have retired thither to a life of penance. The
term Sálagráma is usually applied to a stone, an ammonite, which
is supposed to be a type of Vishnu, and of which the worship is
enjoined in some books. Ammonites are found chiefly in the
Gandak river, and Professor Wilson thinks that the Sálagráma
Tírtha was probably at the source of that stream, or at its
confluence with the Ganges. He adds that its sanctity, and that
of the stone, are probably of comparatively modern origin.
Salaka-One of the eight branches of medical science; that
which treats of external organic affections; this and Salya
constitute surgery.
* Mrs. Manning, A. and M. I.
542
SAL-SAM
•
Saligotra-A teacher of the Sáma-veda; he was the son of
Lángali and established six schools.
Salin-One of the fifteen teachers of the white Yajush.
Salisuka-A king of Magadha, of the Maurya dynasty, the sou
of Sangata.
Saliya-A disciple of Vedamítra and teacher of the Rig Veda.
Salmali-One of the Dwipas or seven great insular continents.
into which the Puránas divide the world. In this Dwipa there
are seven mountain ranges abounding in precious gems and
medicinal herbs. There are seven rivers whose waters wash away
sins. A large Sálmalí (silk cotton) tree grows in this Dwípa and
gives it its name. The Dwipa is sourrounded by the Súra sea
(sea of wine) of the same extent as itself.
Salwas, or Salyas-Are placed by the Váyu and Matsya
amongst the central nations, and seem to have occupied part of
Rájasthan, a Sálwa Rája being described in the Vishnu Purána as
engaging in hostilities with the people of Dwaraka in Guzerat.
Salya-The first of the eight branches of medical science, that
which treats of the extraction of extraneous bodies. Śalya and
Saláka constitute surgery.
Salya-1, A Danava, the son of Viprachittí renowned for great
strength; 2, The Rája of Madra. He sold his sister Mádrí to be
wife to Pánḍu. He was Rája of one of the mountain tribes occupy-
ing the southern slopes of the Himálayas. At the beginning of
the great war he was on the side of the Pandavas, but afterwards
deserted them, and drove the chariot of Karna in his combat with
· Arjuna. He obtained the command of the army for one day, the
last of the war, and was slain by Yudhishthira.
Samadhi-The result of meditation; or that state of mind
when there is an absence of all idea of individuality, when the
meditator, the meditation, and the thing or object meditated upon,
are all considered to be but one. According to the text of Patan-
jali Restraint of the body, retention of the mind, and meditation,
which thence is exclusively confined to one object is Dhyána ; the
idea of identification with the object of such meditation, so as if
:
SAM
543
devoid of individual nature, is Samádhi. The word is sometimes
used to express the power that enables its possessor to exercise an
entire control over all his faculties, and keep them in perfect
restraint.
Saman-The name of the third Veda. See SAMA-VEDA.
Samanera-The novice of Buddhism, from sranana, an ascetic.
He must be at least eight years of age, and must have received the
consent of his parents to his abandonment of the world. The vows
of the Sámanéra are not in any case irrevocable, and there are
many circumstances that make his yoke less onerous than that
of the stricter communities among the western celibates.
Samanodakas-People who are related or connected only by
presentations of water. V. P., p. 316.
Samara--The eldest of the hundred sons of Nípa, and king of
Kampilya in the Doab. The Matsya makes Samara the son of
Káṣya.
Samaravira-A king in Bharatakshetra, whose daughter
Yaşodá was married to prince Varddhamana, who afterwards
became the distinguished Jaina saint Mahávíra.
Sama-veda-Sáman is the name of third Veda, which in the
Bhagavat Gíta is called the best of the three. It appears to be
little more than a recast of the Rich, (see Rig Veda) consisting
chiefly of the same hymns, broken up and arranged so as to be
chanted during the various expiatory ceremonies. Thus, while
the Rich is said to be in regular metre to be recited aloud; and
the Yájush consists chiefly of prose to be inaudibly muttered, the
Sáman contains a certain rhythm, or mode, which was sung to
music, and the name is also generally employed to designate a hymn.
The principal part of the Sáma-veda is that entitled Árchika.
It comprises prayers arranged in six chapters; sub-divided into
half chapters and into sections, ten in each chapter, and usually
containing exactly ten verses each. The same collection of prayers,
in the same order, but prepared for chanting, is distributed in
seventeen chapters, under the title of Grámageya gána. Another
portion of the Sáma-veda, arranged for chanting, bears the title of
Aranya-gaua, and is sub-divided in the same manner as the Árchika,
544
SAM
There are four Brahmanas of this Veda, received by four different
schools. One is denominated Shadvinsa, probably from its contain-
ing twenty-six chapters. Another is called the Adbhuta Bráh-
mana. But the best known is that entitled the Tandya, and an
exposition of it by Sáyanáchárya. Its principal Upanishad is the
Chhandogya, divided into eight chapters. Another is called the
Kena Upanishad. These works are disquisitions on abtruse and
mystical theology. The Kena has been translated by Rammohan
Roy. SMALL. H. S. L.
Samba-A son of Krishna by his wife Jambavati, celebrated
for his great strength. At the Swayamvara of the daughterof
Duryodhana, the princess was carried off by Sámba. Duryod-
hana, Karna, Bhishma, Drona, and other celebrated chiefs, incensed
at his audacity, pursued him and took him prisoner. When the
Yádavas heard of the occurrence, they prepared for war; but
Balaráma undertook alone to procure the liberation of Sámba; he
succeeded by threatening to throw the city of Hastinapura into
the River. Sámba for deceiving and ridiculing the Rishis was
cursed to bring forth an iron pestle, which was broken and thrown
into the sea; a spike of it, that could not be broken, was swallowed
by a fish; the fish was caught, and the spike extracted by a
hunter named Jará, who tipped his arrow with the spike. Krishna
V. P.
was ultimately killed with this arrow.
:
a
Sambara-1, An ancient aboriginal king mentioned in the Rig
Veda as a black-skinned enemy, who dwelt forty years on the
mountains and possessed a hundred impregnable cities. These
cities were coveted by one of Indra's white-complexioned friends,
the hospitable Divodása.' Divodása was repulsed, and obliged
to hide himself in the water; but Indra to give him pleasure,
struck off the head of Sambara. Sambara lived in Udavraja,
country into which the waters flow." He believed himself invul-
nerable: but Indra discovered him when issuing from the moun-
tain, and scattered the hundreds and thousands of his hosts. For
the mighty Divodása, Indra, who dances with delight in battle,
destroyed ninety cities. Indra hurled Sambara from the mountain ;
ninety-nine cities he destroyed; the hundredth he gave to Divo-
dása.- Wilson's Rig Veda,
SAM
545
C
Sambara--2, A great Asura or demon, terrible as death,'
who knowing that Pradyumna, if he lived, would be his destroyer,
carried off the infant and threw him into the ocean. Pradyumna
was preserved by a fish and rescued. When he reached manhood
and heard, what Sambara had done; he challenged the demon, and
after a terrible conflict, killed him. V. P.
Sambara-3, One of the demons who personify drought; they
are described in the Rig Veda as shutting up the watery treasures
in the clouds, until Indra attacks them and after severe contests
overcomes them, and the clouds discharge their imprisoned waters
on the thirsty earth.
"And now the clouds disperse, the blue
Of heaven once more comes forth to view.
The sun shines out, all nature smiles,
Redeemed from Vrittra's powers and wiles;
The gods, with gratulations meet,
And loud acclaim, the victor greet ;
While Indra's mortal votaries sing
The praises of their friend and king."
O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 135.
Sambhala-A village celebrated as the birth-place of the sage
Kalki, who was endowed with eight superhuman faculties.
Sambhu-1, One of the eleven Rudras ; 2, The wife of Dhruva.
Sambhuta--A prince, the son of Trasadasyu.
Sambhuti Fitness.' A daughter of Daksha and wife of
Marichi.
Samika-One of the sons of Súra and brother of Vasudeva.
Sampadvasa--One of the seven principal solar rays-the one
which supplies heat to the planet Mars.
Sampara-A prince, the son of Samara.
Samparayana-One of the fifteen teachers of the White
Yojush, who founded various new schools.
Sampati-The son of Syení and brother of Jatayu. It was
he who informed Hanumán that Rávana had carried Síta to Lanka.
69
546
SAM-SAN
:
Samrat-1, The Manu of any particular period; 2, One of
the daughters of Priyavrata, by his wife Kámya.
Samudra-The king of rivers.
Samudra-The daughter of Samudrá by his wife Velá.
Samudrá was married to Prachínavarshish, and became the mother
of the ten Prachetasas.
Samvara-A son of Kasyapa and Danu, and one of the most
celebrated Daityas. He is called in the Vishnu Purána the
mightiest of enchanters, to whom Hiranyakaṣipu had recourse,
when he was himself unable to influence or destroy his son
Prahláda. Samvara undertook to effect his destruction, but all his
schemes were frustrated.
Samvarana-A prince, the son of Riksha, and father of Kuru.
Samvatsara-1, The name of the first of the five Cycles or
Yugas, consisting of twelve years; 2, The lord of times and
seasons.
Samvit―That in which all things are found or known, and
which is found or known in all things. A synonym of Mahat.
Samya-An original property of man. One of the eight
perfections or Siddhis, defined in the notes to the Vishnu Purán a
as sameness of degree.
Samyati-A son of Prachinvat or Bahugava, of the race of
Puru.
Samyoga-The union of contiguity, in opposition to that of
identification or perfect unity-Tadaikyam.
Sanaischara, Saturn-The son of Rudra and Suvarchalá.
Saturn is also represented in the Vishnu Purána as the son of the
sun and his handmaid Chháya, and is said to move slowly along in
a car drawn by piebald steeds.
Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatana, Sanatkumara-Sons of
Rudra, who declining to create progeny, remained, as the name of
the last implies, ever-boys, kumárás, that is, ever pure and
innocent; whence their creation is called the Káumara.
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547
Sanakadi, Sampradayis-One of the Vaishnava sects among
the Hindus. They worship Krishna and Radha conjointly, and
are distinguished from other sects by a circular black mark in the
centre of the ordinary double streak of white earth; and also by
the use of the necklace and rosary of the stem of Tulasi. The
members of this sect are scattered throughout the whole of Upper
India. They are very numerous about Mathura, and they are also
among the most numerous of the Vaishnava sects in Bengal.
Sandansa--One of the Narakas, the hell of pincers; into
which falls the violator of a vow, and one who breaks the rules of
his order.
Sandhya--Twilight; a form of Brahmá; also the name of the
period preceding a Yuga. In the Vishnu Purána it is said, "The
night is called Ushá, and the day is denominated Vyush'ta, and
the interval between them is called Sandhyá. On the occurrence
of the awful Sandhya, the terrific fiends termed Mandehas, attempt
to devour the sun; for Brahmá denounced this curse upon them,
that, without the power to perish, they should die every day (and
revive by night), and therefore a fierce contest occurs daily
between them and the sun. At this season pious Brahmans scatter
water, purified by the mystical Omkára, and consecrated by the
Gayatri, and by this water, as by a thunderbolt, the foul fiends
are consumed. When the first oblation is offered with solemn
invocations in the morning rite, the thousand-rayed deity shines
forth with unclouded splendour. Omkára is Vishnu the mighty,
the substance of the three Vedas, the lord of speech; and by its
enunciation those Rákshasas are destroyed. The sun is a principal
part of Vishnu, and light is his immutable essence, the active
manifestation of which is excited by the mystic syllable Om.
Light effused by the utterance of Omkára becomes radiant, and
burns up entirely the Rakshasas called Mandehas. The performance
of the Sandhya (the morning) sacrifice must never therefore be
delayed, for he who neglects it is guilty of the murder of the sun.
Protected thus by the Brahmans and the pigmy sages called
Bálakhilyas, the sun goes on his course to give light to the world.
Sandipani-The tutor of Krishna and Balarama; who was so
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SAN
astonished at their rapid progress that he thought the sun and moon
had become his scholars. When they had acquired all that he could
teach and enquired what fee he demanded, he requested them to
give him his dead son drowned in the sea of Prabhása. The sea
said, 'I have not killed the son of Sándípani; a demon named
Panchajana, who lives in the form of a couch shell, seized the boy ;
he is still under my waters.' Krishna then plunged into the sea ;
and having slain the demon, took the conch shell as his horn; the
boy was also restored to life and given to his father.
Sandhyansa-The name of the period succeeding a Yuga.
Sandilya-A celebrated teacher of whom Mr. Max Müller
says, "It was an epoch in the history of the human mind when
the identity of the masculine self and the neutral Brahma was for
the first time perceived, and the name of the discoverer has not
been forgotten. It was Sandilya who declared that the self within
our heart is Brahmá, and this tenet, somewhat amplified, is quoted
as Sándilya's wisdom." The age in which he lived is not given.
-A. S. L., p. 323.
Sandracottus-See Chandragupta.
Sangata-One of the ten Mauryas, descendants of Chandragupta,
whose dynasty at Mithila lasted a hundred and thirty-seven years.
Sangha-An assembly or chapter of Buddhist priests.
Sangha-bheda-The causing of a division among the priest-
hood.
Sangha disesa-A class of priestly misdemeanours.
Sanghamitta-A princess, the daughter of the grandson of
Chandragupta, who on being left by her husband became a
priestess, and was the first who visited Ceylon.
Sargramajit-One of the sons of Krishna, by his wife Saivya
or Mitravinda.
Sanhataswa-A prince, the son of Nikumbha.
Sanhitas-Collections of Hymns. By a Sanhita is generally
understood a collection or compilation. The Sauhitas of the Vedas
are collections of hymns and prayers belonging to them, arranged
according to the judgment of some individual sage who is there-
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549
fore regarded as the originator and teacher of each. The Vishņu
Purána mentions the names of the principal teachers of the
Sanhitas of the Vedas and of their disciples and the schools founded
by them.
Sanhlada-The youngest of the four sons of Hiranyakasipu,
distinguished for his heroism, and termed the augmentor of the
Daitya race.
Sani-Saturn. See Sanaischara above.
Sanjaya--The minister and charioteer of Mahárája Dhritará-
shtra. He was sent on an embassy to the Páṇḍavas, and is, says
Mr. Wheeler, evidently the type of an ancient diplomatist. His
object was to induce the Páṇḍavas to return to Hastinapur, with-
out giving them any distinct pledge that their Ráj would be
restored to them. He was surprised at the greatness of their pre-
parations for war. The Pandavas received him in Council, and
he delivered the message of the Mahárája; to which Yudhishthira
replied that whoever is wise would never give his consent to a war
on trivial grounds; but that when war seemed to be inevitable it
would be useless in them to humiliate themselves to the dust for
the sake of concord. CC
He, however, who is intent upon a war
of malice is always in a fever, and the fever burns stronger and
stronger in his heart day by day, until he can feel no pleasure in
the ordinary gratifications of the world." As for Dhritarashtra we
acknowledge him to be our Mahárája, and we know that he is
kind and benevolent, and averse to doing evil; but for the sake
of humouring his son Duryodhana, and keeping on good terms
with him, the Mahárája stoops to act deceitfully towards us, and
would entrap us into his presence by mere offers of protection."
Krishna spoke to the same effect, Yudhishthira then gave costly
presents to the envoy Sanjaya, both for himself and some of his old
friends, to whom he sent kind messages. The mission however
was a fruitless one, and when the war broke out, Sanjaya was
employed to inform the blind Mahárája of every event that trans-
pired during its progress. It was Sanjaya who recited the Bhagavat
Gíta; 2, A prince, the son of Supárṣwa; 3, the son of Pratik-
shatra ; 4, A prince of the family of Ikshváku, son of Rananjaya.
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SAN
Sanjna-The daughter of Viṣvakarman, was the wife of the
sun and bore him three children, the Manu (Vaivaswata), Yama,
and the goddess Yamí (or the Yamuna river). Unable to endure
the fervours of her lord, Sanjná gave him Chháyá his handmaid,
and repaired to the forests to practise devout exercises. The sun,
supposing Chhayá to be his wife Sanjná, begot by her three other
children, Sanaiṣchara (Saturn), another Manu (Sávarṇi), and a
daughter Tapatí (the Tapti river). Chháyá, upon one occasion,
being offended with Yama, the son of Sanjna, denounced an impre-
cation upon him, and thereby revealed to Yama and to the sun
that she was not in truth Sanjná, the mother of the former. Being
further informed by Chháyá that his wife had gone to the wilder-
ness, the sun beheld her by the eye of meditation engaged in
austerities, in the figure of a mare (in the region of Uttara Kuru.)
Metamorphosing himself into a horse, he rejoined his wife, and
begot three other children, the two Asvins and Revanta, and then
brought Sanjná back to his own dwelling. To diminish his
intensity, Visvakarman placed the luminary on his lathe, to grind
off some of his effulgence; and in this manner reduced it an
eighth, for more than that was inseparable. The parts of the
divine Vaishnava splendour, residing in the sun, that were filed
off by Viswakarman, fell blazing down upon the earth, and the
artist constructed of them the discus of Vishņu, the trident of
Śiva, the weapon of the god of wealth, the lauce of Kártikeya,
and the weapons of the other gods: all these Vişvakarman
fabricated from the superfluous rays of the sun. V. P.
Sankalpa-1, One of the prajápatis, according to the Kúrma
list; 2, A daughter of Daksha and wife of Dharma.
Sankana-A prince, the son of Kalmáshapáda according to
the Rámáyana.
Sankara--1, A name of Śiva; 2, A renowned Dánava, son of
Kasyapa and Danu.
Sankara Acharya-The great Saiva Reformer, who flourished,
it is supposed, in the eighth or ninth century; Professor Wilson
is of opinion that of the present popular forms of the Hindu
religion, some assumed their actual state earlier than the above
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551
date. Sankara Áchárya was a distinguished professor of the
Vedanta and Advaita system. He was a native of Kérala or
Malabar, of the tribe of Nambúri brahmaus, and in the mytholo-
gical language of the sect an incarnation of Śiva.
"In Malabar, he is said to have divided the four original tribes
into seventy-two, or eighteen sub-divisions each, and to have
assigned them their respective rites and duties. Notwithstanding
this, he seems to have met with particular disrespect, either on
account of his opinions, or his origin, or his wandering life. On
his return home, on one occasion, his mother died, and he had to
perform the funeral rites, for which his relations refused to supply
him with fire, and at which all the Brahmans declined to assist.
Sankara then produced fire from his arm aud burnt the corpse in
the court-yard of the house, denouncing imprecations to the effect,
that the Brahmans there should not study the Vedas, that religious
mendicants should never obtain alms, and that the dead should
always be burnt close to the houses in which they had resided-a
custom which is said to have survived him.
"All accounts concur in representing Sankara as leading an
erratic life, and engaging in successful controversy with various
sects, whether Saiva, or Vaishnava, or of less orthodox opinions.
as the Buddhists and Jainas. In the course of his peregrinations,
he established several Maths, or convents, under the presidencies
of his disciples, particularly one, still flourishing at Sringeri, or
Sríngiri, on the western ghats, near the sources of the Tungabadra.
Towards the close of his life, he repaired as far as Kashmir, and
seated himself, after triumphing over various opponents, on the
throne of Sarasvati. He next went to Badarikásrama, and finally
to Kedarnath, in the Himálaya, where he died at the early age of
thirty-two. The events of his last days are confirmed by local
traditions, and the Pítha, or throne of Sarasvati, on which Sankara
sat, is still shown in Kashmir; whilst at the temple of Siva at
Badari, a Malabar Brahman, of the Nambúri tribe, has always
been the officiating priest.
"The influence exercised by Sankara in person, has been perpe-
tuated by his writings, the most eminent of which are his Bha-
shyas, or commentaries on the Sútras or Aphorisms of Vyása. A
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SAN
commentary on the Bhagavat Gita, is also ascribed to him, as is
one on the Nrisinha Tapaníya Upanishad, and a cento of verses in
praise of Durga. The Saundarya Lahari is likewise said to be his
composition." See VEDANTA.
Sankarshana--A name of Balaráma, given to him in conse-
quence of his being extracted from his mother's womb to be traus-
ferred to that of Rohiní.
Sankasya-A country in the Doab, near Mainpuri.
Sankha-1, A powerful many-headed serpent, one of the
progeny of Kadru; 2, one of the minor Dwípas, peopled by
Mlechhas who worship Hindu deities; 3, A conch shell, one of
the principal weapons of Vishnu.
Sankhakuta-One of the mountain ridges on the north of
Meru.
Sankhanata-A prince, the son of Vajranábha, a descendant
of Ráma.
Sankhapada-One of the eight Lókapálas, and sop of the
patriarch Kardama by Sruti. He is the regent of the south.
Sankhya--One of the six Sastras properly so called. It is
ascribed to the Muni Kapila. It is the principal of the six philo-
sophical schools of India. This system say some, is an attempt
to account for the existence of the universe without the deity, by
asserting the principle of duality, or in other words, the co-exist-
ence of spirit and matter. Dr. Ballantyne gives the following
outline of the system. "The Sánkhya makes a step in advance
of the Nyáya by reducing the external from the category of
substance to that of quality. Souls alone are, in the Sánkhya,
regarded as substances; whatever affects the soul being arranged
under the head of a quality-1, pleasing; 2, displeasing; or 3,
indifferent. This mode of viewing the universe may be desig-
nated the emotional view of things.
The word Sankhya means "numeral, rational or discrimina-
tive." The system promises beatitude as the reward of that discri-
mination which rightly distinguishes between soul and nature.
The meaning to be attached to these two words will be explained
presently.
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553
The Sankhya system was delivered by Kapila in a set of
aphorisms no less concise than those of the Nyáya. He begins
by defining the chief end of Man. His first aphorism is as
follows :-" Now the complete (or highest) end of man." By the
three kinds of pain are meant-1, diseases, griefs, &c., which are
intrinsic or inherent in the sufferer; 2, injuries from ordinary
external things; and 3, injuries from things supernatural or meteo-
rological. In his nineteenth aphorism, he declares that the bondage
(bandha) under which the soul, or individual man (purusha),
groans, is due to its conjunction with nature (prakriti); and this
bondage is merely seeming, because soul is "ever essentially a
pure and free intelligence."
In his fifty-ninth aphorism, he says again of the soul's bondage
"It is merely verbal, and not a reality, since it resides in [the
soul's organ] the mind [and not in the soul or self];" on which
the Hindu commentator remarks,—“ That is to say, since bondage,
&c., resides only in the mind (chitta), all this, as far as concerns
the soul [purusha], is merely verbal, because it is merely a
reflexion, like the redness of a [pellucid] crystal [when a China
rose is near it], but not a reality, with no false imputation like the
redness of the China rose itself."
Of nature, which thus, by conjunction, makes the soul seem to
be in bondage when it is really not, he gives, in his sixty-second
aphorism, the following account :-" Nature (prakriti) is the state
of equipoise of goodness (sattwa), passion (rajas), and darkness
(tamas); from nature [proceeds] intellect (mahat), from intellect
self-consciousness (ahankára), from self-consciousness the five
subtile elements (taumátra), and both sets [external and internal]
of organs (indriya), and from the subtile elements the gross
elements (sthúla-bhâta), [then, besides, there is] soul (purusha) ;
such is the class of twenty-five."
(6
We may add further, that, in aphorism 105, we are told that
experience (bhoga) [whether of pleasure or pain, liberation from
both of which is desiderated], ends with [the discrimination of]
thought [i. e., soul as contra-distinguished from nature];" that a
plurality of souls is asserted (in opposition to the Vedanta) in
another aphorism (150), viz.: "From the diverse allotment of
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554
SAN
birth, &c., the plurality of souls [is to be inferred] ;" and, finally,
that the Sánkhya system explicitly repudiates the charge of anni-
hilation, aphorism 47 declaring that, " In neither way [whether
as a means or as an end] is this [viz., annihilation], the soul's aim."
Mr. J. C. Thomson writes, "The Sánkhya is divided into three
classes :-1, The pure Sánkhya, which, if it admits, does not
mention, a deity or Supreme Being, but considers the material
essence as the plastic principle of all things, and is therefore called
nirishwara or atheistical. Its text books are the Sánkhya-
pravachana,' and the Tattwa Samása,' both attributed to Kapila
himself, and the Sánkhya-káríka,' to his disciple Ishwara Krishņa.
Asuri and Panchashika are also mentioned as the earliest followers
of this system; 2, The Yoga system, called seshwara, or theistical,
founded by Patanjali, whose Yoga-sútras are its text book, and
followed by the author of the Bhágavat Gítá; 3, The Puránic
school, a corrupt mixture of the other two. (Lit., rational,'
from Sânkhya, 'reasouing, computation.')
6
(
Sankhyayana-A teacher of the Rig Veda.
Sankranta-The beginning of the year or a month, and the
name of the festival which is commonly called Pongal, (q. v.)
Sankriti-1, A prince, the son of Sankriti; 2, The son of
Nara, descendant of Bharata.
Sanku-One of the sons of Ugrasena.
Sankusiras-A powerful Dánava-one of the sons of Kasyapa
and Danu.
Sannati--Humility; one of the daughters of the patriarch
Daksha, who was married to the Muni Kratu.
Sannatimat-A prince, the son of Sumati,
Sannyasi-An ascetic; the last of the four conditions of life
prescribed for brahmans. These four conditions are: 1, That of
the Brahmachári or bachelor, who, from the time of his invest-
ment with the sacred cord, is required to tend the sacred fires and
to follow his studies under, or in the presence of, his preceptor;
2, That of the Grihasta or householder, who, from his marriage,
must strictly observe his religious duties, maintain the sacred fires,
SAN
555
aud liberally practise hospitality for the support of the other three
orders; 3, That of the Vánaprastha or recluse, who, with or
without his wife, relinquishes domestic life, retires to the desert,
feeding on leaves, roots and fruits, or on the hospitality of the
second order, and continues to perform his daily rites; 4, That of
the Sannyási or ascetic, who performs no rite whatever, and
appears sometimes in a state of nudity; who has renounced social
life, with all its enjoyments and attachments, and subjected his
passions; who lives on what is given him unasked, and remains in
a village only one day, in a town not more than three days, and iu
a city only five; lest his mind become secularized.
Sansapayana--A teacher of the Puránas, and composer of a
“fundamental Sanhita," the substance of which is included in the
Vishnu Purána.
Sanskaras-The ten essential ceremonies of Hindus of the first
three castes; viz., three before birth; then, "At the birth of a
child the father should feed two brahmans, seated with their faces
to the east; and according to his means offer sacrifices to the gods
and progenitors. Let him present to the manes balls of meat mixed
with curds, barley, and jujubes, with the part of his hand sacred
to the gods, or with that sacred to Prajapati. Let a brahman
perform such a Śraddha, with all its offerings and circumambula-
tions, on every occasion of good fortune."
"Next, upon the tenth day (after birth), let the father give a
name to his child,-the first term of which shall be the appellation
of a god; the second, of a man ; as Sarman or Varman; the former
being the appropriate designation of a brahman; the latter, of a
warrior; whilst Gupta and Dása are best fitted for the names of
Vaisyas and Śúdras. A name should not be void of meaning; it
should not be indecent, nor absurd, nor ill-omened, nor fearful; it
should consist of an even number of syllables; it should not be
too long, nor too short, nor too full of long vowels, but contain a
proportion of short vowels, and be easily articulated. After this
and the succeeding initiatory rites, the purified youth is to acquire
religious knowledge, in the mode that has been described, in the
dwelling of his spiritual guide."
556
SAN
Santana-Mercury. The son of the Rudra Ugra.
Santanu A king of the lunar race, the thirteenth in descent
from Kuru, the prince who gives the designation to Duryodhana
and his brothers, thence called Kauravas, their cousins, the sons of
Pándu being termed Pánḍavas. Sántanu had four sons, Bhishma,
Chitrangada, Vichitravírya and Vyása. Of these the eldest and
youngest both lived unmarried, the other two Chitrangada and
Vichitravírya both died without issue; on which, to prevent the
extinction of the family, and in accordance with the ancient Hindu
law, Vyása begot offspring on his brother's widows. The sons
were Dhritarashtra and Pándu. Dhritarashtra had a hundred
sons by Gandhárí, the princess of Gandhára, of whom Duryodhana
was the eldest. Pánḍu had five sons, the celebrated princes
Yudhishthira, Bhíma, Arjuna, and the twin brothers Nakula and
Sahadeva. Of these the first was remarkable for his piety and
integrity; the second for his gigantic bulk and strength. Arjuna
was eminent for his valour, and was the particular friend of
Krishna-Wilson, Vol. III, p. 291. See Vidura.
Santarddana--A prince, the son of Dhrish taketu, rája of
Kaikeya, or according to the Pádma, king of Kashmír.
Santateyu-A prince, the son of Randraswa, of the house of
Puru.
Santati-The son of Alarka, who became king and succeeded
his father as sovereign of Benares, but whose reign was only that of
an ordinary mortal, though his father is said to have reigned as a
youthful monarch for sixty thousand and sixty hundred years.
Santi-1, Placidity, a property of sensible objects, according to
the Sánkhya philosophy; 2, The Indra of the tenth Manwantara;
3, A brahman, pupil of Angiras, who having suffered the holy fire
to go out in his master's absence, prayed to Agui, and so propi-
tiated him, that he not only relighted the flame but desired Sánti
to demand a further boon; 4, A prince, the son of Níla; 5, A
daughter of Daksha, ' Expiation,' and wife of Dharma,
Santideva--A daughter of Devaka, who was married to
Vasudeva.
SAN-SAR
557
Santosha--Content. The son of Dharma by his wife Tushti,
(Resignation) one of the daughters of Dharma.
Sapeijon--A teacher of the white Yajush and founder of
several schools.
Sapindana-An ancestral Śráddha, performed at the expiration
of twelve months after the death of a person. The practices of
this rite are the same as those of the monthly obsequies, but a
lustration is made with four vessels of water, perfumes, and
sesamum ; one of these vessels is considered as dedicated to the
deceased, the other three to the progenitors in general; and the
contents of the former are to be transferred to the other three, by
which the deceased becomes included in the class of ancestors to
whom worship is to be addressed with all the ceremonies of the
Śráddha.
Sapindas-Relations connected by offerings of cakes to common
ancestors; they extend to seven degrees, ascending or descending.
Saptadasa-A collection of hymns created from the western
mouth of Brahmá, along with the Sáma Veda, &c.
Sarabhanga-A celebrated devotee described in the Rámá-
yana. He was visited by Indra and invited to return with him to
heaven; and when asked afterwards by Ráma the reason of Indra's
coming to his hermitage, Sarabhanga replied, "O Ráma, the
sovereign of the gods or demons came to take me to the heaven of
Brahma, which I have gained by my severe austerities; but
knowing that you were not far off I would not depart to heaven
until I had seen you." Sarabhanga then said, Behold, now
while I put off this body, as a serpent casts its slough !" Then the
sage prepared a fire, offered ghee, and entered the flame; the fire
consumed his body; and a youth, bright as the fire, was instantly
produced; and in this shape, Sarabhanga sought the heaven of the
sages who had devoted their lives to religious austerities, and
passing by the heaven of the gods, he ascended to the heaven of
Brahmá.
Saradwat-The husband of Ahalya and father of Satyadhriti.
Sarama--A daughter of Daksha and wife of Kasyapa; she
is said to be the mother of canine animals. Vishnu Purána, 122.
558
SAR
Saranu-One of the ministers of Rávana, who was sent with
Súka to spy out the army of Ráma, and obtain information of the
chief heroes and counsellors. See SÚKA.
Saranu--One of the sons of Vasudeva, by his wife Rohiní.
Saranyu--The daughter of Tvashtri, who was given in marriage
to Vivaswat, the son of Aditi. Saranyú became the mother of the
two Asvins. Dr. Muir quotes the following text: "Saranyú, the
daughter of Tvashtri, bore twins to Vivaswat. She then substi-
tuted for herself another female of similar appearance, and fled in
the form of a mare. Vivaswat in like manner, assumed the shape
of a horse and followed her. From their intercourse sprang two
Aşvins, while Manu was the offspring of Savarná (or 'the female of
like appearance.")" Another text is: "Tvashtri had twin children,
Saranyú and Trisiras. He gave Saranyú in marriage to Vivaswat,
to whom she bore Yama and Yamí, who were also twins. Creating
a female like herself without her husband's knowledge, and making
the twins over in charge to her, Saranyú took the form of a mare
and departed. Vivaswat, in ignorance, begot, on the female who
was left, Manu, a royal Rishi, who resembled his father in glory."
But discovering that the real Saranyú had gone away, he followed
her in the shape of a horse, and from their intercourse sprang the
two Kumáras (youths) Násatya and Dasra, who are lauded as
Asvins (sprung from a horse.)-Muir, O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 228.
Sarasvat-A river god, the consort of Sarasvati, who rolls
along his fertilizing waters, and is invoked by the worshippers
who are seeking for wives and offspring, as well as for plenty and
protection.-O. S. T., V, 340.
Sarasvata-1, A sage who related the Vishnu Purána to
Paráṣara; 2, A Vyása in the ninth Dwápara age. In the notes
to the Vishnu Purána, a legend is given from the Mahábhárata in
which it is said "that during a great drought the Brahmans,
engrossed by the care of subsistence, neglected the study of the
sacred books, and the Vedas were lost. The Rishi Sárasvata alone,
being fed with fish by his mother Sarasvatí, the personified river
so named, kept up his studies, and preserved the Hindu scriptures.
At the end of the famine the Brahmans repaired to him to be
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559
taught, and sixty thousand disciples again acquired a knowledge
of the Vedas from Sárasvata. This legend appears to indicate the
revival, or more probably the introduction, of the Hindu ritual
by the race of Brahmans, or the people called Sárasvata; for
according to the Hindu geographers, it was the name of a nation,
as it still is the appellation of a class of Brahmans who chiefly
inhabit the Panjab. The Sárasvata Brahmans are met with in
many parts of India, and are usually fair-complexioned, tall, and
handsome men. They are classed in the Játi málás, or popular
lists of castes, amongst the five Gaura Brahmans, and are divided
into ten tribes: they are said also to be especially the Purohits or
family priests of the Kshatriya or military castes circumstances
in harmony with the purport of the legend, and confirmatory of the
Sárasvatas of the Panjab having been prominent agents in the
establishment of the Hindu religion in India. The holy land of
the Hindus, or the primary seat, perhaps, of Brahmanism, has for
one of its boundaries the Sarasvati river." V.P., 285.
Sarasvata-A dialect of Sanscrit ; the term is employed by
Mr. Colebrooke to designate that modification of Sanscrit, which
is generally termed Prakrit.
Sarasvatas-A tribe of brahmans, which occupied the banks
of the river Sarasvati. See above, under Sarasvata.
Sarasvati-The consort of Brahmá and the goddess of wis-
dom, knowledge, science, art, learning and eloquence, the patroness
of music and inventor of the Sanscrit language and Devanagari
letters. She is represented as a young female, of fair complexion,
with four arms and hands. In one of the two right hands she
holds a flower, which she offers to her husband, by whose side she
is continually standing, and in the other a book of palm leaves,
indicating that she is fond of learning, and imparts knowledge to
those who study. In one of her two left hands she holds a string
of pearls, called Sivamála, which serve her as a rosary, and in the
other a damaru, or small drum. An annual festival is celebrated
in her honour. She dwells among men, but her special abode is
Brahmá lóka, with Brahmá her husband.'
The name Sarasvati means flowing, and is applied to a celebrated
560
SAR
river as well as to the goddess of speech. The river rises in the
mountains north-east of Delhi. Sarasvati was also the name of
one of the daughters of Daksha who was married to Dhárma.
"Sarasvati, by the standard mythological authorities, is the wife
of Brahma, and the goddess presiding over letters and arts. The
Vaishnavas of Bengal have a popular legend that she was the
wife of Vishņu, as were also Lakshmi and Gangá. The ladies
disagreed; Sarasvati, like the other prototype of learned ladies,
Minerva, being something of a termagant, and Vishnu, finding
that one wife was as much as even a god could manage, transferred
Sarasvati to Brahmá, and Gangá to Siva, and contented himself
with Lakshmi alone. It is worthy of remark that Sarasvati is
represented as of a white colour, without any superfluity of limbs,
and not unfrequently of a graceful figure, wearing a slender
crescent on her brow, and sitting on a lotus."- Wilson's Works,
Vol. II, pp. 187-8.
:
"Sarasvati is a goddess of some, though not of very great
importance, in the Rig Veda. As observed by Yáska, she is
celebrated both as a river and a deity. She was no doubt primarily
a river deity, as her name, "the watery," clearly denotes, and in
this capacity she is celebrated in a few separate passages. Allusion
is made in the hymns and in the Brahmanas to sacrifices performed
on the banks of this river, and the adjoining Dhrishdavati and
the Sarasvati in particular seems to have been associated with the
reputation for sanctity which was ascribed to the whole region,
called Brahmavartta, lying between those two small streams, and
situated immediately to the westward of the Jumna. The
Sarasvati thus appears to have been to the early Indians what the
Ganges (which is only twice named in the Rig Veda) became to
their descendants. When once the river had acquired a divine
character, it was quite natural that she should be regarded as the
patroness of the ceremonies which were celebrated on the margin
of her holy waters, and that her direction and blessing should be
invoked as essential to their proper performance and success. The
connection into which she was thus brought with sacred rites may
have led to the further step of imagining her to have an influence
on the composition of the hymns which formed so important a part
SAR
561
2
of the proceedings, and of identifying her with Vách, the goddess
of speech. At least, I have no other explanation to offer of this
double character and identification.
Sarasvati is frequently invited to the sacrifices along with other
goddesses Ilá, Mahí, Varutrí, who however were not, like her,
river nymphs, but personifications of some department of religious
worship or sacred science.
In many of the passages where Sarasvati is celebrated, her
original character is distinctly preserved. Thus in two places she
is mentioned along with rivers, or fertilizing waters. She is spoken
of as having seven sisters, as one of seven rivers, and as the
mother of streams. In another place she is said to pour on her
fertilizing waters, to surpass all other rivers, and to flow pure
from the mountains to the sea. She is called the best of mothers,
of rivers, and of goddesses.
In the later mythology, as is well known, Sarasvati was identi-
fied with Vách, and became, under different names, the spouse of
Brahma, and the goddess of wisdom and eloquence, and is invoked
as a Muse. In the Mahábhárata she is called the mother of the
Vedas, and the same is said of Vách in the Taitt. Br. In the
Sántiparva it is related that when the Brahmarshis were perform-
ing austerities, prior to the creation of the universe, a voice
derived from Brahmá entered into the ears of them all ; the
celestial Sarasvati was then produced from the heavens."— C. S. T.,
V, 337-343.
CC
Saragu or Sarju-A river, commonly identified with the
Devá; but though identical through great part of their course, they
rise as different streams, and again divide and enter the Ganges by
distinct branches.
Sardhawa-Confidence. One of the Charitas, or states of
mind, which the Buddhist priest is taught to cultivate. The priest
who has attained this condition is known by his being always
cheerful; by the pleasure he has in hearing the sacred writings,
and by the general excellence of his conduct.
Sarmajaya-A prince, the son of Swaphalka.
71
562
SAR
Sarman-An appropriate name for a brahman, affixed to the
appellation of a god; both to be given by the father the tenth day
after the birth of the child. Vishnu Purána, 297.
Sarmishta-The daughter of Vrishaparvan, and one of the
wives of king Yayáti. She was the mother of Puru, who gave
his youth to his father, receiving in exchange Yayáti's infirmities.
Sarpa―The name of one of the eleven Rúdras according to the
Váyu list.
Sarpi-The wife of the Rudra Śiva, whose place is the air.
Saru-One of the sons of Vasudeva by his wife Rohini.
Sarva-One of the eight modifications or manifestations of
Rudra; the one whose station is the earth. Vishnu Purána, 58.
Sarvabhauma--A prince, the son of Vidúratha, a descendant
of Kuru.
Sarvaga—(1, A son of the sage Paurnamása, of the race of
Maríchi; 2, one of the Páṇḍava princes, the son of Bhíma.
Sarve'svara-One of the names of the Supreme Being, meaning
"The Lord of all." Ziegenbalg writes, "When the Hindus
speak of the highest Divine Being as altogether spiritual and
immaterial, they talk quite reasonably. They take for unquestionable
truth all that Christians believe of God's nature and attributes,
saying that there is but one God, who is purely spiritual, in-
comprehensible, eternal, almighty, omniscient, all-wise, holy, true,
just, gracious, and merciful; who creates, upholds, and governs
all; who has pleasure in dwelling with mankind and making them
happy, both in this world and the world to come; wherefore to
serve him is happiness. The names they give to this Divine
Being are altogether expressive of divine attributes."
Saryatas-Sons of Sáryátas, descendant of Raivata, who through
fear of the Rakshasas took refuge in forests and mountains, and
afterwards, according to the legends, became renowned in all regions.
Saryati-1, One of the sons of the great Manu Vaivaswata; 2,
A son of Nahusha, according to the list in the Linga Purána.
SAS-SAT
563
Sasa-A portion of Jambu-dwípa, reflected in the lunar orb as
in a mirror.
Sasada―The son of Ikshváku, who on the death of his father
succeeded to the sovereignty of Ayodhya, or as the Vishnu Purána
has it, to the dominion of the earth.
Sasadharman-One of the Mauryan kings, or descendants of
Chandragupta, king of Magadhá.
Sasavinda-A prince, the son of Chitrarathra ; celebrated as
the lord of the fourteen great gems; or articles the best of their
kind, seven animate and seven inanimate; a wife, a priest, a
general, a charioteer, a horse, an elephant, and a body of foot
soldiers; or instead of the last three, an excutioner, an encomiast,
a reader of the vedas: and a chariot, an umbrella, a jewel, a sword,
a shield, a banner, and a treasure. The Vishnu Purána states that
he had a hundred thousand wives and a million of sons!
Sastra-devatas-Gods of the divine weapons; a hundred are
enumerated in the Rámáyana, and they are there termed the sons
of Kriaswa by Jaya and Vijaya, daughters of the Prajapati, that is,
of Daksha.
Saswata-One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Sruta.
Satabali-A distinguished general in the army of the monkey
king Sugríva.
Satabhisha-A lunar mansion in Mrigavithi in the southern
Avashthána.
Satadhanu-1, A king in the olden time celebrated on account
of the great virtue of his wife Saivyá, under whose name the
history of Satadhauu will be found; 2, One of the sons of Hridika,
of the Yadava race.
Satadru "The hundred channelled," the river Sutledj. It is
the Zardras of Ptolemy, the Hesidrus of Pliny. Notes to Vishnu
Purána.
Satadyumna-1, One of the ten sons of the Manu Chákshusha ;
2, One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Bhanumat
564
SAT
Satajit--1, One of the kings of Bhárata, the son of Rája; 2,
A son of Sahasrajit of the Yádava race; 3, One of the sons of
Bhajamána.
Satakarni--The name or title of several Andhra princes.
Satananda--The son of Gautama by Ahalya. According to
the Rámáyana, Satananda was the family priest of Janaka, the
father of Síta.
Satanika-1, One of the Pándava princes, the son of Nakula ;
2, The son of Janamejaya, king of Bhárata; 3, The son of
Vasudána, of the race of Puru.
Satapatha-Brahmana-An appendix to the White Yajur Veda,
which describes a variety of solemn sacrifices in which the juice of
the Soma plant is the chief ingredient. It also contains various
theories of creation and wild legends which show that "the old
Sanskrit philosophers found it extremely difficult to determine the
difference between gods and men.”
"Considered religiously the Satapatha-Brahmana appears to
offer a thorough type of scepticisin. Man makes gods, god makes
a chief god, the chief god (Prajápati) makes the world and gods.
But the gods were mortal. Rites and austerities were invented
which insure immortality. Death becomes alarmed. Death is
promised that only without the body shall gods or men become
immortal. But after the gods have become immortal, they are
unable to determine which among them shall be greatest."
*
The coutents of the Satapatha-Brahmana are somewhat hetero-
geneous, and amongst other curious stories there is one relating
to the Deluge, which has been already given under the article
MANU.
Satarupa--The female portion of Brahma, who, after detaching
from himself the property of anger, in the form of Rúdra,
converted himself into two persons, the first male, or the Manu
Swayambhuva, and the first woman, or Satarúpa: Professor
Wilson says,
"The division of Brahmá into two halves, designates,
as is very evident from the passage in the Vedas given by Mr.
*Mrs. Manning. A. and M. I.
SAT
565
6
Colebrooke, the distinction of corporeal substance into two sexes;
Viráj being all male animals, Satarúpa, all female animals. Sata-
rúpa, the bride of Brahmá, of Viráj, or of Manu, is nothing more
than beings of varied or manifold forms, from Sata, a hundred,'
and rúpa, 'form'; explained by the annotator in the Hari Vansa
by Anantarúpa, of infinite shape, and Vividharúpa, of diversified
shape, being as he states, the same as Máyáillusion,' or the
power of multiform metamarphosis." Vishnu Purána, 53.
Sata Sankhyas--A class of deities in the tenth Manwantara.
Satavalaka-A pupil of Sakapurni and teacher of the Rig
Veda.
Satayus--One of the six sons of Purúravas.
:
Sati-Truth; one of the daughters of Daksha, and wife of
Bhava. The Vishnu Purána says she abandoned her corporeal
existence in consequence of the displeasure of Daksha and was
afterwards the daughter of Himavan by Mená; and in that
character, as the only Umá, the mighty Bhava again married her.
Urged by her Maheswara went to the sacrifice of Daksha; the
different Puránas furnish contradictory accounts of her share in
the transaction and of the way in which she met her death.
Satrughna —The youngest of the four divine sons of Dasaratha,
king of Ayodhya. Satrughna killed the Rákshasa chief Lavaṇa,
and took possession of his capital Mathura. After the destruction
of the Rakshasas had been completed, Satrughna re-ascended to
heaven with his three brothers.
Satrajit―The son of Nighna and friend of the divine Aditya,
the Sun. The Vishnu Purána relates the following legend respect-
ing him "On one occasion, Satrájit, whilst walking along the
sea-shore, addressed his mind to Súrya, and hymned his praises ;
on which, the divinity appeared and stood before him. Beholding
him in an indistinct shape, Satrájit said to the Sun: “I have
beheld thee, lord, in the heavens, as a globe of fire. Now do thou
show favour unto me, that I may see thee in thy proper form."
On this, the Sun, taking the jewel called Syamantaka from off his
neck, placed it apart; and Satrájit beheld him of a dwarfish
stature, with a body like burnished copper, and with slightly
566
SAT
reddish eyes. Having offered his adorations, the Sun desired him
to demand a boon; and he requested that the jewel might become
his. The Sun presented it to him, and then resumed his place in
the sky, Having obtained the spotless gem of gems, Satrájit
wore it on his neck; and, becoming as brilliant, thereby, as the
Sun himself, irradiating all the regions with his splendour, he
returned to Dwaraka. The inhabitants of that city, beholding
him approach, repaired to the eternal male, Purushottama,-who,
to sustain the burthen of the earth, had assumed a mortal form (as
Krishna), and said to him: "Lord, assuredly the (divine) Sun is
coming to visit you." But Krishna smiled, and said :
"It is not
the divine Sun, but Satrájit, to whom Áditya has presented the
Syamantaka gem; and he now wears it. Go and behold him
without apprehension." Accordingly, they departed. Satrájit,
having gone to his house, there deposited the jewel, which yielded,
daily, eight loads of gold, and, through its marvellous virtue,
dispelled all fear of portents, wild beasts, fire, robbers, and famine.
Satrájit was ultimately killed by Satadhanwan in order fo obtain
possession of the jewel.
Satwata-A prince of the Yádava race, whose descendants were
termed Satwatas.
Satya-The quality of goodness, or purity, knowledge,
quiescence. An incarnation of Vishņu in the third Manwantara.
Satyabhama--The daughter of Satrájit and one of the wives.
of Krishna. In consequence of some aspersions cast on the
character of Krishna relating to the disappearance of the
Syamantaka gem, Satrájit reflected that he had been their cause, and
to conciliate Krishna gave him to wife his daughter Satyabháma.
When the jewel was recovered, Balabhadra claimed it as his
property jointly with Krishna, while Satyabháma demanded it
as her right, as it had originally belonged to her father. She
afterwards desired to possess the Parijáta tree, which Krishna
accordingly removed from heaven to Dwaraka, though strongly
opposed by Indra and the other gods.
Satyadhrita-A prince, the son of Pushpavat.
Sataydhriti--1, One of the kings of Mithila, the son of
SAT
567
Mahávírya; 2, The son of Sarana; 3, The son of Dhritimat; 4,
The son of Satánauda: and a proficient in military science. Being
enamoured of the nymph Urvasí, Satyadhriti was the parent of two
children, a boy and a girl; who were found exposed in a clump of
long Sara grass, by the Rája Santana whilst out hunting.
Satyadhwaja-A prince, the son of Urjjavaha, king of Mithila.
Satyahita--A teacher of the Rig Veda.
Satyajit--One of the kings of Magadha, the son of Sanhita.
Satyaka-A prince, the son of Sini.
Satyakarman-One of the kings of Anga, the son of Dhri-
tavrata.
Satyaketu-A king of Kásí, the son of Sukamara, a descendant.
of Alarka.
Satyaloka-The world of infinite wisdom and truth, the
inhabitants of which never again know death. It is said in the
Vishnu Purána to be situated one hundred and twenty millions of
leagues above Dhruva.
Stayanetra-A sage, one of the sons of Atri, according to the
series in the Váyu.
Satyaratha-One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Mína-
ratha.
Satyarathi-The son and successor of the above.
Satyas-A class of deities in the third Manwantara. (See
JAYAS.)
Satyasravas-A teacher of the Rig Veda.
Satyavak--One of the noble sons of the Manu Chákshusha.
Satyavan--The son of a blind old king who had been driven
from his throne and was living in the forest as a hermit, when
Savitrí, the lovely daughter of king Aswapati saw Satyaván and
loved him. She was warned by a seer to overcome her attach-
ment as Satyaván was a doomed man having only one year to live,
But Savitrí replies :—
Whether his years be few or many, be he gifted with all grace.
Or graceless, him my heart hath chosen, and it chooseth not again.
568
SAT
1
They are therefore married and the bride strives to forget the
ominous prophecy; but as the last day of the year approaches,
her anxiety becomes irrepressible. She accompanied her husband.
to the forest on the fatal morning with a heavy heart; while he
was cutting wood a thrill of agony suddenly shot through his
temples, and he called out to his wife to support him—
Then she received her fainting husband in her arms, and sate herself
On the cold ground, and gently laid his drooping head upon her lap ;
Sorrowing she called to mind the sage's prophecy, and reckoned up
The days and hours. All in an instant she beheld an awful shape
Standing before her, dressed in blood-red garments, with a glittering crown
Upon his head his form, though glowing like the sun, was yet obscure,
And eyes he had like flames, a noose depended from his hand, and he
Was terrible to look upon, as by her husband's side he stood
And gazed upon him with a fiery glance. Shuddering she started up
And laid her dying Satyavan upon the ground, and with her hands
Joined reverently, she thus with beating heart addressed the shape;
Surely thou art a god, such form as thine must more than mortal be,
Tell me, thou god-like being, who thou art, and wherefore thou art here?
The figure replies that he is Yama, king of death; that her
husband's time has come, and that he must bind and take his spirit.
Then from her husband's body forced he out and firmly with his cord
Bound and detained the spirit, like in size and length to a man's thumb.
Forthwith the body, reft of vital being, and deprived of breath,
Lost all its grace and beauty, and became ghastly and motionless.
After binding the spirit, Yama proceeds with it towards his own
quarter, the South. The faithful wife follows him closely. Yama
bids her go home and prepare her husband's funeral rites; but she
persists in following, till Yama, pleased with her devotion, grants
her any boon she pleases except the life of her husband. She
chooses that her husband's father, who is blind, may recover his
Still she
sight. Yama consents, and bids her now return home.
persists in following. At last, overcome by her constancy, Yama
grants a boor without exception. The delighted Savitrí exclaims-
'Nought, mighty king, this time hast thou excepted; let my husband live ;
Without him I desire not happiness, nor even heaven itself:
Without him I must die.' 'So be it, faithful wife,' replied the king of death,
'Thus I release him; and with that he loosed the cord that bound his soul,'
-See SAVITRÍ.
**
Satyavati-The daughter of king Gádhí, who was demanded
* William's Indian Epic Poetry, pp. 37-39.
4.
SAT
569
1
in marriage by an elderly brahmin name Richíka. The king
would only consent to give his daughter on the condition that the
sage should give him as the nuptial present, a thousand fleet
horses whoso colour should be white with one black ear. Richíka,
having propitiated Varuna, the god of the ocean, obtained from
him, at (the holy place called) Aswatírtha, a thousand such steeds,
and, giving them to the king, espoused his daughter.
66
In order to effect the birth of a son, Richíka prepared a dish of
rice, barley, and pulse, with butter and milk, for his wife to eat ;
and, at her request, he consecrated a similar mixture for her
mother, by partaking of which, she should give birth to a prince
of martial prowess. Leaving both dishes with his wife,-after
describing, particularly, which was intended for her, and which for
her mother,—the sage went forth to the forests. When the time
arrived for the food to be eaten, the queen said to Satyavatí :
Daughter, all persons wish their children to be possessed of
excellent qualities, and would be mortified to see them surpassed
by the merits of their mother's brother. It will be desirable for
you, therefore, to give me the mess your husband has set apart for
you, and to eat of that intended for me; for the son which it is to
procure me is destined to be the monarch of the whole world,
whilst that which your dish would give you must be a brahman,
alike devoid of affluence, valour, and power." Satyavatí agreed
to her mother's proposal; and they exchanged messes.
When Richíka returned home, and beheld Satyavatí, he said to
her: "Sinful woman, what hast thou done? I view thy body of
a fearful appearance. Of a surety, thou hast eaten the consecrated
food which was prepared for thy mother: thou hast done wrong. In
that food I had infused the properties of power, and strength, and
heroism; in thine, the qualities suited to a brahman,-gentleness,
knowledge, and resignation. In consequence of having reversed
my plans, thy son shall follow a warrior's propensities, and use
weapons, and fight, and slay. Thy mother's son shall be born
with the inclinations of a brahman, and be addicted to peace aud
piety." Satyavatí, hearing this, fell at her husband's feet, and
said: "My lord, I have done this thing through ignorance. Have
compassion on me let me not have a son such as thou hast
72
570
SAT
foretold. If such there must be, let it be my grandson, not my
son." The Muni, relenting at her distress, replied: "So let it
be." Accordingly, in due season, she gave birth to Jamadagni;
and her mother brought forth Visvamitra. Satyavatí afterwards
became the Kausikí river. V. P.
Satyavrata A king of Ayodhya, the seventh in descent from
Ikshváku, who obtained the appellation of Trisanku, and was
degraded to the condition of a Chándála or outcaste. The Vishņu
Purána states that: "During a twelve years' famine, Trişanku
provided the flesh of deer, for the nourishment of the wife and
children of Visvamitra; suspending it upon a (spreading) fig-tree
on the borders of the Ganges, that he might not subject them to
the indiguity of receiving presents from an outcaste. On this
account, Visvamitra, being highly pleased with him, elevated him,
in his living body, to heaven.
In a Note, Professor Wilson remarks, "The occurrence of the
famine, and Satyavrata's care of the wife and family of Viṣvámitrâ,
are told, with some variations, in the Váyu, which has been
followed by the Brahmá and Hari Vamṣa. During the famine,
when game fails, he kills the cow of Vasishtha; and, for the
three crimes of displeasing his father, killing a cow, and eating
flesh not previously consecrated, he acquires the name of Trisanku
(tri, three," sanku, sin.') Vasishtha refusing to perform his
regal inauguration, Viṣvámitra celebrates the rites, and, on his
The
death, elevates the king, in his mortal body, to heaven.
Rámáyana relates the same circumstance, but assigns to it a
different motive,-Visvamitra's resentment of the refusal of the
gods to attend Triṣanku's sacrifice. That work also describes the
attempt of the gods to cast the king down upon earth, and the
compromise between them and Visvamitra, by which Trişanku
was left suspended, head downwards, in mid-air, forming a constel-
lation in the southern hemisphere, along with other new planets
and stars formed by Visvamitra. The Bhágavata has no allusion
to this legend, saying that Trisanku is still visible in heaven. The
Váyu furnishes some further information from an older source :
Both my copies have a blank, where it is marked; and a similar
passage does not elsewhere occur: but the word should probably
SAT-SAU
571
be nisha, and the whole may be thus rendered: "Men acquainted
with the Puránas recite these two stanzas: 'By the favour of Viṣvá-
mitra, the illustrious Trisanku shines in heaven, along with the
gods, through the kindness of that sage. Slowly passes the lovely
night in winter, embellished by the moon, decorated with three
watches, and ornamented with the constellation Trisanku.'" This
legend is, therefore, clearly astronomical, and alludes, possibly, to
some reformation of the sphere by Visvamitra, under the patronage
of Triṣanku, and in opposition to a more ancient system advocated
by the school of Vasishtha. It might be no very rash conjecture,
perhaps, to identify Trisanku with Orion, the three bright stars of
whose belt may have suggested the three Sankus (stakes or pins)
which form his name.
"The seven ancient rishis or saints, as has been said before, were
the seven stars of Ursa Vajor. The seven other new saints which
are here said to have been created by Visvamitra, should be seven
new southern stars, a sort of new Ursa. Von Schlegel thinks that
this mythical fiction of new stars created by Visvamitra may
signify that these southern stars, unknown to the Indians as long
as they remained in the neighbourhood of the Ganges, became
known to them at a later date when they colonised the southern
regions of India."—GORRESIO.
Satyayajna-The observance of truth; one of the great obli-
gations of brahmans.
Saubhari-A devout sage, learned in the Vedas, of whom the
following extraordinary legend is narrated. He spent twelve
years immersed in a lake, the sovereign of the fish in which, named
Sammada, had a very numerous progeny. His children and his
grandchildren were wont to frolic around him, in all directions; and
he lived amongst them happily, playing with them night and day.
Saubhari, the sage, being disturbed, in his devotions, by their sports,
contemplated the patriarchal felicity of the monarch of the lake, aud
reflected : "How enviable is this creature, who, although born in a
degraded state, of being, is ever thus sporting cheerfully amongst
his offspring and their young! Of a truth, he awakens, in my mind,
the wish to taste such pleasure; and I, also, will make merry amidst
572
SAU
my children." Having thus resolved, the Muni came up, hastily,
from the water, and, desirous of entering upon the condition of a
householder, went to Mándhátri, to demand one of his daughters
as his wife. As soon as he was informed of the arrival of the
sage, the king rose up from his throne, offered him the customary
libation, and treated him with the most profound respect. Having
taken a seat, Saubhari said to the Rája: "I have determined to
marry. Do you, king, give me one of your daughters, as a wife ?
Disappoint not my affection. It is not the practice of the princes
of the race of Kakutstha to turn away from compliance with the
wishes of those who come to them for succour.
There are, O
monarchi, other kings of the earth to whom daughters have been
born; but your family is, above all, renowned for observance of
liberality in your donations to those who ask your bounty. You
have, O prince, fifty daughters. Give one of them to me; that
SO I may be relieved from the anxiety I suffer through fear that
my suit may be denied.”
When Mándhátṛi heard this request, and looked upon the person
of the sage, emaciated by (austerity and) old age, he felt dis-
posed to refuse his consent: but, dreading to incur the anger and
imprecation of the holy man, he was much perplexed, and,
declining his head, was lost awhile in thought. The Rishi,
observing his hesitation, said: "On what, O Rája, do you medi-
tate? I have asked for nothing which may not be readily accorded.
And what is there that shall be unattainable to you, if my desires
be gratified by the damsel whom you must needs give unto me ?”
To this, the king, apprehensive of his displeasure, answered and
said:
"Graye sir, it is the established usage of our house to wed
our daughters to such persons only as they shall, themselves, select
from suitors of fitting rank; and, since this your request is not
yet made known to my maidens, it is impossible to say whether
it may be equally agreeably to them as it is to me. This is the
occasion of my perplexity; and I am at a loss what to do." This
answer of the king was fully understood by the Rishi, who said to
himself: "This is merely a device of the Rája, .to evade com-
pliance with my suit. He has reflected that I am an old man,
having no attractions for women, and not likely to be accepted by
SAU
573
:
any of his daughters. Even be it so I will be a match for him."
And he then spake aloud, and said :
"Since such is the custom,
mighty prince, give orders that I be admitted into the interior of
the palace. Should any of the maidens, your daughters, be
willing to take me for a bridegroom, I will have her for my bride.
If no one be willing, then let the blame attach alone to the years
that I have numbered." Having thus spoken, he was silent.
Mándhátṛi, unwilling to provoke the indignation of the Muni,
was accordingly, obliged to command the eunuch to lead the sage
into the inner chambers; who, as he entered the apartments,
put on a form and features of beauty far exceeding the personal
charms of mortals, or even of heavenly spirits. His conduc-
tor, addressing the princesses, said to them: "Your father,
young ladies, sends you this pious sage, who has demanded of
him a bride; and the Rája has promised him, that he will not
refuse him any one of you who shall choose him for her husband.”
When the damsels heard this, and looked upon the person of the
Rishi, they were equally inspired with passion and desire, and,
like a troop of female elephants disputing the favours of the
master of the herd, they all contended for the choice.
“Away,
away, sister!" said each to the other: "this is my election; he
is my choice; he is not a meet bridgeroom for you; he has been
created, by Brahmá, on purpose for me, as I have been created in
order to become his wife; he has been chosen, by me, before you ;
you have no right to prevent his becoming my husband." In this
way arose a violent quarrel amongst the daughters of the king,
each insisting upon the exclusive election of the Rishi; and, as
the blameless sage was thus contended for by the rival princesses,
the superintendent of the inner apartments, with a downcast look,
reported to the king what had occurred. Perplexed, more than
ever, by this information, the Rája exclaimed: "What is all this?
And what am I to do now? What is it that I have said? And, at
last, although with extreme reluctance, he was obliged to agree that
the Rishi should marry all his daughters.
i
Having then wedded, agreeably to law, all the princesses, the
sage took them home to his habitation, where he employed the
chief of architects, Visvakarman,-equal, in taste and skill, to
574
SAU
•
:
Brahmá himself,-to construct separate palaces for each of his
wives he ordered him to provide each building with elegant
couches, and seats, and furniture, and to attach to them gardens
and groves, with reservoirs of water, where the wild-duck and the
swan should sport amidst beds of lotus flowers. The divine artist
obeyed his injunctions, and constructed splendid apartments for the
wives of the Rishi; in which, by command of Saubhari, the
inexhaustible and divine treasure called Nanda took up his
permanent abode; and the princesses entertained all their guests
and dependants with abundant viands of every description and
the choicest quality.
After some period had elapsed, the heart of king Mándhátri
yearned for his daughters; and he felt solicitous to know whether
they were happily circumstanced. Setting off, therefore, on a
visit to the hermitage of Saubhari, he beheld, upon his arrival, a
row of beautiful crystal palaces, shining as brilliantly as the rays
of the sun, and situated amidst lovely gardens and reservoirs of
pellucid water. Entering into one of these magnificent palaces, he
found and embraced a daughter, and said to her, as the tears of
affection and delight trembled in his eyes: "Dear child, tell me
how it is with you. Are you happy here, or not? Does the great
sage treat you with tenderness? Or do you revert, with regret, to
your early home?" The princess replied: "You behold, my father,
how delightful a mansion I inhabit,-surrounded by lovely gardens
and lakes, where the lotus blooms, and the wild swans murmur.
Here I have delicious viands, fragrant unguents, costly ornaments,
splendid raiment, soft beds, and every enjoyment that affluence can
procure. Why, then, should I call to memory the place of my
birth? To your favour am I indebted for all that I possess. I
have only one cause of anxiety, which is this: my husband is never
absent from my dwelling; solely attached to me, he is always at
my side; he never goes near my sisters; and I am concerned to
think that they must feel mortified by his neglect: this is the only
circumstance that gives me uneasiness."
Proceeding to visit another of his daughters, the king, after
embracing her, and sitting down, made the same enquiry, and
received the same account of the enjoyments with which the princess
SAU
575
was provided. There was, also the same complaint, that the Rishi
was wholly devoted to her, and paid no attention to her sisters. Ic
every palace, Mándhátṛi heard the same story, from each of his
daughters, in reply to his questions; and, with a heart overflowing
with wonder and delight, he repaired to the wise Saubhari, whom
he found alone, and after paying homage to him, thus addressed
him : "
Holy sage, I have witnessed this thy marvellous power.
The like miraculous faculties I have never known any other to
possess. How great is the reward of thy devout austerities !"
Having thus saluted the sage, and been received by him, with
respect, the Rája resided with him for some time, partaking of the
pleasures of the place, and then returned to his capital.
"These my sons," he loved to
infant prattle; then they will
;
In the course of time, the daughters of Mándhátri bore to
Saubhari a hundred and fifty sons; and, day by day, his affection
for his children became more intense, and his heart was wholly
occupied with the sentiment of self.
think, "will charm me with their
learn to walk; they will, then, grow up to youth, and to manhood;
I shall see them married, and they will have children
and I may
behold the children of those children." By these and similar reflec-
tions, however, he perceived that his anticipations every day out-
stripped the course of time; and, at last, he exclaimed: "What
exceeding folly is mine! There is no end to my desires. Though
all I hope should come to pass for ten thousand or a hundred
thousand years, still new wishes would spring up. When I have
seen my infants walk; when I have beheld their youth, their
manhood, their marriage, their progeny; still my expectations are
unsatisfied, and my soul yearns to behold the descendants of their
descendants. Shall I even see them, some other wish will be
engendered; and, when that is accomplished, how is the birth of
fresh desires to be prevented? I have at last, discovered, that there
is no end to hope, until it terminates in death; and that the mind
which is perpetually engrossed by expectation can never be attached
to the supreme spirit. My mental devotions, whilst immersed in
water, were interrupted by attachment to my friend the fish. The
result of that, connexion was my marriage; and insatiable desires
are the consequences of my married life. The pain attendant
576
SAU
upon the birth of my single body is now augmented by the cares
attached to fifty others, and is further multiplied by the numerous
children whom the princesses have borne to me. The sources of
affliction will be repeatedly renewed by their children, and by their
espousals, and by their progeny, and will be infinitely increased :
a married life is a mine of individual anxiety. My devotions,
first disturbed by the fish of the pool, have since been obstructed
by temporal indulgence; and I have been beguiled by that desire.
for progeny which was communicated to me by association with
Sammada. Separation from the world is the only path of the sage
to final liberation : from commerce with mankind innumerable errors
proceed. The ascetic who has accomplished a course of self-denial
falls from perfection, by contracting worldly attachments. How
much more likely should one so fall, whose observances are incom-
plete! My iutellect has been a prey to the desire of married hap-
piness but I will, now, so exert myself, for the salvation of my soul,
that exempt from human imperfections, I may be exonerated from
human sufferings. To that end, I will propitiate, by arduous
penance, Vishnu, the creator of the universe, whose form is
inscrutable, who is smaller than the smallest, larger than the
largest, the source of darkness and of light, the sovereign god of
gods. On his everlasting body, which is both discrete and
indiscrete substance, illimitably mighty, and identical with the
universe, may my mind, wholly free from sin, be ever steadily
intent, so that I may be born no more! To him I fly for refuge;
to that Vishnu who is the teacher of teachers, who is one with
all beings, the pure eternal lord of all, without beginning, middle,
or end, and besides whom is nothing." V. P.
Saudasa-A prince, the son of Sudása; named also Mitrasaha,
to which the reader is referred for the legend of his life.
Saumitri-A teacher of the Sáma Veda.
Saumya-A division of the Varsha of Bharata.
Saunahotra-A Rishi, the son of Sunahotra. On one occasion
Indra himself went to a sacrifice of the Rishi in order to please
him. The great Asuras, thinking that Indra was above, and
wishing to take him, surrounded the sacrificial enclosure. Indra,
C
SAU-SAV
577
however, perceived it, and taking the guise of the Rishi, he went
away. The Asuras, seeing the sacrificer again, seized Saunahotra,
taking him for Indra. He pointed out Indra to them and was
released by the Asuras.-A. S. L., 231.
Saunaka-1, A teacher of the Atharva Veda; 2, The son of
Ghritsamada according to the Vishnu Purána, but Professor
Wilson remarks that this is probably an error, as several other
Puránas agree in making him the son of Sunaka. It was Saunaka
who established the distinctions of the four castes. See A. S. L.,
232-36.
Saurashtras-The people of Surat; the Surastrene of Ptolemy.
Sauvirai-The nations of Sindh, and Western Rajputána.
Savala-One of the sons of Priyavrata, who was nominated by
his father to be the monarch of the Dwipa of Fushkara.
Savalaswas--Daksha, at the command of Brahmá, is said to
have created various living creatures. His first four thousand sons,
termed Haryaswas, were dissuaded by Nárada from propagating
offspring, and dispersed themselves throughout the universe.
Daksha then created a thousand other sons, named Savaláswas,
who were desirous of engendering posterity, but were dissuaded
by Nárada, in a similar manner. They said to one another "what
the sage has observed is perfectly just." We must follow the path
that our brothers have travelled, and when we have ascertained the
extent of the universe, we will multiply our race. Accordingly
they scattered themselves through the regions, and, like rivers
flowing into the sea, they returned not again.
Savana--One of the seven sons of the Muni Vasishtha.
Savarna-1, The daughter of the ocean who was married to
king Práchínaverhis, to whom she had been previously betrothed.
She was the mother of the Prachetasas, q. v. ; 2, The "female of
like appearance" who was substituted by Saranyú, when she fled
from Vivaswat. Savarná became the mother of Mauu.-O. S. T.,
Vol. V, p. 228.
Savarni A Manu, the son of the sun by his maid Chhaya,
He is to be the Manu of the eighth Manwantara.
73
578
SAV
i
Savibhasa-One of the seven suns into which the solar rays
dilate at the end of the day of Brahma when the world is destroyed.
Savitri "A king, named Aswapati, sighed for offspring, and
after praying in vain for eighteen years, the gods of heaven sent
him a daughter, who grew up so "bright in her beauty," that she
appeared like a child of the Immortals; and the princes around
were so dazzled, that none dared to ask for her as a bride.
"So passing fair the young Savitri grew
That all adored her but none thought to woo.
No lovelier nymph e'er left her native skies.
To dazzle mortals with her heavenly eyes;
And how might e'en the proudest chieftain dare,
To woo a Princess so divinely fair."
This distressed her father, and he said that she must go now and
make choice herself.
"Meekly bowed the modest maiden, with her eyes upon the ground,
And departed, as he bade her, with attendants troop'd around.
Many a hermitage she travers'd, riding in a gold-bright car;
Many a wilderness and forest, holy places near and far."
"When she came back she told of a blind old king, driven from
his throne by a ruthless kinsman, living with his beloved wife in a
grove; and his brave son, Satyaván, her heart has chosen.
"Satyaván," she says, "has all my love."
At this announcement a Rishi, who happened to be present,
exclaims, in distress, that she would choose care and grief, in
choosing Satyavan. He is
"Learned as the gods' own teacher,-glorious as the sun is he;
With the earth's untiring patience, and great Indra's bravery."
He is noble,
True, and great of soul,
Bountiful is he, and modest,-every sense does he controul.
Gentle, brave, all creatures love him,-keeping in the righteous way,
Number'd with the holy hermits,-pure and virtuous as they."
But alas! in a year, counting from this day, "Satyaván will
die." On hearing this, the king considers a marriage out of the
question, and says: "Go, then, my dearest child, and choose
again." But his daughter replies:
"Be he virtuous or worthless,-many be his days, or few,-
Once for all I choose my husband: to that choice will I be true."
SAV
579
The sage and her father give way to her decided wishes: and in
due time the young couple are married, and live in great happiness
with the hermits in the grove. Sâvitrî, the bride, put aside her
jewels, and wore the coarse raiment usually adopted by hermits;
and, by her meekness and affection, won the hearts of all with
whom she dwelt.
"Sadly, sadly as she counted, day by day flew swiftly by,
And the fated time came nearer when her Satyavan must die.
Yet three days and he must perish, sadly thought the loving wife,
And she vowed to fast, unresting, for his last three days of life.'
Her husband's father feared that the trial would be too great for
her, but she answered: "Firm resolve has made me vow it; firm
resolve will give me strength." She kept her vow, and maintained
her fast; and when the third day dawned, and the fire of worship
was kindled, and the morning rites performed, she reverently
saluted the aged Brâhmaus and her husband's honoured parents,
but still refused food. Presently, her husband takes his axe upon
his shoulder to perform his daily task of felling trees.
She begs
him to let her go also; he replies:
"All unknown to thee the forest; rough the part and weary thou:
66
How, then, will thy feet support thee, fainting from thy fasting vow?"
Nay, I sink not from my fasting, and no weakness feel to-day;
I have set my heart on going: oh! forbid me not, I pray !"
Sâvitrî has always kept her sad secret from her husband; and
he has, therefore, no idea of her real reason for wishing to
accompany him. He, however, consents, and calls her attention to
the lovely woods, stately peacocks, and flowers of brilliant hue;
but she can look only upon him, and mourn for him as one about to
die. She gathers cooling fruits, and he makes the woods resound
with the strokes of his hatchet. But, soon a thrilling agony shoots
through his temple...... She sits down upon the ground, and he
rests his head upon her breast, and sleeps. But,--
C
Sudden, lo! before Savitrî stood a great and awful One;
Red as blood was his apparel, bright and glowing as the sun.
In his hand a noose was hanging; he to Satyavan stood nigh,
And upon the weary sleeper fix'd his fearful, glittering eye."
This awful apparition was Yama, god of Death, come to bind and
take the spirit of Satyavan. Having done this, he moved towards
the south, Sâvitrî closely following. Yama tries to persuade her
580
SAV-SEN
to go back; but she says, no: wherever her husband goes, there
she will go also. Yama praises her sweet speech, and offers her
any boon except the life of Satyavan; and she begs that the blind
king, her father-in-law, may be restored to sight, but without
relinquishing her first request. Yama tries again and again to get
rid of her, and says she wlll faint.
"Can I faint when near my husband? where he goes my path shall be.
I will follow where thou leadest ;-listen once again to me.'
Nothing can induce her to return without Satyavan; and at
length "love conquers death." Yama relents; the happy wife.
hastens to where her husband's dead body lay, and, leaning upon
her faithful bosom he awakes again to sense and life. A very
touching conversation follows, during which he gradually recovers
his recollection; but his wife, avoiding any full explanation of
what had been occurring, says:
"Night's dark shadows round us fall;
When the morrow's light returneth, dearest! I will tell thee all.
Up, then, and away, I pray thee,-come unto thy parents, love!
See the sun long time has vanish'd, and the night grows black above."
And accordingly they return to the hermitage, when Satyavan
finds his father no longer blind; and every kind of happiness
awaits them."*-See SATYAVAN.
"Savitri
Savitri--1, One of the twelve Ádityas, the sun.
has established the earth by supports; Savitri has fixed the sky
in unsupported space: Savitri has milked the atmosphere, restless
(or noisy) as a horse [or, Savitri has extracted from the atmosphere
the ocean, &c., restless as a horse ;]-the ocean fastened on the
unpassable expanse. Savitri, son of the waters, knows the place
where the ocean supported, issued forth. From him the earth,
from him the atmosphere, arose; from him the heaven and earth
extended." The sun also whose place is on the sky is called
Savitri. 2, The Vyása of the fifth Dwápara age.
Senajit-One of the kings of Hastinapura, the son of Viswajit.
Senani-One of the eleven Rudras according to the enumeration
in the Matsya Purána.
* A. & M. I. Indian Epic Poetry.
SER SES
581
Serpents-These are represented in the Vishnu Purána as the
progeny of Kadru, they are described as powerful and many-headed;
and some as fierce and venomous. The chief are mentioned
by name.
Sesha-Eternal matter in which Vishnu reposes during the
night of Eramhá when the destructive power only is in operation.
It is represented as an immense suake, forming by its many coils,
a bed on which Vishnu sleeps, and with its thousand heads erect,
to form a canopy over Vishnu's head, and to present the idea of
defence against any invasion of the sleeper's repose. Sésha is also
said to support the eight elephants which support the world. The
name Sésha is considered by Sir William Jones and others to
designate abstract eternity, but the emblem does not altogether
correspond with the Egyptian hieroglyphic used for this purpose.
The literal meaning is primal serpent, and many of the Hindu
legends introduce this snake. In the Puránas there is an account
of a dispute between it and Váyu, regent of the wind. The latter
blew with all his strength against the thousand peaks of Mount
Meru, and Sésha covered every one of the peaks, each by one of
his thousand heads. The sanctity of Tripiti, a hill in the north of
Mysore is derived from a traditionary version of this legend.
Váyu is said to have ceased blowing for a time when Sésha lifted
up one head to ascertain the cause, and Váyu suddenly blew off the
exposed peak, which was carried through the air and fell at Tripiti,
conferring on the place the sanctity of Mount Meru. At the Seven
Pagodas, near Madras, there is a good sculpture of Sésha in one of
the hill caves. The subject is a favorite one with the Vaishnavas.
Sir C. Wilkins thus describes one in the north of India, the rock of
Ichangiri in the province of Behar. Among the images carved in
relief in the surface of the rock, is one of Hari, (a title of Vishņu)
of gigantic dimensions, recumbent upon a coiled serpent, whose
heads, which are numerous, the artist has contrived to spread into
a kind of canopy over the sleeping god; and from each of its
mouths issues a forked tongue, seeming to threaten instant death
to any whom rashness might prompt to disturb him. The whole
lies almost clear of the block on which it is hewn.
is hewn. It is finely
imagined and is executed with great skill. The Hindus believe
582
SES-SIK
that at the end of every kalpa (creation) all things are absorbed in
the deity, and that in the interval of another creation he reposeth
himself upon the serpent Sésha (duration), who is also called
Ananta, (endless), q. v.
Sésha, worshipped by all the gods, supports the whole region
of the earth like a diadem, and is the foundation of Pátáļa. The
Siddhantas, or scientific astronomical works of India, however,
maintain that the earth is unsupported."-O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 96.
Sesha-One of the Prajapatis.
Siddhartha-A prince of the family of Ikshváku. He was
king of Pavana in Bharatakshetra when by supernatural agency he
was made the father of the great Tírthankara Mahávíra, q. v.
Siddhas-Pure and holy beings, exempt from covetousness and
concupiscence, love and hatred, taking no part in the procreation of
living beings, and detecting the unreality of the properties of
elementary matter. The Vishnu Purána states that eighty-eight
thousand of these chaste beings teuant the regions of the sky, north
of the sun, until the destruction of the universe.
Siddhi Perfection; One of the daughters of Daksha, married
to Dharma.
Siddhis-The eight perfections; 1, Rasollása, the spontaneous
or prompt evolution of the juices of the body, independently of
nutriment from without; 2, Tripti, mental satisfaction, or freedom
from sensual desire; 3, Sámya, sameness of degree; 4, Tulyatá,
similarity of life, form, and feature; 5, Visoká, exemption alike
from infirmity or grief; 6, Consummation of penance and medita-
tion, by attainment of true knowledge; 7, The power of going
everywhere at will; 8, The faculty of reposing at any time or in
any place. These attributes are alluded to, though obscurely, in
the Váyu, and are partly specified in the Márkandeya Purána.
Sighra--1, A prince, the son of Agnivara, descendant of Kuşa;
2, A river.
Sikhandini-The wife of Antarddhána, descendant of Prithu.
Siksha-An Anga, or subsidiary portion of the Vedas, con-
taining the rules of reciting the prayers, the accents and tones to
be observed, &c.
SIN SIS
583
Sindhu-A river of Bhárata Varsha; there are several rivers
of this name, as well as the Indus; there is one of some note, the
Kálí Sindh in Malwa.
Sindhu-A country near the forest of Káma. It was the Rája
of Sindhu, Jayadrathu, who visited Draupadi, in the absence of
her husbands, and attempted to carry her away.
Sindhudwipa-One of the kings of Ayodhya, the son of
Ambarisha.
Sinhika--One of the daughters of Kasyapa, and wife of Vipra-
chitti. She was the sister of the celebrated Danava Hiranyakaṣipu.
Sini-One of the Bhoja princes of Mrittikávati, the son of
Sumitra.
Sinivali-1, The name of the day when the new moon is first
visible; 2, One of the daughters of Angiras.
Sipraka-The first Andhra king; and founder of the Andhra-
bhritya dynasty. He had previously been minister to Susarman,
the last of the Kanwa kings of Magadha, against whom Siprak
conspired, and assumed the sovereignty himself.
Siradhwaja--A name of Janaka, king of Mithila, celebrated
as the father of Síta.
Sisira--A teacher of the Rig Veda.
Sisumara--Porpoise. The symbol for the celestial sphere.
The porpoise-like figure of the celestial sphere is upheld by
Narayana, who himself, in planetory radiance, is seated in its
heart; whilst the son of Uttanápada, Dhruva, in consequence of
his adoration of the lord of the world, shines in the tail of the
stellar porpoise. Vishnu Purána, 230.
Sisunaga-One of the kings of Magadha, who relinquished
Benares to his son, and established himself at Girivraja, in Behar.
Sisupala--The son of Damaghosha, king of Chedí. This prince
was in a former existence the unrighteous but valiant monarch
of the Daityas, Hiranyakaṣipu, who was killed by the divine
guardian of the creation (in the man-lion Avatara.) He was next
the ten-headed sovereign Rávana, whose unequalled prowess,
584
SIS
strength, and power, were overcome by the lord of the three
worlds Ráma; when born again as Sisupála, he renewed with
greater inveteracy than ever, his hostile hatred towards the god
surnamed Pundaríkáksha, a portion of the Supreme Being who
had descended to lighten the burden of the earth,, and was in
consequence slain by him: but because his thoughts were
constantly engrossed by the Supreme Being, Sisupála was united
with him after death; V. P. The death of Siṣupála is thus
related in the Mahábhárata: "now the custom was at the beginning
of a Rájasúya to declare who was the greatest and strongest of all
the Rájas there assembled, in order that the Argha might be given.
to him; and Bhishma, as ruler of the feast, declared that the
honour was due to Krishna, who was the greatest and strongest
of them all. But Sisupála, the Rája of Chedí, was exceedingly
wroth with Krishna, for when he was betrothed to the beautiful
Rukminí, Krishna had carried her away and made her his own
wife. So Sisupála arose and threw the whole assembly into an
uproar, and he said with a loud voice :-" If the honour be due to
age, it should have been given to Vasudeva; if it be due to him
who has the greatest Raj, it should have be given to Rája
Drupada; if it be due to the youth of loftiest mind, it should have
been given to Rája Duryodhana; if it be due to the greatest
preceptor, it should have been given to Drona; and if it be due
to the greatest saint, it should have been given to Vyása: but
shame be upon this assembly, who hath given that honour to a
cowherd, who was the murderer of his own Rája." Having thus
spoken, Sisupála and his friends who were with him made a great
tumult. Yudhishthira and Bhishma then reasoned with Sisupála,
but he would not heed their words, and drew his sword, and
threatened to slay all the guests and spoil the sacrifice. Yudhish-
thira and his brethren then rose to fight against Sisupála, but
Bhishma withheld them ; and Sisupála in his rage abused Bhishma
and Krishna in such opprobrious terms that the whole assembly
were alarmed. At last Krishņa said :-"I have hitherto restrained
my hand, because this man is my own kinsman, but I can bear
with his words no longer." And thus speaking he whirled his
chakra furiously at Sișupála, and severed his head from his body;
SIT
585
and Sisupála fell dead upon the ground, and his sons carried away
his body and burnt it upon the funeral pile. Thus Krishna saved
the Rájasúya of Yudhishthira by the slaughter of Sisupála; for
had Rája Yudhishthira been set at defiance by a Rája who had
not been conquered, the Rájasúya would have been imperfect and
of no avail."
66
Sita-The daughter of Janaka, king of Mithila, (Síradhwaja.)
She is called earth-born, as having been turned up from the soil
by a plough, as Janaka was ploughing a spot to prepare for a
sacrifice. She was promised in marriage to the Rája who could
bend the great bow of Śiva; many distinguished Rájas attempted
the feat, but could not succeed; now when Ráma saw the
bow he lifted it with one hand from the ground playfully,
while a great multitude looked on in amazement. Then Ráma
bent the bow till it broke in the midst, and the noise was like the
crash of a falling mountain, so that the bystanders were stunned
and fell down. After this Sítá was married to Ráma. The
story of their honeymoon in the Rámáyana, is supposed to be
an interpolation of recent date. When Rama had to go into exile
Sítá avowed her determination to accompany him to the jungle.
Ráma objected to this, but at length yielded to her earnest
entreaties. They met with many adventures in their jungle life.
which are described in great detail in the Rámáyana. They rested
in the cave of the sage Atri, whose wife Anásúya gave Sítá an
ointment to render her young and "beautiful for ever."
On one
occasion she besought Ráma to pursue a beautiful deer, his brother
Lakshmana remaining behind for her protection. Sounds of distress
were heard as if proceeding from Ráma, and Sítá taunted
Lakshmana with unconcern for his brother until he left her. Then
Rávaṇa, by whose contrivance all this had come about, entered the
hut as a brahman mendicant, assumed his true form, and addressed
Sítá, who replied to him with anger, and Rávana carried her off by
force to Lanka, where she was discovered by Hanuman in the
Asóka garden. While being carried by Rávana through the air,
which she filled with cries and lamentatious, she saw five monkeys
sitting in the mountain named Risha-mukha, and threw down her
ornaments amongst them in the hope that they might find their
74
586
SIT-SIV
way to Ráma. They were found by Sugríva and by him shown to
Ráma. Sítá wrathfully refused to receive the addresses of Rávaṇa,
who threatened to slay her. She had an interview with Hanumáu,
and was finally rescued by Ráma; but had to pass through a severe
ordeal before she was received as pure after being imprisoned in
the palace of Rávaṇa. She entered the fire and the god Agní
attested her purity. She was then installed as Rání with great
splendour. She had two children Lava, and Kuşa.
Siteyus-A prince, the son of Uṣanas, (q. v.)
Siva-The third deity in the Hindu triad. Wilson says that
Śiva is the same as Vishnu in the character of destroyer of creation.
He also personifies reproduction, as Hindu philosophy excludes the
idea of total annihilation without subsequent regeneration. Hence
he is sometimes identified with Brahma the first person in the triad.
Śiva is the particular god of the Tantrikas, or followers of the
books called Tantras. His worshippers are termed Saivas, and
although not so numerous as the Vaishnavas, exalt their god to the
highest place in the heavens, aud combine in him many of the
attributes which properly belong to the other deities. According
to them, Śiva is Time, Justice, Fire, Water, the Sun, the Destroyer
and Creator. As presiding over generation, his type is the Linga,
or Phallus, the origin probably of the Phallic emblem of Egypt and
Greece. As the god of generation and of justice, which latter
character he shares with the god Yama, he is represented riding a
white bull. His own colour, as well as that of the bull, is generally
white, referring probably to the unsullied purity of justice. His
throat is dark-blue; his hair of a light reddish colour, and thickly
matted together, and gathered above his head like the hair of an
ascetic. He is sometimes seen with two hands, sometimes with
four, eight, or ten, and with five faces. He has three eyes, one
being in the centre of his forehead, pointing up and down. These
are said to denote his view of the three divisions of time, past,
present, and future. He holds a trident in his hand to denote, as
some say, his relationship to water, or according to others, to show
that the three great attributes of Creator, Destroyer, and Re-
generator are combined in him. His loins are enveloped in a
SIV
587
tiger's skin. In his character of Time, he not only presides over
its extinction, but also its astronomical regulation. A crescent or
half-moon on his forehead indicates the measure of time by the
phases of the moon; a serpent forms one of his necklaces to denote
the measure of time by years, and a second necklace of human
skulls marks the lapse and revolution of ages, and the extinction
and succession of the generations of mankind. He is often
represented as entirely covered with serpents, which are the
emblems of immortality. They are bound in his hair, round his
neck, wrists, waist, arms, and legs; they serve as rings for his
fingers, and earrings for his ears, and are his constant companions.
Śiva has more than a thousand names, which are detailed at length
in the sixty-ninth chapter of the Siva Purána. The following list
of the principal of these will give the best idea of his character and
attributes. The auspicious one. The Lord of the Universe. The
Destroyer, a personification of time that destroys all things. The
Reproducer, the Conqueror of life and death, and Cause of life and
being. The Disperser of the Tears of mortals."- Williams.
Siva-1, The wife of the Rudra Iṣána; 2, The wife of Anila,
(Wind.)
Sivas-A class of deities in the third Manwantara.
Sivaskandha-One of the Andhra kings, the son of Sivasri
Satakarni.
Sivasti-Another of the Andhra kings.
Siva-Upa-Purana-The Śiva Upa-puráṇa contains about six
thousand stanzas, distributed into two parts. It is related by
Sanatkumára to Vyása and the Rishis at Naimisháranya; and
its character may be judged of from the questions to which it is a
reply. "Teach us," said the Rishis, "the rules of worshipping
the Linga, and of the god of gods adored under that type : describe
to us his various forms, the places sanctified by him, and the
prayers with which he is to be addressed." In answer, Sanat-
kumára repeats the Śiva Purána, containing the birth of Vishnu
and Brahmá; the creation and divisions of the universe ; the
origin of all things from the Linga; the rules of worshipping it
and Śiva; the sanctity of times, places, and things, dedicated to
588
SIV-SKA
;
him; the delusion of Brahmá and Vishnu by the Linga; the
rewards of offering flowers and the like to a Linga; rules for
various observances in honour of Mahadeva; the mode of practis-
ing the Yoga; the glory of Benares and other Saiva Tirthas
and the perfection of the objects of life by union with Maheswara.
These objects are illustrated, in the first part, with very few
legends; but the second is made up, almost wholly, of Saiva stories,
as the defeat of Tripurásura; the sacrifice of Daksha; the births
of Kárttikeya and Ganeṣa, (the sons of Śiva), and Nandi and
Bhringaríti (his attendants), and others; together with descriptions
of Benares and other places of pilgrimage, and rules for observing
such festivals as the Śivarátri. This work is a Saiva manual, not
a Purána.-Wilson.
Sivi-1, A Daitya, the son of Sanhráda; 2, The Indra of the
fourth Manwantara ; 3, A prince, the son of Usínara.
Skambha-The Supporter or Upholder; an appellation of
the Supreme Being. In a hymn of the Atharva Veda, Skambha
is considered like Purusha, as a vast embodied being co-extensive
with the universe, and comprehending, in his several members,
not only the different parts of the material world, but a variety of
abstract conceptions, such as austere fervour (tapas,) faith, truth,
and the divisions of time. He is distinct from, and superior to,
Prajapati, who founds the worlds upon him. The thirty-three
gods are comprehended in him, and arose out of nonentity, which
forms his highest member, and, as well as entity, is embraced
within him. The gods who form part of him, as branches of a
tree, do him homage, and bring him tribute. He is identified
with Indra; and perhaps also with the highest Brahmá, who is
mentioned in verses 32-34, 36, and in the first verse of the next
hymn, x. 8, 1. In verse 36, however, this Brahmá is represented
as being born (or, perhaps, developed) from toil and tapas, whilst
in x. 8, 1, the attributes of the Supreme Deity are assigned to
him. In compositions of this age, however, we are not to expect
very accurate or rigorous thinking, or perfect consistency :-
In Skambha are contained the worlds, austere fervour, and the
ceremonial. Skambha, I clearly know thee to be contained entire
SKA
589
in Indra. In Indra are contained the worlds, austere fervour, and
the ceremonial. Indra, I clearly know thee to be contained entire
in Skambha. When the Unborn first sprang into being, he
attained to that independent dominion, than that which nothing
higher has ever been. Reverence be to that greatest Brahmá, of
whom the earth is the basis, the atmosphere the belly, who made
the sky his head, of whom the sun and the ever-renewed moon
are the eye; who made Agui his mouth, of whom the wind formed
two of the vital airs, and the Angirasas the eye, who made the
regions his organs of sense. Skambha established both these
[worlds], earth and sky, the wide atmosphere, and the six vast
regions; Skambha pervaded this entire universe. Reverence to
that greatest Brahmá who, born from toil and austere fervour
(tapas,) penetrated all the worlds, who made soma for himself
alone. How is it that the wind does not rest? How is not the
soul quiescent? Why do not the waters, seeking after truth, ever
repose? The great being [is] absorbed in austere fervour in the
midst of the world, on the surface of the waters. To him all the
gods are joined, as the branches around the trunk of a tree. Say
who is that Skambha to whom the gods, with hands, feet, voice,
ear, eye, present continually an unlimited tribute? By him
darkness is dispelled; he is free from evil; in him are all the
three luminaries which reside in Prajápati. He who knows the
golden reed standing in the waters is the mysterious Prajapati.
Professor Goldstücker adds that Skambha "seems to mean the
fulcrum of the whole world, in all its physical, religious, and other
aspects. The object of the hymn being to inquire what this fulcrum
is, from the answer given to the various questions it seems to
follow that it is there imagined to be the primitive deity, or the
primitive Veda, the word brahman in the neuter implying both.
From this primitive Veda, not visibly but really (sat) existing,
not only all the gods, worlds, religious rites, &c. were derived, but
also the existing three Vedas and the Atharvan were fashioned.''
–0. S. T., V, 384.
Skanda-1, A name of Kartikeya, the son of Śiva and Párvati,
and the Mars of Hindu mythology. For the legend of his birth,
see Kartikeya. In a note to the Megha Dúta, Professor Wilson
590
SKA
writes, "Several instances of the solitary production of offspring
occur in the Hindu as well as in the Grecian mythology. Thus
as Pallas sprang from the brow of Jupiter, we have Skanda
generated solely by the deity Śiva: Gangá springs from the head
of the same deity, and Ganesa is the self-born son of the goddess
Párvati. The miraculous birth of the warrior deity, Skanda, was
for the purpose of destroying Táraka, an Asura or demon, who,
by the performance of continued and severe austerities, had
acquired powers formidable to the gods. The excentric genius of
Southey has rendered it unnecessary, by his poem • The curse
of Keháma,' for me to explain the nature or results of these acts
of devotion. The germ of Skanda was cast by Śiva into the flame
of Agui, the god of fire; who, being unable to sustain the increas-
ing burden, transferred it to the goddess Gangá: she accordingly
was delivered of the deity, Skanda ; who was afterwards received
and reared, among thickets of the Sara reed (Saccharum Sara), by
the six daughters of a king, named Krittiká; or according to
other legends, by the wives of seven great Rishis or Saints. In
either case, they form in astronomy the asterism of the Pleiades.
Upon his coming to maturity, Skanda encountered and killed the
demon, who had filled the reign of Indra with dismay-
Emissumque imâ de sede Typhoëa terrâ,
Cœlitibus fecisse metum.-Works IV, 353.
Skanda--2, The son of the Rudra Pasupati, by his wife Swáha.
Skanda Purana--" The Skánda Purána is that in which the
six-faced deity (Skánda) has related the events of the Tatpurusha
Kalpa, enlarged with many tales, and subservient to the duties
taught by Maheswara. It is said to contain eighty-one thousand
one hundred stanzas: so it is asserted amongst mankind."
It is uniformly agreed that the Skánda Purána, in a collective
form, has no existence; and the fragments, in the shape of
Sanhitás, Khánḍas, and Máhátmyas, which are affirmed, in various
parts of India, to be portions of the Purána, present a much more
formidable mass of stanzas than even the immense number of
which it is said to consist. The most celebrated of these portions,
in Hindusthan, is the Háší Khánda, a very minute description of
SLI-SOM
591
the temples of Śiva in or adjacent to Benares, mixed with direc-
tions for worshipping Maheswara, and a great variety of legends
explanatory of its merits and of the holiness of Káśí. Many of
them are puerile and uninteresting; but some are of a higher
character. The story of Agastya records, probably in a legendary
style, the propagation of Hinduism in the south of India ; and, in
the history of Divodása, king of Káśí, we have au embellished
tradition of the temporary depression of the worship of Śiva, even
in its metropolis, before the ascendancy of the followers of
Buddha. There is every reason to believe the greater part of the
contents of the Káśí Kháṇḍa anterior to the first attack upon
Benares by Mahmud of Ghizui. The Káší Khánḍa alone.contains
fifteen thousand stanzas.— Wilson.
Slishti―One of the sons of the great sage Dhruva, by his wife
Sambhu.
Smaya-Wonder. A son of Dharma.
Smriti-Tradition, as distinguished from Sruti, revelation.
The Veda is regarded as revelation; and what is called the whole
body of the law is regarded as tradition. "This distinction may
be of some importance as an illustration of the national belief in
inspiration; and it may throw some light on that era in the history
of Sanskrit literature when inspiration was supposed to end and
tradition to begin."* Mr. Max Müller makes a similar remark, and
discusses the subject in his History of Sanskrit Literature.
Smriti-1, Memory. One of the daughters of Daksha, mar-
ried to the Muni Angiras; 2, The faculty of recognising all things,
past, present, or to come. Wilson's Notes to Vishnu Purána.
Soka-Sorrow: one of the children of Mritya (Death.)
Soma-Reference has been already made to the important
share which the exhilarating juice of the soma-plant assumes in
bracing Indra for his conflict with the hostile powers in the
atmosphere, and to the eagerness of all the gods to partake
in this beverage.
*Talboys Wheeler.
592
SOM
Soma is the god who represents and animates this juice, an
intoxicating draught which plays a conspicuous part in the
sacrifices of the Vedic age. He is, or rather was in former times,
the Indian Dionysus or Bacchus. Not only are the whole of the
hymns in the ninth book of the Rig Veda, one hundred and
fourteen in number, besides a few in other places, dedicated to his
honour, but constant references to the juice of the Soma occur in
a large proportion of the other hymns. It is clear therefore, as
remarked by Prof. Whitney, that his worship must at one time,
have attained a remarkable popularity. The simple-minded
Arian people, whose whole religion was a worship of the wonderful
powers and phenomena of nature, had no sooner perceived that this
liquid had power to elevate the spirits, and produce a temporary
frenzy, under the influence of which the individual was prompted.
to, and capable of, deeds beyond his natural powers, than they
found in it something divine; it was to their apprehension a god.
endowing those into whom it entered with god-like powers; the
plant which afforded it became to them the king of plants; the
process of preparing it was a holy sacrifice; the instruments used
therefore were sacred. The high antiquity of this cultus is attested
by the references to it found occurring in the Persian Avesta ; it
seems however to have received a new impulse on Indian territory.'
With the decline of the Vedic worship however, and the
introduction of new deities and new ceremonies, the popularity of
Soma gradually decreased, and has long since passed away; and
his name is now familiar to those few Brahmans ouly, who still
maintain in a few places the early Vedic observances.
A great variety of divine attributes and operations are ascribed
to Soma. He is addressed as a god in the highest strains of
adulation and veneration; all powers belong to him; all blessings
are besought of him as his to bestow.* In a passage where the
joys of paradise are more distinctly anticipated and more fervently
implored than in most other parts of the Rig Veda, Soma is
addressed as the god from whom the gift of future felicity
is expected.
Whitney, J. A. O. S., III, 299.
SOM
593
Soma exhilarates Varuna, Mitra, Indra, Vishnu, the Maruts, the
other gods, Váyu, Heaven and Earth. Both gods and men resort
to him saying that his juice is sweet, by him the Adityas are strong
and the earth vast. He is the friend, helper, and soul of Indra,
whom he succours in his conflicts with Vrittra. He rides in the
same chariot with Indra, but has winged mares of his own
and a team-like Váyu.-O. S. T., V, 258-67.
In the post-vedic age the name Soma came to be commonly
applied to the moon and its regent, who is represented as the son of
Atri ; the monarch of the stars and planets, of brahmans and of
plants, of sacrifices and of penance. The Vishnu Puráua has the
following legend: Soma celebrated the Rájasúya (sacrifice); and,
from the glory thence acquired, and the extensive dominion with
which he had been invested, he became arrogant (and licentious,)
and carried off Tárá, the wife of Brihaspati, the preceptor of the
gods. In vain Brihaspati sought to recover his bride; in vain
Brahmá commanded, and the holy sages remonstrated: Soma
refused to relinquish her. Uşanas, out of enmity to Brihaspati, took
part with Soma. Rudra, who had studied under Angiras, (the
father of Brihaspati,) befriended his fellow-student. In consequence
of Uṣanas, their preceptor, joining Soma, Jambha, Kujambha, and
all the Daityas, Dánavas, and other foes of the gods, came also to
his assistance; whilst Indra and all the gods were the allies of
Brihaspati.
Then there ensued a fierce contest, which, being on account of
Táraká (or Tárá,) was termed the Tárakámaya or Táraká war.
In this, the gods, led by Rudra, hurled their missiles on the
enemy; and the Daityas with equal determination assailed the
gods. Earth, shaken to her centre by the struggle between such
foes, had recourse to Brahmá, for protection; on which he inter-
posed, and, commanding Usanas, with the demons, and Rudra,
with the deities, to desist from strife, compelled Soma to restore
Tárá to her husband. Finding that she was pregnant, Brihaspati
desired her no longer to retain her burthen; and, in obedience to
his orders, she was delivered of a son, whom she deposited in a
clump of long Munja-grass. The child, from the moment of its
birth, was endued with a splendour that dimmed the radiance of
75
594
SOM
every other divinity; and both Brihaspati and Soma, fascinated
by his beauty, claimed him as their child. The gods, in order to
settle the dispute, appealed to Tárá; but she was ashamed, and
would make no answer. As she still continued mute to their
repcated applications, the child (became incensed, and) was about
to curse her, saying: "Unless, vile woman, you immediately
declare who is my father, I will sentence you to such a fate as
shall deter every female, in future, from hesitating to speak the
truth." On this, Brahmá again interfered, and pacified the child,
and then, addressing Tárá, said: "Tell me, daughter, is this
the child of Brihaspati or of Soma?" " Of Soma," said Tárá,
blushing. As soon as she had spoken, the lord of the constella-
tions-his countenance bright, and expanding with rapture,-
embraced his son, and said: "Well done, my boy! Verily, thou
art wise." And, hence, his name was Budha.
'He who knows.' Much erroneous speculation has originated
in confounding this Budha, the son of Soma, and regent of the
planet Mercury, he who knows,' the intelligent,'-with
Buddha, any defied mortal, or 'he by whom truth is known;' or
as individually applicable, Gautama or Śákya, son of Rája Śuddho-
dana, by whom, the Buddhists themselves aver, their doctrines
were first promulgated. The two characters have nothing in
common; and the names are identical, only when one or other is
mis-spelt. This Budha was the founder of the lunar race. The
Brahmá Purána and Hari Vansa have a legend of the birth of
Soma, the moon, from the Rishi Prabhákara of the race of Atri.-
Wilson.
Soma-One of the deities called Vasus, because they are
always present in luminous irradiation.
Somadatta A king of Vaişálí, the son of Krisaswa. He is
famed for his having celebrated ten times the sacrifice of a horse.
Somaka-One of the kings of Magadha, the son of Sahadeva.
Somapas-A class of Pitris, " drinkers of the acid juice.”
Soma-plant--A plant constantly mentioned in the vedic ritual,
and corresponding to the Homa of the Zendavesta, but it is uncer-
SOM
595
!
6
6
"It is
tain what plant was originally intended by the name.
described as a creeper, of a dark colour, sour, without leaves,
milky, and pulpy externally; it causes phlegm and vomiting, and
is a favourite food of goats,' see Müller, Zeitscher, d. D. M. G. ix.
It is said to come from the north, and to be bought of barbarian.
tribes; but the soma of the Veda' is no longer known in India.
Dr. Haug says that the plant at present used by the sacrificial
priests of the Dekkhan is not the soma of the Vedas, but appears
to belong to the same order. It grows on hills in the neighbour-
hood of Poona, to the height of about four or five feet, and forms
a kind of bush, consisting of a certain number of shoots, all coming
from the same root; their stem is solid like wood, the bark greyish,
they are without leaves, the sap appears whitish, has a very
stringent taste, is bitter but not sour; it is a very nasty drink, but
has some intoxicating effect.' (Ait. Br., Vol. II., p. 489). "The
ceremonial writers allow the plant pútíka, Guilandina Bondue, to
be used as a substitute for the soma. The Parsees of Bombay use
the branches of a particular tree, obtained from Persia in a dried
state."*
In the Rig Veda the soma plant is said to have been brought to
the earth by a falcon. In another passage it is declared to have
been brought by the daughter of the Sun from the place where it
had been nourished by Parjanya, the rain-god, when the Gand-
harvas took it and infused into it sap.
Somasarmman-One of the Mauryan kings of Magadha.
Somasushmapana-The Vyasa of the twenty-third Dwá-
para age.
Soma-tirtha-A place of pilgrimage in the west of India, on
the coast of Guzerat, near the celebrated temple of Somanath, and
town of Pattan Somanath. Its name is derived from the legend
that Soma the moon, was there cured of the consumption brought
upon him by the imprecation of Daksha, his father-in-law. The
place is also called Prabhása.
Somayajna-Offerings and libations of the juice of the acid
asclepias.
Quarterly Review, July 1870.
596
SON-SRA
Sona-The Sone river rising in Maináka or Amarakantak, and
flowing east to the Ganges.
Sonitapura-The city of Báņa, considered to be the modern
Devicotta in the Carnatic.
Sraddha-Faith: One of the daughters of Daksha, married to
Dharma, or according to some authorities to Angiras.
Sraddha-An obsequial or funeral sacrifice; but it also implies
offerings to the progenitors of an individual and of mankind, and
always forms part of a religious ceremony on an occasion of
rejoicing or an occasion of prosperity, this being termed the
Abhyudaya or Vriddhi Sráddha.
"The offerings of the Hindus to the Pitris partake of the
character of those of the Romans to the lares and manes, but bear
a more conspicuous part in their ritual. They are said indeed by
Manu to be of more moment than the worship of the gods. These
ceremonies are not to be regarded as merely obsequial; for
independently of the rites addressed to a recently deceased
relative,—and, in connexion with him, to remote ancestors, and to
the progenitors of all beings,-which are of a strictly obsequial or
funeral description, offerings to deceased ancestors, and the Pitris
in general, form an essential ceremony, on a great variety of
festive and domestic occasions. The Nirnaya Sindhu, in a
passage referred to by Mr. Colebrooks* specifies the following
Sráddhas; 1, The Nitya, or perpetual; daily offerings to ancestors
in general; 2, The Naimittika, or occasional; as the Ekoddishta,
or obsequial offerings on account of a kinsman recently deceased;
3, The Kámya, voluntary: performed for the accomplishment
of a special design; 4, The Vriddhi; performed on occasions of
rejoicing or prosperity; 5, The Sapindana; offerings to all
individual and to general ancestors; 6, The Párvana Sráddha ;
offerings to the manes, on certain lunar days called Párvans, or day
of full-moon and new-moon, and the eighth and fourteenth days of
the lunar fortnight; 7, The Goshṭhí; for the advantage of a
number of learned persons, or of an assembly of Brahmans,
* Asiatic Researches, Vol. VII.
SRA
597
invited for the purpose; 8, The Suddhi; one performed to purify
a person from some defilement,-an expiatory Sráddha; 9, The
Karmánga; one forming part of the initiatory ceremonies, or
Samskáras, observed at conception, birth, tonsure, &c.; 10, The
Daivika; to which the gods are invited; 11, The Yátrá Sráddha ;
held by a person going a journey; and, 12, The Pushti Sráddha;
one performed to promote health and wealth. Of these, the four
which are considered the most solemn are the rite performed for a
parent, or near relative, lately deceased; that which is performed
for kindred, collectively; that observed on certain lunar days;
and that celebrated on occasions of rejoicing.
The following extract from Mr. Talboys Wheeler's History of
India, Vol. II, gives a very complete view of this subject.
“The Sráddha, or feast of the dead, is perhaps one of the most
primitive, as it certainly is one of the most simple, of all the Vedic
rites that have been handed down from a period of remote antiquity
to the present day. It originated in the crude idea already
indicated; that the spirit or ghost had a separate existence after
death, and that it might be gratified or propitiated with offerings
of food. This idea certainly involved a belief in the prolonged
existence of the spirit in a future state of being; but in its origin
it had no connection with the doctrine of future rewards and
punishments. It is rather to be traced to the old world belief,
which has existed in all ages, and which still lingers in the
imagination of even a philosophic and material generation, that the
spirits of the departed hover at times near those persons and
places which were associated with their earthly careers, and are
gratified by any tribute of respect which may be paid to their
memory.
The Sraddha, or feast of the dead, was thus in its earliest form
a pleasing expression of natural religion, which long preceded the
advent of a priestly caste, or the introduction of a systematic
ritual. But, like every other popular ceremonial which has been
handed down amongst the Hindus from the Vedic period, it has
been recast in a Brahmanical mould; and it is in this latter form
that the institution appears in the Epics as well as in the laws of
Manu. It consists of three distinct rites :-
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SRA
1st-The daily Sráddha, to be performed in propitiation of the
Pitris, or ghosts of remote ancestors.
2nd-The monthly Sráddha, to be performed in propitiation of
the more immediate paternal ancestors.
3rd-The funeral Sráddha, to be performed within a certain
period after death, or the hearing of the death, of a near kinsman.
It should also be remarked that Sráddhas are likewise performed
on other occasions, and notably at the celebration of any marriage.
ceremony.
The daily Sráddha was an offering either of boiled rice, or of
milk, roots, and fruit, or of water only, to the Pitris, or remote
ancestors. This ceremonial has been already described, and it will
be only necessary to add that in modern practice it is considered
sufficient to pour water out of a particular vessel every day as a
drink-offering to the Pitris.
The monthly Sráddha may be considered under four separate
heads :-
1st-Ceremonies to be performed at a monthly Sráddha.
2nd-Persons to be entertained at the monthly Sráddha.
3rd-Persons to be excluded from the monthly Sráddha.
4th-Relative merits of the different kinds of victuals which may
be offered at a monthly Sráddha.
The ceremonies at the monthly Sráddha, as described in the
Institutes of Manu, are of a very intelligible character; and seem
to have been laid down for the purpose of converting the old Vedic
offering of food and water into a great feast to the Brahmans.
The monthly Sráddha was performed on the dark day of the moon,
that is, when the sun and moon are in conjunction. A sequestered
spot was selected, such as was supposed to be pleasing to the
ghosts; and then the invited Brahmans were conducted to their
allotted seats, which had been purified with kusa grass, and were
presented with garlands of flowers and sweet perfumes. The
officiating Brahman then satisfied the three Vedic deities,-Agni,
Soma, and Yama,-by pouring an oblation of ghee upon the sacred
fire. He then proceeded to satisfy the ancestors of the giver of
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599
the Sráddha. He first sprinkled water on the ground with his
right hand, and then formed three balls or cakes of boiled rice,
which are called pindas. One of these cakes is presented to each
of the three immediate paternal ancestors, namely, the father, the
grandfather, and the great-grandfather. The offering of pindas,
however, is said to be extended to the fourth, fifth, and sixth
degrees of paternal ancestors in the ascending line, by the simple
process of wiping the hand with kusa grass after offering the pindas
to the ancestors of the first, second, and third degree. This
ceremony was followed by a great feast to the Brahmans, consisting
of vessels filled with rice, together with broths, potherbs, milk and
curds, ghee, spiced puddings, milky messes of various sorts, roots
of herbs, ripe fruits, and savoury meats; and during the feast,
passages were read from the Sástras. The remains of the cakes
were to be eaten by a cow, a Brahman, or a kid ; or to be cast into
water or fire; but the wife of the householder was to eat the middle
of the three cakes, in order that she might become the mother of a
sou, who should be long-lived, famous, strong-minded, wealthy, and
the father of many sons. When the Brahmans had duly feasted,
the householder gave a feast to the kinsmen of his father, and
afterwards to the kinsmen of his mother. In cases of poverty,
however, the offering of water seems to be considered a sufficient
satisfaction of the spirits of the six paternal ancestors.
As regards the persons to be invited to the monthly Sráddha,
great stress is laid by the code upon the entertainment of learned
Brahmaus, and the exclusion of ignorant ones from the Sráddha ;
but it is added that if such learned Brahmans cannot be found,
certain relatives may be entertained. This last expression is
somewhat obscure, and may possibly imply that the Sráddha was
originally eaten by the kinsmen, and that the introduction of
learned Erahmans was a later idea.
Manu's catalogue of the persons who were to be excluded from
a monthly Sráddha is of a very miscellaneous character; and is
chiefly valuable from the illustrations which it furnishes of the
Brahmánical notion of impure or immoral characters. The cata-
logue may be re-distributed under four general heads, according
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SRA
to the four different grounds upon which the individuals specified
have been respectively excluded, namely, moral, religious, physical
and professional.
The persons to be excluded from a Sráddha on moral grounds,
are:-
"A Brahmachari who has not read the Veda; a Brahmán who
has committed theft; one who opposes his preceptor; a younger
brother married before the elder; an elder brother not married
before the younger; one who subsists by the wealth of many
relatives; the husband of a Súdra; the son of a twice-married
woman; a husband in whose house an adulterer dwells; one who
teaches the Veda for wages; one who gives wages to such a teacher;
the pupil of a Súdra; the Súdra preceptor; a rude speaker; the
son of an adulteress born either before or after the death of her
husband; a forsaker of his mother, father, or preceptor without
just cause; a man who forms a connection with great sinners;
a house-burner; a giver of poison; an eater of food offered by the
son of an adulterer; a suborner of perjury; a wrangler with his
father; a drinker of intoxicating spirits; one of evil repute ; a
cheat; the husband of a younger sister married before the elder ;
an injurer of his friend; a father instructed in the Veda by his
own son; one who diverts watercourses; a seducer of damsels ; a
man who delights in mischief; a Brahman living as a Súdra ; one
who observes neither approved customs nor prescribed duties; a
constant and importunate asker of favours; one who is despised
by the virtuous; the husband of a twice-married woman ; a.
Brahmau of bad manners; and an iguorant Brahman.”
The persons to be excluded from a Sráddha on religious grounds,
are:
"Those who profess to disbelieve in a future state; a Brahman
who has performed many sacrifices for other men; those who
worship images for gain; one who deserts the sacred fire ; one
who omits the five great sacraments; a contemner of Brahmans ;
a despiser of scripture; and one who sacrifices only to the inferior
gods."
SRA
601
The persons to be excluded from a Sráddha on physical grounds,
are:-
"Those with whitlows on their nails; those with black-yellow
teeth; a consumptive man; a man who has lost an eye; a man
with elephantiasis; an impotent man; an epileptic man; one
with erysipelas; a leper; a lunatic; a blind man ; a club-footed
man."
The persons to be excluded from a Sráddha because of their
trade or profession, are :-
(6
Physicians; gamesters; usurers; dancers; sellers of meat;
those who live by low traffic; a public servant of the whole town ;
a public servant of the Rája; a feeder of cattle; a seller of the
moon-plant; a navigator of the ocean; a political economist; an
oil man ; one who employs gamesters for his own benefit; a seller
of liquors; a maker of bows and arrows; the keeper of a gambling-
house ; a common informer; a tamer of elephants, bulls, horses, or
camels one who subsists by astrology; a keeper of birds ; one
who teaches the use of arms; one who builds houses for gain; a
messenger; a planter of trees for pay; a breeder of sporting dogs;
a falconer; one who supports himself by tillage; a shepherd
keeper of buffaloes; and one who removes dead bodies for pay."
a
The food that is given to such men at a Sráddha becomes base
and impure; and the giver of the Sraddha will be punished in the
next life.
The foregoing catalogues of persons who are to be excluded
from a Sráddha are very suggestive. In the first place it will be
noticed that Manu classifies immorality, heresy, and deviation
from caste rule, with physical evils, such as leprosy, blindness, and
elephantiasis; and this intermingling is more perceptible in the
original text, where no attempt has been made to separate the
precepts under different heads. This strange confusion of sin and
disease appears to have originated in the old idea, connected with
the dogma of the transmigration of the soul, that disease was the
punishment of sins committed either in this life or in a previous
state of existence.
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602
SRA
; a
The peculiar usages which seem to have originated some of the
precepts are also well worthy of notice. Thus it has been seen
that it was considered wrong for a younger brother or a younger
sister to be married before an elder brother or an elder sister
notion which could only find a place amongst a people who believed
that the marriage of a daughter was a duty which every parent
was bound to fulfil. It has also been seen that a woman who
married a second husband was held in great abhorrence; and to
the present day the marriage of a Hindu widow, even when her
first husband has died before the marriage has been consummated,
is regarded with a national antipathy which education and legis-
lation have done but little to remove. It is also somewhat curious
that Manu should exclude a constant and importunate asker of
favours from a Sráddha; from which it would appear that askers
of favours were as constant and importunate in the age of Manu
as they are in our own time.
Amongst the persons whom Manu directed should be excluded
on religious grounds are to be found those who sacrifice only to
the "inferior gods." This expression of "inferior gods" seems
to suggest a religious opposition. Indeed it is not impossible that
Manu is alluding to the old Vedic deities, who were treated by the
Brahmans as subordinate to their god Brahmá. The injunction
against the Brahmans who performed many sacrifices for other
men, may have been aimed at the mercenary priests who sacrificed
for hire. The injunction against those who worshipped images
for the sake of gain is involved in more obscurity, inasmuch as
there does not appear to be any satisfactory reference to images in
the hymns of the Rig Veda; although it is easy to conceive that
such a form of worship must sooner or later find expression.
The exclusion of men who followed certain trades or professions.
from the entertainment given at a Sraddha, furnishes in like
manner some striking illustrations of the old opposition between
the priest and the soldier, the Brahman and the Kshatriya, which
seems to be more or less identical with the opposition between the
Brahmans and the Vedic Aryans. Thus amongst the ancient
Kshatriyas, gambling was a favourite pastime, and certainly was
not regarded as a vice, excepting when carried to a vicious excess
SRA
603
and terminating in the ruin of a family. Even Yudhishthira, who
is represented in the Mahábhárata as an incarnation of Dharma, or
goodness, and who was apparently regarded as a model Rája, is
actually said to have disguised himself as a Brahman, and in that
guise to have taught the art of dice to the Rája of Viráta. But
Manu excludes from the Sráddha every gambler, and every man
who keeps a gambling-house or employs gamblers. Then again
the Kshatryias revelled in wine and flesh-meat; but Manu excludes
the sellers of wine and meat from the Sráddha. The most signi-
ficant precepts however are those which exclude the makers of
bows and arrows, the tamers of horses, and those who taught the
use of arms; for the bow was the favourite weapon of the Ksha-
triyas, and the taming of horses was regarded as a royal accom-
plishment; whilst two of the most patriarchal characters in the
Mahábhárata, Bhishma and Drona, are said to have trained Pándu
and Dritarashtra, and their sons, the Pándavas and Kauravas, in
the use of different kinds of weapons. The exclusion of navigators
is equally curious. Navigation was certainly known to the Vedic
Aryans, and is even recognised by Manu; but it has always been
regarded with peculiar horror by the Brahmaus; and consequently
it is referred to the three first Yugas or ages, but discountenanced
in the age of Kali. The exclusion of physicians seems to have
originated in the idea that they must be impure from having to
deal with impure things.
As regards the food to be offered to the ghosts at the monthly
Sráddha, the precepts in Manu are also significant. The old
primitive custom of offering fish and flesh is sufficiently recognized,
but at the same time it is urged that the ghosts prefer a more
simple and Brahmanical diet, such as milk and honey. At a later
period it was declared that the feasting on flesh-meat at a Sráddha
was forbidden in the Kali age.
The funeral Sráddha, which is performed after the death of a
kinsman, is in every respect similar to the monthly Sráddha, and
consequently calls for no detailed description. The code lays
down certain laws as regards the purification of the survivors, but
they are devoid of historical significance. The ceremonies which
604
SRA
accompanied and followed the death of Mahárája Dasaratha
sufficiently illustrate the popular ideas and customs which still
prevail.
It will be seen from the foregoing data that the old Vedic belief
in the worship of ancestors has been strangely Brahmanized by
the compilers of the code. The monthly Sráddha, whilst ostensibly
celebrated in honour of deceased ancestors, is in reality nothing
more than an entertainment given to the Brahmans. Again, the
original idea appears to have originated in a child-like belief that
the food and water sustain and refresh the spirit of the departed;
whilst, according to the more modern Brahmanical doctrine, the
performance of a Sráddha delivers the soul of the dead person from
the custody of Yama, the judge of the dead, and translates it to the
heaven of the Pitris, or ancestors; there to remain until the
merits of its previous life on earth are all exhausted, and then to
return again to earth and re-animate another body. Thus it is the
current belief that without the Sráddha the soul of the deceased
cannot ascend to the heaven of the Pitris and take up its abode
there." Chapter IX.
Sraddha-Religious Faith. Personifications of abstract ideas
are not uncommon in the Rig Veda, one hymn of which, x. 151, is
addressed to Śraddhá, or religious faith. By her it is said the
sacrificial fire is kindled, and by her the oblation is offered up.
She is asked to prosper the liberal worshippers of the gods, and
to impart faith; and is said to be an object of adoration in the
morning, at noon, and at sunset. In the Váj Sanhita it is said that
faith is obtained by gifts, and truth by faith. In the same work
it is declared that 'Prajapati beholding, made a distinction between
the forms of truth and falsehood, connecting disbelief with the
latter, and faith or belief with the former.' This declaration that
truth is the only proper object of faith, has a far deeper significa-
tion than this ancient writer could possibly have assigned to it, viz.,
that it is the ultimate truth, and not the so-called orthodoxy of
any proposition, which can alone entitle it to reception.
Śraddhá is also celebrated in the Taitt. Br., where we are told
that through Śraddhá, a god obtains his divine character; that the
divine Śraddhá is the support of the world, that she has Ráma
SRA-SRI
605
(or the fulfilment of desire) for her calf, and yields immortality
as her milk; that she is the first-born of the religious ceremonial,
and the sustainer of the whole world; and she, who is the supreme
mistress of the world, is besought to bestow immortality on her
worshippers.-O. S. T., V, 347.
Sravaka (From the Sanskrit śru, to hear) is the name of the
disciples of Buddha, who, through the 'hearing' of his doctrine,
and by practising the four great Buddhistic truths, attain to the
qualification of an Arhat, or Buddhist saint. From among the
number of the disciples of Buddha, 80 are called the Mahâśrâvakas,
or the great Śrâvakas. The Śrâvakas are entitled to the predicate
Ayushmat, or one possessed of (long) life.'
Sravana-1, The lunar month which nearly corresponds with
July; 2, A lunar mansion in Mrigavíthi in the southern Avash-
thána.
Sravasta-A prince, the son of Yuvanáswa, who built the city
of Śravasti, in Koşala or Oude; a city of some sanctity in the
estimation of the Buddhists.
Sri--A name of Lakshmi, q. v.
"In the Vishnu, Garuda, Linga, and Padma Puránas, Śri is
said to have been born the daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu, the
son of Maríchi, who sprang from the mind of Brahmá, and to have
obtained Vishnu for her husband. But she is more generally
considered to be the female energy of that god, and therefore to
be exempt from birth. Śri is inseparable from Vishņu, for
wherever Vishnu is there also is Śri; he is the sun and she its
splendour; he is the moon and she its radiance; Govinda is the
oceau and Kamala the tide; he is the day and she the night : all
that is masculine is Vishnu, and all that is feminine is Śri.'"*
Srideva--One of the daughters of Devaka, married to Vásudeva.
Sridhara Swami--A commentator in the Bhágavata and in
the Vishnu Purána.
Srijavana--One of the sous of Dyutimat.
* Col. Vans Kennedy. A. and H. M.
606
SRI-SRU
Sringa A Rishi, the story of whose life is related in the
Rámáyana. He passed the earlier years of his life in the hermitage
of his father, in the jungle, and had consequently never seen the
face of a woman. He was enticed from his father's hermitage by
damsels sent from the Rája of Anga: on his arrival there he
caused rain to fall in abundance; and was married to Sántá the
daughter of the Rája; and was subsequently engaged to perform
the Aswamedha of Mahárája Dasaratha.-[RISHYASRINGA.]
Sringavera-The modern Sungroor, the frontier town between
Koşala and the Bhíl country. When Ráma was going into exile,
he and Síta halted there, and were hospitably received by Guha, the
Rája of the Bhíls.
Sringi--A range of mountains to the north of Meru.
Srinjaya-1, The fourth king of Vaisáli, son of Dhúmaráṣwa ;
2, A son of Súra, and brother of Vasudeva; 3, The son of
Kálánara; 4, A king of Mágadha, son of Haryaṣwa.
Srinjayas-A people from the north-west, among the warriors
of the Mahábhárata.
Srisaila--A mountain near the Krishna.
Sritala― One of the seven regions of Pátála, according to
the enumeration in the Váyu.
Sruta--1, (Sacred tradition) A son of Dharma by Medhá ;
2, The son of Bhagiratha; 3, A son of Krishna by Kálindí.
Srutadeva—A daughter of Súra, and wife of Vriddháṣarman,
king of Kárusha-the parents of the fierce Asura Dantavaktra.
Srutakarman-One of the Pándavas, the son of Sahadeva,
the youngest of the Páṇḍava princes.
Srutakirtti--A daughter of Súra, married to Dhrishtaketu,
Rája of Kaikeya.
Srutakirtti-One of the Pándavas the son of Arjuna.
Srutanjaya--One of the kings of Mágadha, the son of Senajit.
Srutasena-One of the sons of Paríkshit.
Srutasoma-The son of the Pandava prince Bhíma.
SRU-STO
607
Srutasuras-The daughter of Súra, who was married to
Damaghosha, king of Chedí.
Srutavat--One of the kings of Mágadha, the son of Somápi.
In some lists called Srutasuras, and said to have reigned 67 years.
Srutayus-1, One of the kings of Ayodhya, the son of
Bhánumítra, a descendant of Kúsa; 2, A king of Mithila, son
of Arishtanemí; 3, The youngest son of Purúravas.
Sruti--(From the Sanscrit śru, hear, hence, literally, the hear-
ing, or that which is heard) is, in Sanscrit Literature, the technical
term for all those works which are considered to have been revealed
by a deity. It applies, therefore, properly speaking, only to the
Mantra and Brahmana portion of the Vedas; but at a later period,
it is applied likewise, if not especially, to the Upanishads. It
meaus Revelation, as distinguished from Smriti, Tradition. "The
distinction" says Max Müller, "between Sruti, (revelation), and
Smriti, (tradition) is a point of vital importance for the whole
Brahmanic system, and will be found significant in a historical
point of view." "The distinction between Sruti and Smriti,
revelation and tradition, had been established by the Brahmaus
previous to the rise of Buddhism, or, at all events, previous to the
time when the Sútra style began to be adopted in Indian literature.
There existed, previous to the Sútra period, a body of literary
works propagated by oral tradition, which formed the basis of all
later writings on sacred subjects, and which by the Brahmans was
believed to be of divine origin. The idea expressed by the word
śru, to hear, i. e., to receive by inspiration, is known in the
Brahmanas."-A. S. L., 107.
Sruti--The daughter of Atri, married to the Prajapati Kardama.
Stambha-1, A phonetic variety of the same dhátu or root as
Skambha, (q. v.); 2, One of the seven Rishis of the second Man-
wantara.
Sthaleyu Sthandileyu--Two of the ten sons of Raudraṣwa,
king of Mithila.
Stoma and Stuti-Hymns and prayers, created from the
eastern and other mouths of Brahmá.
608
SUB-SUD
Subahu--A king of Mathura, the son of Satrughna.
Subala--A mountain in the island of Lanká, on which Hanumán
alighted when he "took a gigantic spring, and by his prodigious
strength leaped over the wide ocean," as described in the Rámáyaṇa.
Subhadra--The sister of Krishna. Arjuna fell in love with
her, and with the consent of Krishna eloped with her, but after-
wards returned to Dwáraká where they were formally married
with great splendour. She was easily reconciled to Draupadí and
became the mother of Arjuna's son Abhimanyu, (q. v.)
Subhasa--One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Sudhanwan.
Subhumi--One of the sons of Ugrasena.
Suchandra--A king of Vaiṣáli, son of Hemchandra.
Sucharu-One of the sons of Krishna by his wife Rukmiuí.
Suchchaya-The wife of Slishti, a son of Dhruva.
Suchi--1, One of the sons of the Agni named Abhimáni,
the eldest born of Brahmá: Suchi was one of the three fires;
the genealogy is different in the Bhagavata; 2, The son of
Satadyumna, king of Mithila; 3, One of the sons of Andhaka ;
4, The son of Vipra, king of Mágadha; 5 The Indra of the
fourteenth Manwantara.
*
Suchi--The parent of water-fowl; daughter of Kasyapa by his
wife Támra.
Suchiravas-One of the twelve Prajápatis.
Sudarsana--A prince of the family of Ikshváku, and sovereign
of Ayodhya.
Sudasa―The son of Sarvakáma, a descendant of Sagara; 2,
A king of Mágadha, the son of Chyavana.
Suddhodana--A prince of the family of Ikshváku who, from
his connection with Sákya, the author or reviver of Buddhism, is
ascertained to have lived in the seventh century before Christ.
Sudeshna-One of the sons of Krishna by Rukmíní.
Sudeva-1, A son of Chunchu; 2, A son of Devaka, of the
Yadava race.
SUD
609
Sudhaman-A Lokapála, regent of the east quarter, the son of
Virajas and Gauri.
Sudhamas--A class of deities of the third and tenth Mauwan-
taras.
Sudhamans-A class of thirty-three gods in the thirteenth
Manwantara.
Sudhanush--A son of the patriarch Kuru who gave his name
to the holy district Kurukshetra.
Sudhanwan-1, A king of Mithila, the son of Sáswata; 2, A
king of Mágadha, the son of Satyadhrita.
Sudharman-The hall of Indra, which was given by Krishna
to Ugrasena, for the assemblage of the race of Yadu: it was
conveyed by Váyu to the Yadavas, the chiefs of whom thenceforth
possessed this celestial court, emblazoned with jewels, and defended
by the arms of Govinda. After the death of Krishna the Sudharman
palace returned to heaven along with the Párijáta tree.
Sudharmas-A class of divinities of the ninth Manwantara ;
the class consisted of twelve.
Sudhis-A class of twenty-seven deities belonging to the fourth
Manwantara.
Sudhriti-A prince of the solar dynasty, the son of Rájgavard-
dhana.
Sudra, dynasty-This was founded by Chandragupta in the
first half of the fourth century B. C. The dynasty lasted one
hundred and thirty-seven years. Chandragupta is the same person
as Sandracottus, who, according to Justin, had seized the throne of
India after the prefects of Alexander had been murdered. Seleucus
found him as sovereign of India when, after the taking of Babylon,
and the conquest of the Bactrians, he passed on into India.
Seleucus however did not conquer Sandracottus, but after
concluding a league with him, marched on to make war against
Antigonus.
Sudraka-The first Andhra prince, who reigned seventy-three
years at Mágadha.
77
610
SUD-SUG
Sudras-The lowest of the four castes, said in the Vishņu
Purána to have been produced from the feet of Brahmá; but in
another part of the same work the distinctions are ascribed to
voluntary election, to accident, or to positive institutions; their
duties are said to be to wait on the three upper castes; and by
that means to earn their subsistence; they may also engage in trade
and mechanical labour.
Sudyumna-See Ilá; who was transformed into a man named
Sudyumua; at a subsequent period he was again transformed to a
woman, in the vicinity of the hermitage of Budha, who saw and
espoused her, and had by her a son named Purúravas. After his
birth the Rishis prayed to Vishnu, and through his favour Ilá once
more became Sudyumna. In consequence of his having been
formerly a female, Sudyumna was excluded from any share in his
paternal dominions; but his father, at the suggestion of Vasishtha,
bestowed upon him the city of Pratishthána, and he gave it to
Purúravas, V. P.
Sugandhi-One of the bond maids of Vasudeva.
Sugriva--The monkey chieftain in the Rishya-mukha mountain,
who received Ráma and Lakshmana when they were trying to
discover Síta, and showed her ornaments, which she had purposely
dropped in her flight, to Ráma. He then related the story of his
grievances against his brother Báli, and solicited Ráma's aid,
Ráma had afforded evidence of his superhuman strength and skill.
"Then high Sugríva's spirit rose,
Assured of conquest o'er his foes.
With his new champion by his side,
To vast Kishkindhya's cave he hied.
Then summoned by his awful shout,
King Báli came in fury out,
First comforted his trembling wife,
Then sought Sugríva in the strife.
One shaft from Ráma's deadly bow,
The monarch in the dust laid low.
Then Ráma bade Sugríva reign
In place of royal Báli slain."- Griffiths.
SUG-SUH
611
When Báli was dying he acknowledged his fault, and asked his
brother's forgiveness, commending his son Anga and his wife Tára
to Sugríva's care. The latter, when reinstated on the throne at
Kishkindhya invited Ráma and Lakshmana to live with him there.
This invitation Ráma was unable to accept on account of his vow ;
but after the rainy season, Sugríva summoned his armies to assist
Ráma in conquering the Rakshasas and recovering Síta. He
marshalled his troops in four great divisions. The first he sent
north under Vinata. The second, south, under various generals,
especially Hanuman, and Jámbavat. The third, west, under
Susheņa. The fourth, east, under Sátabali.
When Hanuman returned with tidings that Síta was a prisoner
in Lanka, Sugríva set forth at the head of his army to aid in
effecting her deliverance. Sugríva was wounded by Rávaṇa, and
afterwards suffered greatly from the wounds inflicted by the
magical weapons of Indrajit, the brave son of Rávana. Sugríva was
restored by the medicinal herbs brought by Hanuman from Kailása.
After the death of Rávana, Sugríva accompanied Ráma and
Lakshmana on their return to Ayodhya on the self-moving car
Pushpaka.
Sugrivi--One of the "six illustrious daughters" of Kasyapa,
who became the parent of horses, camels, and asses.
Suhma-A son of Báli, who gave his name to his descendants
and the country they inhabited. Of Suhma it may be remarked
that it is specified in the Siddhanta Kaumudí as an example of
Panini's rule, by which Nagara, compounded with names of coun-
tries in the east becomes Nágara, as Sauhmanágara produced, &c.,
in a city of Suhma. Wilson's Notes to V. P.
Suhmas--The Suhmas and Prasahmas were found in the east
by Bhíma; and Suhma is elsewhere said to be situated east of
Bengal, towards the sea, the king and the people being Mlech-
chhas, that is, not Hindus; it would correspond therefore with
Tiperah and Arracan.
Suhotra-Three of this name are mentioned in the Vishnu
Purána, and in all the best authorities; 1, Suhotra, great grandson
of Amávasa, father of Jahnu, (q. v.) and ancestor of Visvamitra
612
SUJ-SUK
and the Kausikas; 2, Suhotra, son of Kshattravriddha, grandson
of Ayus and progenitor of the Kási kings; 3, Suhotra, the son of
Vrihatkshatra, grandson of Vitatha, and parent of Hastin. The
Brahmá Purána in some degree, and the Hari Vansa in a still
greater, have made most extraordinary confusion in the instance
of this name.-Wilson's Notes to V. P. Another Suhotra is
mentioned as the son of Sudhanush, and another as the son of
Sahadeva, both in the same line of Hastin.
Sujati-A Yadava prince, the son of Vítihotra. The Sujatas
form a tribe in Central India at the present day.
Sujyeshta-A king of Magadha, the son of Agnimitra.
Suka-One of the ministers of Rávaṇa, who, having assumed
the form of a monkey, was sent by his master, with another
minister, Sárana, to go and spy out the army of Ráma, and bring
him word as to the names and characters of his chief heroes and
counsellors. They were seized and carried into the presence of
Ráma, who ordered them to return and tell all they had seen to
Rávana; he also threatened to follow himself and reduce Lanka
to a heap of ashes. When Rávana heard the message, he exclaimed,
'Not though all the world came out to fight against me, will I ever
restore Sítá to Ráma ?' When Súka counselled a different course,
he was dismissed from the service, and went to the jungle where
he passed the remainder of his life as a devotee.
Sukala-The wife of a Vaisya, who, having gone on a pilgrim-
age, left her in great affliction, and her female friends came to
console her; Sukalá continuing to mourn for her absent lord,
Kámadeva and Indra attempted to seduce her but were foiled, and
she remained faithful to her husband, who returned from pilgrim-
age and received blessings from heaven in recompense of the
virtues of his wife. This story is said in the Pádma Puránas to
have been recited by Vishnu to king Veņa, in illustration of the
truth that a wife may be considered as a Tírtha.- Wilson's
Works, III, 35.
Sukalins-Sons of Vasishtha, and Pitris of Súdras. The
Matsya specifies them as amongst the incorporeal Pitris.
SUK
613
Sukanya―The daughter of the Raja Saryáti, who was married
to the sage Chyavana; (q. v.)
Sukara-One of the Narakas; the swine hell, for the murderer
of a brahman, the stealer of gold, and drinker of wine.
Sukarman-A teacher of the Sáma-veda: he and his father
Sumantri, studied the same Sanhita under Jaiminí.
Sukarmans, Sukarmas-Two classes of deities of the
thirteenth and twelfth Manwantaras respectively.
Suketu-1, One of the kings of Mithila, the son of Nandward-
dhana; 2, One of the Kási princes, the son of Sunítha.
Sukha-Enjoyment; the son of Dharma, by one of the
daughters of Daksha, Siddhi, Perfection.
Suki--The daughter of Tamra and wife of Kasyapa, who gave
birth to parrots, owls, and crows.
Sukṛa-1, The son of Bhava; 2, One of the seven sages of
the third Man wantara, sons of Vasishtha ; 3, One of the sons of
Havirdhána; 4, The planet Venus, (or her regent) whose vast car
is drawn by earth-born horses, is equipped with a protecting fender
and a floor, armed with arrows, and decorated by a banner; 5,
The name of a month occurring in the Vedas, belonging to a
system now obsolete.
Sukra―The priest and preceptor of the Daityas. In days of
old when the Daityas and Devatás were at war, Sukra was the
priest and preceptor of the Daityas, and Vrihaspati, the priest of
the Devatás, and Kanju, the son of Vrihaspati, became a pupil in
the house of Sukra. He passed his time very pleasantly with
Devayani, the daughter of Sukra; they were constantly together
singing, conversing, &c., until Devayáni began to feel a deep love
for her father's pupil. The Daityas were angry that their priest
Sukra should teach the son of the priest of their enemy: and one
day when Kanju was taking his tutor's cows to pasture, the
Daityas carried him off. Sukra compelled them, at the request of
Devayani, to restore him. When Kanju had finished his studies
and was about to return to his father's house, Devayáni suggested
that he should demand her of her father in marriage: but Kanju
614
SUK-SUM
refused saying he regarded her as his sister. (See DEVATÁNI.)
The daughter of the Rája of the Daityas pushed Devayána into a
well, at which Sukra's anger was excited, and he threatened to
forsake the Daityas. The Rája was alarmed; he and his council
humbled themselves to Sukra, and made his daughter servant to
Devayani. The aid of Sukra was implored by Ravana before he
took the field against Ráma. Súkra taught him certain mantras,
and directed him to offer sacrifice in a secret place, and repeat the
mantras, whereupon certain weapons would come out of the fire,
and render him invincible; but Súkra warned him that he must
observe a strict silence throughout, or the sacrifice would be
devoid of all power. Rávana arranged accordingly; but Ráma,
hearing what his enemy was about to do, sent Angada and Hanu-
mán with an army of monkeys to obstruct the sacrifice, which
they succeeded in doing.
Sukriti-The son of Prithu, a descendant of Hastin.
Sukshatra A king of Magadha, the son of Niramitra.
Suktimat-Oue of the seven chains of mountains in Bhárata ;
the east and north portions of the Vindhya range.
Suktimati-A river in Cuttack.
Sukumara-A prince, the son of Dharmaketu, a descendant
of Alarka.
Sulapani-The sovereign of the Bhútas, or evil spirits;
appointed when the various provinces of creation were assigned to
different beings.
Sulomadhi-The name, according to the Bhagavata, of the
last Andhra prince.
Sumalya-One of the nine Nandas, kings of Magadha.
Sumanas-1, The son of Ura and grandson of the Manu
Chákshusha ; 2, The son of Haryaswa.
Sumanasas-A class of deities of the twelfth Manwantara.
Sumantra-The chief counsellor of Mahárája Dasaratha, who
made known the ancient prophecy that the Aswamédha was to be
performed by the Rishi Sringa. He pacified the infant Ráma with
SUM-SUN
615
a mirror. He was sent by Vasishtha to summon the Mahárája to
the installation of Ráma; but Kaikeyi desired him to bring Ráma
into their presence, and on his arrival she informed him of a pre-
into
vious promise of the Mahárája's, and stated that he was to go
exile. Sumantra reproached her but to no purpose; he then drove
Ráma and Sítá out of Ayodhya in the royal chariot, and on his
return to the palace delivered Ráma's parting message to Dasaratha.
Sumantu--1, A teacher of the Atharva-veda, who had studied
under the learned Vyása. He was the son of Jaimini; 2, A
prince, the son of Jahnu.
Sumati-1, The fifth Tirthankara, or Jain saint of the present
era; 2, A son of Bharata, a most virtuous prince; he resigned the
kingdom for the life of an ascetic, and died at the holy place
Sálagráma; he is said in the Vishnu Purána to have been after-
wards born again as a Brahman in a distinguished family of ascetics;
3, A son of Janamejaya, king of Vaisáli; 4, The son of Suparswa,
king of Hastin; 5, The son of Dridhasena, king of Magadha; 6,
A teacher of the Puránas.
Sumati-1, A daughter of the sage Kratu, married to Yajna-
váma, the founder of a Gotra ; 2, A daughter of Vinata, and wife.
of Sagara, who gave birth to sixty thousand sons, who were all
destroyed by the sage Kapila.-[SAGARA.]
Sumedhasas-A class of deities of the fifth Mauwantara.
Sumitra-1, One of the sons of Vrishni ; 2, The last of the
descendants of Ikshváku.
Sumitra--One of the wives of Mahárája Dasaratha, and mother
of Lakshmana and Satrughna.
Sun-The Vishnu Purána contains a long description of the
sun's chariot, and horses, his diurnal course, his northern and
southern declinations, the way in which his destruction is daily
attempted by the Mandehas, (q. v.) It also shows that the sun
is the cause of rain by evaporation. A mystical account
furnished of the functions of the sun his wives and children
are enumerated. Then it is stated that to diminish his intensity,
Vişvakarman placed the luminary on his lathe, and ground
616
SUN
off some of his effulgence, in this way reducing it an eighth.
The sun is represented as the son of Aditi, a daughter of Daksha ;
and as the father of Vaivaswata, the founder of the Solar dynasty.
He is said to have revealed the white Yajush to Yajnawalk ya, and
to have given the Syamantaka gem to Satrájit. At the end of the
world he is to dilate into seven suns, and set the universe on fire.
Sunahotra A great Muni, the son of Bharadvaja. See a
passage quoted in A. S. L. for "a strange and startling mixture
of legendary and historical matter," connected with the family of
this Muni.
Sunahsephas-The story of Surahṣepha is told by different
authorities, with several variations. As the author of various
Súktas in the Rich, he is called the sou of Ajígarta. The Rámá-
yana makes him the middle son of the sage Richíka, sold to Amba-
risha, king of Ayodhya by his parents, to be a victim in a human
sacrifice offered by that prince. He is set at liberty by Visvá-
mitra ; but it is not added that he was adopted. The Bliágavata
concurs in the adoption, but makes Sunahṣepha the son of Viṣvá-
mitra's sister, by Ajígarta, of the line of Bhrigu, and states his
being purchased, as a victim, for the sacrifice of Harischandra.
The Vayu makes him a son of Richíka, but alludes to his being
the victim at Harischandra's sacrifice. According to the Rámá-
yana, Viṣvámitra called upon his sons to take the place of Sunah-
ṣepha, and, on their refusing, degraded them to the condition of
Chándálas. The Bhagavata says, that fifty only of the hundred
sons of Viṣvámitra were expelled their tribe, for refusing to
acknowledge Sunahṣepha or Devarata, as their eider brother. The
others consented; and the Bhagavata expresses this:
"They said to the elder, profoundly versed in the Mantras, "We
are your followers :" The Rámáyana also observes, that Sunahṣe-
pha, when bound, praised Indra with Richas, or hymns of the
Rig Veda, The origin of the story, therefore,-whatever may be
its correct version,-must be referred to the Vedas; and it, evi-
dently, alludes to some innovation in the ritual, adopted by a part
only of the Kausika families of Brahmans."
Sunaka-A king of Kási, the son of Ghritsamada.
SUN-SUP
617
Sunakshatra-The son of Marudeva, of the family of Iksh-
váku.
Sunanda-A servant of Vishnu, who was sent by that deity to
convey king Bharata, after resigning his crown to his son, to
Vaikuntha. On the way Bharata asked him to describe the regions
which they traversed, and Sunanda accordingly told him the
situation and extent of the different Lokas or spheres above the
earth.
Sunanda-The sister of the Rája of Chedi, who received
Damayanti as a companion.
Sunaman-One of the sons of Ugrasena.
Sunaya-1, A king of Mithila, the son of Rita; 2, The son
of Pariplava, of the race of Puru.
Sunda-One of the Daityas, the son of Nisunda, and father of
Marícha and Táraká.
Sundara-One of the thirty Andhrabhritya kings, the son of
Pravilasena.
Sungas-A dynasty of ten kings who ruled in Magadha for a
hundred and twelve years.
Sunika-The prime minister of Ripunjaya, king of Magadha,
who having killed his sovereign placed his son Pradyota upon
the throne.
Sunita--One of the kings of Magadha, the son of Suvala.
Sunitha-1, A king of Kási, the son of Santali and grandson of
the celebrated Alarka: 2, The son of Susheṇa, of the race of Puru.
Sunitha-The daughter of Mrityu, who was married to Anga,
and became the mother of Vena, who was inaugurated by the
Rishis as monarch of the earth.
Sunrita-The wife of Uttánapáda, son of Dhruva.
Sunyabandhu-A son of Trinavinda, by the celestial nymph
Alambushá.
Suparna-A name of Garuda, the king of the feathered tribes.
Suparswa-A mountain in Jambudwípa, forming the northern
buttress of Mount Meru.
•
78
618
SUP-SUR
Suparswa-1, A king of Mithila, the son of Srutáyus; 2, A
king of Hastinapura, the son of Dridhanemi.
Suprattha -A king of the country south of Meru, the son of
Bhanuratha, descendant of Ikshváku.
Sura-1, The eldest son of Karttavírya, the Yádava prince;
2, The son of Devamidhusha who was married to Márishú, and
became the father of Vasudeva; 3, A son of Vidúráthu, also a
Yádava.
Surabhi-The name of the cow produced from the churning of
the ocean, the fountain of milk and curds, worshipped by the
divinities, and beheld by them with minds disturbed and eyes
glistening with delight. V. P. It is termed the cow of plenty,
able to grant every wish; 2, A daughter of Daksha and wife
of Kasyapa.
Surasa-1, One of the daughters of Daksha, who was married
to Kasyapa; 2, The name of a river not identified.
Surasena-1, The son of Satrughua, who, with his brother
Subáhu, reigned at Mathura, after the ascent of their father to
heaven; 2, One of the sons of Kárttavírya.
Surasenas--The inhabitants of Mathura, the Suraseni of Arrian.
Suratha-1, The son of Jahnu, descendant of Kuru; 2, The
son of Kundaka, of the line of Ikshváku.
Sureswara-One of the eleven Rudras according to some of
the lists. There is a great variety in the appellations of the
Rudras, arising from the writers applying to them indifferent names
of the common prototype, or synonyms of Rudra or Śiva, selected
at will from his thousand and eight names according to the Linga
Purána.
Surochish-One of the seven sons of the sage Vasishtha,
according to the enumeration in the Bhágavata.
Surpa-nakha-The sister of Rávana, who admired the beauty
of Ráma, and used various efforts to induce him to marry her.
Ráma jestingly advised her to marry his younger brother Laksh-
mana. She threatened to devour Sítá, and rushing on her in a
phrensy of passion, Lakshmana had to interfere, and with his
SUR
619
scemitar cut off the ears and nose of Surpa-nakha. She then fled
to her brother Khara, who vowed vengeance for the treatment she
had received but he and his army of Rakshasas all perished in
the attempt, being slain by Ráma. Surpa-nakha then went to
Rávaṇa, and urged him to carry off Sítá.
Surupas-A class of divinities of the fourth Manwantara.
Surya-The Sun. The mythical ancestor of the Rájas of
Kosala. This deity seems, "under different names to have
always held a high place amongst the primitive gods of every nation,
by virtue of its prominence in the heavens and the extent to which
its influence is felt upon earth. Its daily course and its annual
course, its welcome rising in the morning, and its glorious setting.
in the evening, must all have excited the keenest curiosity amongst
a child-like and inquisitive people; and at the same time, the
imagination was left to account for the existence of phenomena
which in a non-scientific age, are altogether beyond human ken.
Thus it seems extremely probable that one of the earliest efforts of
poetical genius was to personify the sun as the deity of light,
travelling through the blue ether in a golden chariot which all men
might see, drawn however by steeds which were invisible to the
outward eye, but which were easily assumed to be white,
resplendent, and beautiful beyond expression. In the Vedas the
attributes of this deity are frequently the same as those of Agni,
especially that of originating and diffusing light; but still the sun.
stands forward as a deity altogether distinct from Fire, when
described as journeying through the firmament in an upward and
downward course, and especially in his character of measuring days
and nights. This god is apparently addressed under a variety of
names-but in the Epics he is chiefly known by the name of Súrya,
and was regarded as the great ancestor of the solar race who
appear in the Rámáyana."— Wheeler.
1. By lustrous heralds led on high,
The omniscient Sun ascends the sky,
His glory drawing every eye.
2. All-seeing Sun, the stars so bright,
Which gleamed throughout the sombre night,
620
SUS
Now scared, like thieves, slink fast away,
Quenched by the splendour of thy ray.
3. Thy beams to men thy presence shew;
Like blazing fires they seem to glow.
4. Conspicuous, rapid, source of light,
Thou makest all the welkin bright.
5. In sight of gods, and mortal eyes,
In sight of heaven thou scal'st the skies.
6. Bright god, thou scann'st with searching ken
The doings all of busy men.
7. Thou stridest o'er the sky; thy rays
Create, and measure out, our days;
Thine eye all living things surveys.
8. 9. Seven lucid mares thy chariot bear,
Self-yoked athwart the fields of air,
Bright Surya, god with flaming hair.
10. That glow above the darkness we
Beholding, upward soar to thee,
For there among the gods thy light
Supreme is seen, divinely bright.
-0. S. T., V. 160.
Susandhi-A prince, the son of Prasuṣruta, a descendant of
Kusa.
Susanti-1, The son of Sánti, king of Hastinapura; 2, The
Indra of the third Man wantara.
Susarman-One of the four kings of Magadha of the Kanwa
dynasty.
Susarman-The Rája of Trigarta.
Kauravas to invade the kingdom of Viráta.
He proposed to the
After the plan of the
the Rája Viráta to
campaign had been decided on, he challenged
single combat, defeated and captured him. Susarmas was after-
wards taken prisoner himself by Bhíma. In the great war he and
his four brothers challenged Arjuna to battle in the first day of
Drona's command. The five brothers were vanquished by Arjuna ;
SUS
621
on the following day Susarman sent a second challenge to Arjuna
to fight in the southern quarter of the plain; Arjuna accepted the
challenge, and it was during his absence on this occasion that his
son, the young and heroic Abhimanyu was slain.
Sushena-1, One of the sons of Vasudeva, who was killed by
Kansa; 2, The son of Vrishņimat, of the race of Puru; 3, One
of the sons of Krishna by his wife Rukminí; 4, A distinguished
physician in the Rámáyana, who restored the dead monkeys to
life by herbs brought from the Himalaya mountains.
Sushna-A name of Vrittra, the demon who personifies
drought, and is also called Ahi.
"The lightnings then began to flash,
The direful thunderbolts to crash,
By Indra proudly hurled.
The gods themselves with awe were stilled
And stood aghast; and terror filled
The universal world.
*
*
*
Now bound by Sushna's spell no more,
The clouds discharge their liquid store ;
And long by torrid sunbeams baked,
The plains by copious showers are slaked;
The rivers swell and sea-wards sweep
Their turbid torrents broad and deep.
The peasant views with deep delight,
And thankful heart, the auspicious sight,
His leafless fields so sere and sad,
Will soon with waving crops be clad,
And mother earth now brown and bare,
A robe of brilliant green will wear.”
-0. S. T., Vol. V, p. 135.
Sushumna-One of the seven principal rays of the sun; that
which supplies heat to the moou.
Susravas-One of the Prajapatis, according to the enumeration
in the Vayu Purána.
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SUS-SUT
Susruta-1, A king of Mithila, the son of Subhása; 2, A
teacher of medical science, the reputed author of a celebrated work
in Sanskrit still extant.
Susti-A goddess, who is propitiated with offerings when
children are troublesome. When the infant Ráma cried for the
moon and could not be quieted, it was said the goddess Sustí was
unpropitious.
Susuma-A king of Magadha, the son of king Dharma.
Suta-A generic term for chroniclers and bards. The bard
and herald of the Hindus, being attached to the state of all men
of rank to chaunt their praises, celebrate their actions, and com-
memorate their ancestry. Also the name of a celebrated pupil of
Vyása, from whom he learned many historical and legendary tradi-
tions. It was to Súta that the great Muni communicated the
Puránas. Súta had himself six scholars who acquired distinction.
Sutala--One of the seven divisions of Pátála, that with a stony
soil, but embellished with magnificent palaces.
Sutanu. One of the five daughters of Ugrasena.
Sutapas-One of the seven pure sages according to the enu-
meration in the Vishnu Purána, sons of the great sage Vaìshtha.
Sutapas-A class of deities of the eighth Man wantara.
Sutara-The daughter of Swaphalka.
Sutikshana-An ascetic who figures in the Rámáyana, as of
extraordinary merit on account of his austerities. When Ráma
and Síta visited him in his hermitage in the forest they found him
covered with mud, and his head covered with matted hair; his
body reduced to bones and skin. He was absorbed in profound
forgetfulness of all things earthly; but when Ráma paid his
respects the sage at once embraced him, and bestowed his blessings
on him.
Sutra-" (From the Sanscrit siv, to sew, literally, therefore, a
thread or string) is, in Sanscrit Literature, the technical name of
aphoristic rules, and of works consisting of such rules. The
importance of the term will be understood from the fact, that the
groundworks of the whole ritual, grammatical, metrical, and
SUT
623
philosophical literature of India are written in such aphorisms,
which therefore constitute one of the peculiarities of Hindu
authorship. The object of the Sútras is extreme brevity; and,
especially in the oldest works of this class, this brevity is carried
to such an excess, that even the most experienced would find it
extremely difficult, and sometimes impossible, to understand these
aphorisms without the aid of commentaries, which, however, are
fortunately never wanting, wherever a work is written in this
style. Though there is no positive evidence as to the cause or
causes which gave rise to this peculiarity of Hindu composition,
the method of teaching in ancient India—an account of which is
afforded in some of the oldest works-renders it highly probable
that these Sútras were intended as memorial sentences which the
pupil had to learn by heart, in order better to retain the fuller oral
explanation which his teacher appended to them. But it is likewise.
probable that this method of instruction itself originated in the
scarcity or awkwardness of the writing material used, and in the
necessity, therefore, of economising this material as much as
possible; for that writing was known and practised at the remotest
period of Hindu antiquity, is now placed beyond a doubt, though
a startling theory was propounded, some years ago, to the effect
that writing was unknown in India, even at the time of the great
grammarian Pânini. The manner, however, in which up to this
day, the Hindus are in the habit of keeping the leaves of their books
together, seems to throw some light on the name given to this
aphoristic literature. The leaves-generally narrow, and even at
the present time often being dried palm leaves, on which the words
are either written with ink or scratched with a style—are piled
up, and, according to the length of the leaves, pierced in one or
two places, when, through the hole or holes, one or two long strings
are passed to keep them together. The name of Sútra was
probably, therefore, applied to works, not because they represent
a thread or string of rules, but on account of the manner in which
these works were rendered fit for practical use; just as in German
a volume is called Band, from its being bound.' That a habit
deeply rooted outlives necessity, is probably also shewn by these
Sútra works; for while the oldest works of this class may be called
6
624
SUT
Sútras by necessity, there are others which convey the suspicion
that they merely imitated the Sútra style after the necessity had
passed away, more especially as they do not adhere to the original
brevity of the oldest Sútras; and the Sútras of the Buddhists,
conspicuous for their prolixity, could scarcely lay claim to the
term, if compared with the Sútra of the Brahmanical literature.".
GOLDSTUCKER.
The Sútra period of Sanscrit literature is fixed by Max Müller
at from 600 to 200, B. C., the characteristic of the period is that the
Brahmanical writers used very curt and dry sentences, or Sútras,
for expressing their thoughts. Numerous Sútra works by different
authors are still extant, among which the Vyákarna Sútras of·
Pânini, and the Vedanta Sútras of Vyása, occupy a prominent
place.
Suttee-"(An English corruption from the Sanscrit sati, a
virtuous wife) means the practice which prevailed in India, of a
wife burning herself on the funeral pile, either with the body of
her husband, or separately, if he died at a distance.
The practice of Suttee is based by the orthodox Hindus on the
injunctions of their Sástras, or sacred books, and there can be no
doubt that various passages in their Puránas (q. v.,) and codes of
law countenance the belief which they entertain of its meritorious-
No other
ness and efficacy. Thus, the Brahmá-Purána says :
way is known for a virtuous woman after the death of her husband;
the separate cremation of her husband would be lost (to all religious
intents). If her lord die in another country, let the faithful wife
place his sandals on her breast, and, pure, enter the fire. The
faithful widow is pronounced no suicide by the recited text of the
Rig Veda.' Or the code of Vyása: 'Learn the power of that
widow who, learning that her husband has deceased, and been
burned in another region, speedily casts herself into the fire,' &c.
Or the code of Angiras: That woman, who, on the death of her
husband, ascends the same burning pile with him, is exalted to
heaven, as equal in virtue to Arundhati (the wife of Vasishtha).
She who follows her husband (to another world) shall dwell in a
region of joy for so many years as there are hairs on the human
6
SUT
625
body, or 35 millions. As a serpent-catcher forcibly draws a snake
from his hole, thus drawing her lord (from a region of torment),
she enjoys delight together with him. The woman who follows
her husband to the pile expiates the sins of three generations ou
the paternal and maternal side of that family to which she was
given as a virgin...No other effectual duty is known for virtuous
women, at any time after the death of their lords, except casting
themselves into the same fire. As long as a woman (in her
successive transmigrations) shall decline burning herself, like a
faithful wife on the same fire with her deceased lord, so long shall
she be not exempted from springing again to life in the body of
some female animal. When their lords have departed at the
fated time of attaining heaven, no other way but entering the
same fire is known for women whose virtuous conduct and whose
thoughts have been devoted to their husbands, and who fear the
dangers of separation.' But however emphatically these and
similar passages recommend a wife to burn herself together with
her deceased husband, it should, in the first place, be observed,
that Manu, who, among legislators of ancient India, occupies the
foremost rank, contains no words which enjoin, or even would
seem to countenance, this cruel practice; and, secondly, that no
injunction of any religious work is admitted by the orthodox
Hindus as authoritative, unless it can shew that it is taken from,
or based on, the revealed books, the Vedas. An attempt has of
late years been made by Rája Râdhâkant Deb, to shew that, in a
text belonging to a particular school of the Black Yajurveda, there
is really a passage which would justify the practice of suttee; but
in the controversy which ensued on this subject between him and
the late Professor H. H. Wilson, it clearly transpired that the text
cited by the learned Rája is of any thing but indubitable canonicity;
moreover, that there is a verse in the Rig Veda which, if properly
read, would enjoin a widow not to burn herself, but, after having
attended the funeral ceremonies of her husband, to return to her
home, and to fulfil her domestic duties; and it seems, at the same
time, that merely from a misreading of a single word of this verse
from the Rig Veda, that interpretation arose which ultimately led
to a belief and an injunction so disastrous in their results. That
79
626
SUV SUY
an immense number of widows have fallen victims to this erroneous
interpretation of the oldest Vedic text, is but too true. Some
thirty years ago, however, the East India Company took energetic
measures to suppress a practice which it was perfectly justified in
looking upon as revolting to all human feelings, and which it
would have likewise been entitled to consider as contrary to the
spirit of the Vedic religion. This practice may now be said to
have been successfully stopped; for though, from habit and
superstition, even now-a-days cases of suttee occur, they are
extremely rare; and all reports agree that the enlightened natives
everywhere, except, perhaps, in certain native states, support the
action of government to repress this evil of bygone times.—
Chambers' Encyclopædia.
Suvala-A king of Magadha, the son of Sumati.
Suvama-The beautiful river; identified by Wilford with the
Ram-gangá.
Suvarchala-The wife of Rudra, the Rudra who was the first
of the eight manifestations.
Suvarna-A prince, the son of Antaríksha, of the family of
Ikshváku.
Suvarnaroman-One of the kings of Mithila, the son of
Maharoman.
Suvibhu-One of the Kasya princes, the sixth in descent from
Alarka, rája of Benares.
Suvira-1, One of the sons of Sivi; 2, One of the Kaurava
princes, the son of Kshemya.
Suvrata-A king of Magadha, whose reign is said to have
lasted 60 years he was the son of Rája Kshemya.
Suyasas-One of the kings of Magadha, son of the Buddhist
king Asokavarddhana, (q. v.)
Suyodhana-A name sometimes given (euphemistically) to
Duryodhana, the eldest of the hundred sons of Dhritarashtra, and
who as the representative of the others is painted in the darkest
SWA
627
colours, and embodies all their bad qualities. Many Hindus
regard him as the visible type of Vice, or the evil principle in
human nature, for ever doing battle with Virtue, or the good and
divine principle, symbolised by the five sons of Pándu. At
Duryodhana's birth various evil omens of the usual hackneyed
description occurred; jackalls yelled, donkeys brayed, whirlwinds
blew, and the sky seemed on fire. Dhritarashtra alarmed, called
his ministers together, who recommended him to abandon the child,
but could not persuade him to do so.
*
Swabhavas-The characteristics, or inherent properties, of
the Gunas (or qualities) by which they act, as soothing, terrify-
ing, stupifying, &c.
Swabhojana-One of the Narakas; that for the punishment
of the religious student who sleeps in the day; and for those who
though mature, have to be instructed in sacred literature by their
children.
Swadha-1, Oblation : one of the daughters of Daksha, and
wife of the Pitris; 2, One of the wives of Angiras; 3, The wife
of one of the eleven Rudras.
Swaha--1, Offering: one of the daughters of Daksha, who was
married to Agni; 2, The wife of the Rudra Pașupati.
Swahi-One of the Kroshtri princes, son of Vrijinívat, and
grandson of Yadu.
Swamabhak-One of the seven suus, into which the seven
solar rays dilate at the end of the day of Brahmá.
Swaphalka-A sage of great sanctity; wherever he dwelt,
there famine, plague, dearth, and other visitations were unknown;
wherever rain was wanted his presence secured the blessing. He
was married to the daughter of Kásirája, named Gándiní, (q. v.),
whose remarkable birth has already been related. Gándiní, as
long as she lived, gave a cow to the brahmans every day. Akrúra
was their son; and his birth therefore proceeded from a combina-
tion of uncommon excellence. V. P., 432.
WILLIAMS' Indian Epic Poetry.
628
SWA
Swaraj-One of the seven principal solar rays, that which
supplies heat to the planet Saturn.
Swarat-Brahmá, the Creator.
Swarbhanu-1, A renowned Dánava, son of Kaṣyapa; 2, One
of equal celebrity, the son of Viprachitti.
Swarga-1, The son of Rudra Bhíma; 2, Paradise, on Mount,
Meru, the seat of the righteous, and where the wicked do not
arrive even after a hundred births.
Swar-loka-The planetary sphere, extending from the sun to
Dhruva, explained in the Puránas to be heaven,
Swarnaprastha-One of the eight minor Dwípas, situated
beyond the sea, and inhabited by Mlecchas, but who worship
Hindu divinities.
SO
Swarochisha-The Manu of the second Manwantara ;
named from the splendour of his appearance when born. He was
the son of the nymph Varuthiní by the Gandharba Káli. The
seven Rishis of the period were the Manu's sons.
Swarupas-Forms of things: the distinctions of biped, qua-
druped, brute, bird, fish, and the like.
Swastyatreyas-A race of brahmans, celebrated for their
sanctity; a branch of the lunar race.
Swati-A lunar mansion in Govithi, in the Central Avashthána.
Swayambhoja--A Yádava chief, the son of Pratikshatra.
Swayambhu-1, Brahmá; a synonym of Mahat, so termed
from its being ungenerated; 2, the Vyása of the first Dwápara.
Swayambhuva--The Manu, born of and one with Brahmá;
Brahmá converted himself into two persons, the first male, or the
Manu Swayambhuva, and the first woman or Satarúpa.
Swayamvara-Self-choice. The public choice of a husband.
The most popular of all the forms of marriage which prevailed
amongst the Vedic Aryans. The Swayamvara, says Mr. Wheeler,
SWE
629
was evidently an institution of the Kshatriyas, resembling in a
remarkable degree the tournaments of the age of chivalry.
The man who gained the day became the husband of the damsel.
The Mahabharata contains a long narrative of the Swayamvara of
Draupadi. The Swayamvara emphatically belongs to the old
Vedic period, and is distinctly recognised in the hymns of the
Rig Veda. The institution is an exaggerated expression of the
age of chivalry.-Wheeler.
"The Swayamvara, the free, or self-election of a husband, was
a not uncommon practice amongst the Hindus, and forms the
subject of frequent description both in ancient and modern poetry :
the Princes being assembled in a public place with appropriate
ceremonies, the Princess performed the tour of the circle, and
siguified her preference by throwing a garlaud of flowers upon the
reck of the successful competitor; the marriage rite was subse-
quently performed as usual. It may be easily supposed that the
preference was not always the suggestion of the moment, and
grew out of previous acquaintance: thus Damayanti adopted this
mode of choosing Nala in concert with her lover; Tarávati chose
Chandrasekara by the guidance of her nurse; and the Princess of
Kanoj invited Pritha Rai to her Swayamvara. The consequences
may also be easily conjectured, and mortified vanity, or disap-
pointed expectation must often have engendered personal hostility:
the result may not unfrequently have been long and widely felt ;
and though neither the Swayamvaras of Draupadi or Damayanti
may have been attended with any remarkable events, the choice
of the Princess of Kanoj was less innoxious for the animosity
which it excited between her father and her lord, laid India bare
to Mohammedan aggression, and paved the way for European
ascendancy."-Wilson's Works, III, 324.
+
:
Sweta-1, A serpent king, one of the progeny of Kadru ; 2,
A range of mountains north of Meru.
Sweta-dwipa-The white or silver island, the abode of
Vishnu. Colonel Wilford bestowed great pains on the verification
of these fictitious Dwipas, which he imagined to represent actual
630
SYA
divisions of the globe. The white or silver island, or island of the
moon, was the island of great Britain, according to him. Still,
says Wilson, his essays on these subjects, contain much curious
and interesting matter.
Syadvadis-" Assertors of probabilities, or of what may be ;"
a designation of the Jainas.
Syala―A Yádava chief, who publicly offended Gargya, the
Brahman, and led the latter to adopt a course of austerities to
obtain a son who should be a terror to the tribe of Yadu. See
KALAYAVANA.
Syama-One of the sons of Súra.
Syama (Syama)—The black goddess; one of the names of
Párvati.
Syamantaka Gem-A jewel of great celebrity which insured
its possessor, if a good man, safety, prosperity and happiness. It
was presented by the Sun to Satrájit who wore it on his neck, and
became thereby as brilliant as the sun himself. Satrájit, fearing
that Krishna would ask him for the jewel, transferred it to his
brother Prasena; and as Prasena's character was bad it caused his
death; he being killed by a lion when hunting. The lion taking
the jewel in his mouth was about to depart, when he was killed by
Jámbavat, the king of the bears, who carried off the gem to his
cave and gave it to his son Sukumára to play with. Krishna was
suspected of having murdered Prasena to get possession of the
jewel. To clear himself Krishna tracked the jewel to the bear's
cave, and after a conflict with Jámbavat which lasted twenty-one
days, recovered the jewel. Jámbavat then recognised Krishna's
divinity, and gave him his daughter Jambavatí in marriage. The
jewel was again restored to Satrájit, who was killed by Satadhan-
wan for the sake of it. Krishna resolved that Satadhanwan
should relinquish the prize, pursued him, put him to death, but
found not the jewel, as it had been given to Akrúra to keep.
Balabhadra thought Krishna was deceiving him and quarrelled
with his brother on account of it.
SYA-SYE
631
Akrúra retained the precious jewel fifty-two years, and in conse-
quence enjoyed immunity from all kinds of evil, the whole country
partaking of the benefit. This led Krishna to conjecture that
Akrúra had the gem in his possession; and in a full assembly
Akrúra owned to it and offered it to Krishņa; but it was decided
that it should remain with Akrúra, who wore it publicly ever after
as a garland of light. V. P.
Syamayani-A teacher of the Yajur Veda, and chief of the
northern class.
Syeni-A daughter of Kasyapa, and the parent of hawks.
T
Tadaikyam-Union; perfect union; or identification of one
with another. "The mind of man is the cause both of his bondage
and his liberation : its addiction to the objects of sense is the means
of his bondage; its separation from objects of sense is the means of
his freedom. The sage who is capable of discriminative knowledge
must therefore restrain his mind from all the objects of sense, and
therewith meditate upon the Supreme Being, who is one with spirit,
in order to attain liberation; for that supreme spirit attracts to
itself him who meditates upon it, and who is of the same nature,
as the loadstone attracts the iron by the virtue which is common
to itself and its products. Yet the union that takes place is only
that of contiguity, (Samyoga) not that of identification or unity,
Tadaikyam. Vishnu Purána and note.
Taksha-The son of Bhárata; he was Raja of Gandhára, resid-
ing at Takshasíla.
Tala-One of the Narakas-that for the punishment of adultery,
murder, &c.
Talajangha-A prince of the Yádava race; the father of a
hundred sons, who were called Tálajanghas: they conquered
Bahu, but were afterwards subdued by Sagara. They were a
branch of the Haihayas.
Talaka-One of the Andhra kings, the son of Hála.
Talatala-The fourth of the seven regions of Pátála Máya
reigns over Talátala, having been raised to that dignity after the
destruction of his three cities by Śiva.
Tamas-1, The quality of darkness, ignorance, inertia.
Ignorance is said to be five-fold; in this definition Tamas,
or obscurity, is the first thing of which it consists; 2, One of the
Narakas; 3, A Yádava prince, the son of Prithuṣravas.
TAM-TAN
633
Tamasa-1, A Manu, the son of Priyavrata ; the Manu of the
fourth Manwantara; 2, A river, the Touse. It was on the banks
of this river that Ráma halted the first night of his exile; when
the Máhárája had been carried back to Ayodhya, and the people
would keep with the chariot of Ráma. They all spent the night
on the banks of the river Tamasa, and at early morning Ráma rose
from his bed of leaves, and with Síta and Lakshmana left before
the people awoke.
:
Tamisra-Gloom the fourth quality of Ignorance in the
definition which makes it five-fold.
Tamra-1, One of the daughters of Daksha, married to
Kaṣyapa; 2, A river.
Tamrapakshi-A son of Krishna by his wife Rohiní.
Tamraparni—A river in Tinnevelly, which rises at the south-
ern extremity of the Western Ghauts.
Tamravarna--One of the nine portions of the Varsha of
Bhárata.
Tamrayani--A teacher of the white Yájush, and founder of a
school.
Tandri-Sloth; a form of Brahmá.
Tanmatra-The rudiment or type of an element; the
characteristic property of an element.
Tansu-A prince, the son of Rantináru, a descendant of Puru ;
called also Tansurodha.
Tantra-A religious text book the principal rites and
formulæ connected with the adoration of Prakriti or Sakti are
derived from the works known by the collective term of Tantras.
The followers of the Tantras profess to consider them as a fifth
Veda, and attribute to them equal antiquity and superior authority.
"The Tantras are a class of books of which little is known in
Europe, but which, until English education began in India, were
the creed of a large proportion of Hindus. Old Pandits in Bengal
will still maintain that the Tantric was the grandest religion of all,
only it was beyond human nature to carry it out; for it is based
on the idea that we should practice every kind of excess to the
80
634
TAN
utmost, and yet carry a mind fixed on the Supreme Being in the
midst of it all. He who worshipped God with purity of life was
but a pásu, a mere beast ; while he who worshipped him in orgies
of drunkenness and licentiousness was a víra, a hero. The Tantric
rites were not long ago very prevalent in Bengal, and though, as
western culture and the study of English spread, such ideas and
rites retreat into obscurity, the Tantras were but the lowest step
of that progressive degradation which we traced from the simple
and elevated nature-worship of the Rig Veda."* The observances
they prescribe have indeed, in Bengal, almost superseded the
original ritual. The question of their date is involved in consider-
able obscurity. From the practices described in some of the
Puránas, particularly that of the Diksha, or rite of initiation, in
the Agni Purána, from the specification of formulæ comprising the
mystic monosyllables of the Tantras in that and other similar
compilations, and from the citation of some of them by name in
different Pauranic works, we must conclude that some of the
Tantras are prior to those authorities.
It may
*
be inferred that the system originated at some period in the early
centuries of Christianity, being founded in the previous worship of
the female principle, and the practices of the Yoga with the
Mantras, or mystical formulæ of the Vedas. It is equally certain
that the observances of the Tantras have been carried to more
exceptionable extremes in comparatively modern times; and that
many of the works themselves are of recent composition. They
appear also to have been written chiefly in Bengal and the eastern
districts, many of them being unknown in the west and south of
India; and the rites they teach having failed to set aside the
ceremonies of the Vedas, although they are not without an
important influence upon the belief and the practices of the
people.
The Tantras are too numerous to admit in this place of their
specifications, but the principal are the Syáma Rahasya, Rudra,
Yamala, Mantra Mahodadhi, Sárada Tilaka, and Kalika Tantra ;
whilst the Kula Chúdámani, Kularnava, and similar works, are
the chief authorities of one portion of the Sáktas; the sect being
Quarterly Review, July 1870.
*
TAP-TAR
635
divided into two leading branches, the Dakshinácháris and
Vámácháris, or followers of the right-hand and left-hand ritual.
Works of H. H. Wilson, Vol., I, p. 250.
Tapa-loka--The sphere or world of the seven Rishis.
Tapaniyas-Brahmans of a branch of the Yájush.
Tapas, Tapasya-The names of two of the months occurring
in the Vedas, and belonging to a system now obsolete.
Tapaswin-One of the sons of the Manu Chákshusha.
Tapati--A daughter of the Sun; the Taptí river.
Tapo-loka-The sphere of penance, inhabited by the deities.
called Vaibhrájas, who are unconsumable by fire.
Taptakhumba-One of the Narakas, that in which murder
and incest are punished.
Taptaloka-The redhot iron Naraka, for jailers, horse-dealers
and deserters.
Tara-The wife of Vrihaspati, the preceptor of the gods; she
was carried off by Soma, who refused to give her up even at the
command of Brahmá. A fierce contest ensued, termed the Tára-
kamaya war. It was brought to a close by the interference of
Brahma who compelled Soma to restore Tárá to her husband.
Her son Budha was born shortly after. See BUDHA. SOMA.
Tara-The wife of Báli, the elder brother of Sugríva. She
attempted to dissuade Báli from fighting with his brother, but was
unable to do so, and Báli was killed. When she was grieving for
her loss, Ráma consoled her, and she was afterwards married to
Sugríva, in conformity with the rude customs of a barbarous age.
Taraka-1, A Daitya of great prowess, the son of Hiranyak-
sha; 2, A Danava son of Kasyapa by Danu.
Taraka-A female Rákshasí, the mother of Marícha. She
lived in a dreadful jungle and ravaged the whole country round.
The sage Visvamitra earnestly requested Ráma to kill her. Ráma
promised to deprive her of her strength and power, but was
unwilling to slay a woman. A terrific combat took place, and at
the instigation of Visvamitra, Ráma at length killed the dreaded
Rakshasí.
636
TAR-TIR
Tarapida-A prince, the son of Chandrávaloka, one of the
rajas of Ayodhya before the great war.
Tejas-Light or fire, the element; said to be produced from
the rudiment of form or colour; while itself is the producer of
that of taste. V. P.
Tigma-A prince, the son of Mridu, of the race of Puru.
Tillotama-A celestial nymph or Apsarasa, of the Laukíka
class.
Tillotamá is described as having been originally a Brahman
female, who in consequence of being born in the month of Mágha,
dwelt four thousand ages in Vaikuntha, and was then born as the
Apsaras Tillotamá, for the purpose of causing the mutual destruc-
tion of Sunda and Upasunda, an incident taken from the Mahá-
bháratu.— Wilson's Works, Vol. III, p. 55.
Timi-A daughter of Daksha, who was married to Kaṣyapa,
and became the mother of fishes.
Tirtha-A holy shrine or sacred place; in the Pádma Purána,
persons are also considered as Tírthas, as a guru, a father, a wife,
a son; and in illustration of this, Vishnu recited several stories to
king Veņa.
Tirthankara-A Jain saint of the present era, of whom
twenty-four are enumerated.
1. Rishaba.
2. Ajita.
3.
4.
Sambhava.
Abhinandana.
5. Sumati.
6. Padmaprabhu.
7. Suparsva.
8. Chandraprabhu.
9. Pushpadhanta.
13. Vimala.
14. Ananta.
15. Dharma.
16. Tánti.
17.
Kunthu.
18. Ara.
19. Malli.
20.
Manisuvrata.
21. Nami.
10. Sitála.
11. Sreyánsa.
12.
Vasu pujya.
22. Nemi.
23. Parsva.
24. Mahávíra or Vardhamani-
svami.
TIR-TRA
637
Colossal statues of these Tirthankaras are often placed in the
court yards of the Jain temples. There is a remarkably fine one
at Sravana Bella Góla, near Chenraipatam, in Mysore. Its
height is seventy feet three inches. The Duke of Wellington who
visited the place in 1801, was of opinion that the rock had been
cut until nothing but the image remained.*
Tiryaksrotas-The name given to the animal creation at their
first "manifestation," from their nutriment following a winding
course. V. P.
Titiksha-Patience
a daughter of Daksha, married to
Dharma; one of the allegorical unious.
Titikshu-A prince, the son of Mahámanas, a descendant of
Yayátí.
Tittiri-A pupil of Yaska, and a teacher of the Taithriya
Yajush.
Transmigration--" Or the passing from one place, state, or
condition into another, means, in the theological acceptation of the
term, the supposed transition of the soul after death into another
substance or body than that which it occupied before. The belief
in such a transition is one of the most important phases in the
religions of mankind. It was common to the most uncivilised and
the most civilised nations of the earth, it was the object of fantas-
tical superstition, as well as that of philosophical speculation, and
it is the property of both ancient and modern times. Its basis
being the assumption that the human soul does not perish together
with the body, it could belong to those nations only which had
already conceived an idea of the immortality of the soul; but in
proportion as such an idea is crude or developed, as it is founded
merely on a vague fear of death, and a craving for material life, or
on ethical grounds, and a supposed casual connection between this
and a future life, the belief in transmigration assumes various
forms, and influences more or less the actions of men.
At the time when in India the dogma of transmigration became
an integral part of the Brahmanic religion, the Hindus believed
BUCHANAN'S Mysore, III, 410,
638
TRA
that the human souls emanated from a Supreme Being, which, as
it were, in a state of bewilderment or forgetfulness, allowed them
to become separate existences, and to be born on earth. The
soul, thus severed from the real source of its life, is bound to
return to it, or to become merged again into that divine substance
with which it was originally one; but as its nature becomes
contaminated with sin through its earthly career, it must, so long
as it remains in this world, endeavour to free itself from all guilt,
and thus to become fit for its ultimate destiny. Religion teaches
that this is done by the observance of religious rites, and a life in
conformity with the precepts of the sacred books; philosophy,
that the soul will be re-united with Brahman, if it understands
the true nature of the divine essence whence it comes.
So long,
therefore, as the soul has not attained this condition of purity, it
must be born again, after the dissolution of the body to which it
was allied; and the degree of its impurity at one of these various
deaths, determines the existence which it will assume in a subse-
quent life.
Since there can be no proof of the soul's migrations, the detail in
which these are described in the religious works of the Hindus, is
merely fantastical, and interesting only so far as it affords a kind
of standard by which, at various epochs, and by different writers,
the moral merit or demerit of human actions was measured in India.
Thus, Manu (in the 12th book of his Code of Laws) teaches :
'The slayer of a Bráhmaṇa-according to the degree of his guilt
—is reborn as a dog, a boar, an ass, a camel, a bull, a goat, a
sheep, a stag, a bird, a Châṇdâla, or a Pukkaṣa. A Bráhmaṇa,
who drinks spirituous liquor, will migrate into the bodies of a
worm, an insect, a grasshopper, a fly feeding on ordure, or some
mischievous animal. A twice-born who steals (the gold of a
Brahmana,) will pass a thousand times into the bodies of spiders,
snakes, and chameleons, of aquatic monsters, or of murderous
blood-thirsty demons. He who violates the bed of his guru, will
a hundred times migrate into the forms of grasses, of shrubs, and
of creeping plants, of carnivorous animals and beasts with long
teeth, or of cruel brutes. Those who inflict injury (on sentient
beings,) become flesh-eaters; and those who eat forbidden things,
TRA
639
&
worms. Thieves become devourers of each other; and those
who embrace women of the lowest castes, become ghosts...... If a
man, through covetousness, has stolen gems, pearl, or coral, or
whatever belongs to the precious substances, he is reborn in the
tribe of goldsmiths; if he has stolen grain, he becomes a rat; if
kánsya (a composition of zinc and copper,) a hansa bird; if water,
a diver; if honey, a gadfly; if milk, a crow; if juice (of the
sugar-cane or the like,) a dog; if clarified butter, an ichneumon ;
if flesh, a vulture; if fat, a shag; if oil, a cockroach; if salt, a
cricket; if curds, the crane, called Valáká ;' &c. A more general
doctrine of the migration of souls is based by Hindu philosophers
on the assumption of the three cosmic qualities of sattwa, i. e.,
purity or goodness; rajas, i, e., troubledness or passion; and
tamas, i. e., darkness or siu, with which the human soul may
become endued. And on this doctrine, again, Manu and other
writers build an elaborate theory of the various births to which
the soul.may become subject. Manu, for instance, teaches that
'souls endued with the quality of sattwa, attain the condition of
deities; those having the quality of rajas, the condition of men ;
and those having the quality of tamas, the condition of beasts.'
Each of these conditious, he continues, is, according to the acts or
knowledge of the soul, threefold: the lowest, the middle, and the
highest. The lowest embodiment of the quality tamas is inani-
mate objects, worms, insects, fish, serpents, tortoises, tame and wild
beasts; the middle state, to which the same quality leads, is (the
state of) an elephant, a horse, a Súdra, a Mlechchha or barbarian,
a lion, a tiger, and a boar: the highest, that of a public performer,
a bird, a cheat, a demon called Rakshas, and a vampire-demon.
The lowest condition to which the soul imbued with the quality
rajas arrives is that of a cudgel-player, a boxer, a public dancer,
a man who lives on the use of weapons, and one addicted to
gambling and drinking; the middle condition, that of a king, a
man of the Kshattriya or military caste, a house-priest of a king,
and a man fond of learned controversy; the highest, that of a
Gandharva or musician in Indra's heaven, a Guhyaka or Yaksha
(two kinds of attendants on the god of riches,) or another attendant,
on another god, or an Apsaras or heavenly nymph in Indra's
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TRA
heaven. The lowest state procured by the quality of sattwa is
that of a Vánaprastha-or a hermit of the third order of life-a
religious mendicant, a Bráhmana, or one of the demigods travel-
ling about in palace-like cars, one of (the genii presiding over) the
lunar mansions, or an offspring of Diti. The middle state,
procured by the same quality, is that of a sacrificer, a Rishi (q. v.),
a god of the lower heaven (a deity personating one of the) Vedas,
(a deity presiding over one of) the luminaries or years, one of the
manes or progenitors of mankind, and of the demigods called
Sádhya. The highest condition to which the quality of sattwa
leads is that of the god Brahmá, that of a creator of the world (as
Marichi, or another patriarch of the same rank,) that of the genius.
of Dharma (virtue or right,) of Mahat, or the intellectual principle.
of creation, and of Prakriti, or matter.'
It is not necessary here to show that this detail regarding the
migrations of the souls is more or less differently given by other
authors at other periods of Hindu religion, according to the views
which they entertained of right and wrong, of the value and rank
of imaginary or created beings, and of the social conditions of
men. For, since all orthodox Hindu writers agree in principle
with Manu, the quotations alleged from his work suffice to illus-
trate the imaginary positiveness with which the doctrine of trans-
migration was propounded, and to establish the conclusion that
this doctrine rested in India on ethical grounds.
It has been already pointed out that the belief in the soul's life
after the death of the body must precede the doctrine of transmi-
gration. As such a belief, however, may be traced in some hymns
of the Rig Veda, it has been supposed that this doctrine, too, is
as old as this Veda. But apart from the uncertainty which still
exists regarding not only the age, but even the relative age at
which the different hymns of the Rig Veda were composed, and
setting aside the fallacy which therefore attaches to speaking of
this Veda as a contemporaneous whole, it is necessary to observe
that the only passage which has been adduced in proof of this
important discovery does not bear it out. It is the 32nd verse of
the hymn I, 164, and according to the translation of Professor
Wilson (Vol. II, pp. 137, 138,) runs as follows: He who has
(
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641
made (this state of things) does not comprehend it; he who has
beheld it, has it also verily hidden (from him); he, whilst yet
enveloped in his mother's womb, is subject to many births, and
has entered upon evil.' But the word of the text, bahuprajáh,
rendered by Wilson, according to the commentator, is subject to .
many births,' may, according to the same commentator, also mean,
' has many offsprings,' or ' has many children;' and as the latter
sense is the more literal and usual sense of the word, whereas the
former is artificial, no conclusion whatever regarding the doctrine
of transmigration can safely be founded on it.
The Buddhistic belief in transmigration is derived from that of
the Brahmanic Hindus; it agrees with the latter in principle,
though it differs from it in the imaginary detail inwhich it was
worked out.
Like the Brahmanic Hindus, the Buddhists believe that all
souls have existed from the beginning; like them, they believe in
the unreality and sinfulness of the world in the necessity of the
soul's freeing itself from the bondage of this world, and in the
causal connection between the actions of man in this, and his con-
dition in a subsequent, life. Like the Brahmanic Hindus, they
hold, therefore, that sin is the cause of transmigration, and that
by a total expiation of sin, the soul ceases to be reborn, and
attains its final resting-place. But since this resting-place is to
the Buddhists Nirvána (q. v.,) or Non-entity, whereas to Brah-
manism it is Brahman, or the principle of Entity; since they
reject the institution of caste, which is the social foundation of
Brahmanic life; since they do not acknowledge the authority of
the Vedas, and the codes based on it, and therefore consider as
morally wrong much that the Brahmanic Sastras enjoin as morally
right, the standard according to which the life of a Buddhist is
regulated must differ in many respects from that which governs
the conduct of a Brahmanic Hindu; and his ideas of reward and
punishment, therefore, as reflected by his ideas of the mode of
transmigration, likewise differ from those of the Brahmanic
believer. To enlarge here on this difference is not necessary, for,
after the illustrations already afforded from Manu, it is easy to
conceive that the detail of the Buddhistic doctrine of transmigra-
81
642
TRA-TRE
tion is as fanciful as that of the Brahmanic doctrine; that it is
therefore partly devoid of interest, and partly intelligible only if
taken in connection with the detail of Buddhistic religion and
literature. Yet it is not superfluous to point out one great
difference which separates the notions of one class of Buddhists
from those of the rest, as well as from those of the Brahmanic
Hindus. According to the latter, and the great mass of Buddhists,
it is always the same soul which ever from its first birth re-appears
in its subsequent births, until it is finally liberated from transmi-
gration. But among the southern Buddhists, another idea has
also taken root. In their belief, the succession of existences of a
being is also a succession of souls; and each such soul, though the
result of its predecessor, is not identical with it. According to
this view, the body dies, and with it the soul, too, is 'extinguished,'
leaving behind only the good and bad acts which it has performed
during its life. The result of these acts now becomes the seed of
of a new life, and the soul of this new life is therefore the neces-
sary product of the soul of the former life. Thus all the succeed-
ing souls have to labour at the solution of the same problem,
which began when their first ancestor entered this world, but no
succeeding birth is animated by the same soul. This dogma
is illustrated in their works by various similes. One lamp, they
say, for instance, is kindled at another; the light of the former is
not identical with that of the latter, but nevertheless, without this,
the other light could not have originated. Or, a tree produces.
fruit; from the fruit, another tree arises, and so on; the last tree
is therefore not the same as the first, though the fruit is the
necessary cause of the last."-GOLDSTUCKer.
Trasadasyu—"The Terrifier of thieves." 1, A name given in
the Bhagavata to Mándhátri; 2, The son of Prukutsa.
Trasarenu-A measure of time, consisting of three Anus.
Trayyaruna-1, The Vyása of the fifteenth Dwápara age; 2,
A contributor to the Rig Veda, he was a prince, the son of
Tridhanwan; 3, Another prince, the son of Urukshaya, a descendant
of Bharata.
Treta-The Second Yuga or age, consisting of three thousand
divine years.
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643
Tridhaman-The Vyása of the tenth Dwápara age.
Tridhanwan-An ancient Rája of the solar line, the son of
Sumanas.
Trijata-One of the Rákshasí women, who, when her com-
panions wished to torture and devour Sítá, told them of a dream
she had which betokened victory to Ráma and destruction to
Rávana; they then left Sítá alone in the grove and returned to
their own apartments.
Trikuta-A mountain ridge in the south of Meru.
Three
Trimadhu-A class of Brahmans so denominated from the
particular part of the Vedas they study and recite.
Anuvákas of the Yajur Veda begin Madhuváta, &c.
Trimurti-" (From the Sanscrit tri, three, and múrti, form)
is the name of the Hindu triad, or the gods Brahman (masculine,)
Vishnu, and Śiva, when thought of as an inseparable unity,
though three in form. The Padma-Purána, which, being a
Purána of the Vaishnava sect, assigns to Vishnu the highest rank
in the Trimurti, defines its character in the following manner :
In the beginning of creation, the great Vishnu, desirous of
creating the whole world, became threefold: creator, preserver,
and destroyer. In order to create this world, the supreme spirit
produced from the right side of his body himself as Brahman;
then, in order to preserve the world, he produced from the left
side of his body Vishņu; and in order to destroy the world,
he produced from the middle of his body the eternal Śiva. Some
worship Brahman, others Vishnu, others Śiva; but Vishnu, one,
yet threefold, creates, preserves, and destroys; therefore, let the
pious make no difference between the three.' And the Matsya-
Púrana, where speaking of Mahat, or the intellectual principle of
the Sankhya philosophy, says that 'Mahat becomes distinctly
known as three gods, through the influence of the three qualities,
goodness, passion, and sin; being one person and three gods-
viz., Brahman, Vishnu, and Śiva.' Apart, therefore, from secta-
rian belief, which makes its own god the highest, and gives him
the attributes also of the other gods, Trimurti implies the unity
of the three principles of creation, preservation, and destruction,
644
TRI
:
and as such belongs more to the philosophical than the popular
belief. When represented, the Trimúrti is one body with three
heads in the middle, that of Brahman; at its right, that of
Vishņu; and at its left, that of Śiva. The symbol of the Trimúrti
is the mystical syllable om, when (o being equivalent to a + u)
a, means Brahman; u, Vishņu; and m, Śiva.”—Goldstucker.
Trina-A prince, the son Usínnara, descendant of Yayáti.
Trinachiketa-A class of Brahmans so called from studying
or reciting the Rathaka branch of the Yajur Veda, commencing
with the term Trinachiketa.
Tinavindu—1, The Vyása of the twenty-third Dwápara age;
2, A prince, the son of Budha, of whom the celestial nymph
Alambusha became enamoured.
Triprishtha-Mahávíra in one of his births was a Vásudeva,
named Triprishtha, from having three back bones his uncle and
foe in a former life, Visabhánandi, was born as his Protagonist or
Prativasudeva, named Aşvagriva or Hayagriva, and was in the
course of events destroyed by the Vásudeva, a palpable adaptation
of the Pauranic legend of Vishnu and Hayagriva. Triprish tha
having put his chamberlain cruelly to death was condemned to
hell, and again born as a lion.
Tripti-One of the Siddhis, or eight perfections of man.
Tripti is the second and means mental satisfaction, or freedom
from sensual desire.
Trisala - The wife of Siddhártha, king of Pavana, and mother
of the celebrated Tirthankara Mahávíra.
Trisanku-A prince of the solar line, the son of Satyavrata.
He was banished by his father for his bad conduct, and degraded
to the condition of a Chándála, or outcaste. But during a twelve
years' famine be provided the flesh of deer for the nourishment of
he wife and children of Visvamitra, suspending it on a tree on
the Ganges, that he might not subject them to the indignity of
receiving presents from an outcaste. On this account Visvamitra,
being highly pleased with him, elevated him in his living body to
heaven.
TRI-TUN
645
Trishna-"Greediness ;" one of the children of Mritya, 'death.'
Trishtubh-The name of the metre, created along with the
Yajur Veda, &c., from the southern mouth of Brahmá.
Trishyas-The designation of Sudras in Krauncha Dwipa.
Trisiras-1, The son of Tvashtri, and sometimes called Viṣva-
rúpa; he is twice mentioned in the Rig Veda under this name.
He is said to have had three heads and six eyes, and three mouths
one of his mouths was the soma drinker, the second the wine
drinker, and the third was destined for consuming other things.
Indra hated this Visvarupa and cut off his three heads.
O. S. T., Vol. V., p. 228-232.
Muir,
2. One of the sons of the giant Rávana who was killed at the
siege of Lanka.
Trivrishan-The Vyása of the eleventh Dwápara age.
;
Trivrit-A collection of hymns created along with the Rig
Veda from the eastern mouth of Brahmá.
Truti-A measure of time, consisting of three Tresarenus.
Tryambaka-One of the eleven Rudras.
Tulasi plant-A tree sacred to Krishna, said to have been
produced at the churning of the ocean; but considered by Wilson
to be a sectarial addition to the articles originally specified.
Tulyata-One of the Siddhis, the fourth, meaning similarity
of life, form, and feature.
Tumburu-A Gandharba, who resides in the sun's car as one
of its seven guardians in the month of Madha or Chaitra.
Tunda-A fierce demon mentioned in the Pádma Purána,
which has a long narrative of the destruction of the demon by
Nahusha the son of Ayus.
Tundikeras-One of the great divisions of the Haihaya tribe.
Tunga-The son of Atri, who having propitiated Nárayana by
penance, obtained a son equal to Indra; this son was Vena, who
was made by the Rishis the first king of the earth. [VENA.]
Tungaprastha-A mountain to the east of Ramghur.
Tuni-One of the Saineya princes, the son of Asanga.
646
TUR-TVA
Turvasu-One of the sons of Yayáti, to whom his father made
over the south-east districts of his kingdom, to govern as viceroy
under his younger brother Puru. Turvasu refused to take his
father's infirmities on him, in consequence of which his line soon
failed and became merged in that of Puru.
Tusharas-1, A people, called also Tukháras, probably the
Tochari, or tribe of the Sakas, by whom Bactria was taken from
the Greeks, and from whom Tocharistan derives the name it still
bears; 2, A race of princes; the dynasty consisted of fourteen,
and the Váyu Purána states that their united reigns lasted 500
years.
Tushitas-A class of deities of the second Manwantara; and
who were called the Adityas in the Manwantara of Vaivaswata.
According to the Váyu the Tushitas were the sons of Kratu. The
deities of each period are those to whom offerings of the soma
juice, &c., are presented collectively.
Tushti-1, Resignation; a daughter of Daksha who, became
the wife of Dharma; 2, A daughter of Paurnamáșa.
Tushtimat-One of the sons of Ugrasena and Devaka.
Tvashtri―This god, who in the later mythology is regarded
as one of the Ádityas, but does not bear that character in the Rig
Veda, is the Hephaistos or Vulcan, of the Indian Pantheon, the
ideal artist, the divine artizan, the most skilful of workmen, who
is versed in all wonderful and admirable contrivance. He sharpens
the iron axe of Brahmanaspati, and forges the thunderbolts of
Indra, which are described as golden, or of iron, with a thousand
points and a hundred edges. He is styled the beautiful, or skilful-
handed, the skilful worker, the omniform, or archetype of all forms,
and Savitri, the vivifier. He imparts generative power and
bestows offspring. He develops the seminal germ in the womb,
and is the shaper of all forms, human and animal. He has produced
and nourishes a great variety of creatures; all worlds (or beings)
are his, and are known to him; he has given to heaven and earth
and to all things their forms. He bestows long life. He puts
speed into the legs of a horse. He is said to be skilled in all
Sámatexts, and to have created Brahmaṇaspati above all creatures;
TWI
647
and is said, along with heaven and earth, the waters, and the
Bhrigus, to have generated Agui. He is master of the universe,
a first-born protector and leader. He is a companion of the
Angirases and knows the region of the gods. He is supplicated
to nourish the worshipper and protect his sacrifice. He is the
bestower of blessings and possessed of abundant wealth; and is
asked, like other gods, to take pleasure in the hymns of his wor-
shippers, and to grant them riches.
Tvashtri is in several passages connected with the Ribhus, who,
like him, are celebrated as skilful workmen, and are called his
pupils. An exhibition of their skill is mentioned; they are said
to have made into four a single new sacrificial cup which Tvashtri
had formed, and when he saw this alteration of his work, he is
represented as becoming ashamed and hiding himself among the
goddesses. In one place he is said to have resented this change
in his own workmanship, while in another he is made to applaud
their design and admire the superior products of their skill.
Tvashtri had twin children, (a daughter) Saraṇyú, and (a son)
Trişiras. He is represented as having for his most frequent
attendants the wives of the gods; which Professor Roth considers
to refer to the principal sphere of his creative action, as the
bestower of offspring.
Indra sometimes appears to be in a state of hostility with
Tvashtri and his son ; and at last a quarrel occurs in which Indra
slays him. In the Márkaṇḍeya Purána Tvashtri is identified with
Visvakarman and Prajapati. See Muir's Orig. Sans. Texts, Vol.
V, pp. 224-233, where the authorities are quoted for all the
preceding statements.
Twisha--A daughter of Paurnamáṣa.
U
Uchchraissravas-The horse produced at the churning of the
ocean, and taken by Indra. It is called the chief of horses.
Udaksena-A king of Hastinapura, the son of Viswaksena.
Udaradhi--The son of Pushti, and grandson of Dhruva.
Udavasu—A king of Mithila, the son of Janaka, (q. v.)
Udavraja-A country mentioned in the Rig Veda as one
"into which the waters flow," the residence of the black-skinned
aboriginal king Sambara, who possessed one hundred ancient
impregnable cities.
Udayana-A prince, the son of Satánika; of the race of Puru,
"the race which gave origin to Brahmans and Kshatriyas, and
which was purified by regal sages." V. P.
Udayaswa-A king of Magadha, the son of Dharbaka.
Udayin--One of the sons of Vasudeva, by his wife Devakí.
Uddalin-One of the fifteen teachers of the White Yájush.
Uddhava-A sage, versed in the Yoga doctrine, foreseeing
the destruction of the Yádavas, applied to Krishna for advice, and
was sent to Badarikaṣrama to practise penance and prepare for
heaven.
Udgatri--The title of the priest who chaunts the prayers and
hymns in the administration of sacrificial rites.
Udgitha-One of the kings of Bhárata Varsha, the son of
Bhava.
Ugra, Ugraritas--Two of the eleven Rudras.
Ugradeva-The name of a deceased ancestor conceived of as
still existing in another world, and invoked in one of the hymns
UGR-ULM
649
of the Rig Veda, along with the souls of other deceased ancestors;
they are thus called on, "Let not the gods injure us here, nor our
early Fathers who know the realms ! May the Fathers protect
me in my invocation to the gods."
"I
6
Ugrajit, Ugrampasya-Two Apsarases, who are invoked in
the Atharva Veda, and asked to remit sius committed while
gambling. There are many verses which show that the Apsarases
were intimately connected with gambling. Dr. Muir translates
the following :-" I invoke hither the skilfully-playing. Apsaras
who cuts up and conquers and gets gains in the game of dice. I
invoke hither the skilfully-playing Apsaras who collects and
scatters, and receives gains in the game of dice. May she who
dances about with the dice, when she wins by gaming, grant gain
to us, and obtain success through her skill. May she come to us
with abundance of food. Let them not conquer this money of
ours. I invoke hither the joyful and exulting Apsaras-those
[goddesses] who delight in dice, and who cherish grief and anger.
In another verse they are said to be "fond of dice," and soul-
bewitching."
Ugrasena-1, The Rája of Mathura, who was deposed by his
son Kansa and kept in confinement. The Rája Kansa was after-
wards killed by Krishna in a severe contest. Krishna then restored
Ugrasena to the throne, and sent to Indra for his royal hall
Sudharman, which was conveyed from heaven by Váyu, and used
by the Yadava chiefs. Ugrasena is then described as reigning
wisely and well for a long period at Mathura; but when the death
of Krishna took place, Ugrasena and his wives committed them-
selves to the flames; 2, One of the sons of Parikshit.
Ugrayudha-A Kaurava prince, the son of Krita; by whose
prowess the Nipa race of Kshatriyas was destroyed. Ugráyudha
was slain by Bhishma in consequence of demanding in marriage
the widow of Sántana.
Uktha-1, The name of a portion of the Sáma Veda, created
from the southern mouth of Brahmá: 2, À prince, the son of
Chhala, descendant of Kusa.
Ulmuka—One of the sons of Balabhadra by his wife Revati.
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650
ULU-UMA
Uluki-The parent of owls. V. P., 148.
Ulwana-One of the seven Rishis of the third Manwantura ;
they were sons of Vasishtha.
6
Uma--The Harivansa gives the following history of Umá,
which differs in some points from that of the Rámáyana, as it
assigns three daughters to Himavat and Mená, among whom the
Ganga is not included. Their (the Pitris') mental daughter was
Mená, the eminent wife of the great mountain Himavat. The
king of the mountains begot three daughters upon Mená,—viz.,
Aparná, Ekaparná, and Ekapáṭala. These three, performing very
great austerity, such as could not be performed by gods or Danavas,
distressed with alarm both the stationary and moving worlds.
Ekaparná (one leaf) fed upon one leaf. Ekapáṭalá took only one
pátalá (Bignonia) for her food. One (Aparná) took no sustenance,
but her mother, distressed through maternal affection, forbade her,
dissuading her with the words, u ma (O don't). The beautiful
goddess, performing arduous austerity, having been thus addressed
by her mother on that occasion, became known in the three worlds
as Umá.
In this manner the contemplative goddess became
renowned under that name. But this world shall remain dis-
tinguished by having these three maids... Umá was the eldest and
most excellent among the three. Distinguished by the force
derived from deep contemplation she obtained Mahadeva for her
husband.-O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 367.
The first work in which the name of Umá occurs is the Talava-
kára, or Kena Upanishad. In his remarks on a passage in this
work, relating a victory gained by Brahmá for the gods, Weber
supplies an ingenious contribution to the mythlogical history
of Umá. He says:
"The representation in Sections 3 and
4 indicates that the Kena Upanishad was produced at a time
when,-in place of the three principal gods, Agni, Váyu, and
Súrya, who had come to be regarded as the representatives of the
divine principle on earth, in the atmosphere, and in heaven,-
Agni, Vayu, and Indra were regarded as such. These are properly
only two, since Indra is essentially identical with Váyu. Though
I have found numerous examples of the first triad, especially in
UMA
651
in the two Yajur-vedas, I have noticed only one other of the second
triad, which is properly one a duad, viz., in the Rik-text of the
Purusha Sukta (R. V., x. 99, 13). Nor am I able to give a
satisfactory explanation of it. On the other hand, the totality of
the divine was already comprehended in Brahmá (neuter), and it
is the object of the legend here to make clear and to enforce the
supremacy of Brahmá over all temporary divine manifestations,
and even over the triad of such.
·
"But how shall we explain the position of Umá Haimavatí,
who comes forward as mediatrix between the eternal Brahmá and
the gods? According to Sánkara, she is Vidyá (knowledge) who
The same
appears Umá rupiņi (in the form of Uma) to Indra.
explanation is found in Sāyana, who (on Taitt. Ar. x, 1, 150) when
interpreting the word soma, cites this passage, and remarks:
"Since Gauri, the daughter of Himavat, is the impersonation of
divine knowledge, the word Umá, which denotes Gaurí, indicates
divine knowledge. Hence in the Talavakára Upanishad, in the
passage on the impersonation of divine knowledge, the impersona-
tion of divine knowledge is introduced in these words: He said
to the very resplendent Umá Haimavati.’
There are, bowever, some additional points which seem to place
the original signification of Umá in quite a different light. First
of all, why is she called Haimavatí? What has she to do with
Himavat? Is it that the brahmá-vidyá (divine kuowledge) came
originally from the Himavat to the Aryans dwelling in Madhya-
déşa (the central region of Hindustan)? We have learnt from the
Haushítáki Bráhmana (Ind. Stud. i, 153) that the north of India
was distinguished by greater purity of speech, and that students
travelled thither to learn the language (vácham sixitum) and on
their return thence enjoyed great consideration and authority.
Now it would have been quite natural if this state of things had
not been confined to language, but had become extended to specu-
lation also, and if the knowledge of the one, eternal Brahmá, had
been sooner attained in the peaceful valleys of the Himálaya, than
was possible for men living in Madhyadéșa, where their minds
were more occupied by the practical concerns of life." Such a view
of Umá Haimavatí appears to me, however, to be very hazardous.
652
UMA
For,-not to say that in our explanations of the ancient Indian
deities we act wisely when we attach greater importance to the
physical than to the speculative element,--we are by no means
certain that Umá actually does signify divine knowledge (brahmá
vidyά); and moreover, her subsequent position as Rudra's wife
(in the Taitt. Ar.) would thus be quite inexplicable. Now there
is among the epithets of this latter goddess a similar one, viz.,
Párvatí, which would lead us in interpreting the word Haimavatí,
to place the emphasis not upon the Himavat, but upon the moun-
tain (parvata): and with this I might connect the epithets of
Rudra which we have learnt from the Sátarudriya, Girisa, Giri-
santa, Girisaya, Giritra, in which we recognize the germ of the
conception of Siva's dwelling on Kailása. He is the tempest,
which rages in the mountains, and his wife is therefore properly
called Párvatí, Haimavatí, "the mountaineer," the daughter of
Himavat.' At the same time, it is not clear what we have to
understand by his wife; and further she is perhaps, originally not
his wife, but his sister, for Umá and Ambiká are at a later period
evidently identical, and Ambiká is Rudra's sister (Ind. Stud. I,
183). Besides, this identification of Umá with Ambiká leads us
to a new etymology of the former. . For as Ambiká, mother,'
appears to be merely an euphemistic and flattering epithet,
employed to propitiate the cruel goddess, in the same way it
appears that we must derive Umá from the root u, av, 'to protect.’*
6
As the consort of Śiva, the goddess has various names; as
Durga, Devi, Káli, Párvati, Bhavani, &c. Some of these names
have in the Vedic writings a different import from those assigned
in the later mythology, as Śiva was not a deity of the Vedic
period, or not of the whole of it. "Though this double character
of the consort of Śiva is not always discernible in the myths which
are connected with special designations of hers, and though at a late
period the popular creed looked upon her far more as the type of
destruction than as that of divine wisdom, yet the works devoted to
her praise never fail to extol her also as the personification of the
highest knowledge." Various myths relating to this goddess are to
* MUIR, O. S. T., Vol. IV, p. 560.
UNM
653
be found scattered over nearly the whole range of Hindu literature.
Some of those have already been narrated in the articles given
under her other names in this volume. In a previous existence she
is said to have been Sati, the daughter of Daksha, who abandoned
her mortal life because she was slighted by her father when he
performed his great sacrifice and neglected to invite Siva to partake
of it. As Umá she was the mother of Ganesa and Karttikeya, (q. v.)
According to the Harivansa she was, in another life, boru as
the daughter of Yasoda, and exchanged for Vishnu, when in his
incarnation as Krishna he was born as a son of Devaki. On that
occasion she was killed by Kansa, but as soon as he had dashed her
to the ground, she rose to the sky, leaving behind her corporeal
frame, and became a divine virgin to whom the gods addressed their
praises. Hence her names Kanyá, Kumari, &c., the virgin. This
connection between the legendary history of Umá and Vishņu, is
also briefly referred to in the Devimahátmya, though this work is
chiefly concerned in the narrative of the martial exploits of the
goddess. The latter consisted in the destruction by her of two
demons, Madhu and Kaiṭabha, who had endangered the existence
of the god Brahmá; and of the demon Mahisha or Mahishasura,
who, having conquered all the gods, had expelled them from heaven,
and who met Umá, assisted only by her lion, with a numberless
host of demons; moreover in her defeating the army of Cháṇḍa and
Munda, two demon servants of Śumbha and Nisumbha; in her
killing the demon Rakavija, who had a sort of charmed life, each
drop of his blood, when shed, producing hundreds of demons like
himself; and ultimately in her destroying the demons Sumbha and
Nisumbha themselves.
"In commemoration of her victory over Mahishasura, a festival
called the Durgápúja is annually celebrated in Bengal. The
goddess is there represented with ten arms trampling upon the
demon, who is also attacked by her lion, and wounded in the chest
by her spear. She has also laid hold of him by the hair, and is
about to chop off his head."-GOLDSTUCKER.
Unmada-Insanity; a form of Brahmá.
654
UNN-UPA
Unnati-Elevation; one of the allegorical daughters of Dak-
sha, married to Dharma.
Upadanavi-1, The daughter of Vrishaparvan the Daitya,
and wife of Hiranyaksha.
Upadeva-1, One of the sons of Akrúra ; 2, A son of Devaka.
Upadeva-A daughter of Devaka.
Upagu-A king of Mithila, the son of Satyarathi.
Upamadgu—A prince, one of the sons of Swaphalka by
Gandini.
Upananda, Upanidhi-Two sons of Vasudeva, by his wives
Madira and Bhadrá respectively.
6
Upanishad-" Is the name of those Sanskrit works belonging
to the Vedic literature which contain the mystical doctrine of the
Hindus on the nature of a supreme being, its relation to the human
soul, and the process of creation. The word (derived from the
Sankrit prefixes upa, beneath' or ' near,' and ni, ' in,' combined
with the radical sad, sit') is explained by the great theologian
Sankara (q. v.), and others after him, as meaning the science of
Brahmá,' or the understanding of the identity of Brahmá and
the soul,' because in those devoted to it, this science sets to rest
(or destroys) the world, together with (ignorance) its cause ;' or
in other words, because it shows to them that the world has,
besides Brahman, no reality. Grammatical commentators explain.
its etymology as implying that eternal bliss reposes on it (upani-
shidati sreyo 'syam);' and Professor Max Müller has surmised
that the word Upanishad meant originally the act of sitting down
near a teacher, of submissively listening to him,' whence it came
to mean 'implicit faith, and at last truth or divine revelation.' But
apart from the artificialness of all these interpretations, it deserves
notice that the earliest sense of the word appears to be that of
'secret' or 'mystery' (literally, that which sits or rests beneath.')
In this sense, it is mentioned by the grammarian Panini; and as it
is very probable that, in his time, the works bearing the name of
Upanishads were not yet in existence, it may be assumed that
6
UPA
655
these works derived their name from the mysteriousness of the
doctrine contained in them; and perhaps also from the mystical
manner in which they propounded it.
In order to understand the origin and purport of the Upanishads,
as well as the relation in which they stand to the Vedas, properly
so called, it must be borne in mind that, though the Vedic hymns
are based on the worship of the elementary powers, and the
Brahmana portion connected with them is chiefly concerned in
legendary and ritual matter relating to that worship, yet in both
these portions of the Vedas, and especially in the Brahmanas, the
beginning of a period become already visible when the poets
raised the questions as to the origin of the world and the true
nature of the gods. A first attempt at a systematic answer to
these questions was made in works which bear an intimate relation
to the Brahmaņas; and so great was the awe in which, on this
account, these works were held, that they had to be read in the
solitude, where the mind could ponder in perfect calmness over
the mysterious problems in which they are engaged. These are
the Aranyakas (from aranya, a forest.) But as the style and
contents of the Áranyakas are extremely obscure, and as, through
the close alliance of these works to the Brahmanas, of which some
of them form part, the theological questions of which they treat
are much overlaid with ritual and other matters which properly
belong to the Bráhmanas, a further progress made in the same
direction, led to the composition of works and treatises, the diction
of which is somewhat clearer, and less entangled with subjects
extraneous to the problems they intend to solve. Such works and
treatises are the Upanishads. Their object, like that of the
Aranyakas, is to impress the mind with the belief in one Supreme
Spirit (Brahma, as a neuter, and different, therefore, from the
same word as a masculine, which is the name of the first god of
the Trimurti, q. v.,) to show that this Supreme Spirit is the
creator of the world; that the world has no reality if thought of
besides Brahmá, and that the human soul is identical in nature
with that same spirit whence it emanates. The reward the Upani-
shads hold out to the believer, who understands their doctrine,
and firmly adheres to it, is freedom from Transmigration (q. v.,)
656
UPA
and consequent eternal bliss. The object and aim of the Upani-
shads are therefore the same as those propounded in the philoso-
phical systems; and the Upanishads may therefore be looked
upon as the forerunners of these systems themselves-those Upani-
shads, at least, which we may call the older Upanishads; for as
to the more recent ones, and those which bear the stamp of
sectarian character, their claim to be ranked among the Vedic
writings is extremely doubtful, if at all admissible.
Though agreeing in the main points of their doctrine, it is easily
understood that works of this nature, ranging over different periods
of Hindu religion, will also differ from one another both in the
manner and detail in which they deliver their subject-matter, and
in the degree of completeness with which they treat of it. Thus,
in some, the legendary narrative, and even ritual detail, are still
considerably blended with the theosophical speculation-and these
stand nearest, therefore, the Aranyakas, probably also in time; in
others, more philosophical, the nature of Brahmá and the human
soul is the only subject of inquiry; in others, the process of
creation is also enlarged upon, with detail which harmonises more
or less either with the ulterior views of the Vedanta (q. v.) or
those of the Sankhya (q. v.) philosophy; some Upanishads, again,
especially emphasise the inefficiency, for the attainment of eternal
bliss, of the performing religious acts and of worldly studies-the
knowledge of Brahmá being the only means that leads to this
end; others, on the contrary, in conformity with the Yoga (q. v.)
doctrine, assign a prominent place to the exterior means, by using
which the soul would qualify itself for union with the Supreme
Spirit; while the sectarian Upanishads, which identify this spirit
with Vishnu and Śiva, have, besides, the tendency of reconciling
the popular with the philosophical creed.
Of the older Upanishads, a typical instance is furnished in the
Chhandogya Upanishad of the Sámaveda, the framework of which
is legendary throughout, and its contents allegorical and mystical.
Other shorter Upanishads, freer from narratives and allusions to
the mysterious import of ritual acts, aim at a more intelligible
exposition of the doctrine of the soul. Of their mode of treatment,
the following passage from the Káṭhaka Upanishads will serve as
UPA
657
6
an example: Nachiketas, the son of Vájaṣravas, having come to
the abode of Yama, the judge of the dead, and obtained from him
the grant of three boons, asks of him, for his third boon, an answer
to the following question: There is this doubt: some say that
(the soul) exists after the death of a man (in connection with
This I
another body than this); others say that it does not.
should like to know, instructed by thee.' And Yama, after some
hesitation, explains to him that the soul and Brahmá are one, but
that a man attains immortality only by understanding this unity,
and that, to arrive at this understanding, he must free his mind
from sensual desires, and get a correct knowledge both of the
nature of Brahmá and of the soul. Know the soul as the rider,
and the body as the car; know intellect as the charioteer, and
manas (the organ of volition) as the rein. The senses, they say,
are the horses, the objects (their) roads; and the enjoyer (i. e., the
rider) is (the soul) endowed with body, senses, and manas. Thus
say the wise. If he (the charioteer) is unwise, and his manas is
always unbridled, his senses are uncontrolled like vicious horses ;
but if he is wise, and his manas is always bridled, his senses are
controlled like good horses. He who, always impure, is unwise,
and whose manas is unbridled, does not attain that abode (of
immortality,) but comes to the world (of birth and death); he,
however, who, always pure, is wise, and whose manas is bridled,
he attains that abode whence he is not born again. The man who
has a wise charioteer, and whose manas is bridled, reaches the
other shore of the road (of the world,) the highest abode of
Vishnu. Higher, (i. e., subtler,) indeed, than the objects are the
senses; higher than the senses is manas; higher than manas,
intellect; and higher than intellect, the great one, the soul.
Higher than the great one is that which is unmanifested, and higher
than the unmanifested is Purusha, the Supreme Spirit. But
higher than Purusha there is nothing; he is the goal, the highest
resort. The highest spirit is the soul hidden in all created beings;
it is not manifest, but is beheld by those who can see what is
subtle with an attentive, subtle intellect.' The coincidence
between the allegory, in the foregoing passage, and that in Plato's
Phædrus, imparts an additional interest to this Upanishad, which
83
658
UPA
is valuable, moreover, on account of the evidence it affords as to
points of agreement and difference between its views of the deve-
lopment of the world and those expounded in the Sáukhya (q. v.)
The Mundaka Upanishad is important for the relative position
which it assigns to the teaching of the Vedas, and the doctrine of
the Upanishads. Two sciences,' it says, the knowers of Brahmá
tell us, must be known, the higher and the inferior. The inferior
is (the knowledge of) the Rig Veda, the Yajurveda, the Sámaveda,
and the Atharvaveda, the knowledge of pronunciation, the ritual,
grammar, explanation of Vedic texts, prosody, and astronomy.
But the higher knowledge is that by which that imperishable
Brahmá is comprehended. That which is invisible, unseizable,
without descent (or origin,) without either colour, eye, or ear,
without hand or foot, eternal, manifold (in creation,) all-pervading,
very subtle, undecaying-the wise behold it as the cause of
created beings.' And in another place, the performers of the
sacrificial rites ordained by the Veda are said to attain, indeed, to
Indra's heaven in virtue of their pious work; but this state of
bliss is declared to be unstable and perishable, and these fools...
drop (from their heaven) as soon as this heaven (the reward of
their acts) has faded away. Fancying that pious acts, ordained
by the Vedas and codes of law, are the highest (object of man,)
these ignorant people do not know that there is something else
which leads to eternal bliss. Having enjoyed (the reward of their
deeds) on the happy summit of paradise, they enter again this
world, or one that is (even) lower. Those, on the contrary, who
practice penance and faith, and, with subdued desire, live in the
forest, under the vow of a religious mendicant, they, free from sin,
enter through the sun to that abode where resides that immortal
spirit, that spirit, indeed, of undecaying nature.'
C
The Talavakára, or Kena, Upanishad, which, being one of the
shortest, is in form one of the most philosophical treatises of this
kind, puts in clearer language, perhaps, than any other Upanishad,
the doctrine that the true knowledge of the Supreme Spirit consists
in the consciousness which man acquires of his incapacity to
understand it, since the human mind being capable only to com-
prehend finite objects, cannot have a knowledge of what is infinite.
UPA
659
The Upanishads are not supposed to have been revealed in the
same manner as the Vedic hymns. Nevertheless, with the
exception of a few confessedly modern Upanishads, they are not
assigued to human authorship, but looked upon as inspired writings,
to which the term Śruti (q. v.) applies. In several Upanishads, no
special mention is made of their divine origin; in some, however,
this is done. Thus the Chhandogya Upanishad, in its concluding
section, relates: This (knowledge of the soul) Brahmá (the god
of the Trimurti) imparted to Prajapati (a lord of creation-the
patriarch Kasyapa, as Śankara explains); Prajapati imparted it
to Manu, and Manu to mankind; the Brihadáranyaka Upanishad,
which on three occasions gives long lists of teachers who handed
it down to their pupils, always ascribes itself, in the last instance,
to the authorship of the self-existent Brahmá (the Supreme
Spirit);' and in a similar manner the Mundaka Upanishad says
that it was Brahmá (the god of the Trimurti,) the creator of the
universe, who first taught the science of the Supreme Spirit to his
eldest son, Atharvan. As in the case of most ancient works of
Sanskrit literature, the date of the Upanishads also still remains
quite uncertain, and, wherever given, is purely conjectural.
According to the native system, they are classified as belonging to
one or the other of the four Vedas, with which they are held to
stand in immediate connection. There are Upanishads, couse-
quently, of the Rig-, Yajur-, Sáma-, and Atharva-veda. But
this classification has no reference whatever to chronology."-
Chambers' Encyclopædia.
Upa-puranas-Minor Puránas, of which there are said to be
eighteen ; "but the names of only a few of these are specified in
the least exceptionable authorities, and the greater number of the
works is not procurable." (Wilson.) The Matsya enumerates but
four, but the Devi Bhagavata specifies eighteen. The Revi
Khanda has a different list but enumerates eighteen. "Of the
Upa Puranas few are to be procured. Those in my possession.
are the Siva, considered as distinct from the Váyu; the Kálika,
and perhaps one of the Naradiyas." Wilson.
Uparichara-A Vasu, who by command of Indra became
king of Chedí. He had five sons, the eldest of whom Vrihadratha,
660
UPA-URU
was king of Magadha; by another wife he had an Apsaras, con-
demned to the form of a fish, Matsya, a son, and Satyavati or
Káli, a daughter; the latter was the mother of Vyása.
Upasunda-A Daitya, the son of Nisunda, and father of
Múka.
Upendra-The divinity who presides over the feet.
Urddhabahu-One of the seven pure sages, of the first and
third Manwantara, the sons of Vasishtha by his wife Urjja.
Urddhabahus--" Personal privation and torture being of great
efficacy in the creed of the Hindus, various individuals, some
influenced by credulity, and some by knavery, have adopted modes
of distorting their limbs, and forcing them out of their natural
position, until they can no longer resume their ordinary directions.
The Uraddhabáhus extend one or both arms above their heads,
till they remain of themselves thus elevated. They also close the
fist, and the nails being necessarily suffered to grow make their
way between the metacarpal bones, and completely perforate the
hand. The Urddhabahus are solitary medicants, as are all of this
description, and never have any fixed abode: they subsist upon
alms; many of them go naked, but some wear a wrapper stained
with ochre; they usually assume the Saiva marks, and twist their
hair so as to project from the forehead, in imitation of the Játá of
Śiva.- Wilson, Vol. I.
Urja—1.
One of the seven Rishis of the second Manwantara;
2, An obsolete name of a month.
Urjja-Energy; A daughter of Daksha who was married to
Vasishtha.
Urjaswati-1. A daughter of Daksha who was married to
Dharma; 2, The daughter of Priyavrata.
Urjjavaha—A king of Mithila, the son of Suchi.
Uru-One of the ten noble sons of the Manu Chakshusha.
Uruashaya-A prince, the son of Mahavírya, a descendant
of Bharata,
URV-USH
661
Urvasi-A celestial nymph, who having incurred the impreca-
tion of Mitra and Varuna determined to take up her abode in the
world of mortals; and descending accordingly behold Purúvaras.
As she saw him she forgot all reserve, and disregarding the
delights of Swarga became deeply enamoured of the prince. See
PURORAVAS.
Usanas-1. The preceptor of the Daityas, one of the Brah-
manical tribe of Bhargavas, sons of Bhrigu; 2, The Vyása of
the third Dwápara age; 3, A prince, the son of Támas, who
celebrated a hundred sacrifices of the horse.
Usha-1. The wife of the Rudra Bhava; 2, The daughter
of Bána, who saw Aniruddha in a dream and became enamoured
of him. She related this to Chitrarikha, a female confidante, who
advised the employment of a portrait painter to take likenesses of
all the young princes in the neighbourhood. On seeing the portrait
of Aniruddha, grandson of Krishna, Usha recoguised the youth
she had seen in her dream. The same confidante now offered her
services; and by her means Aniruddha held clandestine meetings
with Usha; and at length was secreted in her private apartments.
Báṇa discovered this, and made Aniruddha a prisoner. Krishna
then interfered, and after a terrible fight Aniruddha was released;
both parents agreed to a marriage, which was publicly celebrated
at Dwaraka. See ANIRUDDHA.
"This
Ushas-The Dawn. The Aurora of Hindu mythology.
goddess, who corresponds to the 'Hws of the Greeks and to the
Aurora of the Latins, is a favourite object of celebration with the
poets of the Rig Veda, and the hymns addressed to her are among
the most beautiful-if not the most beautiful-in the entire
collection.'
Ushas is continually described as the daughter of the Sky. She
is called the sister of Bhaga, and the kinswoman of Varuņa. She
is also the sister of Night, who is also the daughter of the Sky.
Ushas is also frequently brought into connection with the Sun.
He is called her lover and is said to follow her track; and she is
MUIR, O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 181.
662
USH
represented as leading on the beautiful white horse the Sun. She
is declared to be the mistress of the world and the wife of the Sun.
Ushas and Agni are also frequently brought into conjunction, fire
being always kindled for sacrificial purposes at dawn. He is called
her lover and is said to appear with or before the dawn. Ushas
is also often connected with the Asvins, the time of whose
manifestation is regarded by Yáska as being between midnight and
sunrise. They are said to associate with her, and she is called
their friend.* In one place the moon is said to be born again and
again, ever new, and to go before Ushas as the herald of the day.
Indra is said to have created, or lighted up, Ushas. He is however
sometimes represented as assuming a hostile attitude towards her,
and is said to have crushed her chariot with his thunderbolt.†
The Nighantu gives sixteen names of Ushas, which seem to be
almost entirely epithets, viz., the 'resplendent,' the beautiful, the
shining, the flowing, the possessor of brilliant riches, the white, the
bringer of food, the giver of joy, the bright, the fair-coloured, the
ruddy, the utterer of pleasant voices. Some of these epithets are
of frequent occurrence in the hymns, and there are also many
others to be found there, such as the magnificent, the righteous, the
immortal, the gold-hued, &c., &c.‡
Ushas is borne onward on a shining chariot, of massive
construction, richly decorated and spontaneously yoked, drawn by
ruddy horses, or by cows or bulls of the same colour, traversing
rapidly a distance of thirty yojanas. Like a beautiful young
woman dressed by her mother, a richly-decked dancing girl, a gaily
attired wife appearing before her husband, or a female rising
resplendent out of the bath, smiling and confiding in the irresistible
power of her attractions, she unveils her bosom to the gaze of the
beholder. She dispels the darkness, disclosing the treasures it had
concealed she illuminates the world, revealing its most distant
extremities. She is the life and breath of all things, causing the
birds to fly forth from their nests, visiting every house, and like an
active housewife arousing her household, awakening the five races
of men, yea all creatures, as if from death, and sending men forth
MUIR, O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 181.
+ Ibid.
++
Ibid.
USH
663
to the pursuit of their several occupations; and rendering good
service to the gods by causing all worshippers to awake, and the
sacrificial fires to be kindled. She is however entreated to arouse
only the devout and liberal worshipper, and to leave the ungodly
niggard to sleep on in unconsciousness. She is young, being born
anew every day, and yet she is old, nay immortal, and wears out
the lives of successive generations, which disappear one after
another, while she continues undecaying.*
The worshippers however sometimes venture to take the credit
of being more alert than Ushas, and of awaking her instead of
being awakened by her and in one place she is solicited to make
no delay that the sun may not scorch her as like a thief or an
enemy. She is prayed to bring the gods to drink the libations of
Soma. Agni and the gods generally are described as waking
with Ushas. †
Dr. Muir gives the following metrical sketch of Ushas as repre-
sented in the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Hail, Ushas, daughter of the sky,
Who, borne upon thy shining car
By ruddy steeds from realms afar,
And ever lightening, drawest nigh :-
Thou sweetly smilest, goddess fair,
Disclosing all thy youthful grace,
Thy bosom bright, thy radiant face,
And lustre of thy golden hair :
(So shines a fond and winning bride,
Who robes her form in brilliant guise,
And to her lord's admiring eyes
Displays her charms with conscious pride:
Or virgin by her mother decked,
Who, glorying in her beauty, shows
In every glance, her power she knows
All eyes to fix, all hearts subject :
MUIR, O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 181.
+ Ibid.
664
USH
Or actress, who by skill in song
And dance, and graceful gestures light,
And many-coloured vestures bright,
Enchants the eager, gazing throng:-
Or maid who, wont her limbs to lave
In some cool stream among the woods,
Where never vulgar eye intrudes,
Emerges fairer from the wave) :—
But closely by the amorous sun
Pursued, and vauquished in the race,
Thou soon art locked in his embrace,
And with him blendest into one.
Fair Ushas, though through years untold
Thou hast lived on, yet thou art born
Anew on each succeeding morn,
And so thou art both young and old.
As in thy fated ceaseless course
Thou risest ou us day by day,
Thou wearest all our lives away
With silent, ever-wasting, force.
Their round our generations run:
The old depart, and in their place
Springs ever up a younger race,
Whilst thou, immortal, lookest on.
All those who watched for thee of old
Are gone, and now 't is we who gaze
On thy approach; in future days.
Shall other men thy beams behold.
But 't is not thoughts so grave and sad
Alone that thou dost with thee bring,
A shadow o'er our hearts to fling ;-
Thy beams returning make us glad.
$
*
USH
665
Thy sister, sad and sombre Night
With stars that in the blue expanse
Like sleepless eyes mysterious glance,
At thy approach is quenched in light :-
And earthly forms, till now concealed.
Behind her veil of dusky hue,
Once more come sharply out to view,
By thine illuming glow revealed.
Thou art the life of all that lives,
The breath of all that breathes; the sight
Of thee makes every countenance bright,
New strength to every spirit gives.
When thou dost pierce the musky gloom,
Birds flutter forth from every brake,
All sleepers as from death awake,
And men their myriad tasks resume.
Some prosperous, wake in listless mood,
And others every nerve to strain
The goal of power or wealth to gain,
Or what they deem the highest good.
But some to holier thoughts aspire,
In hymns the race celestial praise,
And light, on human hearths to blaze,
The heaven-born sacrificial fire.
And not alone do bard and priest
Awake;-the gods thy power confess
By starting into consciousness
When thy first rays suffuse the east :
And hasting downward from the sky,
They visit men devout and good,
Consume their consecrated food,
And all their longings satisfy.
84
میں
666
UTK-UTT
Bright goddess, let thy genial rays
To us bring stores of envied wealth
In kine and steeds, and sons, with health,
And joy of heart, and length of days.
Utkala-One of the sons of Sudyumna after his transformation.
Uttama-1, The son of Uttanápada and grandson of the
Manu Swayambhuva.
2. A Manu, the son of Priyavrata.
3. The Manu of the third Manwantara.
có
4. The Vyása of the twenty-first Dwápara age.
Uttanapada-The son of the Manu Swayambhuva. The
Vishnu Purána describes him as heroic and pious, but gives no
particulars of his history,
Uttara-bhadrapada-A lunar mansion in Vaiswánari in the
Southern Avashthána.
Uttarakuru-A varsha or country beyond the Sringi range of
mountains, south of Meru.
Uttara-phalguni—A lunar mansion in Arshabhí, in the Cen-
tral Avashthána.
Uttarashadha-A lunar mansion in Ajavithi, in the Southern
Avashthana.
Uttatahya-A sage, the son of Angiras, and husband of
Mamata.
V
Vach-1, The goddess of speech, who resides in the region
intermediate between heaven and earth. In the later mythology
Sarasvati was identified with Vách, and became under different
names the spouse of Brahmá and the goddess of wisdom and
eloquence, and is invoked as a Muse. In the Mahábhárata she is
called the mother of the Vedas, and the same is said of Vách in the
Taitt. Br. ii, 8, where she is also said to be the wife of Indra, to
contain within herself all worlds, and to have been sought after by
the rishis who composed the Vedic hymns, as well as by the gods
through austerity.-O. S. T., V, 342.
Vách is represented as the wife of Prajapati, and as pervading
all that exists. She is termed the mother of the Vedas. Vách is
also designated as a cow. "Let a man worship the cow Vách.
She has four udders, the formulæ, svaha, vashat, hauta, and
svadha. The gods live upon her two udders, svaha and vashat;
men upon hauta; and the fathers upon svadha. Breath is her
bull; the mind, her calf.”—0. S. T., II, 256.
Vach--2, A daughter of Daksha, married to Kaṣyapa.
Vadhrimati-The wise female to whose invocation the Asvins
listened and gave her a son called Hiranyahasta.-O. S. T., V,
247.
Vahan-SANS., a vehicle. One is allotted to each of the gods.
Brahmá has the Hamsa, a goose or swan. Vishnu, Garuda, half
man, half bird, but now, in Southern India, identified with the
Haliætus Pondicherianus, or Brahmany-kite; Śiva, the bull ;
Indra, the elephant; Ganesa, a rat; Kartikeya, a peacock; Agni,
a ram; Váyu, an antelope; Yama, a buffalo; Sani, Saturn, a
vulture; Ráma, a monkey; Kamadeva, a parrot; Durga or
Párvati, a lion and bull, and the other goddesses, the vahans of
their respective lords. The vahan of Brahmá, Hamsa, or Hahns,
sometimes Hahnsi, Major Moor tells us, is precisely the name that
668
VAH
in Suffolk, is commonly given to the heron, that Saraswati rides.
on. The swan or goose, the eagle, and the bull, are the vehicles
respectively allotted to the three great powers. The terrestrial
sluggish nature of the first, is an apt type of matter, personified in
the creative power, and a contrast to Vishnu, or spirit, the
preserving power, appropriately mounted on a buoyant eagle, the
celestial Garuda. Śiva, the destructive energy of the Deity, is
Time or Justice; and the Hindus, deem the bull also its type,
and give it to Śiva as his vahan, or mode of conveyance. These
vehicles are supposed by Mr. Paterson (As. Res. Vol. VII, p. 48,)
to have allusion to Purity, Truth, and Justice: the first, he says,
typified by the swan, which, clothed with unspotted whiteness,
swims, amidst the waters, as it were, distinct from, and unsullied
by, them; as the truly pure mind remains untainted amidst the
surrounding temptations of the world. Garuda, brother to Aruna,
is remarkable for strength and swiftness; and the latter is described
as imperfect, and, on account of his defects, destined to act as
charioteer to the Sun, he being the dawn, the twilight preceding
Garuda is perfect light; the dazzling full blaze of day ;
the type of Truth; the celestial vahan of Vishņu. Perhaps the
Hindus may, like western observers, have noticed the strong optic
nerves of the eagle tribe; and have heard of the fable of the
parents destroying such of their brood as are unable to look
steadily on the sun; the eagle in western poetry is called bird of
the sun, as well as bird of Jove; in both of which characters
Vishņu particularly appears. Justice, typified in the sacred bull,
is the vahan of Śiva: the bull, whose body is Paramesvara, and
whose every joint is a virtue; whose three horns are the three
Vedas; whose tail ends where ad'harma, or injustice, begins.-
Coleman, Moor. "The creatures here named, alone suffice to
indicate the northern origin of the people who believe in them,
and the readiness with which they have accommodated themselves
to change. There is no swau nor eagle in Southern India, so far
as we know, nor is the buffalo or brahmany-kite known in the
highlands of Central Asia.”—Balfour.
the sun.
Vahnijwala--One of the Narakas that for shepherds and
potters.
VAI
669
Vaibhraja--A large forest in the west of Mount Meru.
* Vaideha--" The son of the bodiless ;" a name of Rája Janaka,
(q. v.)
Vaideyha--One of the fifteen teachers of the White Yajush.
Vaidurya--One of the principal mountain ridges which project
from the base of Meru, on the western side.
Vaikanka-A similar ridge in the eastern side.
Vaikuntha-The heaven of Vishnu. This is considered by
Wilson to be a sectarial addition to the seven Lokas or spheres
above the earth. Vaikuntha is also the name of an incarnation of
Vishnu in the seventh Manwantara.
Vaikunthas-A class of deities of the sixth Manwantara.
Vaikrita-Secondary or instrumental creation.
Vaimanikas-The deities who travel in Vimánas, heavenly
cars,' or rather moving spheres.'
Vainahotra--One of the Rájas of Kási, the son of Dhrishtaketu.
Vairaja-1, Part of the Sama Veda created from the northern
mouth of Brahmá; 2, A name of the first Manu.
Vairajas-A class of deities who dwell in Tapoloka, the sphere
of penance; these deities are inconsumable by fire.
Vairupa--The name of a portion of the Sama Veda created
from the western mouth of Brahmá.
Vaisakha--An obsolete name of one of the months.
Vaisakhi, Vaislai-Two of the wives of Vasudeva.
Vaisali-A city of considerable renown in Indian tradition, but
its site is a subject of some uncertainty. It is celebrated among
the Buddhists as a chief seat of the labours of Sákhya and his first
disciples, and would thus be Prayaga or Allahabad; but the
Rámáyana places it much lower down on the north bank of the
Ganges.
Vaisampayana-The coadjutor of Vyása in arranging the
Vedas. "It seems probable that the tradition is true that records
the first establishment of a school, of which the Vyása was the head,
670
VAI
and the other persons named were the teachers." Vaisampayana
was the teacher of the Yajur Veda. There is a legend that Rája
Janamejaya killed a brahman and in order to expiate this dreadful
crime he listened to a recitation of the whole of the Mahábhárata,
which was performed by Vaisampayana. Accordingly the Mahá-
bharata, which is said to have been originally composed by Vyása,
is supposed to be written as it was recited by Vaisampayana.
Vaiseshika-"Is the name of one of the two great divisions
of the Nyaya (q. v.) school of Hindu philosophy, and probably a
later development of the Nyáya itself, properly so called, with
which it agrees in its analytical method of treating the subjects of
human research, but from which it differs in the arrangement of
its topics, and more especially by its doctrine of atomic indivi-
dualities, or vis'eshas-whence its name is derived." The reputed
founder of the Vaiseshika is Kanáda, of whose history or date,
however, nothing is known.
Kanáda taught that the visible form of God was light; that
when the desire of creation arose in the divine mind, he first gave
existence to water, and then to innumerable worlds, floating on
the waters like the mundane egg; that in these primæval eggs
water was contained, on which lay Vishnu, and from whose navel
issued a lotus, in which Brahma was born; that Brahmá, receiving
instructions from God, created the world, first from his mind, and
then with the primary atoms; that spirit and animal life were
separate substances.
To him are attributed the Vaiseshika-Sutras, which contain
about 550 aphorisms, or sentences. These relate to seven subjects
(padarthas,) under the following distinct heads, viz. ;—1, Things ;
2, Qualities; 3, Actions; 4, Genus; 5, Spirits; 6, The insepa-
rable Connection of Constituent Parts; and 7, Non-entity.
After a long discussion of the different subjects included in this
arrangement, Kanáda discourses on religion, riches, happiness, and
final liberation. Having first explained the nature of religion, he
then arranges the component parts of the universe, and, lastly,
gives a discourse on the divine nature, which he divides into three
heads (1) that God is essentially possessed of wisdom (which,
however, does not comprise the whole of his nature or character);
VAI
671
(2) that He is the ever blessed and supremely happy; and (3)
that in all His works and His will He is irresistible and omnipo-
tent. Emancipation from matter he held to be inseparably
connected with complete deliverance from sorrow, and the enjoy-
ment of final bliss.
Several commentaries have been written, and are extant on the
Sútras of Kanáda, of which the principal are a large one called the
Bhashya, and a smaller one entitled the Vaisesheha Sútrapush-
kara; but the only work now read in Bengal which has any
relation to the Vaiseshika Philosophy is that of Visva Nátha
Siddhanta, which merely treats of the logical terms of this system,
and of the Nyáya school. In the Nyaya Colleges of Bengal the
students read that part of this work which relates to the Vaiseshika
system, and then proceed to study the Nyáya system itself.-
GOLDSTUCKER, in Chambers' Encyclopædia.
Vaishnavas--Is the name of one of the great divisions of
Hindu sects. The word, derived from Vishņu (q. v.,) designates
the worshippers of this deity, and comprises a great variety of
sects; but this variety itself differs according to the different
periods of the medieval history of India, old divisions becoming
extinct, and new ones taking their place. Thus, the account of the
Vaishnavas, as given in a celebrated work of Anandagiri, the
Sankaradig-vijaya, or the victory of the great theologian Sankara
over his religious adversaries, would no longer apply in detail to
the present condition of the Vaishnavas; and even some of those
varieties mentioned by the late Professor Wilson in his Sketch of
the Religious Sects of the Hindus, written in 1832, would seem to
have disappeared already in our days. The common link of all the
sects comprised under the name of Vaishnavas, is their belief in the
supremacy of Vishnu over the other gods of the Trimúrti (q. v.)
Their difference' consists in the character which they assign to
this supremacy, and to the god Vishņu himself, in the religious and
other practices founded on the nature of their belief, and in their
sectarian marks. The following sects belonging to this category
may especially be noticed here.
1. The Rámánujas, or Sri Vaishnavas, or Sri-Sampradayins.
They derive their origin from Rámánuja, a celebrated reformer,
672
VAI
who was born at Perumbur, in the south of India, about the middle
of the twelfth century, and is considered by his followers as an
incarnation of Sesha (q. v.,) the serpent of Vishnu. He studied
at Coujeveram, resided afterwards at Sriranga, and then travelled
over different parts of India, where he was especially engaged in
combating the professors of different creeds, particularly the Saivas.
On his return to Sriranga, he was seized by the king Kerikála
Chola, but effected his escape, and found refuge with the Jain king
of Mysore, Vitála Deva, whom he converted to the Vaishnava
faith. For twelve years he then remained at Mysore; but at the
death of the Chola king, returned to Sriranga, where he spent the
remainder of his life in religious seclusion. The Rámánuja s
address their worship to Vishnu and his consort, Lakshmí (q. v.,)
and their respective incarnations, either singly or conjointly.
Hence their sect consists of corresponding sub-divisions, according
as Nárayana or Lakshmí, or Lakshmí-Nárayana, or Ráma, or Sítá
or Sítá-Ráma, or any other incarnation of these deities, is the
preferential object of the veneration of the votary. Their most.
striking peculiarity is the preparation and the scrupulous privacy
of their meals; for should the meal during its preparation, or while.
they are eating, attract even the looks of a stranger, the operation
is instantly stopped, and the viands buried in the ground. The
marks by which they distinguish themselves from other sects are
two perpendicular white lines, drawn with a white earth, Gopi-
chandana, from the root of the hair to the commencement of each
eyebrow, and a transverse streak connecting them across the root
of the nose; in the centre is a perpendicular streak of red, made
with red sanders, or a preparation of turmeric and lime; other
marks, representing several of the attributes of Vishnu, they have
either painted or impressed on the breast and each upper arm ;
and, besides, they wear a necklace of the wood of the Tulasí (holy
basil,) and carry a rosary of the seeds of the same plant, or of the
lotus. The sacred formula with which a member of this sect is
initiated into it consists merely of the words Om rámáya namah,
Om, salutation to Ráma.' Their principal religious tenet is the
belief that Vishnu is the cause and creator of all worlds; that he
and the universe are one, though he is of a two-fold form : the
6
VAI
673
supreme spirit or cause, and the gross one, the effect or matter.
In distinction from the Vedánta, with which their doctrine has
otherwise many points of contact, they regard their supreme deity
as endowed with qualities, all of which are of course excellent ;
and teach that the universe consists of chit, thinking or spirit,
achit, unthinking or matter, íswara, or god; the relation of which
is that of enjoyer, the thing enjoyed, and the ruler of both. The
deity, they assume, is or has been visibly present in five modifica-
tions in the objects of worship, as images, &c. ; in the incarna-
tions; in certain forms called Vyúhas, viz., Vásudeva or Krishna;
Balarama, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha; and in the subtle form
which comprises six qualities-absence of passion, immortality,
exemption from pain or care, absence of natural wants, love, and
practice of truth-and the human soul; all of which have to be
worshipped seriatim, as the votary ascends in the scale of perfec-
tion. It is in the south that the followers of Rámánuja, and their
temples and establishments, are still numerous; in the north of
India, where they are better known as Sri Vaishnavas, they are
not of frequent occurrence.
2. The Rámánandas, or Rámávats. They are by far the most
numerous class of sectaries in Gangetic India: in the district of
Agra, they alone constitute seven-tenths of the ascetic population.
They belong chiefly to the poorer and inferior classes, with the
exception of the Rajputs and military Brahmans. The founder
of this sect was Rámánanda, who, by some, is considered to have
been the immediate disciple of Rámánuja; by others, the fifth in
descent from that teacher, when he would have lived about the
end of the thirteenth century; but other more reliable accounts
place him toward the end of the fourteenth, or the beginning of
the fifteenth century. According to common tradition, Rámánanda
seceded from the Rámánujas, to whom he originally belonged,
because, having spent some time in travelling through various
parts of India, and, in consequence, having been suspected by his
fellow-disciples not to have conformed to the rule of the Rámánujas
in taking his meals, he was condemned to feed in a place apart
from the rest of them, but did not acquiesce in the affront thus
offered him. His residence was at Benares, at the Pancha Gangá
85
674
VAI
Ghát, where a Math, or monastery, of his followers is said to have
existed. The especial object of their worship is Vishnu, in his
incarnation as Ramachandra, and his consort Sitá, and, as amongst
the Rámánujas, these deities either singly or jointly. Some
members of this sect also pay adoration to other forms of Vishņu ;
and the religious mendicants of the sect consider all form of
adoration superfluous, being content with the incessant invocation
of Krishna and Ráma. Their practices are less precise than
those of the Rámánujas; but the most important difference
between them consists in the fact, that Rámánanda abolished the
distinction of caste amongst the religious orders, and taught that
a Vairágin, or one who quitted the ties of nature and society,
shook off at the same time all personal distinction. The initiatory
formula of a Rámánauda is Srí Ráma, or blessed Ráma.' Their
sectarian marks are the same as those of the Rámánujas; except
that the red perpendicular streak on the forehead is varied in
shape and extent, and generally narrower than that of the Rámá-
nujas. There are various sub-divisions of this sect, believed to
have been founded by several eminent disciples of Rámánanda.
Their doctrines vary often from that of the latter, but they main-
tain an amicable intercourse with the Rámánujas and with each
other.
'
Besides these Vaishnava sects there are others of less import-
ance who are sometimes included, on the ground of paying more
respect to Vishnu than to any other god of the Trimúrti, (q. v.)
-Chambers' Encyclopædia.
Vaisravana-The eldest son of Pulastya, who deserted his
father and went to Brahmá, who as a reward made him immortal,
and appointed him the god of riches, with Lanka for his capital
and the car Pushpaka for his vehicle. He was afterwards expelled
from Lanka by his younger brother Rávaṇa, and retired to Gan-
dhamádana.-[KUVERA.]
Vaiswadeva--A ceremony in the observance of a Śraddha,
which comprehends offerings to both paternal and maternal
ancestors, and to ancestors in general.
Vaiswanara-1, A Danava, the father of Puloma and Káliká;
2, The Southern Avashthána.
VAI-VAJ
675
Vaiswanari--A division of the lunar mansions, comprising the
last three in the Southern Avasthána.
Vaisyas-The third of the regenerate caste-said to have been
born from the thighs of Brahmá. The occupations of commerce
and agriculture, the feeding of flocks and herds, are the duties of
the Vaisyas. No opposition seems ever to have arisen between
the Vaisyas and the other two castes, like that which broke out
between the Brahmans and the Kshatriyas. Indeed the wealth of
the Vaisyas rendered them at a later period of considerable
influence, inasmuch as they employed Brahmans to perform
sacrifices, and took Kshatriyas into their pay as soldiers and
guards. (Wheeler.)
Vaitalika--A poetical watchman or crier or bell-man-one who
announces in verse the change of the seasons and the hours of the
day—when not retained for the purpose he is a public singer.-
Wilson.
Vaitalaki-A teacher of the Rig Veda.
Vaitandya-The eldest son of the Vasu Apa.
Vaitarani-One of the Narakas, that for the punishment of the
man who destroys a bee-hive or pillages a hamlet.
Vaitarani--A sacred river at Tripishtapa in the country of
the Kalingas. It is connected with the worship of Śiva, and the
act of bathing there and worshipping the god who wields the
trident and whose ensign is the bull, (Mahádeva) is said to ensure
purification from all sin and the attainment of the highest felicity.
0. S. T., IV, 241.
Vaivaswata-1, The son of the celestial luminary, (the Sun),
and Manu of the seventh (or present) Manwantara; 2, Also an
appellation of one of the Rudras.
Vajasaneyi--A portion of the Yajur Veda.
Vajins--Students of the white Yajush; this Veda was revealed
by the sun in the form of a horse, (vaji) hence the name applied to
the brahmans.
Vajra-The son of Aniruddha, who by order of Krishna was
installed sovereign of the Yádavas at Indraprastha, and thus
676
VAJ-VAL
escaped the destruction which overwhelmed their kinsmen at
Dwáraka. This, says Wilson, was a fortunate reservation for the
tribes which in various parts of Hindustan, both in the Ganges and
in the Dakhin, profess to derive their origin from the Yádavas.
Vajramitra-One of the ten Sunga princes, the son of
Ghoshavasu.
Vajranabha--A prince, the son of Uktha, of the line of Kúsa.
Vaktrayodhi-An eminent Dánava, one of the sons of Vipra-
chitti.
Valaka-A teacher of the Rig Veda, and disciple of Sákapurni.
Valakaswa-A prince, the son of Ajaka, descendant of
Purúravas.
Vallabha--A celebrated Vaishnava teacher who lived in the
sixteenth century.
Vallabhas-A people mentioned in the Puránas, and supposed
to be inhabitants of Vallabhí in Rajputana. See Tod's Rajasthan.
Valmiki--The Vyása of the twenty-fourth Dwápara age,
called also Reksha, a descendant of Bhrigu.
Valmiki-A sage and bard, famous as the author of the
Rámáyana; he lived at Chitra Kúta, a celebrated hill in Bundle-
kund, to the south of the river Jumna. He was surrounded by a
band of Brahman disciples, who led the ideal life of austerity,
sacrifice and devotion, so frequently described and recommended by
Brahmanical writers. It was in this hill, that Ráma, with his wife
and brother, took up their abode, when exiled from Ayodhya.
According to the Rámáyana they spent some pleasant years there.
The locality is said to have abounded in game, fruit, honey, and
other products of the jungle which were suitable for food. Long
after, when Ráma and Sítá had returned in triumph to Koşala, and
Sítá was about to become a mother, she was repudiated by Ráma,
though she had passed the ordeal of fire and been declared innocent;
she was conveyed to the jungle by Lakshmana, who left her in a
panic of surprise and fear, near the hill Chitra Kúta; in this state
she was found by Valmíkí, who had been the brahman preceptor of
her father Janaka, he took her to his own house and placed her in
VAM
677
charge of his wife and female servants. It was then that Sítá's
two sons, were born; Valmíkí gave them the names of Lava
and Kúsa, and brought them up, and educated them with the
greatest care. It is said he taught his poem, the Rámáyana, to
them. There are however many chronological difficulties connected
with the history of Valmíkí, though it seems certain he was a real
person.
Vama-One of the eleven Rudras, according to the list in the
Bhagavata.
Vamana-Vishņu, at the request of the deities, was born as a
dwarf, Vámana, the son of Adití by Kasyapa; when Vámana
applied to Rája Balí, the morarch of the Daityas, for alms, he was
promised by the Rája whatever he might demand, notwithstanding
Sukra, the preceptor of the Daityas, apprised him whom he had to
deal with. The dwarf demanded as much space as he could step
over at three steps; and upon the assent of Bali, enlarged himself"
to such dimensions as to stride with one pace over the earth, with
a second over the intermediate space (the atmosphere), and with a
third over the sky, thus leaving for Bali only the subterranean
regions, which he assigned him for his future abode. "The demons
endeavoured to frustrate this result, after Vishņu had taken his
first two strides, but they were overcome by the followers of
Vishņu; and Bali, when resigning himself to his fate, in reply to
a reproach addressed to him by the dwarf for trying to break
his promise, uttered-according to the Bhagavata-Purána-the
following words, which may serve as one of many instances to
shew how sacred a promise was held by the Hindus when once
given, and even though artfully obtained: 'If, renowned chief of
the gods, you consider the word which I uttered to be deceitful, I
now do what is sincere, and can be no deception--place your third.
step on my head. Fallen from my position, I fear not the infernal
regions, or binding in bonds, or misfortune difficult to escape, or
loss of wealth, or your restraint, so much as I am afflicted by a bad
name.' (See J. Muir's Original Sanscrit Texts, Vol. IV, p. 128.)
For his righteousness, he was then rewarded by Vishnu with the
promise, that after a temporary residence in one of the most
678
VAM
delightful places of Pátála (q. v.), he should be born as the Indra,
in the reign of the eighth Manu. In this incarnation as dwarf,
Vishnu is considered to have been a sou of the same Kasyapa who
is also the father of Hiranyakaṣipu and Hiranyáksha; but while
their mother is Diti, the dwarf's mother is Aditi (space); and since
she previously had brought forth Indra, Vishnu is sometimes called
Upendra, or the younger or later Indra. As a son of Aditi, Vishņu
becomes one of the Adityas (see before).--The Vedic conception of
the three strides of Vishņu, is doubtless the basis of the idea
whence this Avatára arose."— Goldstücker.
Vamana Purana-This contains an account of the dwarf
incarnation of Vishnu : Wilson thinks its contents scarcely establish
its claim to the character of a Purána.
"There is little or no order in the subjects which this work
recapitulates, and which arise out of replies made by Pulastya to
questions put, abruptly and unconnectedly, by Nárada. The
greater part of them relate to the worship of the Linga; a rather
strange topic for a Vaishnava Purána, but engrossing the principal
part of the compilation. They are, however, subservient to the
object of illustrating the sanctity of certain holy places; so that
the Vámana Purána is little else than a succession of Máhátmyas.
Thus, in the opening, almost, of the work, occurs the story of
Daksha's sacrifice, the object of which is to send Śiva to Pápamo-
chana Tirtha, at Benares, where he is released from the sin of
Brahmanicide. Next comes the story of the burning of Kámadeva,
for the purpose of illustrating the holiness of a Siva-linga at
Kedareswara in the Himalaya, and of Badarikáṣrama. The larger
part of the work consists of the Saro-máhátmya, or legendary
exemplifications of the holiness of Stháņu Tírtha; that is, of the
sanctity of various Lingas and certain pools, at Thanesar and
Kurukhet, the country north-west from Delhi. There are some
stories, also, relating to the holiness of the Godávarí river: but
the general site of the legends is in Hindusthán. In the course of
these accounts, we have a long narrative of the marriage of Śiva
with Umá, and the birth of Kárttikeya. There are a few brief
allusions to creation and the Manwantaras; but they are merely
incidental and all the five characteristics of a Purána are deficient.
:
VAN-VAP
679
In noticing the Swárochisha Manwantara, towards the end of the
book, the elevation of Bali as monarch of the Daityas, and his
subjugation of the universe, the gods included, are described; and
this leads to the narration that gives its title to the Purána, the
birth of Vishnu as a dwarf, for the purpose of humiliating Bali by
fraud, as he was invincible by force. The story is told as usual;
but the scene is laid at Kurukshetra.
A more minute examination of this work than that which has
been given to it, might, perhaps, discover some hint from which to
conjecture its date. It is of a more tolerant character than the
Puránas, and divides its homage between Siva and Vishnu with
tolerable impartiality. It is not connected, therefore, with any
sectarial principles, and may have preceded their introduction. It
has not, however, the air of any antiquity; and its compilation
may have amused the leisure of some Brahman of Benares three
or four centuries ago."- Wilson.
Vanakapivat--The son of the patriarch Pulaka.
Vanaprastha-Hermit. The third stage of Brahmanical life.
"When the householder, after performing the acts incumbent on
his condition, arrives at the decline of life, let him consign his
wife to the care of his sons, and go, himself, to the forests. Let
him there subsist upon leaves, roots, and fruit; and suffer his hair
and beard to grow, and braid the former upon his brows; and
sleep upon the ground. His dress must be made of skin, or of
Káṣa or Kuşa grasses; and he must bathe thrice a day; and he
must offer oblations to the gods and to fire, and treat all that come
to him with hospitality. He must beg alms, and present food to
all creatures; he must anoint himself with such unguents as the
woods afford; and, in his devotional exercises, he must be
endurant of heat and cold. The sage who diligently follows these
rules, and leads the life of the hermit (or Vánaprastha,) consumes,
like fire, all imperfections, and conquers, for himself, the mansions
of eternity." V. P.
Vaneyu--One of the ten sons of Raudraswa, a descendant of
Puru.
Vapra--The Vyása of the fourteenth Dwápara age.
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VAP-VAR
Vapu-Body; a daughter of Daksha, married to Dharma.
Vapushmat-One of the sons of Priyavrata and Kámya; he
was installed by his father in the sovereignty over the Dwípa of
Salmali, (q. v.) He had seven sons, whose names gave designa-
tions to seven varshas or divisions.
Varaha-A boar. The Varáha Avatár
The Varáha Avatár is the third incarnation
of Vishnu in the shape of a boar. It is supposed to have taken
place when, at the period of creation, the earth was immersed in
water, and Vishņu, in order to raise it up, assumed the form of a
gigantic boar. The boar is said to be a type of the ritual of the
Vedas. "The elevation of the earth from beneath the ocean, in
this form, was therefore, probably, at first, an allegorical represen-
tation of the extrication of the world from a deluge of iniquity, by
the rites of religion. Geologists may perhaps suspect, in the
original and unmystified tradition, an allusion to a geological fact,
or the existence of lacustrine mammalia in the early periods of the
earth."- Wilson.
The boar is described as the sacrifice personified; his feet being
the Vedas; his tusks the sacrificial posts to which the victim is
tied; his teeth, the sacrificial offerings; his mouth, the altar; his
tongue, the fire; his hairs, the sacrificial grass; his eyes, day and
night; his head, the place of Brahmá; his mane, the hymns of
the Vedas; his nostrils, all the oblations; his snout, the ladle of
oblation; his voice, the chanting of the Sáma-veda; his body, the
hall of sacrifice; his joints, the different ceremonies; and his ears
as having the properties of voluntary and obligatory rites.
According to a legend in the Bhágavata Purána, Jaya and
Vijaya, two doorkeepers of Vishnu, once offended some Munis
who claimed admission to the paradise of Vishņu, and in conse-
quence were doomed to lose their position in heaven, and to be
reborn on earth. They became thus the sons of Kasyapa and
Diti, under the names of Hiranyakaṣipu and Hiranyáksha. The
former subdued the three worlds, and the latter went straight to
heaven to conquer the gods also. The gods implored the assist-
ance of Vishnu, who at that period was the mysterious boar and
slew Hiranyáksha. A similar contest between Vishnu and
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681
numerous demons, the progeny of Diti, always ending in the defeat
of the latter, is also described, showing that the boar-avatara had
gradually lost its original character, and assumed that common to
the remaining avatars.
Varaha-One of the six minor Dwípas, peopled by Mlechchhas
who worship Hindu deities.
Varahamihira-A celebrated astronomer and astrologer, born
at Ujein A. D. 530 and died in 587. Dr. Kern observes that "he
was in the awkward position of a man who has to reconcile the
exigencies of science with the decrees, deemed infallible, of the
Rishis;" for curious examples of which he refers to the Brihat-
Sanhita, chapters v and ix.* With a strong taste for astrology,
and falling into errors which Aryabhata had exposed, Varahamihira
made some remarkable observations on the moon and on eclipses
—thus
"One-half of the moon whose orbit lies between the sun and the
earth, is always bright by the sun's rays; the other half is dark,
by its own shadow; like the two sides of a pot standing in the
sunshine."
After alluding to the popular notion of Ráhu as the demon that
causes eclipse by devouring part of the sun or moon, he says
"The true explanation of the phenomena is this: in an eclipse
of the moon he enters into the earth's shadow; in a solar eclipse
Hence the commencement of
the same things happen to the sun.
a lunar eclipse does not take place from the west side, nor that of
a solar eclipse from the east." Brihat Sanhita, quoted in A. and
M. I., Vol. I, p. 371.
Varana-The ninth division in Bhárata Varsha.
Varanavata-The modern Allahabad, "the sacred city at the
junction of the Ganges and Jumna, aud one of the most famous
places of pilgrimage in Hindustan. It is said to have been cele-
brated for gold and jewels. The visit of the Pándava princes to
*
A work which Dr. Kern edited and published at Calcutta in 1865, and
is understood to be now translating into English.
86
682
ᏙᎪᎡ
1
this city as related in the Mahábhárata is considered by Mr.
Wheeler to be a later interpolation for the sole purpose of asso-
ciating the Pandavas with the famous city of Váranávata.
Vararuchi-A celebrated brahman, the son of Somadatta,
distinguished for a wonderful memory, which enabled him to recite
perfectly any discourse he had once heard. He instructed Vyádi,
and both of them were writers of note on philological topics. They
were contemporaries of Nanda who reigned at Pátaliputra-a fact
which Professor Wilson regards as of considerable interest in the
literary history of the Hindus. Vararuchi is also called Katyá-
yana (q. v.) who is one of the earliest commentators of Pánini
(q. v.) Nanda is the predecessor, or one of the predecessors of
Chandragupta; and consequently the chief institutes of Sanskrit
Grammar are thus dated from the fourth century before the
Christian era.-— Wilson, III, 166.
Varchas--Light; the son of Vasu Soma, and father of Var-
chaswi, Radiance.
Varenya---Most Excellent; a name of Vishnu; said to be
the same as supreme felicity.
Varhadrathas-A dynasty of kings of Magadha, who accord-
ing to the Vishnu Purána were to reign for a thousand years.
Varhaspatyas--Heretics; followers of Vrihaspatti, who seem
to have been numerous and bold at some period anterior to the
fourteenth century.- Wilson.
Varishads-A class of Pitris, identified by some with the
months. They are formless or incorporeal Pitris, sous of Atri,
and Pitris of the demons.
Varishmati-The wife of Priyavrata, according to the
Bhagavata, which states that she was the daughter of Visvakarman.
Variyas--One of the sons of the patriarch Pulaha, according to
the Bhagavata.
Varman--This designation is said in the Vishņu Purána to be
an appropriate name for a Kshatriya.
Varnam-Colour-Caste.
VAR
683
Varshas-Countries; a term applied to the divisions in Jambu
Dwípa.
Varuna-The Neptune of Hindu mythology. The god of
ocean, the god of rain and clouds. He is distinctly termed the
god of Ocean in the Vishnu Purána, and Wilson in noticing the
circumstance that it was Varuna who supplied the sage Richíka
with a thousand fleet horses, remarks that the agency of the god of
ocean in procuring horses is a rather curious additional coincidence
between Varuna and Neptune. The Vedic Aryans were evidently
acquainted with the sea, for the hymns contain allusions to
merchants, to sea voyages, and to ships with a hundred oars.
Professor Max Müller in his History of Sanskrit Literature, has
translated a beautiful hymn to Varuna in which this deity is
addressed in the two-fold character of controlling tempests and
punishing sin.
"The grandest cosmical functions are ascribed to Varuna·
Possessed of illimitable resources (or knowledge), this divine being
has meted out, (or fashioned), and upholds, heaven and earth; he
dwells in all worlds as sovereign ruler, indeed, the three worlds
are embraced within him; he made the golden and revolving sun
to shine in the firmament. The wind which resounds through the
atmosphere is his breath. He has opened boundless paths for the
sun, and has hollowed out channels for the rivers, which flow by
his command. By this wonderful contrivance the rivers pour their
waters into the one ocean, but never fill it. His ordinances are
fixed and unassailable. They rest on him, unshaken, as upon a
mountain; through their operation, the moon walks in brightness,
and the stars which appear in the nightly sky mysteriously vanish
in daylight. Neither the birds flying in the air, nor the rivers in
their sleepless flow, can attain a knowledge of his power or his
wrath. His messengers behold both worlds. He knows the flight
of birds in the sky, the path of ships on the ocean, the course of
the far-travelling wind, and beholds all the secret things that have
been, or shall be done. No creature can even wink without him.
He witnesses men's truth and falsehood. He instructs the rishi
Vasishtha in mysteries. But his secrets and those of Mitra are not
to be revealed to the foolish."
684
VAR
In the sixteenth hymn of the fourth book of the Atharva-veda,
his power and omniscience are thus celebrated :—
66
' 1, The great one who rules over these worlds beholds as if he
were close at hand. When any man thinks he is doing aught by
stealth, the gods know it all; 2, (and they perceive) every one
who stands, or walks, or glides along secretly, or withdraws into his
house, or into any lurking-place. Whatever two persons, sitting
together, devise, Varuna the king knows it, (being present there
as) a third; 3, This earth, too, belongs to the king Varuna, aud
that vast sky whose ends are so remote. The two oceans [the
aerial and terrestrial] are Varuna's stomachs; he resides in this
small pool of water; 4, He who should flee far beyond the sky,
would not there escape from Varuna the king. His messengers,
descending from heaven, traverse this world; thousand-eyed, they
look across the whole earth; 5, King Varuņa perceives all that
exists within heaven and earth and all that is beyond. The
winkings of men's eyes are all numbered by him. He handles (all)
these (things) as a gamester throws his dice; 6, May thy
destructive nooses, O Varuna, which are cast seven-fold, and
three-fold, ensnare the man who speaks lies, and pass by him who
speaks truth."
The mighty Lord on high, our deeds, as if at hand, espies :
The gods know all men do, though men would fain their deeds disguise.
Whoever stands, whoever moves, or steals from place to place,
Or hides him in his secret cell,-the gods his movements trace,
Wherever two together plot, and deem they are alone,
King Varuna is there, a third, and all their schemes are known.
This earth is his, to him belong those vast and boundless skies ;
Both seas within him rest, and yet in that small pool he lies.
Whoever far beyond the sky should think his way to wing,
He could not there elude the grasp of Varuna the king.
His spies descending from the skies glide all this world around,
Their thousand eyes all-scanning sweep to earth's remotest bound.
Whate'er exists in heaven and earth, whate'er beyond the skies,
Before the eyes of Varuna, the king, unfolded lies.
The ceaseless winkings all he counts of every mortal's eyes:
He wields this universal frame, as gamester throws his dice.
Those knotted nooses which thou fling'st, O god, the bad to snare,-
All liars let them overtake, but all the truthful spare."
Varuna is represented as having unlimited control over the
destinies of mankind. He is said to have a hundred, a thousand
VAR
685
remedies, and is supplicated to shew his wide and deep benevolence,
and drive away evil and sin; to untie like a rope, and remove sin ;
he is entreated not to steal away, but to prolong, life; and to spare
the supplicant who daily transgresses his laws. In many places
mention is made of the bonds, or nooses, with which he seizes and
punishes transgressors. Mitra and Varuna conjointly are spoken
of in one passage as being barriers against falsehood, furnished with
many nooses, which the hostile mortal cannot surmount; and in
another place Indra and Varuna are described as binding with
bonds not formed of rope. On the other hand, Varuna is said to
be gracious even to him who has committed sin. He is the wise
guardian of immortality, and a hope is held out that he and Yama
reigning in blessedness shall be beheld in the next world by
the righteous.
“The attributes and functions ascribed to Varuna impart to his
character a moral elevation and sanctity for surpassing that
attributed to any other Vedic deity. This appears not only from
the passages to which I have already referred, but also from the
two hymns translated by Professor Müller in his Anc. Sansk. Lit.,
pp. 540 f., and Chips, I, 39 ff.; in which the rishi, who is said
to be Vasishṭha, while palliating his sins, implores the god's
forgiveness, and entreats that his life may be spared. I shall quote
a part of the first and the whole of the second :
66
Seeking to perceive that sin, O Varuṇa, I inquire; I resort to
the wise to ask. The sages all tell me the same it is Varuņa
who is angry with thee.
4. What great sin is it, Varuna, for which thou seekest to slay
thy worshipper and friend? Tell me, O unassailable and self-
dependent god; and, freed from sin, I shall speedily come to thee
with adoration; 5, Release us from the sins of our fathers, and
from those which we have committed in our own persons. O king,
release Vasishtha like a robber who has fed upon cattle; release
him like a calf from its tether; 6, It was not our will, Varuna, but
some seduction, which led us astray,-wine, anger, dice, or
thoughtlessness. The stronger perverts the weaker. Even sleep
occasions sin."
686
VAR
"Let me not, O king Varuna, go to the house of earth. Be
gracious, O mighty god, be gracious; 2, I go along, O thunderer,
quivering like an inflated skin; be gracious, &c. ; 3, O bright and
mighty god, I have transgressed through want of power, be
gracious, &c.
4. Thirst has overwhelmed thy worshipper when standing even
in the midst of the waters; be gracious, &c.; 5, Whatever offence
this be, O Varuna, that we mortals commit against the people
of the sky (the gods) in whatever way we have broken thy laws
by thoughtlessness, be gracious, O mighty god, be gracious."
:
In another place the same rishi alludes to his previous friendship
with Varuna, and to the favours the god had formerly conferred
upon him, and enquires why they had now ceased:
"Varuņa placed Vasishtha on his boat by his power the
wise and mighty deity made him a rishi to offer praise in au
auspicious period of his life, that his days and dawns might
be prolonged; 5, Where are those friendships of us two? Let us
seek the harmony which (we enjoyed) of old. I have gone, O self-
sustaining Varuna, to thy vast and spacious house with a thousand
gates; 6, He who was thy friend, intimate, thine own, and beloved,
has committed offences against thee. Let not us who are guilty
reap the fruits of our sin. Do thou, a wise god, grant protection
to him who praises thee."
The same or nearly the same functions and attributes as are
ascribed to Varuna are also attributed to him and Mitra conjointly.
They uphold and rule over the earth and sky, the shining and the
terrestrial regions, and place the sun in the heavens.
In his paper on "the highest gods of the Arian races," Professor
Roth has the following ingenious and interesting observations on
Mitra and Varuņa: "Within the circle of the Adityas there subsists
the closest connection between Mitra and Varuṇa, who are invoked
more frequently together than Varuna is invoked singly. We find
only one hymn in which Mitra is invoked by himself.
The essential character of the two gods, as distinguished from
one another, is nowhere distinctly expressed in the hymns, and was
in fact originally one which could not be defined with intellectual
VAR
687
:
precision. But the stage of religious culture which lies before us
in the Rig Veda, enables us to distinguish this difference as one
already existing, viz., that Mitra is the celestial light in its
manifestation by day, while Varuna, though the lord of light and of
all time, yet rules especially over the nightly heaven. A hymn of
Vasishtha 'One of you (Varuna) is the lord, and unassailable
guide, and he who is called Mitra, (i. e., the friend) calls men to
activity.' Here so much at least is declared (and the same thing
is expressed in nearly the same words in other places), that the
light of day, which awakens life, and brings joy and activity into
the world, is the narrower sphere of Mitra's power; though,
however, Varuna is not thereby relegated to the night alone, for he
continues to be the lord and the first.
"Though therefore such representations as are expressed in
Indian exegesis, (as for instance, when Sáyana says on R. V., vii.
87, 1, that Varuna is the setting sun), are far too narrow and one-
sided, they still contain some truth; and we may guess by what
process they are to be developed. If Varuna is, as his name shews,
that one among the lucid Ádityas whose seat and sphere of
authority is the bright heaven, in whose bosom is embraced all
that lives, and therefore also the remotest boundary, beyond which
human thought seeks nothing further, then is he also one who can
scarcely be attained either by the eye or by the imagination. By
day the power of vision cannot discover this remotest limit, the
bright heaven presents to it no resting place. But at night this .
veil of the world, in which Varuna is enthroned, appears to
approach nearer, and becomes perceptible, for the eye finds a limit.
Varuna is closer to men. Besides, the other divine forms which,
in the clouds, the atmosphere, the rays of light, filled the space
between the earth and yonder immeasurable outermost sphere, have
disappeared no other god now stands between Varuna and the
mortal who gazes at him."-O. S. T., Vol. V,
› P. 70.
Varuni-The goddess of wine, produced from the churning of
the ocean. She was in the later mythology the wife of Varuna,
and was sent by him to promote the enjoyments of Balarama when
he lived for two months at Vraja.
688
VAS
Vashatkara-Deified oblation ; one of the thirty-three divinities
who are born again at the end of a thousand ages, according to
their own pleasure.
Vashkala-A Daitya, the son of Sanhráda, or Prahláda, accord-
ing to the Pádma Purána.
Vasishtha-One of the most celebrated Vedic Rishis, the
author of several hymns of the Rig Veda, and a personage who
played an important part in the early history of the Brahmauic or
priestly caste of the Hindus. In the account given of him, histori-
cal events and mythological fictions are so much blended together
that it is scarcely possible to gather more from it than that he was
a sage of high reputation and a priest jealous of the privileges and
the position of his caste, and ever ready to assist its superiority
over the second or military and royal caste. In one of his Rig
Veda hymus he claims to have been enlightened by the god
Varuṇa, and in another he is called the son of Mitra and Varuņa,
born from the mind of Urvaśí.-[GOLDSTUCKER.]
Vasishtha was the family priest of Nimi, son of Ikshváku, who
was the son of Manu Vaivasvata, and the first prince of the solar
race of kings; and in a passage of the Mahábhárata, he is stated
to have been the purohita of all the kings of that family. He is
accordingly mentioned in the Vishnu Purána, as the religious
teacher of Sagara, the thirty-seventh in descent from Ikshváku ;
and as conducting a sacrifice for Sandása or Mitrasaha, a descend-
ant in the fifteenth generation of the same prince.
Vasishtha is also spoken of in the Rámáyana, as the priest of
Ráma, who appears from the Vishnu Purána, to have been a
descendant of Ikshváku in the sixty-first generation.
Vasishtha, according to all these accounts, must have been
possessed of a vitality altogether superhuman; for it does not
appear that any of the accounts, intend under the name of
Vasishtha to denote merely a person belonging to the family so
called, but to represent the founder of the family himself as taking
part in the transactions of many successive ages.
It is clear that Vasishtha, although he is frequently designated
in post-vedic writings as a Brahman, was, according to some
VAS
689
other authorities, not really such in any proper sense of the word,
as in the accounts which are there given of his birth he is declared
to have been either a mind-born son of Brahmá, or the son of
Mitra, Varuna, and the Apsaras Urvaśí, or to have had some
other supernatural origin."
Vasishtha was the preceptor of the Mahárája Dasaratha. He
identified Ráma as an incarnation of Vishņu, and educated him
and his brothers. He invested him with the sacred thread, taught
him the Gayatri, and directed the preparations for his installation
as Yuvarája. On the death of the Mahárája he directed the
funeral ceremonies, and endeavoured to persuade Ráma to accept
the Ráj. He also conducted the installation of Ráma after his
return from exile. The seven sons of Vasishṭha were the sages
of the first Man wantara; and were born again as Rishis in the
third period. He was the Vyása of the eighth Dwápara age.
Numerous legends are related of Vasishṭha, some of which have
been given under the names to which they refer: See Kalmashá-
pada, Nimi, &c. It is said he was changed to a starling by
the curse of Visvamitra, who was himself transformed into a crane
by the imprecation of Vasishṭha. In these forms they fought for
a considerable time until Brahmá interposed and reconciled them.
Wilson says if the tradition have any import it may refer to the
ensigns of the contending parties; as banners with armorial devices
were invariably borne by princes and leaders.-See VISVAMITRA.
Vasu-A celestial; a leader; a sort of demi-god. There are
eight Vasus, so called because they are always present in light, or
luminous radiation : or according to the Vishnu Purána, because
preceded by fire they abound in splendour and might. Their
names are Apa, Dhruva, Soma, Dhava (fire,) Anila (wind,) Anala
(fire,) Pratyusha (day break,) and Prabhasa (light.)
Vasu-1, A daughter of Daksha who was married to Dharma ;
2, One of the sons of Kúsa.
Vacubhridyana-One of the sons of Vasishtha, who was
devoured by Rája Kalmashápada.
Vasudeva--1, One of the sons of Súra ; at his birth the gods, to
whom the future is manifest, foresaw that the Divine Being would
87
690
VAS-VAT
take a human form in his family, and thereupon they sounded
with joy the drums of heaven; from this circumstance Vasudeva
was also called Ánakadundubhi; Vasudeva had seven wives; by
one of them Devakí, he had Balaráma and Krishṇa, the two divine
incarnations. Vasudeva was imprisoned by Kansa, who also
destroyed many of his children and attempted to kill Krishna too.
Vasudeva lived to see the power and greatness of Krishna and
Ráma, and at their death he and his wife committed themselves to
the flames; 2, The first prince of the Kanwa dynasty. V. P
Vasudeva-A name of Vishņu: it means, says the Vishņu
Purána, that all beings abide in that supreme being, and that he
abides in all beings. "The form or sensible type of Vasudeva is
here considered to be the monosyllable Om, and which is one with
the three mystical words Bhuh, Bhuvar, Swar, and with the
Vedas: consequently the Vyáhritis and the Vedas are also forms
of Vásudeva, diversified as to their typical character, but essen-
tially one and the same."- Wilson.
Vasuki-One of the progeny of Kadru ; a powerful many-
headed snake; he was the snake king according to some authori-
ties but chiefly celebrated from having been used as a cord or
rope, around Mount Mandara as a churn, when the gods and
Asuras churned the ocean for the Amrita.
Vasumitra--One of the ten Sunga princes.
Vasava―Váyu, a name of the god of the winds.
Vata—Another name of Váyu or Pávana, the god of the wind.
Vata-tree-The Ficus Indica; the enormous tree which is
fabled to grow in the mountain Supárṣwa, to the south of Meru,
and described as spreading over eleven hundred yojanas, is a
Vata tree.
Vatapi-1, A celebrated demon, the son of Hláda; 2, A
powerful Danava, the son of Viprachitti; 3, A cruel Rákshasa, a
devourer of brahmans; he lived in the forest near the Vindhya
mountains, and was himself eaten, according to the Rámáyana, by
the sage Agastya.
VAT_VAY
691
Vatsa-Child; a name of Pratarddana, from his father's
frequently calling him by that name.
Vatsabalaka-A son of Súra and brother of Vasudeva.
Vatsabhumi A prince, the eighth in descent from Alarka.
Vatsapri-A celebrated prince of the solar race, the son of
Bhalandana.
Vatsara-1, One of the sons of Dhruva ; 2, The fifth cyclic
year.
Vatsavyuha-An ancient Rája of the solar race, the son of
Vatsa.
Vatsya-1, A teacher of the Rig Veda; 2, One of the fifteen
teachers of the White Yajush.
Vavriddhas-A class of deities in the fourteenth Manwantara.
Vayu-The god of wind; the Eolus of Hindu mythology,
while the Maruts are the breezes who attended upon Indra.
Váyu was the mythical father of Bhíma, and of Hanumán. It was
Váyu who testified to the fidelity of Damayanti; who conveyed the
palace of Indra to the earth, &c.
In the Vedic mythology of the Hindus, Váyu is a deity who
originally seems to have held an equal rank with Indra, but much
more rarely occupies the imagination of the poets than this god,
or Agni, or the Sun; for though, according to Yâska, ancient
commentators of the Vedas hold that there are only three great
deities-viz., Agni, fire, whose place is on earth; Surya, the sun,
whose place is in heaven; and Váyu, or Indra, whose place is in
the intermediate sphere-only a few hymns, comparatively speak-
ing, are dedicated to Váyu, whereas the other deities named are
the subject of manifold praise. The description given by the Rig
Veda of the greatness of Váyu nevertheless answers the position
which those ancient commentators assign to him.
Váyu, is said to be the son-in-law of Tvashtri. He moves in a
shining car, drawn by a pair of red or purple horses. His team is
often said to consist of ninety-nine, of a hundred, or even of a
thousand horses, yoked by his will. Váyu, like the other gods is
a drinker of soma. In fact, he alone, or in conjunction with Indra,
692
VAY
was, by the admission of the other gods, entitled to the first draught
of this libation. It is remarkable that Váyu is but rarely connected
with the Maruts or deities of the storm; but in one place he is said
to have begotten them from the rivers of heaven; and in another
place to be attended by Pushan, the Maruts and the Visva devas.
The following hymns are addressed to Váta (another name of
the god of the wind). The imagery in the first is highly poetical.
"1, (I celebrate) the glory of Váta's chariot; its noise comes
rending and resounding. Touching the sky, he moves onward,
making all things ruddy: and he comes propelling the dust of the
earth; 2, The gusts (?) of the air rush after him, and congregate
in him as women in an assembly. Sitting along with them on the
same car, the god, who is king of this universe, is borne along; 3,
Hasting forward, by paths in the atmosphere, he never rests on any
day. Friend of the waters, first-born, holy, in what place was
he born? whence has he sprung? 4, Soul of the gods, source of
the universe, this deity moves as he lists. His sounds have been
heard, but his form is not (seen): this Váta let us worship with
an oblation."
"1, Let Váta, the wind, waft to us healing, salutary, and
auspicious, to our heart: may he prolong our lives; 2, And, Váta,
thou art our father, our brother, and our friend: cause us to live ;
3, From the treasure of immortality, which is deposited yonder in
thy house, O Váta, give us to live."
Here the same property is ascribed to Váta which is elsewhere
ascribed to Rudra, that of bringing healing.*
Vayu-Purana-The Váyu Purána is narrated, by Súta, to the
Rishis at Naimisháraṇya, as it was formerly told, at the same
place, to similar persons by Váyu; a repetition of circumstances
not uncharacteristic of the inartificial style of this Purána. It is
divided into four Pádas, termed, severally, Prakriyá, Upodgháta,
Anushanga, and Upasamhára; a classification peculiar to this
work. These are preceded by an index, or heads of chapters, in
the manner of the Mahábhárata and Ramayana-another pecu-
liarity.
*DR. MUIR, O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 146.
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693
The Prakriyá portion contains but a few chapters, and treats,
chiefly, of elemental creation, and the first evolutions of beings, to
the same purport as the Vishņu, but in a more obscure and unme-
thodical style. The Upodgháta then continues the subject of
creation, and describes the various Kalpas or periods during which
the world has existed; a greater number of which is specified by
the Saiva, than by the Vaishnáva Puránas. Thirty-three are here
described, the last of which is the Śweta or white' Kalpa, from
Śiva's being born in it, of a white complexion. The genealogies
of the patriarchs, the description of the universe, and the incidents
of the first six Manwantaras are all treated of in this part of the
work; but they are intermixed with legends and praises of Śiva,
as the sacrifice of Daksha, the Maheswara Máhatmya, the Nila-
kantha Stotra, and others. The genealogies, although, in the
main, the same as those in the Vaishnáva Puránas, present some
variations. A long account of the Pitris or progenitors is also
peculiar to this Purána ; as are stories of some of the most
celebrated Rishis who were engaged in the distribution of the
Vedas.
The third division commences with an account of the seven
Rishis and their descendants, and describes the origin of the
different classes of creatures from the daughters of Daksha, with
as profuse copiousness of nomenclature, not found in any other
Purána. With the exception of the greater minuteness of detail,
the particulars agree with those of the Vishnu Purána. A chapter
then occurs on the worship of the Pitris; another, on Tírthas or
places sacred to them; and several, on the performance of
Śráddhas, constituting the Śráddha Kalpa. After this comes a full
account of the solar and lunar dynasties, forming a parallel to that
in the Vishnu Purána, with this difference, that it is, throughout,
in verse, whilst that of our text, as noticed in its place, is, chiefly,
in prose. It is extended, also, by the insertion of detailed accounts
of various incidents, briefly noticed in the Vishnu, though derived,
apparently, from a common original. The section terminates with
similar accounts of future kings, and the same chronological calcu-
lations, that are found in the Vishnu.
694
VAY-VED
The last portion, the Upasamhára, describes briefly the future
Manwantaras, the measures of space and time, the end of the
world, the efficacy of Yoga, and the glories of Sivapura, or the
dwelling of Śiva, with whom the Yogin is to be united. The
manuscript concludes with a different history of the successive
teachers of the Váyu Purána, tracing them from Brahmá to Váyu,
from Vayu to Brihaspati, and from him, through various deities
and sages, to Dwaipayana and Súta.-WILSON.
Vayuna-A sage, one of the sons of Kriṣáswa; the Rámáyana
terms the sons of Krişáswa the Sastra devatas, or gods of the divine
weapons.
Vedabahu-A son of the patriarch Pulastya.
Vedamitra-A teacher of the Rig Veda; who divided his
Sanhita into five, which he distributed to as many disciples.
Vedana-Fortune; a daughter of Anrita (falsehood,) married
to Naraka (hell).
Vedanga-From Veda and anga, limb; hence, literally, the
limb of (the body of) the Veda'-is the name of six Sanscrit works,
the object of which is to teach how to read and understand correctly
the Vedic texts, and how to apply them correctly to sacrificial
purposes. Whether the number of these works was originally the
same as it now is, and already was at the time of the Upanishads,
may be doubtful. Tradition mentions the following Vedángas: 1,
Śikshá, or the science of proper pronunciation. It is represented
by a short treatise of 35, or, in another recension, of 59 verses,
which explains the nature of letters, accent, and pronunciation, and
is ascribed to Pánini; 2, Chhandas, or (a work on) metre, which
is ascribed to Pingala; 3, Vyákarana, or grammar, by which
native authorities understand the celebrated work of Pánini; but
never those short books, especially concerned in Vedic peculiarities,
called Prátisákhyas, the existing representatives of which, in all
probability, are posterior to Panini; 4, Nirukta; 5, Jyotisha, or
astronomy. Its chief object is to convey such knowledge of the
heavenly bodies as is necessary for fixing the days and hours of the
Vedic sacrifices;' 6, Kalpa, or works on the Vedic ceremonial,
which systematise the ritual taught by the Brahmana portion of the
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695
Veda, omitting, however, all legendary or mystical detail. They
are composed in the Sútra style. The Kalpa, or Śranta, Sútras
belonging to the Rig Veda are the Aswalayana-, Sánkháyana, and
Saunaka Sútras; those relating to the Sámaveda, the Masaka-,
Látyayana-, and Dráhyáyana Sútras; those of the Black Yajur-
veda, the Apastamba-, Baudháyana-, Satyasháḍha-, Hiranyakeṣin-,
Mánava-, Bháradvája-, Vádhúna-, Vaikhánasa-, Laugákshi-,
Maitra-, Kaṭha-, and Váráha Sútras. The White Yajurveda has
only one Kalpa, or Śranta, Sútras connected with it, the Kátyáyana
Sútra, and the Atharvaveda likewise only one, the Kusika Sútra.
At a later period, these works were supplemented by a similar
class of works, which, however, merely describe the domestic
ceremonies, viz., 'the marriage rite, the rites to be performed at
the conception of a child, at various periods before his birth, at the
time of his birth, the ceremony of naming the child, of carrying
him out to see the sun, of feeding him, of cutting his hair, and
lastly, of investing him as a student, and handing him to a guru,
under whose care he is to study the sacred writings.' Works of
this kind are called Grihya-Sútras (from griha, house), and to these,
again, were added the Sámayáchárika-Sútras (from samayáchára,
conventional practice), which treat of customs sanctioned by the
practice of pious men, but not enjoined or expressly stated in the
Gribya-Sútras. The two last classes of Sútras, which are not
comprised amongst the Kalpa works, then grew into the Dharma-
șástras, or law-books, of which that of Manu is the chief repre-
sentative.-Chambers' Encyclopædia.
Vedanta-(From the Sanscrit veda, and anta, end; hence,
literally, "the end or ultimate aim of the Vedas") is the second
great division of the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy. It is
chiefly concerned in the investigation of Brahman (neuter) or the
Supreme Spirit, and the relation in which the universe, and
especially the human soul, stands to it; and in contradistinction
from the Púrvamímánsa, or the investigation (mímánsá) of the
former (púrva) part of the Vedas-viz., the Sanhitá, and especially
the Brahmanas-which contain the dharma, or religious law, it is
also called Uttara-mímánsá, or the investigation (mímánsá) of the
latter (uttara) part of the Vedas-viz., Áranyakas and Upanishads,
696
VED
which treat of (the neuter) Brahman, or the Supreme Spirit [not
to be confounded with (the masculine) Brahman, or the god of the
mythological Trimúrti]. Sometimes, the name given to it is
Sáríraka-mímánsá, or the investigation of the soul (Sáríraka). In
its method, the Vedánta differs from the Nyáya by endeavouring
to explain the universe as a successive development from one
ultimate source or principle-whereas the Nyáya, in both its
divisions, treats of the object of human knowledge of which the
universe is composed, under different topics, unconcerned about
their mutual relation of effect and cause; and from the Sankhya, it
is distinct, inasmuch as that system is based on the assumption of a
duality of principles whence the universe derives its origin.
The object-matter of the Vedánta is the proof that the universe
emanates in a successive development from a Supreme Spirit or soul,
which is called Brahman, or paramátman; that the human soul is
therefore identical in origin with Brahman; that the worldly
existence of the human soul is merely the result of its ignorance
of this sameness between itself and the Supreme Spirit; and that
its final liberation or freedom from Transmigration is attained by a
removal of this ignorance, that is, by a proper understanding of the
truth of the Vedánta doctrine.
According to this doctrine, Brahman (neuter) is both the
efficient and material cause of the world, creator and creation, doer
and deed. It is one, self-existent, supreme, as truth, wisdom,
intelligence, and happiness; devoid of the three qualities, in the
sense in which created beings possess them; and at the consumma-
tion of all things, the whole universe is resolved or absorbed into it.
From Brahman individual souls emanate, as innumerable sparks
issue from a blazing fire. The soul, therefore, is neither born, nor
does it die; it is of divine substance, and as such, infinite,
immortal, intelligent, sentient, true. Its separate existence, as
distinct from Brahman, is the cause of its ignorance; and this
ignorance, which consists in regarding the world as a reality
capable of subsisting without Brahman, has a double power-that
of enveloping and projecting. By means of the former, it makes
the soul liable to mundane vicissitudes, as to the sensations of
pleasure, pain, &c. The projective power of ignorance, when
VED
697
encompassing the soul in its fourth condition, or that of pure
intellect (its other conditions are: waking, dreaming, and dreamless
sleep) produces out of the darkness which then prevails the five
subtile elements-viz., ether, which is the substratum of the quality
sound; air, which arises from ether, the substratum of touch; from
air, fire or light, the substratum of colour; from light, water, the
substratum of savour; and from water, earth, the substratum of
smell. From these subtile elements are then produced seventeen
subtile bodies and the five gross elements. The former, also called
lingasaríra, because they are bodies (saríra) which impart to
existing beings their individual character (linga), are the five
organs of perception-viz., the organs of hearing, touch, sight,
taste, and smell, which arise severally from the pure or inactive
particles of each of the subtile elements; further, two intellectual
organs, which are produced from the mingled pure, or inactive
particles of the subtile elements-viz., buddhi, understanding, the
function of which is to arrive at a certainty or conclusion, and
manas (an organ of volition and imagination), the function of which
consists in willing and doubting-thinking and referring the
external objects to one's own self, being two functions common to
both of them; lastly, the five organs of action-viz., the voice, the
hands, the feet, the organ of excretion and that of generation, which
are severally produced from the foul or active particles of each of
the subtile elements; and the five vital airs, which are produced
from the mingled foul, or active particles of the subtile elements—
viz., the air breathed forth, which has its place in the fore-part of
the nose; the air breathed downwards, which has its place in the
lower intestines; the air which circulates through the whole body;
the ascending air, which has its place in the throat, and the
descending air in the middle of the body, which causes assimilation
and digestion of food, produces semen, excrements, &c. (Later
Vedantists assume ten such vital airs-viz., besides the foregoing,
the airs which severally cause retching, winking, hunger, yawning,
and fattening.) The five gross elements are the five subtile
elements, when, according to a theory derived from a scriptural text,
they have become so divided and combined that each of them
retains a preponderating portion of itself, and consequently of the
SS
698
VED
quality of which it is the substratum as ether of sound, &c.—and
besides smaller portions of the other subtile elements, and the
qualities of which they are the substrata. From these gross
elements then arise the various (mythological) worlds, and this
world too, with bodies which are distinguished as viviparous, or
those produced from a womb, as men, beasts, &c. ; oviparous, or
those produced from an egg, as birds, snakes, &c. ; those generated
by 'sweat' or hot moisture, as lice, gnats, &c.; and those
germinating, as creepers, trees, &c. The soul, when existing in the
body, is encased in a succession of 'sheaths.' The first or interior
'sheath' consists of buddhi, associated with the organs of perception;
the second, of manas, associated with the organs of action; and the
third, of the vital airs together with the organs of action. These
three sheaths' constitute the subtile body of the soul, which
attends the soul in its transmigrations; and the collective totality
of such subtile bodies is the supreme soul, as regarded in its
relation to the world; when it is also called the soul which is
the thread,' or passes like the thread through the universe, or
Hiranyagarbha, or life. The fourth and exterior 'sheath' of the
soul is composed of the gross elements; and the collective aggregate
of such gross bodies is the gross body of the deity. This whole
development being the result of ignorance, the soul frees itself from
its error by understanding that the different stages in which this
development appears, do not represent real or absolute truth; and
when its error has completely vanished, it ceases to be re-born, and
becomes re-united with Brahman, whence it emanated. But since
the means of arriving at a final deliverance can only be the
complete mastery of the truths of the Vedánta, other means, such
as the performance of sacrifices or other religious acts enjoined by
the Vedas, or the practice of the Yoga, cannot lead to the same
result. They may be meritorious, and are even recommended as
such, but can effect only an apparent liberation. Of this, there are
two kinds one liberation which is effected in lifetime, and enables
a man to perform supernatural actions or wonders, as the evocation
of the shades of progenitors, going anywhere at will, and similar
feats; and another which takes place after death, and enables the
soul, noi divested of its subtile body, to reside in heaven; but after
VED
699
a time its effect ceases, and the soul has to renew its mundane
existence. In order to fit the mind for meditating on these truths,
various moral duties are enjoined, and various practices are
recommended, especially by later Vedánta writers. Thus, the
student of the Vedánta is told not to hurt a sentient being, to speak
the truth, not to steal, to practise continence, and not to accept
gifts; to remain pure and content, to do penance, and to study the
Vedas; also to remain in certain postures, to practise various
modes of suppressing his breath, and the like. These injunctions,
however, are extraneous to the doctrine itself, and appear to be a
compromise with the old orthodox faith, which requires the
performance of religious acts, and a later stage of it, which favours.
such austere practices as are especially known by the name of
Yoga. The doctrine of bhakti, or faith, does not belong to the
older Vedánta; it is, however, an interesting feature of the later
periods of this philosophy; and the same observation applies to the
doctrine of Máyá, or illusion, according to which the world has no
reality whatever, but is merely the product of imagination; for
the older Vedánta, as will have been seen, merely teaches that the
world is not the truth, but does not deny its material reality."*
The late Dr. J. R. Ballantyne published an able Lecture on the
Vedánta, embracing the Text of the Vedánta Sara. Allahabad,
1850. There is an excellent article on the Ontology of the
Vedánta, in the Benares Magazine for December 1851, written by
Dr. F. E. Hall.
Vedas--The Vedas are four in number: the eldest is the Rig-
veda ; next stands the Yajur-veda; the Sáma-veda, and the latest
is the Atharva-veda. Each Veda is divided into two parts; 1st,
The hymus or Mantras, which express the wants and aspirations
of the worshippers, and thereby throw some light on the social
condition of the people; 2nd, The Bráhmanas which belong to a
Ritualistic age, and refer to rites and ceremonies of an unmeaning
or artificial character.
"The Veda has a two-fold interest; it belongs to the history
of the world and to the history of India. In the history of the
* Goldstücker in Chambers's Encyclopædia.
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VED
world the Veda fills a gap which no literary work in any other
language could fill. It carries us back to times of which we have
no records anywhere, and gives us the very words of a generation
of men of whom otherwise we could form but the vaguest estimate
by means of conjectures and inferences.
"It is difficult no doubt to believe that the most ancient literary
work of the Áryan race, a work more ancient than the Zendavesta
and Homer, should, after a lapse of at least three thousand years,
have been discovered, and for the first time published, in its
entirety, not in one of the Parishads on the borders of the Ganges,
but in one of the Colleges of an English University. It is difficult
to believe that sufficient MSS. should have been preserved, in
spite of the perishable nature of the material on which they are
written, to enable an editor to publish the collection of the Vedic
hymns in exactly that form in which they existed at least 800
years before the Christian era ; and, still more, that this collection,
which was completed at the time of Lykurgos, should contain the
poetical relics of a pre-Homeric age; an age in which the names
of the Greek gods and heroes had not yet lost their original sense,
and in which the simple worship of the Divine powers of nature
was not yet supplanted by a worship of personal gods. It is
difficult to believe this and we have a right to be sceptical. But
it is likewise our duty to inquire into the value of what has been
preserved for us in so extraordinary a manner, and to extract from
it those lessons which the study of mankind was intended to teach
to man.
"'*
"The religion of the Vedas, as far as we are acquainted with
it, differs in many very material points, from that of the present
day. The worship they prescribe is, with a few exceptions,
domestic, consisting of oblations to fire, and invocations of the
deities of fire, of the firmament, of the winds, the seasons, the
moon, the sun; who are invited by the sacrificer, if a brahman, or
by his family priest if he is not a brahman, to be present and
accept the offering, either oiled butter or the juice of the soma, a
* Max Müller, Hist. Sans. Lit.
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701
species of asclepias, which are poured upon the sacrificial fire, in
return for which they are supplicated to confer temporal blessings
upon the worshipper, riches, life, posterity; the short-sighted
vanities of human desire, which constituted the sum of heathen
prayer in all heathen countries.
"The titles and functions of the deities commonly addressed ou
these invocations give to the religion of the Vedas the character
of the worship of the elements, and it is not unlikely that it was
so in its earliest and rudest condition. It is declared in some texts
that the deities are only three; whose places are earth, the middle
region between heaven and earth, and the heaven; namely, fire,
air, the sun. Upon this however seems to have been grafted some
loftier speculation, and the elements came to be regarded as types
and emblems of divine power, as there can be no doubt that the
fundamental doctrine of the Vedas is monotheism.* "There is in
truth," say repeated texts, "but one deity, the Supreme Spirit."
"He from whom the universal world proceeds, who is Lord of the
universe, and whose work is the universe, is the Supreme Being."
Injunctions also repeatedly occur to worship Him, and Him only.
"Adore God alone, know God alone, give up all other discourse;"
and the Vedant says,
"it is found in the Vedas that none but the
Supreme Being is to be worshipped, nothing excepting Him should
be adored by a wise man."— Wilson's Works, Vol. II, pp. 50–52.
“The simple patriarchal life of the Áryans is indicated in the
Vedic hymns, precisely as it is depicted in the main tradition of
the Mahábhárata. They were a people partly pastoral and partly
agricultural; keeping cows for the sake of their milk, butter, and
curds, and sowing the land with grain. They also seem to have
had some acquaintance with the manufacture of weapons and coats
of mail, and to have sometimes undertaken sea-voyages for the
sake of gain. These people prayed to their gods, as such a people
might be expected to pray, for plenty of rain, abundant harvests,
and prolific cattle; for bodily vigour, long life, numerous progeny,
* Colebrooke's Essays, I, p. 12; Max Müller, History of Ancient Sans. Lit.,
pp. 558-71.
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VED
and protection against all foes and robbers, such as the cattle-
lifting aborigines. Their gods appear to have been mere abstrac-
tions; personifications of those powers of nature on whom they
relied for good harvests. They wanted seasonable rain, warmth,
and fresh breezes. Accordingly, they prayed to the god of rain,
the god of fire and light, and the god of wind. But from the very
first, there appears to have been some confusion in these personifi-
cations, which led both to a multiplicity of deities, and the
confounding together of different deities. Thus the conception of
the god of rain was Indra, and he was identified with the firmament
as well as with the unseen power which smote the rain-cloud and
brought down the waters; and so important was the acquisition of
rain in due season, that Indra is regarded as the sovereign of the
gods, and subsequently became a type of sovereignty. But rain
and water are frequently different things, and thus there was
another, and perchance an older, deity, named Varuna, who was
particularly worshipped as the god of the waters, and deity of the
ocean. Again, the conception of the god of fire was Agni, and
Agni was not only the flame which burns upon the hearth or altar,
but also the lightning which manifests itself in the clouds, and
even the light of the sun, moon, and stars. Yet both the sun and
moon appear as separate and individual deities, the latter under
the name of Soma or Chandra. Again, there seems to have been
a striking difference as regards wind. The god of wind, or air,
was Váyu; but the different breezes which bring on or accompany
the rain, are called Maruts, and are represented as the attendants
of Indra. Thus, whilst there is a Pantheon of separate and
individual deities, the conception of one deity frequently overlapped
the conceptions of other deities; and whilst the more prominent
powers of nature, such as water, fire, and wind, were separately
individualized, a monotheistic tendency was always at work,
ascribing the attributes of every deity to each one in turn. Of
these deities, the following appear to be the most important :-
RAIN.
Indra, god of the firmament.
Varuna, god of the waters.
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703
•
FIRE.
Agni, god of fire.
Súrya, the sun.
Soma, or Chandra, the moon.
AIR.
Váyu, the god of wind.
Maruts, the breezes who attended upon Indra.
To these must be added a god of death, or judge of the dead,
who was known as Yama. The characteristics of Yama fas a
Vedic deity would open up a large field of inquiry; but the
subject at present is vague and speculative. In the Epics, Yama
appears distinctly as a judge of the dead; and men who are about
to die are frequently said to be about to go to the mansions of
Yama."
"In the Vedic period the Brahmans were scarcely known as a
separate community; the caste system had not been introduced,
and the gods who were worshipped were subsequently superseded
by deities of other names and other forms."*
Vedasiras--A sage, the son of Márkándya: he married Pívarí,
and had many children, who constituted the family, or Brahma-
nical tribe, of Bhargavas, sons of Bhrigu. The most celebrated
of these was Ușanas, the preceptor of the Daityas.
Vedavati--The vocal daughter of the Rishi Kuṣadhvaja,
sprung from him during his constant study of the Veda. She was
a damsel of brilliant beauty, but dressed in ascetic garb, and lived
in forests on the Himalaya. It was there she was seen by the
giant Rávaṇa, in the course of his progress through the world, and
he at once became enamoured of her. He enquired who she was,
and told her that such an austere life was unsuited to her youth
and attractions. As a reason for leading such an ascetic existence
she said the gods, gandharvas, &c., wished that she should choose a
husband, but her father would give her to no one else than to
Vishnu, the lord of the world, whom he desired for his son-in-law.
This resolution provoked Sambhu, king of the Daityas, who slew
her father, Kuşadhvaja, while sleeping, on which her mother
Talboys Wheeler History of India, Vol. I, pp. 8-11.
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VED
(whose name is not given) after embracing his body, entered into
the fire. Vedavati then proceeds "In order that I may fulfil this
desire of my father in respect of Nárayana, I wed him with my
heart. Having entered into this engagement, I practice great
austerity. Nárayana, and no other than he, Purushottama, is my
husband. From the desire of obtaining him, I resort to this
severe observance." Rávana's passion is not in the least dimi-
nished by this explanation, and he urges that it is the old alone
who should seek to become distinguished by accumulating merit
through austerity; prays that she who is so young and beautiful,
shall become his bride; and boasts that he is superior to Vishnu.
She rejoins that no one but he would thus contemn that deity. On
receiving this reply, he touches the hair of her head with the tip
of his finger. She is greatly incensed, and forthwith cuts off her
hair, and tells him that as he has so insulted her, she cannot
continue to live, but will enter into the fire before his eyes. She
goes on:
Since I have been insulted in the forest by thee who
art wicked-hearted, I shall be born again for thy destruction. For
a man of evil design cannot be slain by a woman; and the merit
of my austerity would be lost if I were to launch a curse against
thee. But if I have performed, or bestowed, or sacrificed, aught,
may I be born the virtuous daughter, not produced from the
womb, of a righteous man.' Having thus spoken, she entered the
blazing fire. Then a shower of celestial flowers fell from every
part of the sky. It is she, lord, who (having seen Vedavati in
the Kritá age, has been born in the Treta age) as the daughter of
the king of the Janakas and [has become] thy bride; for thou art
the eternal Vishnu. The mountain-like enemy who was [virtually]
destroyed before by her wrath, has now been slain by her, having
recourse to thy superhuman energy." On this the commentator
remarks: "By this it is signified that Sítá was the principal
cause of Ravana's death; but the function of destroying him is
ascribed to Ráma." On the words "thou art Vishnu," in the
preceding verse the same commentator remarks "By this it is
This is what Parásara
clearly affirmed that Sítá was Lakshmi.
says. In the god's life as Ráma, she became Sítá, and in his
birth as Krishna [she became] Rukmini"-O. S. T., IV., 392.
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705
Veda-vyasas-Arrangers of the Vedas: "In every Dwápara
(or third) age, Vishnu, in the person of Vyása, in order to promote
the good of mankind, divides the Veda, which is properly but one,
into many portions: observing the limited perseverance, energy,
and application of mortals, he makes the Veda fourfold, to adapt
it to their capacities; and the bodily form which he assumes in
order to effect that classification, is known by the name of Veda-
vyása."— Vishnu Purána.
Veddah-A wild semi-savage race, residing in the interior of
Ceylon. The forest Veddahs dwell in hollow trees or caves,
subsist on game which they kill with rudely formed bows and
arrows, wandering from jungle to jungle, as the game becomes
scarce. They will not hold the slightest intercourse with any
natives but those of their own tribe, and their language is said to
be unintelligible to all others. The village Veddahs dwell in
certain districts, hold but slight intercourse with the other inhabi-
tants of the island, will not intermarry nor mix with them. They
can make themselves understood to the Singhalese. Their sole
clothing is a strip of cloth which hangs down in front, and is
fastened by a coir cord, which passes round their loins. Their
hair, beards and whiskers are never shorn or cleansed, but hang
down in matted masses. The forest Veddahs are dexterous
hunters, and especially skilful in snaring the wild elephants. The
two tribes do not intermarry, as they mutually distrust each other.
The Veddahs generally deposit their dead in the jungle to be
devoured by wild animals. They seem to worship the planets ?
evil spirits, and spirits of their deceased ancestors. They have
their own headmen whom they elect and obey. They use bows
and arrows and clubs of iron wood.-Sirr's Ceylon, Vol. II, p.
216. They occupy a district about 90 miles long and 45 broad in
the south eastern side of Ceylon, lying between the sea and the
base of the Badulla and Oovah hills. They are a remnant of the
Yakkos, the aboriginal inhabitants of Ceylon, who, 2000 years
ago, after the conquest of the island by Wijayo and his followers,
returned into the wilds as the Kulis in Guzerat, the Bhíls in
Malwa, the Putu in Cuttack, the Konds in Gondwana, and the
Bedas in Mysore, retired before conquerors.
The Bisada, or
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VED-VEN
Besada, which in medieval Greek is called Vesadæ, are alluded
to in the tract of Palladius de Moribus Brachmanorum, written
about A. D. 400, and the same name is applied by Ptolemy to a
similar race inhabiting northern India. A forest tribe of Mysore,
known by the name of Vedas or Redas, formed part of the army of
Tippu Sahib. The Veddahs live by hunting and use the bow, in
drawing which they employ their hands and their feet. They are
omniverous, and eat carrion and vermin, roots, grain, fruit, birds,
bats, crows, owls, kites, but refuse the bear, elephant and buffalo.
Their language is a dialect of Singhalese, free from Sanskrit or
Pali, but the vocabulary is very limited and they have recourse to
gestures and signs. They have no knowledge of God, nor of a
future state, and have no temples, idols, altars, prayers or charms,
but have a devil worship. They do not bury but cover their dead
with leaves in the jungle. They are regarded by the Singhalese
as of high descent.-Sir J. E. Tennant.
Vedha-A measure of time; 100 Trutis.
Vedhaka-One of the Narakas; that for the makers of arrows.
Vegavat-An ancient prince of the solar race; the son of
Bandhumat.
Vela-The daughter of Meru and wife of Samudra.
Vena-A Chakkra-vartti, or universal emperor; the son of
Anga or Tunga. When he was inaugurated by the Rishis monarch
of the earth he caused it to be everywhere proclaimed that no
worship should be performed, no oblations offered, no gifts bestowed
upon the Brahmans. "I, the king' said he' I am the lord of
sacrifice; for who but I, am entitled to the oblations." The Rishis
remonstrated without effect; and then says the Vishnu Purána,
"these pious Munis were filled with wrath, and said let this wicked
wretch be slain: and they fell upon the king, and beat him with
blades of holy grass, consecrated by prayer, and slew him who had
first been destroyed by his impiety toward God."
According to the Pádma Purána, Vena commenced his reign
auspiciously, but lapsing into the Jain heresy, the sages deposed
him, and pummelled him until the Nisháda, or progenitor of the
wild races, was extracted from his left thigh, and Prithu from his
VEN-VIB
707
right arm. Being freed from sin by the birth of the Nisháda,
Veņa retired to the banks of the Narmadá, where he performed
penance in honour of Vishnu, who appeared to him and read him
a lecture on the merit of gifts of various kinds, especially at
different holy places or Tírthas. After this Vishnu desired Vena
to demand a boon, and he solicited that he might be incorporated
with the deity; Vishnu told him first to celebrate an Aṣwamedha,
after which the king should become one with himself, and he then
disappeared. Prithu enabled his father Veņa to consummate the
sacrifice by which he was united to Vishņu, and this incident is
said to illustrate the efficacy of a son considered as a Tírtha.—
Wilson's Works, III, 38.
Venu-A Yádava prince, the son of Satajit.
Vibhishana-The younger brother of the giant Rávana; when
he and his brothers had practised rigid austerities for a long series
of years, Brahmá appeared to offer them boons: Vibhíshana asked
that he might never meditate any unrighteousness. When his
elder brother Vaisravana (Kuvera) was expelled from Lauka,
Vibhíshana followed him to Gandhamádana, where he is said to
have dwelt with a white umbrella and white garlands, on the
Śvebaparvata or white mountain, attended by his four counsellors,
and apart from his disreputable brothers Kumbhakarna, &c., who,
naked, with dishevelled hair and red garlands, frequented the south.
When Hanuman was taken before Rávana, and announced
himself as the ambassador of Sugríva, warning the ravisher of
Sítá that nothing could save him from the vengeance of Ráma,
Rávaṇa, infuriated, ordered him to be put to death; but Vibhí-
shana reminded his brother that the life of ambassadors was sacred.
On another occasion, after a long altercation, Rávana was so
enraged with Vibhíshana for persisting in urging the restoration
of Sítá, that he rose in a fury and kicked him from his seat.
Smarting under this outrage, Vibhíshana left Lanka and flew
through the air to Kailása to the court of his brother Kuvera,
where Śiva also at that time happened to be present. The latter
made known to Vibhíshana the divine character of Ráma, and
directed him to desert Rávana and join Ráma's standard, which
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VIB-VID
Vibhíshana accordingly did. He was at first taken for a spy, but
afterwards Ráma accepted him as an ally and embraced him. On
the death of Rávaṇa, Vibhíshaṇa was installed as Rája of Lanka ;
he afterwards accompanied Ráma and Lakshmana to Ayodhya.—
I. E. P., 80-83.
Vibhratra-A king of Hastinapura, the son of Sukriti.
Vibhu-1, The Indra of the fifth Manwantara; 2, A prince,
the grandson of Alarka.
Vibudha-A king of Mithila, the son of Krita.
Vichitra-virya-A prince, the son of Śántanu, rája of Hastiná-
pur :
“he married Ambá and Ambalika, the daughter of the rája
of Kásí; and indulging too freely in connubial rites, fell into a
consumption of which he died. (Vishnu Purána.) See Sántanu.
The legend as related in the Mahábhárata is slightly different.
Vichitravirya's half brother Bhishma is there said to have gone to
Kásí for the purpose of seeing the Rája's daughters, and finding
them very beautiful he did not wait for the day of the Swayamvara,
but seizing the three damsels, placed them in his own chariot, and
challenged every Rája present to do him battle. Thus did Bhishma
win the daughters of the Rája of Kásí and carry them away in
triumph to the city of Hastinápur, that they might become the
wives of Vichitra-vírya. The widows of Vichitra-virya were
afterwards the mothers of Dhritarashtra and Páṇḍu.-[VIDURA.]
Vidarbha-1, The only son of Jyámagha and Saivya; he was
married to the damsel the father had brought home before his birth.
See Jyámagha; 2, The name of a city, the modern Berar.
Vidhatri-A son of the demi-god Ehrigu, married to Niryati.
Vidmisara-A king of Magadha, the son of Kshatranjas.
Vidura-The brother of Dhritarashtra and Páṇḍu. "Soma,
the moon, the progenitor of the lunar race, who reigned at
Hastinapur, was the child of the Rishi Atri, and father of Budha,
who married Ilá, or Iḍá, daughter of the solar prince Ikshváku,
and had by her a son Aila or Purúravas. The latter had a son by
Urvași named Ayus, from whom came Nahusha, the father of
Yayati. The latter had two sons, Puru and Yadu, from whom
VID
709
proceeded the two branches of the lunar line. In the line of Yadu
we need only mention the last three princes, Sura, Vasudeva, and
Krishna, with his brother Balaráma. Fifteenth in the other line-
that of Puru-came Dushyanta, father of the great Bharata.
Ninth from Bharata came Kuru, and fourteenth from him Śántanu,
this Śúntanu had by his wife Satyavatí, a son named Vichitra-vírya.
Bhishma who renounced the right of succession and took the vow
of perpetual celibacy, was the son of Santanu by a former wife, the
goddess Gangá, whence one of his names is Gángeya. Satyavati
also had, before her marriage with Sántanu, borne Vyása to the
sage Paráṣara; so that Vichitra-vírya, Bhishma and Vyása were
half-brothers: and Vyása, though he retired into the wilderness to
live a life of contemplation, promised his mother that he would
place himself at her disposal whenever she required his services.
Satyavatí had recourse to him when her son Vichtra-vírya died
childless, and requested him to pay his addresses to Vichitra-vírya's
two widows, named Ambiká and Ambáliká. He consented, and
had by them respectively two children, Dhritarashtra who was
born blind, and Paṇḍu, who was born with a pale complexion.
When Satavati begged Vyása to become the father of a third son
(who should be without any defect) the elder wife, terrified by
Vyása's austere appearance, sent him one of her slave girls, dressed
in her own clothes; and this girl was the mother of Vidura.
Vyása was so much pleased with this slave-girl that he pronounced
her free, and declared that her child Vidura should be eminently
wise and good.
Dhritarashtra, Pándu and Vidura, were thus brothers, the sons
of Vyása, the supposed author or compiler of the Mahábhárata.
"Vidura is one of the best characters in the Mahábhárata, always
ready with good advice both for the Pánḍavas and for his brother
Dhritarashtra. His disposition leads him always to take the part
of the Pandu princes, and warn them of the evil designs of their
cousins." Bhishma promoted the marriage of Vidura with a
beautiful slave girl belonging to king Devaka. I. E. P.
Viduratha-1, A priuce; the son of Bhajamána and father of
Súra; 2, The son of Suratha, a descendant of Kuru.
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VIH-VIK
Vihanghamas-A class of deities of the eleventh Manwantara.
Vijaya-1, A prince, the son of Chunchu; 2, A king of
Mithila, the son of Jaya; 3, The son of Sanjaya, of the race of
Áyus; 4, A son of Jayadratha; 5, One of the Andhra princes.
Vijaya-A daughter of the patriarch Daksha, married to
Kriaswa.
Vijitaswa-The eldest son of Prithu, called also Antarddhána,
in consequence of having obtained from Indra the power of making
himself invisible.
Vikala-A measure of time, six Práņas.
Vikesi-The wife of the Rudra Sarva.
Vikranta-One of the Prajapatis.
Vikramaditya-A celebrated Hindu king of Malwa, whose
reign began fifty-six years before the Christian era. The ancient
city of Ujein was his capital. Vikramaditya had no estate assigned
him by his father, and lived for a considerable time with his
illegitimate brother Bhurtri at Ujein, of which Bhurtri was
governor. A quarrel having occurred between the brothers
Vikramaditya left Ujein and travelled in great poverty over
Guzerat and other parts of India. On his return to Malwa he
found that his brother had resigned all worldly concerns and
become a religious mendicant; he therefore assumed charge of the
province, and from that period commenced a career which led to
the establishment of his power over the greatest part of India.
He is said to have restored the Hindu monarchy to that splendour
which it had lost through a succession of weak sovereigns, whose
character had encouraged the governors of distant provinces to
rebel, and to form the territories committed to their charge into
independent states.*
Vikramaditya is described as the greatest monarch of his age, of
which there is the most satisfactory proof in the fact that his era
is still current throughout Hindustan. He encouraged literature
beyond all former example. He invited learned brahmans from
every part of India, and rewarded them with magnificent presents;
* Malcolm's Memoir of Central India, I, 24.
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711
and they have repaid him by investing him with immortality.
They have exhausted the resources of flattery in their attempt to
describe the magnitude of his power, and have assured us that
without his permission the loadstone had no power over iron, or
amber on the chaff of the field. So exemplary was his temperance,
that while in the enjoyment of supreme power, he constantly slept
on a mat, which, with a water-pot replenished from the spring,
formed the whole furniture of his chamber. It is stated that while
he extended his patronage to the worship of the gods and goddesses
then rising into popularity, he himself continued to profess the old
creed, and adored the one infinite and invisible God.*
For the legend of Vikramaditya's birth, see the article SENA in
the Appendix.
Vikriti-A king of Chedi, the son of Jímúta.
Vikukshi-One of the hundred sons of Ikshváku: The V. P.
has the following legend of this prince :-On one of the days of
Ashtaka, Ikshváku being desirous of celebrating ancestral obsequies,
ordered Vikukshi to bring him flesh suitable for the offering. The
prince accordingly went into the forest and killed many deer and
other wild animals for the celebration. Being weary with the
chase and hungry, he sat down and ate a hare; after which being
refreshed, he carried the rest of the game to his father. Vasishtha,
the family priest, was summoned to consecrate the food; but he
declared that it was impure in consequence of Vikukshi's having
eaten a hare from amongst it, (making it thus, as it were, the
residue of his meal.) Vikukshi was therefore abandoned by his
offended father, and the epithet Sasáda, hare-eater, was affixed to
him by the Guru. But on the death of Ikshváku, the sovereignty
of Ayodhya descended to Vikukshi. The Matsya Purána says
that Indra was born as Vikukshi, and that Ikshváku had a
hundred and fourteen other sons who were kings of the countries
south of Meru; and as many who reigned north of that mountain..
Wilson says that it seems very probable that by these sons of
Ikshváku we are to understand colonies or settlers in various
parts of India.
*Marshman's History of India, I, 20.
712
VIL-VIP
Viloman-A Yádava chief, the son of Kapotaroman.
Vimada-1, A Rishi mentioned in the Rig Veda as on very
friendly terms with Indra; 2, A young prince to whom the Aṣvius
brought in a car a bride named Kamadyú, who seems to have been
the beautiful wife of Purumitra.-O. S. T., V., 244.
Vimala-One of the sons of Sudyumna after his transformation.
Vimohana-One of the Narakas; the place of bewildering;
for the punishment of the thief and the contemner of prescribed
observances.
Vinata-A daughter of Daksha, who was married to Kasyapa
and became the mother of Garuda and Aruņa. The Váyu adds
the metres of the Vedas as the daughters of Vinatá.
Vinaya-Good behaviour; a son of Dharma by Lajja, modesty,
daughter of Daksha, obviously allegorical.
Vinda-One of the sons of Jayasena, king of Avanti.
Vindhya--The chain of mountains that stretches across Ceutral
India; in the Puránas it is often restricted to the Sathpura range.
Vindhyasakti-The chief of the Kailakila Yavana kings; a
warrior of a mixed race, sprung from a Brahman father and a
Kshatriya mother. Kailakila was a city in the Mahratta country.
Wilson is of opinion that the Puránas refer to a time when the
Greek princes, or their Indo-Scythic successors, following the
course of the Indus, spread to the upper part of the western coast
of the peninsula.
Vindhya-Vasini-An ancient and still celebrated shrine of
Durgá, a short distance from Mirzapur.
Vindumati-The wife of the Rája Mándhátri.
Vindusara-The son and successor of Chandragupta.
Vinita-One of the sons of the sage Pulastya.
Vipaschit-The Indra of the second Manwantara.
Vipra-1, One of the sons of Dhruva ; 2, A king of Magadha,
the son of Srutanjaya.
VIP-VIR
713
Viprachitti―The king of the Dánavas, he was the son of
Kasyapa and Danu, and the hero of many legends. He was one of
the leaders in the contest between the gods and demons that took
place after the churning of the ocean.
Vipritha-A prince of the solar race, the son of Chitrika.
Vipula-A mountain in Ilávrita, forming the western buttress
to Meru.
Virabhadra-A formidable being created from the mouth of
Śiva, for the purpose of spoiling the sacrifice of Daksha. He is
thus described in the Váyu Purána.
"A divine being, with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a
thousand feet; wielding a thousand clubs, a thousand shafts ;
holding the shell, the discus, the mace, and bearing a blazing bow
and battle-axe; fierce and terrific, shining with dreadful splendour,
and decorated with the crescent moon; clothed in a tiger's skin
dripping with blood, having a capacious stomach, and a vast mouth
armed with formidable tusks. His ears were erect; his lips were
pendulous; his tongue was lightning; his hand brandished the
thunderbolt; flames streamed from his hair; a necklace of pearls
wound round his neck; a garland of flame descended on his breast.
Radiant with lustre, he looked like the final fire that consumes the
world. Four tremendous tusks projected from a mouth which
extended from ear to ear. He was of vast bulk, vast strength, a
mighty male and lord, the destroyer of the universe, and like a
large fig-tree in circumference; shining like a hundred moons at
once; fierce as the fire of love; having four heads, sharp white
teeth, and of mighty fierceness, vigour, activity, and courage ;
glowing with the blaze of a thousand fiery suns at the end of the
world; like a thousand undimmed moons; in bulk, like Himadri,
Kailasa, or Sumeru, or Mandara, with all its gleaming herbs ;
bright as the sun of destruction at the end of ages; of irresistible
prowess and beautiful aspect; irascible, with lowering eyes, aud
a countenance burning like fire; clothed in the hide of the elephant
and lion, and girt round with snakes; wearing a turbau on his
head, a moon on his brow; sometimes savage, sometimes mild;
having a chaplet of many flowers on his head, anointed with
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VIR
various unguents, adorned with different ornaments and many sorts
of jewels, wearing a garland of heavenly Karnikára flowers, and
rolling his eyes with rage. Sometimes he danced; sometimes he
laughed aloud; sometimes he stood wrapt in meditation; some-
times he trampled upon the earth; sometimes he sang; sometimes
he wept repeatedly. And he was endowed with the faculties of
wisdom, dispassion, power, penance, truth, endurance, fortitude,
dominion, and self-knowledge."
Viraj-A person of a mythical or mystical character. Manu
says "Having divided his own substance, the mighty power of
Brahmá became half male, half female and from that female he
produced Viráj. Know me to be that person whom the male
Viráj produced by himself." The Linga and Váyu Purána describe
the origin of Viráj and Satarúpá from Brahmá; in the first
instance, and in the second, with Manu, who is termed Vairája, is
the son of Viráj. It is also explained allegorically; Viráj being
all male animals, Satarúpá all female animals.
Viraja-One of the Rájas of India in the Swayambhuva or first
Manwantara: he was the son of Tvashtri.
Virajas-1, A son of the sage Paurnamása; 2, A son of the
sage Vasishtha.
Virana-1, A sage, the father of Viraní and Asikní; 2, A
teacher of the White Yajush.
Virani-The daughter of the above, and mother of the Manu
Chákshusa.
Virat--1, One of the Rájas of India in the first Manwantara ;
the son of Nará ; 2, The material universe-Brahmáṇda.
Virata--The fourth book of the Mahábharata is called Viráta-
Parva, as it recounts the adventures of the Páṇḍavas, when, being
obliged to live incognito, they journeyed to the court of king
Viráta, and entered his service in various disguises. Viráta's
capital was called Matsya, (or sometimes Upaplavya.) There,
four months after the arrival of the Pandavas, a great festival was
held, at which a number of wrestlers exhibited their prowess.
Bhíma then astonished Viráta by dashing to the ground and killing
the strongest of the wrestlers named Jimúta.
VIR-VIS
715
When Suṣarman, king of Trigarta, made a raid into Viráta's
territory for the sake of plunder and carried off his cattle, Viráta,
accompanied by all the Páṇḍavas except Arjuna, invaded Trigarta
to recover the property. A great battle was fought and Viráta
was taken prisoner by Suṣarman. Bhíma, as usual, tore up a tree
and prepared to rescue him; but Yudhishthira advised him not to
display his strength too conspicuously, lest he should be recognised.
He then took a bow, pursued Susarman, defeated him, released
Viráta, and recovered the cattle.
Virochana-A Daitya, the son of Prahláda.
Viruddhas-A class of deities in the tenth Manwantara.
Virupa-An ancient rája who reigned somewhere on the banks
of the Yamuná, he was the son of Ambarisha.
Virupaksha-One of the eleven Rudras.
Visakha—A sage, one of the sons of Kumára.
Visakha-A lunar mausion in Járadghavi, in the Central
Avashthána.
Visakhayupa-A king of Magadha, the son of Palaka.
Visala-The founder and king of the city of Vaisálí; he was
the son of Trinavinda, by the celestial nymph Alambusha.
Visasana-One of the Narakas, for the punishment of the
maker of swords, lances and other weapons.
Visoka-One of the eight original properties or perfections of
man, called Siddhis; it means exemption alike from infirmity or
grief.
Visravas-The son of the great sage Pulastya, and father of
Kuvera, the deity of wealth.
Visrutavat-A distinguished prince of the family of Ikshváku;
he was the son of Mahaswat; and took part in the great war.
Vishnapu--In the legends regarding various persons delivered
or favoured by the Asvins, it is said" they restored Vishnápú,
like a lost animal, to the sight of Viṣvaka, son of Krishna, their
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VIS
worshipper. The names both of Visvaka and Vishnápú occur
in the Rig Veda."-O..S. T., V., p. 244.
Vishnu-The second person of the mythological Hindu triad,
and now the most celebrated and popular of all the gods of India.
But it appears from the Rig-Veda that Indra at that time was
regarded as superior to Vishnu, who is there classed with Varuna,
the Maruts, Rudra, Váyu, the luminous deities called Adityas, and,
others. There is no trace of Vishnu, or anything relating to him
in the Institutes of Manu, although the allusions to idolaters and
the worship of inferior gods might possibly have some reference to
him also." "In the Mahábhárata, Vishnu is often identified with
the supreme spirit; but while in some portions of this poem-the
different parts of which belong to different epochs of Hindu
antiquity he is thus regarded as the most exalted deity; he is
again, in others, represented as paying homage to Siva (q. v.), the
third person of the Trimúrti, and as acknowledging the superiority
of this god over himself. Taking, therefore, the Mahábhárata as
a whole, he does not occupy, in this epos, the exclusive supremacy
which is assigned to him in the Rámáyana, and still more in those
Puránas especially devoted to his praise.
"The large circle of myths relating to Vishnu, in the epic poems
and Puránas, is distinguished by a feature which, though not quite.
absent from the mythological history of Śiva, especially characterises
that of Vishnu. It arose from the idea, that whenever a great
disorder, physical or moral, disturbed the world, Vishnu descended
in a small portion of his essence' to set it right, to restore the
law, and thus to preserve creation. Such descents of the god are
called his Avatáras (from ava and tri, descend); and they
consist in Vishnu's being supposed to have either assumed the form
of some wonderful animal or superhuman being, or to have been
born of human parents, in a human form, always, of course,
possessed of miraculous properties. Some of these Avatáras are
of an entirely cosmical character; others, however, are probably
based on historical events, the leading personage of which was
gradually endowed with divine attributes, until he was regarded as
the incarnation of the deity itself. With the exception of the last,
VIS
717
all these Avatáras belong to the past; the last, however, is yet to
come."
**
"His ten avatáras are: 1, The Matsya, or fish. In this
avatár, Vishnu descended in the form of a fish to save the pious king
Satyavrata, who with the seven Rishis and their wives had taken
refuge in the ark to escape the deluge which then destroyed the
carth; 2, The Kúrma, or Tortoise. In this he descended in the
form of a tortoise, for the purpose of restoring to man some of the
comforts lost during the flood. To this end he stationed himself
at the bottom of the ocean, and allowed the point of the great
mountain Mandara to be placed upon his back, which served as a
hard axis, whereon the gods and demons, with the serpent Vásuki
twisted round the mountain for a rope, churned the waters for the
recovery of the amrita or nectar, and fourteen other sacred things;
3, The Varáha, or Boar. In this he descended in the form of a boar
to rescue the earth from the power of a demon called 'golden-eyed,'
Hiranyáksha. This demon had seized on the earth and carried it
with him into the depths of the ocean. Vishnu dived into the
abyss, and after a contest of a thousand years slew the monster ;
4, The Narasinha, or Mau-lion. In this monstrous shape of a
creature half-man, half-lion, Vishnu delivered the earth from the
tyranny of an insolent demon called Hiranyakasipu; 5, Vámana, or
Dwarf. This avatár happened in the second age of the Hindus or
Tretáyug, the four preceding are said to have occurred in the first
or Satyayug; the object of this avatár was to trick Bali out of the
dominion of the three worlds. Assuming the form of a wretched
dwarf he appeared before the king and asked, as a boon, as much
land as he could pace in three steps. This was granted; and
Vishnu immediately expanding himself till he filled the world,
deprived Báli at two steps of heaven and earth, but in consideration
of some merit, left Pátála still in his dominion; 6, Parasuráma ;
7, Rámachandra; 8, Krishna, or according to some Balaráma; 9,
Buddha. In this avatár, Vishnu descended in the form of a sage
for the purpose of making some reform in the religion of the
Brahmans, and especially to reclaim them from their proneness to
Chambers' Encyclopædia,
718
VIS
animal sacrifice. Many of the Hindus will not allow this to have
been an incarnation of their favourite god; 10, Kalki, or White
Horse. This is yet to come. Vishņu mounted on a white horse,
with a drawn scimitar, blazing like a comet, will, according to
prophecy, end this present age, viz., the fourth or Kaliyug, by
destroying the world, and then renovating creation by an age
of purity.
"'*
"This number and enumeration of Avatáras, however, was not
at all times the same. The Mahábhárata, though also mentioning
ten, names successively the Hausa-, tortoise-, fish-, boar-, man-lion-,
dwarf-, Paraṣu-Ráma-, Ráma-, Sátvata-, and Kalkin-Avatáras.
The Bhagavata-Purána speaks of twenty-two A vatáras of Vishņu,
which, for instance, also comprise Prithu, (q. v.), Dhanvantari,
the god of medicine; and Kapila, the reputed founder of the
Sánkhya (q. v.) philosophy. Other works have twenty-four Ava-
táras, or even call them numberless; but the generally-received
Avatúras, are those ten mentioned before."†
Vishnu-loka-Vaikuntha, the lofty world of Vishņu.
Vishnu-Purana
"The Vishnu-Purana most closely conforms
to the definition of a Paucha-lakshaṇa Purána, or one which treats
of five specified topics. It comprehends them all; and, although
it has infused a portion of extraneous and sectarial matter, it has
done so with sobriety and with judgment, and has not suffered the
fervour of its religious zeal to transport it into very wide deviations
from the prescribed path. The legendary tales which it has
inserted are few, and are couveniently arranged, so that they do
not distract the attention of the compiler from objects of more
permanent interest and importance.
The first book of the six, into which the work is divided, is
occupied chiefly with the details of creation, primary (Sarga) and
secondary (Pratisarga); the first explaining how the universe.
proceeds from Prakriti or eternal crude matter; the second, in
what manner the forms of things are developed from the elementary
substances previously evolved, or how they re-appear after their
Williams' English Sanskrit Dictionary. † Chambers' Encyclopædia.
VIS
719
;;
temporary destruction. Both these creations are periodical; but the
termination of the first occurs only at the end of the life of
Brahma, when not only all the gods and all other forms are
annihilated, but the elements are again merged into primary
substance, besides which, one only spiritual being exists. The
latter takes place at the end of every Kalpa or day of Brahma, and
affects only the forms of inferior creatures, and lower worlds
leaving the substance of the universe entire, and sages and gods
unharmed. The explanation of these events involves a description
of the periods of time upon which they depend, and which are,
accordingly, detailed. Their character has been a source of very
unnecessary perplexity to European writers; as they belong to a
scheme of chronology wholly mythological, having no reference
to any real or supposed history of the Hindus, but applicable,
according to their system, to the infinite and eternal revolutions of
the universe. In these notions, and in that of the co-eternity of
spirit and matter, the theogony and cosmogony of the Puránas, as
they appear in the Vishnu Purána, belong to and illustrate systems
of high antiquity, of which we have only fragmentary traces in the
records of other nations.
The course of the elementary creation is, in the Vishnu, as in
other Puránas, taken from the Sánkhya philosophy; but the
agency that operates upou passive matter is confusedly exhibited,
in consequence of a partial adoption of the illusory theory of the
Vedánta philosophy, and the prevalence of the Pauráņik doctrine
of pantheism. However incompatible with the independent
existence of Pradhána or crude matter, and however incongruous
with the separate condition of pure spirit or Purusha, it is declared,
repeatedly, that Vishnu, as one with the supreme being, is not only
spirit, but crude matter, and not only the latter, but all visible
substance, and Time. He is Purusha, 'spirit ;' Pradhána, crude
matter;' Vyakta, visible form;' and Kála, time.' This cannot
but be regarded as a departure from the primitive dogmas of the
Hindus, in which the distinctness of the Deity and his works was
enunciated; in which, upon his willing the world to be, it was;
and in which his interposition in creation, held to be inconsistent
with the quiescence of perfection, was explained away by the
6
720
VIS
personification of attributes in action, which afterwards came to be
considered as real divinities, Brahmá, Vishnu, and Śiva, charged,
severally, for a given season, with the creation, preservation, and
temporary annihilation of material forms. These divinities are
declared to be no other than Vishnu. In Saiva Puránas, they
are, in like manner, identified with Śiva; the Puránas thus
displaying and explaining the seeming incompatibility, of which
there are traces in other ancient mythologies, between three
distinct hypostases of one superior deity, and the identification of
one or other of those hypostases with their common and separate
original.
After the world has been fitted for the reception of living
creatures, it is peopled by the will-engendered sons of Brahmá, the
Prajapatis or patriarchs, and their posterity. It would seem as if
a primitive tradition of the descent of mankind from seven holy
personages had at first prevailed, but that, in the course of time,
it had been expanded into complicated, and not always consistent,
amplification. How could these Rishis or patriarchs have poste-
rity? It was necessary to provide them with wives. In order to
account for their existence, the Manu Swayambhuva and his wife
Satarúpá were added to the scheme; or Brahmá becomes twofold,
male and female; and daughters are then begotten, who are
married to the Prajapatis. Upon this basis various legends of
Brahma's double nature, some, no doubt, as old as the Vedas, have
been constructed. But, although they may have been derived, in
some degree, from the authentic tradition of the origin of mankind
from a single pair, yet the circumstances intended to give more
interest and precision to the story are, evidently, of an allegorical
or mystical description, and conduced, in apparently later times, to
a coarseness of realization which was neither the letter nor spirit
of the original legend. Swayambhuva, the son of the self-born or
uncreated, and his wife Satarúpá, the hundred-formed or multi-
form, are, themselves, allegories; and their female descendants,
who become the wives of the Rishis, are Faith, Devotion, Content,
Intelligence, Tradition, and the like; whilst, amongst their
posterity, we have the different phases of the moon and the
sacrificial fires. In another creation, the chief source of creatures
VIS
721
is the patriarch Daksha (ability,) whose daughters-Virtues, or
Passions, or Astronomical Phenomena-are the mothers of all
existing things. These legends, perplexed as they appear to be,
seem to admit of allowable solution, in the conjecture that the
Prajapatis and Rishis were real personages, the authors of the
Hindu system of social, moral, and religious obligations, and the
first observers of the heavens, and teachers of astronomical science.
The regal personages of the Swayambhuva Manwantara are but
few; but they are described, in the outset, as governing the earth
in the dawn of society, and as introducing agriculture and civiliza-
tion. How much of their story rests upon a traditional remem-
brance of their actions, it would be useless to conjecture; although
there is no extravagance in supposing that the legends relate to a
period prior to the full establishment, in India, of the Brahmanical
institutions. The legends of Dhruva and Prahláda, which are
intermingled with these particulars, are, in all probability, ancient ;
but they are amplified, in a strain conformable to the Vaishnava
purport of this Purána, by doctrines and prayers asserting the
identity of Vishnu with the Supreme. It is clear that the stories
do not originate with this Purána. In that of Prahláda, particu-
larly, circumstances essential to the completeness of the story are
only alluded to, not recounted; showing, indisputably, the writer's
having availed himself of some prior authority for his narration.
The second book opens with a continuation of the kings of the
first Manwantara; amongst whom, Bharata is said to have given
a name to India, called, after him, Bhárata-varsha. This leads to
a detail of the geographical system of the Puránas, with mount
Meru, the seven circular continents, and their surrounding oceans,
to the limits of the world; all of which are mythological fictions,
in which there is little reason to imagine that any topographical
truths are concealed. With regard to Bhárata or India, the case
is different. The mountains and rivers which are named are
readily verifiable; and the cities and nations that are particularized
may, also, in many instances, be proved to have had a real exist-
ence. The list is not a very long one, in the Vishņu Purána, and
is, probably, abridged from some more ample detail, like that
which the Mahábhárata affords, and which, in the hope of supply.
91
722
VIS
ing information with respect to a subject yet imperfectly investi-
gated, the ancient political condition of India, I have inserted and
elucidated.
The description which this book also contains of the planetary
and other spheres, is equally mythological, although occasionally
presenting practical details and notions in which there is an
approach to accuracy. The concluding legend of Bharata-in his
former life, the king so named, but now a Brahman, who acquires
true wisdom, and thereby attains liberation-is, palpably, an
invention of the compiler, and is peculiar to this Purána.
(
The arrangement of the Vedas and other writings considered
sacred by the Hindus,-being, in fact, the authorities of their
religious rites and belief,-which is described in the beginning of
the third book, is of much importance to the history of Hindu
literature and of the Hindu religion. The sage Vyása is here
represented, not as the author, but the arranger or compiler of the
Vedas, the Itihásas, and Puránas. His name denotes his character,
meaning the arranger' or distributor;' and the recurrence of
many Vyásas, many individuals who new-modelled the Hindu
scriptures, has nothing, in it, that is improbable, except the
fabulous intervals by which their labours are separated. The
re-arranging, the refashioning, of old materials is nothing more
than the progress of time would be likely to render necessary.
The last recognized compilation is that of Krishna Dwaipayana,
assisted by Brahmans who were already conversant with the sub-
jects respectively assigned to them. They were the members of a
college, or school, supposed, by the Hindus, to have flourished in
a period more remote, no doubt, than the truth, but not at all
unlikely to have been instituted at some time prior to the accounts
of India which we owe to Greek writers, and in which we see
enough of the system to justify our inferring that it was then
entire. That there have been other Vyásas and other schools since
that date, that Brahmans unknown to fame have remodelled some
of the Hindu scriptures, and especially, the Puránas, cannot
reasonably be contested, after dispassionately weighing the strong
internal evidence, which all of them afford, of the intermixture of
unauthorized and comparatively modern ingredients. But the
VIS
723
same internal testimony furnishes proof, equally decisive, of the
anterior existence of ancient materials; and it is, therefore, as idle
as it is irrational, to dispute the antiquity or authenticity of the
greater portion of the contents of the Puránas, in the face of
abundant positive and circumstantial evidence of the prevalence of
the doctrines which they teach, the currency of the legends which
they narrate, and the integrity of the institutions which they
describe, at least three centuries before the Christian era. But
the origin and development of their doctrines, traditions, and insti-
tutions were not the work of a day; and the testimony that
establishes their existence three centuries before Christianity,
carries it back to a much more remote antiquity, to an antiquity
that is, probably, not surpassed by any of the prevailing fictions,
institutions, or beliefs, of the ancient world.
The remainder of the third book describes the leading institu-
tions of the Hindus, the duties of castes, the obligations of different
stages of life, and the celebration of obsequial rites, in a short but
primitive strain, and in harmony with the laws of Manu. It is a
distinguishing feature of the Vishnu Purána, and it is characteristic
of its being the work of an earlier period than most of the Puránas,
that it enjoins no sectarial or other acts of supererogation; no
Vratas, occasional self-imposed observances; no holydays, no
birthdays of Krishna, no nights dedicated to Lakshmí; no sacrifices
or modes of worship other than those conformable to the ritual of
the Vedas. It contains no Máhátmyas or golden legends, even of
the temples in which Vishnu is adored.
The fourth book contains all that the Hindus have of their
ancient history. It is a tolerably comprehensive list of dynasties
and individuals; it is a barren record of events. It can scarcely
be doubted, however, that much of it is a genuine chronicle of
persons, if not of occurrences. That it is discredited by palpable
absurdities in regard to the longevity of the princes of the earlier
dynasties, must be granted; and the particulars preserved of some
of them are trivial and fabulous. Still, there is an inartificial
simplicity and consistency in the succession of persons, and a
possibility and probability in some of the transactions, which give
724
VIS
to these traditions the semblance of authenticity, and render it
likely, that they are not altogether without foundation. At any
rate, in the absence of all other sources of information, the record,
such as it is, deserves not to be altogether set aside. It is not
essential to its credibility, or its usefulness, that any exact chrono-
logical adjustment of the different reigns should be attempted.
Their di ribution amongst the several Yugas, undertaken by Sir
William Jones, or his Pandits, finds no countenance from the
original texts, further than an incidental notice of the age in which
a particular monarch ruled, or the general fact that the dynasties
prior to Krishna precede the time of the Great War and the
beginning of the Kálí age; both which events we are not obliged,
with the Hindus, to place five thousand years ago. To that
age the solar dynasty of princes offers ninety-three descents, the
lunar, but forty-five; though they both commence at the same
time. Some names may have been added to the former list, some
omitted in the latter; and it seems most likely, that, notwith-
standing their synchronous beginning, the princes of the lunar race
were subsequent to those of the solar dynasty. They avowedly
branched off from the solar line; and the legend of Sudyumna,
that explains the connexion, has every appearance of having been
contrived for the purpose of referring it to a period more remote
than the truth. Deducting, however, from the larger number of
princes a considerable proportion, there is nothing to shock probu-
bility in supposing, that the Hindu dynasties and their ramifications
were spread through an interval of about twelve centuries anterior
to the war of the Mahábhárata, and, conjecturing that event to
have happened about fourteen centuries before Christianity, thus
carrying the commencement of the regal dynasties of India to
about two thousand six hundred years before that date. This may,
or may not, be too remote; but it is sufficient, in a subject where
precision is impossible, to be satisfied with the general impression,
that, in the dynasties of kings detailed in the Puránas, we have a
record which, although it cannot fail to have suffered detriment
from age, and may have been injured by careless or injudicious
compilation, preserves an account, not wholly undeserving of
confidence, of the establishment and succession of regular monar-
VIS
725
chies, amongst the Hindus, from as early an era, and for as conti-
nuous a duration, as any in the credible annals of mankind.
After the date of the great war, the Vishnu Purána, in common
with those Puránas which contain similar lists, specifies kings and
dynasties with greater precision, and offers political and chronolo-
gical particulars to which, on the score of probability, there is
nothing to object. In truth, their general accuracy has been
incontrovertibly established. Inscriptions on columns of stone, on
rocks, on coins, deciphered only of late years, through the extra-
ordinary ingenuity and perseverance of Mr. James Prinsep, have
verified the names of races and titles of princes-the Gupta and
Andhra Rájas, mentioned in the Puránas-and have placed beyond
dispute the identity of Chandragupta and Sandrocoptus; thus
giving us a fixed point from which to compute the date of other
persons and events. Thus, the Vishnu Purána specifies the interval
between Chandragupta and the Great War to be eleven hundred
years; and the occurrence of the latter little more than fourteen
centuries B. C., remarkably concurs with inferences of the like date
from different premises. The historical notices that then follow
are considerably confused; but they probably afford an accurate
picture of the political distractions of India at the time when they
were written and much of the perplexity arises from the corrupt
state of the manuscripts, the obscure brevity of the record, and
our total want of the means of collateral illustration.
The fifth book of the Vishnu Purára is exclusively occupied.
with the life of Krishna. This is one of the distinguishing charac-
teristics of the Purána, and is one argument against its antiquity.
It is possible, though not yet proved, that Krishna, as an Avatára
of Vishnu, is mentioned in an indisputably genuine text of the
Vedas. He is conspicuously prominent in the Mahábhárata, but
very contradictorily described there. The part that he usually
performs is that of a mere mortal; although the passages are
numerous that attach divinity to his person. There are, however,
no descriptions, in the Mahábhárata, of his juvenile frolics, of his
sports in Vrindávana, his pastimes with the cow-boys, or even his
destruction of the Asuras sent to kill him. These stories have,
all, a modern complexion; they do not harmonize with the tone
726
VIS
of the ancient legends, which is, generally, grave, and, sometimes,
majestic. They are the creations of a puerile taste and grovel-
ling imagination. These chapters of the Vishnu Purána offer some
difficulties as to their originality. They are the same as those on
the same subject in the Brahmá Purána: they are not very dissi-
milar to those of the Bhagavata. The latter has some incidents
which the Vishnu has not, and may, therefore, be thought to have
improved upon the prior narrative of the latter. On the other
hand, abridgment is equally a proof of posteriority as amplification.
The simpler style of the Vishnu Purána is, however, in favour of
its priority; and the miscellaneous composition of the Brahmá
Purána renders it likely to have borrowed these chapters from the
Vishnu. The life of Krishna in the Hari Vamsa and the Brahmá
Vaivarta are, indisputably, of later date.
The
The last book contains an account of the dissolution of the
world, in both its major and minor cataclysms; and, in the parti-
culars of the end of all things by fire and water, as well as in the
principle of their perpetual renovation, presents a faithful exhibi-
tion of opinions that were general in the ancient world.
metaphysical annihilation of the universe, by the release of the
spirit from bodily existence, offers, as already remarked, other
analogies to doctrines and practices taught by Pythagoras and
Plato, and by the Platonic Christians of later days.
The Vishnu Purána has kept very clear of particulars from
which an approximation of its date may be conjectured. No place
is described of which the sacredness has any known limit, nor any
work cited of probable recent composition. The Vedas, the
Puránas, other works forming the body of Sanskrit literature, are
named; and so is the Mahábhárata, to which, therefore, it is subše-
quent. Both Bauddhas and Jainas are adverted to.. It was,
therefore, written before the former had disappeared. But they
existed, in some parts of India, as late as the twelfth century,
at least; and it is probable that the Purána was compiled before
that period. The Gupta kings reigned in the seventh century.
The historical record of the Purána which mentious them was,
therefore, later; and there seems little doubt that the same alludes
to the first incursions of the Mohammedans, which took place in
VIS
727
the eighth century; which brings it still lower. In describing the
latter dynasties, some, if not all, of which were, no doubt, contem-
porary, they are described as reigning, altogether, one thousand
seven hundred and ninety-six years. Why this duration should
have been chosen does not appear; unless, in conjunction with
the number of years which are said to have elapsed between the
Great War and the last of the Andhra dynasty, which preceded
these different races, and which amounted to two thousand three
hundred and fifty, the compiler was influenced by the actual date
at which he wrote. The aggregate of the two periods would be
the Kálí year 4146, equivalent to A. D. 1045. There are some
variety and indistinctness in the enumeration of the periods which
compose this total: but the date which results from it is not
unlikely to be an approximation to that of the Vishņu Purána.”-
Wilson's Works, Vol. VI, 102–112.
Visva-A daughter of the patriarch Daksha, who was married
to Dharma and became the mother of the Visvadevas.
Visvabhavana-A name of Vishnu, as creator of the uni-
verse; meaning one with crude nature.
Visvachi-One of the Daiviki Apsarasas, or divine nymphs
who engage in the interruption of the penances of holy sages.
Visvadevas--A class of deities to whom sacrifices are daily
offered. The worship of the Visvadevas forms a part of the
general Sráddhas, and of the daily sacrifices of the householder.
According to the Váyu this was a privilege conferred on them by
Brahma and the Pitris, as a reward for religious austerities practis-
ed by them upon Himálaya. Their introduction as a specific class
seems to have originated in the custom of sacrificing to the gods
collectively, or to all the gods, as the name Visvade vas implies.
They appear, however, as a distinct class in the Vedas, and their
assumption of this character is therefore of ancient date. The
daily offering to them is noticed by Manu.-Wilson's Notes to
Vishnu Purána.
Visvagaswa-An ancient rája of the solar line-the son of
Prithu.
728
VIS
Visvagjyotish-The eldest of the hundred sons of Satajit,
who reigned in India in the first Manwantara.
Visvajit-1, A king of Hastinapura, the son of Jayadratha;
2, A king of Magadha, the son of Satyajit.
Visvakarma--The celestial architect, the Indian Hephæstus,
Mulciber, or Vulcan; originally called Tvashtri (q. v.) The
architect and artist of the gods. He was the son of the Vasu
Prabhása and his wife, the lovely and virtuous Yogasiddha. He
is said in the V. P. to be the author of a thousand arts, the
mechanist of the gods, the fabricator of all ornaments, the chief
of artists, the constructor of the self-moving chariots of the deities,
and by whose skill men obtain subsistence. Sir W. Jones con-
siders Visvakarma to be the Vulcan of the Greeks and Romans,
being, like Vulcan, the forger of arms for the gods, and inventor
of the agnyastra, or fire shaft, in the war between them and the
Daityas or Titans.-As. Res., Vol. I, 264. See TVASHTRI.
Visvakarman, Visvakarya-Two of the seven principal.
solar rays.
Visvakena-1, The Manu of the fourteenth Man wantara
according to the lists in the Matsya and Pádma Puránas ; 2, A king
of Hastinapura, the son of Brahmadatta.
Visvamitra-A celebrated Rishi. According to the Rámá-
yana he had originally been a Kshatriya and a great warrior, but
subsequently practised so may religious austerities in the Himalaya
mountains that he ultimately became a brahman. His character is
therefore somewhat anomalous. Max Müller considers that he
opposed the ambition of the brahmans, and would not submit to
their exclusive claims. He at length succeeded in gaining for
himself and family the rights for which he struggled, and which
the Brahmans had previously withheld from all but their own caste.
Visvamitra, however, was reconciled as soon as he was allowed to
share in the profits of the priestly power, and became a favourite
hero in Brahmanical tradition.
When Mahárája Dasaratha was one day discussing with his
Councillors the subject of his son Ráma's marriage, Visvamitra
VIS
729
arrived at the gate of the palace, and desired the doorkeeper to go
within and tell the Mahárája that Visvamitra the son of Gadhi, was
there. The Mahárája on hearing the message rose up with his
two priests and went out to meet the sage, whom he received with
every honour, saying, "Your coming, O great sage, is as grateful to
me as amrita, as the fall of rain in the proper season, as the birth of
a son to a childless father, as the recovery of lost treasure, as the
dawning of a great joy." Visvamitra then stated the object of his
visit-that Ráma should accompany him back to his hermitage to
destroy the Rakshasas; an arrangement, to which the Mahárája
reluctantly consented. He then acted as Guru to Ráma and
commanded him to slay Táraká; removing his objections about
killing a woman, and providing him with divine weapons and
mantras. After the marriage of Ráma, Visvámitra retired to the
Himalaya mountains. During a twelve years' famine, Trisauku
provided food for Visvamitra and his family, and the sage being
highly pleased, elevated him in his living body to heaven. This
legend Wilson thinks is astronomical, and alludes possibly to some
reformation of the sphere by Visvamitra under the patronage of
Trişanku, and in opposition to a more ancient system advocated by
the school of Vasishtha, q. v. The fact of Visvámitra having been
both a rishi and an officiating priest, is undoubted. If we look to
the number of Vedic hymns ascribed to him and to his family, to
the long devotion to sacerdotal functions which this fact implies,
and to the apparent improbability that a person who had himself
stood in the position of a king should afterwards have become a
professional priest, we may find it difficult to believe that although
(as he certainly was) a scion of royal stock, he had ever himself
exercised royal functions.-O. S. T., I, 364.
"A kind of consecutive biography of Visvámitra is given in the
first book of the Rámáyana, of which it forms one of the most
interesting episodes. Its substance is as follows:-Once, when
roaming over the earth with his armies, Visvamitra came to the
hermitage of Vasishṭha, and was there received by the saint in the
most sumptuous style. Vasishtha could afford to entertain the
king in this manner because he possessed a fabulous cow of plenty
that yielded him everything he desired. Visvamitra becoming
92
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VIS
aware of the source of Vasishtha's wealth, strongly wished to
possess the cow, and asked Vasishtha to sell her to him. The saint
however refusing this offer, the king seized her, intending to carry
her off by force. But the tow resisted and ultimately displayed
her supernatural powers in producing from different parts of her
body numerous peoples, and by them destroying the armies of
Visvamitra. The king then had recourse to the magical weapons
he possessed, but they were defeated by those of Vasishṭha, and to
the humiliation thus inflicted on him he then gave vent in
exclaiming Contemptible is the might of a Kshatriya; a
Brahman's might alone is might.' And reflecting what he should
do in this emergency, he resolved to practise austerities in order
to attain the rank of a Brahman. In consequence he went to the
south, and performed severe penance during a thousand years;
when at the end of this period the god Brahmá appeared to him,
and announced that he had become a Rajarshi, or Royal Rishi.
But Visvamitra was not satisfied with this degree of promotion, and
continued his austerities for another such period. During that
time, king Triṣanku of Ayodhya, of the family of Ikshváku, had
determined to perform a sacrifice that would enable him to proceed
bodily to heaven, and solicited for this purpose the assistance of
Vasishtha, who was the family priest of "all the Ikshvákus." This
saint, however, having declared the scheme of the king impossible,
and his sons also having refused to act in their father's place,
Trișanku told them he would resort to another priest. He applied
to Visvamitra, who showed his power by performing the sacrifice
so much desired by Triṣanku, and accomplishing his object in spite
of the resistance of Vasishtha and his sons, and that of the gods
themselves.
This event having caused a serious interruption in the austerities
of Visvamitra, he proceeded to the forest Pushkara in the west, to
remain undisturbed. It was then the tragic incident related under
HARISCHANDRA occurred. It was in the forest that Sunaṣepha
saw his uncle Visvamitra, and implored him to come to his rescue.
Visvamitra first commanded fifty of his own sons to offer themselves
up as a ransom for their cousin. And on their refusing to do so,
cursed them to become outcastes : but afterwards taught Sunaṣepha
VIS
731
two hymns, which if sung by him at the sacrifice would save his
life. The liberation of Sunaṣepha having been effected, and
Visvamitra having continued his penance for another thousand
years, Brahmá conferred on him the diguity of a Rishi. But not
satisfied with this distinction he went on practising still fiercer
austerities than ever. These the gods interrupted by sending a
heavenly nymph Menaka, who excited his worldly passions; still
in the end he attained the rank of a Maharshi, or great Rishi. And
after two thousand years of still more rigorous penance which for
a time was again interrupted by the allurements of a nymph
Rambha, the gods headed by Brahmá, came to acknowledge that
he had now become a Brahmarshi, or Brahman Rishi; and
Vasishtha himself was compelled to express acquiescence in the
result he had achieved.
The above three paragraphs are abridged from Goldstücker's
article in Chambers's Encyclopædia. Many other legends are
given in Muir's O. S. T., Vol. I. Visvamitra's cruel treatment of
Harischandra and his family has already been quoted. (See
SAÍVYA). Various versions are given of the legend of Trișanku
and of the conflicts between Vasishtha and Visvamitra. Professor
Lassen, who quotes the stories, makes the following remarks on
their import :
"The legend of the struggle between Vasishtha and Visvámitra
embraces two distinct points; one is the contest between the
priests and warriors for the highest rank; the other is the
temporary alienation of the Ikshvákus from their family priests.
Vasishtha is represented as the exemplar of such a priest; and the
story of Kalmáshapáda is related for the express purpose of
showing by an example that the Ikshvákus, after they had retained
him, were victorious; in his capacity of priest he continued to live
on, and is the representative of his whole race. We may conclude
from the legend that his descendants had acquired the position of
family priests to the Ikshvákus, though neither he himself nor his
son Śaktri belonged to their number. Trisanku is the first prince
who forsook them, and had recourse to Visvamitra. His successor
Ambarisha received support from that personage, as well as from
Richíka, one of the Bhrigus; -a family whose connection with the
732
VIS
Kusikas appears also in the story of Paruşaráma. The hostility
between the Ikshvákus and the family of Vasishstha continued.
down to Kalmáshapáda. Visvamitra is represented as having
intentionally fostered the alienation; while Vasishtha is represented
as forbearing (though he had the power) to annihilate his rival.
The conflict between the two rivals, with its motives aud
machinery, is described in the forms peculiar to the fully-developed
epos. To this style of poetry is to be referred the wonder-working
cow, which supplies all objects of desire. There is no ground for
believing in any actual war with weapons between the contending
parties; or in any participation of degraded Kshatriyas, or aboriginal
tribes, in the contest; for all these things are mere poetical creations.
Besides, the proper victory of Vasishtha was not gained by arms,
but by his rod. The legend represents the superiority of the
Brahmans as complete, since Visvámitra is forced to acknowledge
the insufficiency of a warrior's power; and acquires his position as
a Brahman by purely Brahmanical methods.
From Visvamitra are derived many of the sacerdotal families
which bear the common name of Kausika, and to which many
rishis, famous in tradition belong. As there were also kings in
this family, we have here an example of the fact that one of the
old vedic races became divided, and in later times belonged to both
of the two higher castes. It appears impossible that any of
the aboriginal tribes should have been among the descendants of
Visvamitra's sons, as the legend represents; and the meaning of
this account may therefore be that some of his sons and their
descendants accepted the position of priests among these tribes, and
are in consequence described as accursed."-O. S. T., I, 426.
Visvamitras-The Visvamitras are known as Kuşikas or
Kausikas; that is, they came from Kush, to this day the name
of a river near the Asia Palus, where M. Ferrier found the ruins
of a large place called Kussan. The Kushan, he tells us, were a
famous Scythian race, who held Balkh in remote antiquity. Sir
H. Rawlinson found their bricks, with cuneiform Scythic legends
at Susa and in the Persian Gulf. Kush is largely used in a local
nomenclature in Central Asia. The Caspian Sea, Cashgar, Kash-
mere, Khas-Saks, (Saca or Cossaks) Caucas-as (Khas-mountain)
VIS-VIT
733
Cossæ or Cisü in Persia, the Bal-kash lake and the Kush, and
these are but a mere sample, and it is supposed that the Scythians
did not come to the Cushites, but that the Cushites colonized
Mongolia as they colonized Arabia, Ethiopia and the N. coast of
the Indian Ocean. Indra himself is called a son of Kusika. Fire
and Indra-worship seem to have been introduced by the Visva-
mitras and to have supplanted a previous sun-worship of earlier
immigrants.-Calcutta Review.
Visvarupa-1, A name of Vishnu; who is both Bhútesa,
lord of created things;' and Visvarúpa, 'universal substance;' he
is therefore as one with sensible things subject to his own control
2, A name of one of the Rudras.
Visvasaha—1, A king of Mithila, the son of Ilavila; 2,
Another king of Mithila, the son of Abhyutthi-taşwa, descendant
of Ráma.
Visvasphatika-A Rája of Magadha, who is said to have
extirpated the Kshatryas and elevated fishermen, barbarians,
Brahmans, and other castes, to power. His name is sometimes
made Viswasphurtti.
Visvavasa-One of the sons of Purúravas.
Visvesa-A daughter of Daksha married to Dharma.
Vitahavya-A king of Mithila, the son of Sunaya.
Vitala--The second of the seven divisions of Pátála; whose
soil is black.
Vitasta--A river, the modern Jhelum, but still called in Kash-
mere the Vitasta or Hydaspes.
Vitatha-Unprofitable; a name given to Rája Bharatwája,
who was a sage as well as king.
Vithi-A division of the planetary sphere.
Vitihotra-1, The rinth son of Priyavrata, according to the
Bhagavata; he is called Putra in the other Puranas, and adopted a
religious life; 2, The eldest son of Tálajangha, a Yádava chief:
Vitihotras-A branch of the Haihaya tribe.
;
734
VIT-VRI
Vitunda-A demon, the son of Tunda; the Pádma Purána
contains an account of its destruction by Bhágavati.
Vivaswat--1, A Prajapati; 2, One of the twelve Ádityas; 3,
The Sun, and father of Vaivaswata Manu.
Vivinsati--A prince of the solar dynasty, the son of Vinsa.
Vraja--One of the sons of Havirdhána and uncle of the
Prachetasas.
Vrata-An occasional self-imposed observance or ceremony.
Vrihadbala-A prince of the solar race, the son of Visruta-
vat; he was slain in the great war by Abhimanyu, the son of Arjuna.
Vrihadaswa-A Rája of Bhárata, the father of the celebrated
Kuvalayaswa, q. v.
Vrihadbhanu-A Rája of Bhárata, the son of Vrihatkarman.
Vrihadisha--1, A king of Hastinapura, the son of Ajamídha ;
2, One of the five sons of Haryyaşwa, termed the Panchalas.
Vrihadratha--1, A Rája of Bhárata, the son of Bhadraratha ;
2, A son of Uparichara the Vasu; 3, A son of Tigma of the race
of Puru; 4, The last of the ten Mauryan kings of Magadha, the
son of Sasadharman.
Vrihannaradiya Purana-A modern compilation, erroneously
termed a Purána, containing paneygrical prayers addressed to
Vishnu, and injunctions to observe various rites and keep holy
certain seasons in honour of him.
Vrihaspati--A sage, the son of Angiras, the priest and pre-
ceptor of the Devatas; a teacher of the science of government.
He had a handsome wife named Tárá, who was carried off by Soma
(the moon), which led to a fierce contest termed the Táraká war.
The Daityas, Danavas, and other foes of the gods took part with
Soma; whilst Indra and all the gods were the allies of Vrihaspati.
Peace was not restored till Brahma interposed and compelled Soma
to restore Tárá to her husband. Vrihaspati was Vyása of the
fourth Mauwantara.
Vrihaspati--The planet Jupiter; described in the V. P.
having a golden car drawn by eight pale-coloured horses.
as
VRI
735
Vrihatkarman--1, A prince, the son of the Rája of Bhárata,
Bhadraratha; 2, A king of Hastinapur, son of Vrihadvasu; 3,
A king of Magadha, son of Sukshatra.
Vrihatshana-A Rája of the solar race after the great war.
His father Vribadbala, was killed by Abhimanyu.
Vrihatkshatra--A prince of Bhárata, the son of Bhavan-
manya.
Vrihat-sama--A portion of the Sáma Veda, created from the
southern mouth of Brahma.
Vrijinivat--A Yádava prince, the son of Kroshtri.
Vrika--1, One of the sons of Prithu, according to the Bhága-
vata; 2, The son of Rája Ruruka; 3, A son of Krishna.
Vrikadeva--One of the daughters of Devaka, who was mar-
ried to Vasudeva.
Vrikala, Vrikatejas--Two sons of Slishtí, and grandsons of
Dhruva.
Vrisha-1, The Indra of the eleventh Manwantara; 2, A
Yádava chief, the son of Vítihotra.
Vrishadarbha—A Rája of the solar race, the son of Sivi.
Vrishakapi—An appellation of one of the eleven Rudras.
Vrishana-One of the hundred sons of the Mahárája Kart-
tavirya.
Vrishaparvan-A powerful Dánava chief, the son of Kasyapa
and Danu.
Vrishasena-One of the Anga kings, the son of Karna.
Vrishni-1, A Yádava chief, the eldest son of Madhu; 2,
Another Yádava chief, the son of Kunti or Kumbhi; 3, A son of
Satwata, a Rája of Mrittikavati; 4, A cousin of the above, the
son of Bhajamána.
Vrishnimat-A Rája of the solar race, the son of Chitraratha.
Vritra-The demon who personifies drought; the cloud enemy
of Indra, who imprisons the rain in the storm-cloud. He is repre-
sented as false and treacherous as he is malignant. He is termed
the thief who hides away the rain-clouds. He constantly appears
736
VRI
as the enemy of Indra, who is called Vritrahan, the Vritra-slayer,
Vritra became a name applied to any enemy." The Vrittra of the
Vrittras denoted the most malignant of adversaries. So again
Vrittra the thief is also called Ahi, the throttling snake, or dragon
with three heads."*
"Who is that, without alarm,
Defies the might of Indra's arm;
That stands and sees without dismay
The approaching Maruts' dread array;
That does not shun in wild affright,
The terrors of the deadly fight?
"Tis Vrittra, he whose magic powers.
From earth withhold the genial showers,
Of mortal men the foe malign,
And rival of the race divine
Whose demon hosts from age to age,
With Indra war unceasing wage,
Who, times unnumbered, crushed and slain,
Is ever newly born again,
And evermore renew the strife
In which again he forfeits life.
Perched on a steep aerial height,
Shone Vrittra's stately fortress bright.
Upon the wall, in martial mood,
The bold gigantic demon stood,
Confiding in his magic arts,
And armed with store of fiery darts.
And then was seen a dreadful sight,
When god and demon met in fight.
His sharpest missiles Vṛittra shot,
His thunderbolts and lightnings hot
He hurled as thick as rain.
*
*
*
And soon the knell of Vrittra's doom
Was sounded by the clang and boom
* Cox, Mythology of the Aryan Nations.
VYA
737
Of Indra's iron shower;
Pierced, cloven, crushed, with horrid yell,
The dying demon headlong fell
Down from his cloud-built tower."
Vyadhi--Disease; Represented as the son of Mritya, (Death.)
Vyadi-A brahman who stopped at the dwelling of Vararuchi
on one occasion and solicited hospitality, as a stranger weary with
long travel. He then became acquainted with Vararuchi's won-
derful powers of memory-was instructed by him, and became a
writer of note on philological topics.-Wilson, III, 165.
Vyahritis--The three mystical words, Bhúh, Bhuvar, Swar;
which, with the monosyllable Om, and the Vedas, are considered
as forms of Vasudeva (Brahmá,) diversified as to their typical
character, but essentially one and the same.
The daily prayers of
the Brahman commence with the formula, Om bhúh, bhuvar,
swar; Om earth, sky, heaven; these three mystical terms called
Vyáhritis, are scarcely of less sanctity than the Pranava itself.
Their efficacy, and the order of their repetition preceding the
Gayatri, are fully detailed in Manu, II, 76–81. In the Mitákshara
they are directed to be twice repeated mentally, with Om prefixed
to each; Om bhúb, Om bhuvah, Om swar; the breath being
suppressed by closing the lips and nostrils.-Wilson's Notes to
Vishnu Purána.
Vyakarana-Grammar; an Anga of the Vedas. That a
scientific study of Grammar was cultivated at a very early period
of Hindu literature is borne out by the testimony of the oldest
glossator on the Vedas, Yaska (q. v.) The oldest extant work,
however, on Sanskrit Grammar is posterior to the work of Yaska;
it is the Grammar of Pánini (q. v.) which was criticised by
Kátgáya, in the Várttikas, these again being commented on and
criticised by Patanjali in the Mahabhásya. (See PANINI, where
some of the principal later works connected with his system are
mentioned.)—GOLDSTUCKER.
Vyakta-Visible substance; a form of Vishņu.
MUIR, O. S. T., V, 133—5.
93
738
VYA
Vyansa-A powerful Dánava, the eldest son of Viprachitti.
Vyapti-Universal; the inherent and essential presence of any
one thing or property in another, as the deity in the universe, &c.
In the Nyaya system of Gautama a Vyápti means a pervading rule.
It is thus explained by Professor Max Müller: knowledge is a
quality of the Self, in the same manner as colour is of light. It
is inseparably connected with it, and is explained as the cause of
every conception that is expressed in language. Knowledge is
either remembrance or perception. Perception is two-fold, right
or wrong. Right perception represents the thing such as it is,
silver as silver. Wrong perception represents the thing as the
thing is not, mother o'pearl as silver. Right perception is four-fold,
sensuous, conclusive, comparative, and authoritative. It is produced
by the senses, by inferring, by comparing, and by revealed authority.
The different kinds of sensuous perception arise from the different
ways in which the organs of sense are brought into contact with
their objects, which objects may be either substantial matter, or
qualities and actions, as inherent in substance, or the Genus as
inherent in substances, qualities and actions.
After sensuous knowledge comes conclusive knowledge, which
is gained by means of inferring. Conclusive knowledge is for
instance. "This mountain is a volcano," whereas our sensuous
perception is only that the mountain smokes. In order to arrive
from this at the conclusion that it is a volcano, we must be in
possession of what is called a pervading rule or a Vyápti. This
smoke is inseparably connected with fire, or as the Hindu calls it,
that smokiness is pervaded by fieriness, that wherever there is
smoke there is fire. If we possess this Vyápti, which we may
remember by such instances as a culinary hearth, &c., then in
order to arrive at conclusive knowledge we only require considera-
tion, (parámarsa) in order to find out in any sensuous impressiop
something which can be pervaded, something which can make the
mountain the member of a Vyapti, this something being in our
case the smoke. If we know that the smoke which we perceive is
qualified to become part of a Vyápti (this Vyápti being wherever
there is smoke there is fire'), then we know conclusively that this
mountain is fiery because it smokes.
VYA
739
+
They distinctly
For things they
The conditions under which it is allowed to form a Vyápti, that
is to say to form Universals, have occupied the attention of Hindu
philosophers more than any other point in Logic.
exclude the mere accumulation of observations.
say may be together a hundred times and may still not be mutually
inherent. They make exceptions for practical purposes. Their
repeated observations may be turned into a general rule, but not in
philosophical discussions, Volumes after volumes have been written
on this subject, and though I do not believe they will throw new
light on the question of the origin of Universals, yet they would
furnish a curious parallel to the history of the European intellect.*
Vyasa-A great brahman sage who lived in the forest, and by
a long course of religious penances had become emaciated and
hideous in appearance. He is described as the son of Paráṣara and
a fish girl named Matsya, who was employed as a ferry woman in
one of the many small rivers which intersect eastern Bengal, and
flow into the Brahmaputra. His original name was Krishna
Dwaipayana, but having become famous as the compiler of the
Mahábhárata, and the Vedas, he is generally known by the uame
of Vyása, or "the arranger." Among all the Brahman sages of
antiquity famous for their learning, their austerities, and their
miracles few can be compared with the Rishi Vyása. The follow-
ing legend is related to show that he was the direct ancestor of
the Kauravas and Pandavas who fought in the great war; but is
considered by Mr. Wheeler to be open to the gravest suspicion.
After the death of Rája Vichitra Vírya (q. v.) his widows were
filled with sorrow, because they had no son to perpetuate the race
of Bharata. The custom was that when a man died without issue,
his brother or near kinsmau should marry his widows. The Ráni
Satyavati therefore applied to Bhishma, who refused on account
of his vow. She then requested the sage Vyása to take his place.
He proceeded to the palace of Hastinapur and fulfilled the wishes
of the Ráni; but his presence filled the widows with terror. The
first shut her eyes when she beheld him, and she gave birth to a
* Indian Logic. Outline of the necessary Laws of Thought, by Archbishop
of York.
286-90.
740
VYA
son who was blind, and who was named Dhritarashtra ; and the
second widow was so white with fear that she gave birth to a son
who was pale, and who was named Pándu. Then Satyavati
requested Vyása to become the father of a third son who should
be without blemish; and the first widow would not go to him, but
arrayed her maid servant in garments of her own, and sent her to
the sage in her stead; and the servant gave birth to a third son
who was named Vidura. Thus were born three sons to the royal
house at Hastinapur; viz :-
Dhritarashtra the blind; Páṇḍu, the pale; and Vidura, the
slave-born.
Vyasas-Arrangers of the Vedas in every Dwápara age;
twenty-eight are enumerated: The following is the list contained
in Vishnu Purána :—
(6
Twenty-eight times have the Vedas been arranged by the
great Rishis, in the Vaivaswata Manwantara in the Dwápara age;
and, consequently, eight and twenty Vyásas have passed away; by
whom, in their respective periods, the Veda has been divided into
four. In the first Dwápara age, the distribution was made by
Swayambhú (Brahmá) himself; in the second, the arranger of the
Veda (Vedavyása) was Prajapati (or Manu); in the third,
Ușanas; in the fourth, Brihaspati; in the fifth, Savitṛi; in the
sixth, Mrityu (Death, or Yama); in the seventh, Indra; in the
eighth, Vasishtha; in the ninth, Saraswata ; in the tenth, Tridhá-
man; in the eleventh, Trivrishau; in the twelfth, Bharadwája ;
in the thirteenth, Antariksha; in the fourteenth, Vaprívan; in
the fifteenth, Trayyáruņa; in the sixteenth, Dhananjaya; in
the seventeenth, Kritanjaya ; in the eighteenth, Rinajaya; in
the nineteenth, Bharadwaja; in the twentieth, Gautama; in the
twenty-first, Uttama, also called Haryátman; in the twenty-
second, Vena, who is likewise named Rájaṣravas; in the twenty-
third, Saumaṣushmáyana, also Triņabindu; in the twenty-fourth,
Riksha, the descendant of Bhrigu, who is known also by the name
Válmiki; in the twenty-fifth, my father, Sakti, was the Vyása;
I was the Vyása of the twenty-sixth Dwápara, and was succeed-
ed by Játúkarna; the Vyása of the twenty-eighth, who follow-
VYA VYU
741
ed him, was Krishna Dwaipayana. These are the twenty-eight
elder Vyásas, by whom, in the preceding Dwápara ages, the Veda
has been divided into four. In the next Dwápara, Drauņi (the sou
of Drona) will be the Vyása, when my sou, the Muni Krishna
Dwaipayana, who is the actual Vyása, shall cease to be (in that
character)."
A similar list is given in the Kúrma and Váyu Puránas.
Many of the individuals appear as authors of different hymus and
prayers in the Vedas; and it is very possible that the greater
portion, if not all of them, had a real existence, being the framers
or teachers of the religion of the Hindus before a complete ritual
was compiled."— Wilson's Notes to V. P.
Vyavasaya-Perseverance.
Dharma.
One of the allegorical sons of
Vyaya-A name of Pradhána-meaning "that which may be
expended."
Vyoman-A Rája of the solar race, the son of Dasárha.
Vyushta-A name of Day: night is called Usha, and the
interval between them, Sandhya.
Y
Yadavas-The descendants of Yadu, the eldest son of Yayáti
and Devayáni. A nomade race who grazed cattle and made
butter, and occasionally migrated to different places accompanied
by their cows and waggons. The time and circumstances under
which they first entered Hindustan are alike unknown, At the
birth of Krishna they appear to have settled in the neighbourhood
of the city of Mathurá, the modern Muttra, on the banks of
the river Jumna, and about a hundred and twenty miles to the
south of the site of the ancient city of Hastinápur. They dwelt
on both sides of the river, in the village of Vrindavana on the
western bank, and in the country of Gokula on the opposite
shore. They afterwards migrated to Dwaraka, ou the western
coast of the peninsula of Guzerat, above seven hundred miles from
Hastinápur.
Krishna belonged to this tribe; and many mythical details
seem to have been connected with its history for the purpose
of exalting the tribe from which the favourite deity sprung.
It is plain that great violence and disorder prevailed wherever the
Yádavas settled. They were induced by Krishna to renounce the
worship of Indra and substitute the mountain Govarddhana in his
place; an incident which Mr. Wheeler thinks seems to imply
a conflict between a low Fetische worship, and the worship of the
Vedic deities.
The Puránas describe the destruction of the whole tribe in a
drunken affray at Prabhása. The Mahábhárata says that all the
Yádavas were slaughtered by the curse of the three Rishis, and all
the sons and grandsons of Krishna were among the slain.
"The Rájas of Vijayanagur, who in the 15th century of the
Christian era maintained a supremacy over the whole of the
YAD-YAJ
743
country south of the Krishna river, and thus possessed the last
great Hindu empire which was established in India, claimed to be
descendants of the Yádava tribe; and it is a curious fact that
it was from one of the decayed chieftains of this fallen dynasty
that the East India Company obtained, in the first half of the 17th
century, the grant of land on the coast of Coromandel on which
stands the modern city of Madras. The original grant on a gold
plate appears to have been preserved for more than a century ;
but was finally lost in 1746 when Madras was captured by the
French under Labourdonnais." Wheeler.
Yadu-The eldest son of Yayáti, and ancestor of the Yádavas.
When Yayáti ceased to reign he installed his youngest son Puru
in the sovereignty, and consigned the southern districts of the
kingdom to Yadu.
:
Yajna-Sacrifice; the character of Brahmanical sacrifice is
thus expressed by Dr. Haug, in the Introduction to the Aitareya
Brahmana.* "The sacrifice is regarded as the means for obtaining
power over this and the other world, over visible as well as
invisible beings, animate as well as inanimate creatures. Who
knows its proper application, and has it duly performed, is in fact
looked upon as the real master of the world for any desire
he may entertain, even if it be the most ambitious, can be
gratified; any object he has in view can be obtained by means of
it. The Yajna taken as a whole is conceived to be a kind of
machinery, in which every piece must tally with the other; or a
sort of large chain in which no link is allowed to be wanting; or
a staircase by which one may ascend to heaven; or as a personage,
endowed with all the characteristics of the human body. It exists
from eternity and proceeded from the Supreme Being, (Prajapati
or Brahmá neuter) along with the Traividya, i. e., the three-fold.
science. The creation of the world was even regarded as the
fruit of a sacrifice performed by the Supreme Being. The Yajua
exists as an invisible thing at all times. It is like the latent
power of electricity in an electrifying machine, requiring only the
* Vol. I, p. 73.
744
YAJ
operation of a suitable apparatus in order to be elicited. It is
supposed to extend, when unrolled from the Áhavaníya or sacrifi-
cial fire, (into which all oblations are thrown,) to heaven, forming
thus a bridge or ladder, by means of which the sacrifice can
communicate with the world of gods and spirits, and even ascend
when alone to their abodes."
Yajna-Sacrifice; an allegorical son of the patriarch Ruchi, said
to have been married to his sister Dakshina, "donation" to brahmans.
At the spoiling of Daksha's sacrifice Yajna was decapitated, and
afterwards became the constellation Mrigasiras, being elevated to
the planetary region by Brahmá.
Yajnabahu-The name of one of the sons of Priyavrata, as
given in the Bhagavata. See AGNIBÁHU.
Yajnas-Five are enumerated, which are translated great
sacrifices, or great obligations: 1, Brahmayajua, sacred study;
Pitriyajna, libations to the manes; Devayajna, burnt offerings
to the gods; Baliyajua, offerings to all creatures; Nriyajna,
hospitality.
The Prajapatiyajna, propagation of offspring, and Satyayajna,
observance of truth, are apparently later additions.- Wilson's
Notes to V. P.
Yajnasri-One of the Andhrabhritya rájas: the son of Swas-
kandha.
Yajnawalka-A teacher of the Rig Veda.
Yajnawalkya-A celebrated ascetic, the pupil of Vaisam pá-
yana who adored the sun until the luminary in the form of a
horse, appeared to him, and imparted to him the text of the
Yájush called Ayátayáma (unstudied,) which were unknown to
Vaisampayana. It was Yajnawalkya who officiated as one of the
Hotris, and cooked the sacrifice at the great Rájasuya of Yudhish-
thira. Professor Max Müller observes "that it would be a mis-
take to call Yajnawalkya the author, in our sense of the word of
the Vájasaneya Sanhita and the Satapatha Brahmana. But we
have no reason to doubt that it was Yajnawalkya who brought the
ancient Mantras and Brahmanas into their present form." A. S. L.
YAJ-YAM
745
"Yajnawalkya Vajasaneya was evidently a man of great influence,
a leader of public opinion in his day; and one longs to know
when he lived. But this is a subject still requiring much elucidation,
as may be seen in the Introduction to Professor Goldstücker's
Pánini."-Mrs. Manning; A. & M. I.
Yajur Veda-See Appendix.
Yajush-The Yajur Veda,
Yaksha-The son of Khasá and parent of the Yakshas, as his
brother Rákshas was of the Rákshasas.
Yakshas-Minor deities; inferior divinities. Demi-gods espe-
cially attendant on Kuvera, and employed by him on the care of
his garden and treasures.
Yama-1, One of the minor Dwípas; 2, A watch of the
day or night.
Yama―The monarch of the Pitris and judge of the dead-
the Pluto of Hindu mythology. He is represented to be the son
of the Sun.
"Yama is the son of Vivasvat, and of Saranyú, the immortal
daughter of Tvashtri. He is elsewhere said to have been one of
the original pair of human beings, and to have sprung from the
Gandharva, a deity of the atmosphere, and his wife. In the same
hymn he is said to have resisted the solicitations of his twin sister
Yamí to form a sexual union with her for the continuation of the
species. He was the first of mortals who died, and discovered the
way to the other world; he guides other men thither, and assembles
them in a home which is secured to them for ever. In one place
he is represented as carousing with the gods under a leafy tree.
He is a king and dwells in celestial light, in the innermost sanc-
tuary of heaven, where the departed behold him associated in
blessedness with Varuna. He grants luminous abodes in heaven
to the pious, who dwell with him in festive enjoyment.
"In the Rig Veda Yama is nowhere represented (as he is in the
later Indian Mythology,) as having anything to do with the punish-
ment of the wicked. Nevertheless, Yama is still, to some extent,
an object of terror. He is represented as having two insatiable
94
746
YAM
dogs, with four eyes and wide nostrils, which guard the road to his
abode, and which the departed are advised to hurry past with all
possible speed. These dogs are said to wander about among men
as his messengers, for the purpose of summoning men to the presence
of their master, who is in another place identified with death, and
is described as sending a bird as the herald of doom. Again,
death is said to be the messenger of Yama, who conveys the spirits
of meu to the abode of their forefathers.
66
To great king Yama homage pay,
Who was the first of men that died,
That crossed the mighty gulf, and spied
For mortals out the heavenly way.
No power can ever close the road
Which he to us laid open then,
By which in long succession, men
Ascend to his sublime abode.
By it our fathers all have passed ;
And that same path we too shall trace,
And every new succeeding race
Of mortal men, while time shall last.
The god assembles round his throne
A growing throng, the good and wise
All those whom, scanned with searching eyes,
He recognizes as his own.
Departed mortal, speed from earth
By those old ways thy sires have trod ;
Ascend, behold the expectant god,
Who calls thee to a higher birth.
First must each several element
That joined to form thy living frame
Flit to the region whence it came,
And with its parent source be blent.
YAM
747
Thine eye shall seek the solar orb,
Thy life-breath to the wind shall fly,
Thy part ethereal to the sky;
Thine earthy part shall earth absorb.
Thine unborn part shall Agni bright
With his benignest rays illume;
And guide it through the trackless gloom
To yonder sphere of life and light.
All imperfections leave behind;
Assume thine ancient form once more,
Each limb and sense thou hadst before,
From every earthly taint refined.
And now with heavenly glory bright,
With life intenser, nobler, blest,
With large capacity to taste
A fuller measure of delight.
Thou there once more each well known face
Shalt see of those thou lovedst here ;
Thy parents, wife, and children dear,
With rapture shalt thou soon embrace.
The good which thou on earth hast wrought,
Each sacrifice, each pious deed,
Shall there receive its ample meed;
No worthy act shall be forgot.
In those fair realms of cloudless day
Where Yama every joy supplies,
And every longing satisfies
Thy bliss shall never know decay."
Muir, O. S. T., F', 329.
Yama-The first of the eight stages of Yoga, being self-govern-
ment, of which five kinds are specified :-
1-Freedom from any wish to injure others.
2-Truth in reference to words and thoughts.
748
YAM-YAS
3-Freedom from appropriation of others' property in thought,
word or deed.
4-The subjection of one's members in order to overcome
desire.
5—Renunciation of all indulgence of pleasure.
Yama-gita--The song of Yama ; a name given to the seventh
chapter of the third book of the Vishnu Purána.
Yamas-Moral duties; five acts of restraint: absence of cruelty
or violence, (Ahinsa), honesty (Asteya), truth (Satya), chastity
(Bramácháryya), disinterestedness (Aparigraha).
Yamas-Twelve deities, sons of Yajna and Dakshina.
Yami-1, A daughter of Daksha and wife of Dharma; 2, A
daughter of the sun, the twin sister of Yama; she became the
Yamuna river.
Yamuna--A celebrated river, described in the Puránas as the
daughter of the sun. There is a legend that Balaráma compelled
the river to change its course and follow him in his wanderings;
which Wilson thinks may allude to the construction of canals from
the Jumna, for the purposes of irrigation.
Yasas-A son of Dharma.
Yaska-A predecessor of Pánini (q. v.) and author of Nirukta,
explaining different Vedic words. Yáska was also the author of a
Commentary which bears the name of Nirukta. "Besides the
great importance which Yaksha's Nirukta possesses for a proper
understanding of the Vedic texts; it is valuable also on account
of several discussions which it raises on grammatical and other
questions; and on account of the insight it affords us into the
the scientific and religious condition of its time."-GOLDSTUCker.
Yasoda-1, The daughter of king Samoravira, who was married
to Varddhamána, who afterwards became the twenty-fourth
Tirthankara of the Jains, Mahávira.
Yasoda-2, The nurse of Krishna; who was conveyed at his
birth to the bed of Yaṣodá, by his father Vasudeva, and her own
YAS-YAY
749
new born infant Yoganidrá, removed to the bed of Devakí, and
destroyed by Kansa.
Yasodhara--The wife of Sahishnu and mother of Kámadeva.
Yati--One of the sons of Nahusha and brother of Yayáti.
Yavanas-Ionians or Greeks. The term Yavanas, though
in later times applied to the Mohammedaus, designated formerly
the Greeks. They are placed by the V. P. in the west of Bharata.
Yavinara--A king of Hastinapura, the son of Dwiuudha and
grandson of Hastin.
Yaudheya-The wife of Yudhishthira and mother of Devaka.
Yayati-The son of Rája Nahusha. He had two wives,
Devayání, the daughter of Ușanas, and Sarmishthá, the daughter
of Vṛishaparvan; of whom this genealogical verse is recited :
"Devayání bore two sons, Yadu and Turvasu. Sarmishthá, the
daughter of Vrishaparvan, had three sons, Druhyu, Anu, and
Púru." Through the curse of Usanas, Yayáti became old and
infirm before his time; but, having appeased his father-in-law, he
obtained permission to transfer his decrepitude to any one who
would consent to take it. He first applied to his eldest son, Yadu,
and said: “Your maternal grandfather has brought this premature
decay upon me. By his permission, however, I may transfer it to
you for a thousand years. I am not yet satiate with worldly
enjoyments, and wish to partake of them through the means of your
youth. Do not refuse compliance with my request." Yadu,
however, was not willing to take upon him his father's decay; on
which, his father denounced an imprecation upon him, and said :
"Your posterity shall not possess dominion." He then applied,
successively, to Druhyu, Turvasu, and Anu, and demanded of
them their juvenile vigour. They all refused, and were, in
consequence, cursed by the king. Lastly, he made the same
request of Sarmishtha's youngest son Púru, who bowed to his
father, and readily consented to give him his youth, and receive,
in exchange, Yayáti's infirmities, saying that his father had con-
ferred upon him a great favour.
The king Yayáti being, thus, endowed with renovated youth,
750
YAY
conducted the affairs of State for the good of his people, enjoying
such pleasures as were suited to his age and strength, and were not
incompatible with virtue. He formed a connexion with the celestial
nymph Viswáchí, and was wholly attached to her, and conceived
no end to his desires. The more they were gratified, the more
ardent they became; as it is said in this verse : "Desire is not
appeased by enjoyment: fire fed with sacrificial oil becomes but the
more intense. No one has ever more than enough of rice, or barley,
or gold, or cattle, or women. Abandon, therefore, inordinate desire.
When a mind finds neither good nor ill in all objects, but looks on
all with an equal eye, then everything yields it pleasure. The wise
man is filled with happiness, who escapes from desire, which the
feeble-minded can with difficulty relinquish, and which grows not
old with the aged. The hair becomes grey, the teeth fall out, as
man advances in years; but the love of wealth, the love of life, are
not impaired by age." "A thousand years have passed," reflected
Yayati, "and my mind is still devoted to pleasure: every day my
desires are awakened by new objects. I will, therefore, now
renounce all sensual enjoyment, and fix my mind upon spiritual
truth. Unaffected by the alternatives of pleasure and pain, and
having nothing I may call my own, I will, henceforth, roam the
forests with the deer."
Having made this determination, Yayáti restored his youth to
Púru, resumed his own decrepitude, installed his youngest son in
the sovereignty, and departed to the wood of penance (Tapovana).
To Turvasu he consigned the south-east districts of his kingdom;
the west, to Druhyu; the south, to Yadu; and the north, to Anu;
to govern, as viceroys, under their younger brother Púru, whom
he appointed supreme monarch of the earth." V. P.
A different account is given in the Pádma Purána. It is there
said that Yayáti was invited by Indra to heaven, and conveyed on
the way thither by Mátali, Indra's charioteer. For the conver-
sation that took place between them, see MÁTALI; the result was
that Yayáti returned to earth, where, by his virtuous administration
he rendered all his subjects exempt from passion and decay: Yama
complained that men had ceased to die, and Indra sent Kámadeva
YED
751
and his daughter Aṣruvindumati to endeavour to excite passion in
the breast of Yayáti; they succeeded, and it was then the aged
king asked his sons to give him their youth in exchange for his
decrepitude. As related above they all refused except Púru, the
youngest. Not long after Yayáti proceeded with his subjects to
Indra and ultimately to the abode of Vishņu.—Wilson, III, 37.
Yedillian-The wife of Ladurlad. It was on the latter that
Southey makes the terrible curse of Kehama to rest. Ladurlad
was at this time a widower, but his beloved daughter Kaliyal
was miraculously preserved to him, and afforded him some solace
amidst his wanderings and sufferings, so well depicted in Southey's
poem. When at length by the descent of the Ganges to the earth
the father and daughter are enabled to escape to Mount Meru and
find a place of rest beyond the influence of Kehama's Curse, and
then the long-lost Yedillian returns to him in this bower of bliss to
complete his happiness. The scene is so affectingly described that
the whole passage may be quoted :
Three happy beings are there here,
The Sire, the Maid, the Glendoveer;
A fourth approaches, ... who is this
That enters in the Bower of Bliss?
No form so fair might painter find
Among the daughters of mankind;
For death her beauties hath refined,
And unto her a form hath given
Framed of the elements of Heaven;
Pure dwelling place for perfect mind.
She stood and gazed on Sire and Child;
Her tongue not yet had power to speak,
The tears were streaming down her cheek;
And when those tears her sight beguiled,
And still her faltering accents fail'd,
The Spirit, mute and motionless,
Spread out her arms for the caress.
Made still and silent with excess
Of love and painful happiness.
752
YED
The Maid that lovely form survey'd ;
Wistful she gazed, and knew her not,
But Nature to her heart convey'd
A sudden thrill, a startling thought,
A feeling many a year forgot,
Now like a dream anew recurring,
As if again in every vein.
Her mother's milk was stirring.
With straining neck and earnest eye
She stretched her hands imploringly,
As if she fain would have her nigh,
Yet fear'd to meet the wish'd embrace,
At once with love and awe opprest.
Not so Ladurlad; he could trace,
Though brighten'd with angelic grace,
His own Yedillian's earthly face ;
He ran and held her to his breast!
Oh joy above all joys of Heaven,
By Death alone to others given,
This moment hath to him restored
The early-lost, the long-deplored.
They sin who tell us Love can die,
With life all other passions fly,
All others are but vanity.
In Heaven Ambition cannot dwell,
Nor Avarice in the vaults of Hell
Earthly these passions of the Earth,
They perish where they have their birth ;
But Love is indestructible.
Its holy flame for ever burneth,
From Heaven it came, to Heaven returneth ;
Too oft on Earth a troubled guest,
At times deceived, at times opprest,
It here is tried and purified,
Then hath in Heaven its perfect rest :
It soweth here with toil and care,
But the harvest time of Love is there.
YOG
753
Oh! when a Mother meets on high
The Babe she lost in infancy,
Hath she not then, for paius and fears,
The day of woe, the watchful night,
For all her sorrow, all her tears,
An over-payment of delight?
Yoga-Union, junction; in a spiritual sense it denotes union of
separated with universal soul; and with some latitude of expres-
sion it comes to signify the means by which such union is effected.
In the Bhagavat Gítá it is variously applied, but ordinarily
denotes the performance of religious ceremonies as a duty, and not
for interested purposes. The word has accordingly been rendered
'devotion' by Wilkins [and by Mr. J. C. Thomson] and devotio'
by Schlegel, in their translations of the Gítá. In the Vishnu Purána
it is used in a less general sense, and signifies reunion with spirit,
through the exercises necessary to perfect abstraction as they are
taught and practised by the followers of Patanjali.
6
Yoganidra-Personified delusion: the great illusory energy of
Vishnu, by whom, as utter ignorance, the whole world is beguiled.
Yoganidrá is the sleep of devotion or abstraction, the active prin-
ciple of illusion, personified, and also termed Máya and Mahamáyá,
also Avidya or ignorance. In the Markánḍeya Purána she appears
as Devi or Durgá, the Sakti or bride of Śiva; but in the Vishnu
Purána as Vaishnavi, or the Sakti of Vishnu.
Yogasiddha-The lovely and virtuous daughter of Váchaspati
who pervades the whole world without being devoted to it, was
the wife of Prabhása, the eighth of the Vasus, and bore to him the
patriarch Visvakarma, the architect and mechanist of the gods.
Yogi-Yogin--A devotee seeking the attainment of Yóga; he
has to pass through four principal stages:
1. He learns the rules of Yóga.
2. He acquires perfect knowledge.
3. He employs this knowledge practically and overcomes the
material influence of the primary elements.
95
754
YUD
4.-He destroys all consciousness of personality and indivi-
duality, (ahankára); and the soul thus becomes free.
from matter.
Thus by the prescribed methods, he has attained the state termed
Yóga, the union of the living with the supreme soul; the identity
of the living with the supreme spirit; of the Jívátma, with
Brahmá; the identity of the contemplator with the object contem-
plated.
Yudamushti-One of the sons of the Yádava chief Ugrasena.
Yudhajit-1, A prince, the son of Asvapati, rája of Kekaya,
and uncle of Bharata.
Then Bharat for the road prepared,
And with Satrughna forth he fared.
First to his sire he bade adieu,
Brave Ráma, and his mothers too.
Lord Yudhájit with joyful pride
Went forth, the brothers by his side,
And reached the city where he dwelt:
And mighty joy his father felt.
"The
2, A prince, the second son of Vrishni, rája of Mrittikávati.
Yudhishthira-The eldest of the Pándu princes.
characters of the five brothers in the Mahábhárata are drawn
with an individuality which is very unusual in Oriental poetry.
They each have their distinguishing traits, which are often painted
with much discrimination and even delicacy of touch in the lighter
shades; and yet there evidently runs a family likeness through
them all. To the European reader, Arjuna, the third brother is
the most interesting, and approaches the nearest to our ideal of
chivalry; many of his exploits remind us of Arthur's knights, or
Charlemagne's paladins; and it is he who wins Draupadi as his
wife in a tournament, where her father had offered her hand as the
conqueror's prize. With the Hindus, however, Yudhishthira, the
eldest, is the favourite; his cold passionless heroism is with them
the beau ideal of humanity; and he moves through the poem in a
calm majesty of self-possession, as if far above all the weaknesses
of man, while the sorrows and joys which chequer his life.
YUD
755
Viennent tonjours glisser sur son étre insensible,
Commes de gouttes déau sur un marbre poli.'*
:
Yudhishthira, as we have already seen, [PANDAVAS] was
taught the use of the spear by Drona, but became more distin-
guished by wisdom and goodness than for military exploits.
His uncle the Mahárája Dhritarashtra decided that Yudhishthira
had the best right to succeed him, and he was installed as
Yuvaraja. This excited the jealousy of his cousin Duryodhana,
who expostulated with the old Mahárája until he agreed to divide.
the kingdom between them, when Yudhishthira and his brethren
took leave of the Mahárája, and of all their kinsmen, and departed
with their mother Kunti to the city of Váranávati. Before their
departure they were cautioned by their uncle Vidura to beware of
fire; and soon after their arrival they discovered a wicked plot
that had been devised by Duryodhana and his friends for their
destruction. A trusty retainer of Duryodhana's, named Purochana,
had been sent on to prepare a handsome house in the city of
Váranávati for the sons of Pándu and Purochana had built the
walls of the house with lac or resin, mingled with hemp; so that
some night when the Pándavas were asleep, the doors might be
fastened in the outside and the house set on fire, and all within it be
consumed in the flames. Accordingly Purochana heartily welcomed
the Pandavas; and after having conducted them to the college of
devotees, he led them to the house prepared for their reception,
and set before them a collation of fruit, &c. Shortly after a man
came from their uncle saying,
"Vidura has sent me to dig an
underground passage from your house, to deliver you from it,
should it be set on fire."
When the passage was com-
pleted Bhíma resolved that Purochana should fall into the
snare he had laid for them. One day Kunti invited all the
poor people of the city and gave them a feast; among her
guests were a Bhíl woman and her five sous, who according
to the practice of their tribe drank a large quantity of strong
liquor, and then lay down and slept heavily. The same night a
violent wind arose, and Bhíma stole out through the passage, and
* Westminster Review, Vol. I, p. 53.
756
YUD
strongly barricaded the house of Purochaa and set it on fire; and
the flames speedily destroyed the building and reached the house
of the Pandavas ; then Bhíma conducted his mother and brethren
through the passage underground and hurried them away into the
jungle. Next morning the people of the city saw that both houses
were destroyed by fire, and believed that all the inmates had
perished; for they discovered the blackened remains of Purochana
and his servants, and also those of the Bhíl woman and her five
sons, whom they took to be those of Kunti and the Pándavas. The
tidings now reached the city of Hastinapur, and the Kauravas
greatly rejoiced at the supposed death of their enemies the
Páṇḍavas; but Bhishma, Drona, and Dritaráshtra were affected
even unto tears.
The Pandavas having escaped into the jungle met with many
adventures there. Once when the party, overcome with fatigue
were all asleep except Bhíma, who stood by to guard them, an
Asúra named Hidimba attacked him, but after a severe fight, Bhíma
slew the cannibal. The sister of the Asúra then set up a terrible
cry, but afterwards followed Bhíma and his party. She was
ultimately married to him. They all afterwards dwelt in the city of
Ekachakra, (q. v.). The next event of importance was the marriage.
of the five brothers to Draupadí, the beautiful daughter of
Drupada, the Rája of Pánchála. At her Swayamvara the Kauravas
and many distinguished Rájas assembled; but all failed to bend
the bow, when Arjuna disguised as a brahman, accomplished the
feat, and shot the arrow in the eye of the golden fish, having first
gone through the whirling Chakra below the fish. Draupadi then
threw the garland round Arjuna's neck and accompanied him to
the house of his mother. Afterwards by the advice of the sage
Vyása she was married to all the five brothers. They then returned
to Hastinapur on the invitation of Bhishma, and were given the
sovereignty of Khandava-prastha, as their half of the Ráj.
When the Pandavas were settled in this new country, they built
at first at Indra-prastha, cleared the jungle of Khandava, and drove
out the Scythian tribe known as the Nágas. When they had thus
established a supremacy over every bordering enemy, and proved
to the satisfaction of their new subjects that they could protect
YUD
757
cattle and harvests, they invited all their kinsmen and neighbours
to a Rájasúya, and in the presence of all the people solemnly
inaugurated their elder brother Yudhishthira as Rája of Khánda-
prastha. The ceremonies performed at the sacrifice were these: a
number of priests marked out the spot, and strewed the place with
the sacred kusa grass, kindled the sacrificial fire and chanted the
Vedic hymns. The so-called Rájas who attended, were probably
a rude company of half-naked warriors who feasted boisterously
beneath the shade of trees.*
The Rájasúya excited the jealous anger of Duryodhana, who
arranged for his cousin's visit to a great gambling match at
Hastinapur. Yudhishthira reluctantly consented to go from a sense
of obligation to obey the Mahárája, and accept a challenge.
Through the fraudulent contrivances of Duryodhana he lost the
whole of the Ráj; staked his brothers as slaves and lost them;
lost himself; then Draupadí; then went into exile.
After thirteen years of exile in which they had many adventures,
negotiations were opened for the return of the Pandavas. These
all-failing, preparations were made for the great war which forms
the chief event in the Mahábhárata, q. v. See also PANDAVAS, &c.
The closing scene of the Mahábhárata, describing the last days
of Yudhishthira, is considered the very finest specimen of the
heroic poetry of India. "We know of no episode even in the
Homeric poems, which can surpass its mournful grandeur, or raise
a more solemn dirge over the desolation of the fallen heart of man!
Yudhishthira has won the throne, and his enemies are all fallen ;
and an inferior poet would have concluded the story with a pean
upon his happiness. But the Hindu bard had a far deeper insight
into man's nature, and his genius would not content itself with any
such commonplace catastrophe; he knew well that the human
soul was born for the infinite, and that no finite line could fathom
the depths of its longings! It was no idle fiction in Grecian
mythology, that Ulysses after his return to Ithaca, wandered forth
again with his hungry heart into the world.
Wheeler, I, 167.
758
1
YUD
For all experience is an arch, where thro'
Gleams that untraversed land, whose margin fades,
For ever and for ever as we move.'
"And Ulysses had found that the Ithaca, which had lured him
on through ten years of war, and ten more of wandering, changed,
upon his arrival, into a bleak barren rock, and his restless soul
stretched out her hands once more towards the untrodden beyond.
Just in the same way, and with the same deep significance,
Yudhishthira learns, after his victory, that the throne for which he
had suffered so much leaves him unsatisfied and hungry as before.
The friends of his youth are fallen, and the excitement of contest
is over; and he learns in sorrow that kings are but inen, and
that the Fall has overshadowed the throne as much as the poorest
cottage! In gloomy disappointment Yudhishthira resigns his
crown, and he and his brothers and Draupadí set out in a forlorn
journey to Mount Meru, where Indra's heaven lies amongst the
wilds of the Himalayas,* there to find that rest which seemed
denied to their search upon earth. We present a literal prose
version of their pilgrimage and with it close our extracts.
I.
Having heard Yudhishthira's resolve, and seen the destruction of Krishna,
The five brothers set forth, and Draupadi, and the seventh was a dog that followed them,
Yudhishthira himself was the last that quitted Hastinapura ;
And all the citizens and the court followed them on their way,
But none felt able to say unto him 'return;'
And at length they all went back unto the city,
Then the high-souled sons of Pándu, and far-famed Draupadi,
Pursued their way, fasting, and with their faces turned towards the east,
Resolved upon separation from earth, and longing for release from its laws;
They roamed onward over many regions, and to many a river and sea.
Yudhishthira went before, and Bhima followed next behind him,
And Arjuna came after him, and then the twin sons of Madri,
And sixth, after them, came Draupadi, with her fair face and lotus eyes.
And last of all followed the dog, as they wandered on till they came to the ocean.
* This is in fact a precise counterpart to the legend of Ulysses, as Tennyson
describes it in his poem,-the most epicean fragment since Milton's days.
For my purpose holds
""To sail unto the West until I die.
It may be that the gulfs will wash us down,
It may be we shall reach the blessed isles;
And see the great Achilles whom we knew.'"
YUD
759
But Arjuna left not hold of his heavenly bow,
Lured by the splendour of its gems, nor of those two heavenly arrows;
And suddenly they saw Agni* standing like a mountain before them,
Standing in gigantic form and stopping up their path;
And thus to them spoke the god,-'O sons of Pándu, do you know me not?'
O Yudhishthira, mighty hero, knowest thou not my voice?
I am Agni, who gave that bow unto Arjuna ;
Let him leave it here and go, for none other is worthy to bear it;
For Arjuna's sake I stole that bow of Varuna, the ocean god,
Let Gandhiva, that best of bows, be given back to ocean again!'
Then the brothers all besought Arjuna to obey,
And he flung the bow into the sea, and he flung those immortal arrows;
And lo! as they fell into the sea, Agni vanished before them.
And once more the sons of Pándu set forth, with their faces turned to the south.
And then by the upper shore of the briny sea,
They turned toward the south-west, and went on their way;
And as they journeyed onwards, and came unto the west,
There they beheld the old city of Krishna, now washed over by the ocean tide,
Again they turned to the north, and still they went on in their way,
Circumambulating round the continent to find separation from earth.
II.
Then with their senses subdued, the heroes having reached the north,
Beheld, with their heaven-desiring eyes, the lofty mountain Himavat,
And having crossed its height they beheld the sea of sand,
And next they saw rocky Meru, the king of mountains.
But while they were thus faring onwards, in eager search for separation,
Draupadi lost hold of her hope, and fell on the face of the earth;
And Bhima the mighty having beheld her fall,
1
Spoke to the king of justice,† looking back to her as there she lay,
'No act of evil hath she done, that faultless daughter of a king.
Wherefore then, O conqueror, hath she fallen thus low on the ground?'
And thus to him answered Yudhishthira 'too great was her love for Arjuna,'
And the fruit thereof, Oh Bhíma, hath she gathered here this day.
Thus speaking, Bharata's glorious descendant, went onwards, not looking back,
Gathering up his soul in himself in his unstooping wisdom and justice.
Next the fair Sahadeva fell upon the face of the earth,
And Bhima, beholding him fall, thus spake to the king;
'Oh Yudhishthira, he the greatest, the least froward and wilful of us all,
He the son of fair Madri,-wherefore hath he fallen on the ground?'
And him thus answered Yudhishthira, 'He esteemed none equal to himself,
This was his fault, and therefore hath the prince fallen this day.'
Thus speaking, he left Sahadeva, and went on ;
Yudhishthira, king of justice, and his brothers, and the dog.
But when Nakula saw the fall of Draupadi and his brother,
The hero, full of love for his kindred, in his grief fell down like them to the earth.
And when Nakula, the fair-faced, had thus fallen like the others,
Once more, in his wonder, spoke Bhíma unto the king:-
'What! he the undeviating in virtue, ever true to his honour and faith,
The god of Fire from whom Arjuna had obtained the bow Gandhiva.
† The usual title of Yudhishthira.
760
VED
Unequalled for beauty in the world, hath he too fallen on the ground?'
And him thus answered Yudhishthira, Ever was the thought in his heart,
There is none equal in beauty to me, and I am superior unto all !'
Therefore hath Nakula fallen; come Bhima, and follow my steps;
'Whatsoever each hath done, assuredly he eateth thereof.'
And when Arjuna beheld them thus fallen behind him,
He too, the great conqueror, fell, with his soul pierced through with sorrow:
And when he, the lion-hearted, was fallen, like Indra himself in majesty,
When he, the invincible, was dead, once more Bhíma spoke unto the king
'No act of evil do I remember in all that Arjuna hath done;
Wherefore then is this change, and why hath he too fallen on the ground?'
And him thus answered Yudhishthira, 'In one day I could destroy all my enemies.'
Such was Arjuna's boast, and he falls, for he fulfilled it not!
And he ever despised all warriors beside himself,
This he ought not to have done, and therefore hath he fallen to-day.
Thus speaking, the king went on, and then Bhíma himself next fell to the earth.
And, as he fell, he cried with a loud voice unto Yudhishthira,
'Oh king of justice look back, I-I thy dear brother am fallen,
What is the cause of my fall, Oh tell it to me if thou knowest !'
Once more him answered Yudhishthira, 'When thou gazed'st on thy foe,
Thou hast cursed him with thy breath, therefore thou too fallest to-day!'
Thus having spoken, the mighty king, not looking back, went on,
And still, as ever, behind him, went following that dog alone!
III.
'Lo suddenly, with a sound that ran through heaven and earth
Indra came riding on his chariot, and he cried to the king'ascend.'
Then indeed did the lord of justice look back to his fallen brothers,
And thus unto Indra he spoke with a sorrowful heart,
Let my brothers who yonder lie fallen, go with me,
Not even into thy heaven would I enter if they were not there ;
And yon fair-faced daughter of a king, Draupadi, the all-deserving;
Let her too enter with us? Oh Indra, approve my prayer!'
INDRA.
In heaven thou shalt find thy brothers, they are already there before thee,
There are they all with Draupadi; weep not then, Oh son of Bharata!
Thither are they entered, prince, having thrown away their mortal weeds,
But thou alone shalt enter, still wearing thy body of flesh.
YUDHISHTHIRA.
Oh Indra and what of this dog? It hath faithfully followed me through ;
Let it go with me into heaven, for my soul is full of compassion.
INDRA.
Immortality and fellowship with me, and the height of joy and felicity,
All these hast thou reached to-day; leave then the dog behind thee.
YUDHISHTHIRA.
The good may oft act an evil part, but never a part like this ;
Away then with that felicity, whose price is to abandon the faithful.
INDRA.
My heaven hath no place for dogs; they steal away our offerings on earth,
Leave then thy dog behind thee, nor think in thy heart that it is cruel.
YUG
761
YUDHISHTHIRA.
To abandon the faithful and devoted is an endless crime, like the murder of a Brahman,
Never therefore, come weal or woe, will I abandon yon faithful dog,
Yon poor creature, in fear and distress, hath trusted in my power to save it;
Not therefore, for even life itself, will I break my plighted word.
INDRA.
If a dog but beholds a sacrifice, men esteem it unholy and void;
Forsake then the dog, O hero, and heaven is thine own as a reward.
Already thou hast borne to forsake thy fondly-loved brothers and Draupadi,
Why then forsakest thou not the dog? wherefore now fails thy heart?
YUDHISHTHIRA.
Mortals, when they are dead, are dead to love or hate, so runs the world's belief,
I could not bring them back to life, but while they lived I never left them;
To oppress the suppliant, to kill a wife, to spoil a Brahman, and to betray one's friends,
These are the four great crimes; and to forsake a dependent, I count equal unto them.
Yudhishthira then enters heaven; but one more trial awaits him.
He finds there Duryodhana and the other sons of Dhritaráshtrá,
but he looks in vain for his own brothers. He refuses to stay in
the Swerga without them, and a messenger is sent to bring him
where they are. He descends to the Indian hell and finds them
there; and he proudly resolves to stay with them and share their
sorrows, rather than dwell in heaven without them. But the
whole scene was only a máyá or illusion, to prove his virtue; the
sorrows suddenly vanish, the surrounding hell changes into heaven,
where Yudhishthira and his brothers dwell with Indra in full
content of heart for ever.
Thus closes the Mahábhárata, the new mythic world, which a
modern Columbus has opened.'
""*
Yudhishthira is also called Dharmarája, Dharmaputra and some-
times simply Rájan.
Yuga--A cycle of five years. The years are called severally
Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idvatsara, Anuvatsara, and Vatsara.
There are four kinds of months: 1, the Saura, or Solar-sidereal,
consisting of the sun's passage through a sign of the zodiac; 2,
the Saumya or Chándra or lunar month, comprehending thirty
lunations or Tithis, and reckoned most usually from new moon to
new moon, though sometimes from full moon to full moon ; 3, the
Savana, or solar month, containing thirty days of sunrise and
* Westminster Review. Vol. L. p. 61.
96
762
YUG
sunset; and 4, the Nakshatra or lunar asterismal month, which is
the moon's revolution through the twenty-eight lunar mansions.
The five years forming the Yuga differ only in denomination, being
composed of the months just described, with such Malamásas or
intercalary months, as may be necessary to complete the period,
according to Vriddha Garga. The cycle comprehends therefore
sixty solar-sidereal months of 1,800 days sixty-one solar months
or 1,830 days; sixty-two lunar months, or 1,860 lunations; and
sixty-seven lunar-asterismal months, or 1,809 such days.
Yugas-There are four Yugas or ages; the Krita, the Tretá,
the Dwápara, and the Kálí. To estimate the length of each it is
necessary to remember that six months form an Ayana (the period
of the sun's progress north or south of the ecliptic); and two
Ayanas compose a year. The southern Ayana is a night, and the
northern a day, of the gods. Twelve thousand divine years, each
composed of three hundred and sixty such days, constitute the
period of the four Yugas or ages. They are thus distributed: the
Krita age has four thousand divine years; the Tretá, three thousand;
the Dwápara, two thousand ; and the Kálí age, one thousand. The
period that precedes a Yuga is called a Sandhya, and it is of as
many hundred years as there are thousands in the Yuga; and the
period that follows a Yuga, termed the Sandhyasana, is of similar
duration.
Thus Krita Yuga
4,000
Sandhya…..
400
Sandhyasana.
400
4,800
Tretá Yuga....
3,000
Sandhya.
300
Sandhyásana
300
3,600
Dwápara Yuga………..
Sandhya......
Sandhyasana
2,000
200
200
*
2,400
Carried over...10,800
YUV-YUY
763
Brought over...
10,800
Kálí Yuga.....
1,000
Sandhya.......
100
Sandhyasana...
100
1,200
12,000
-See V. P. and Notes.
Yuvanaswa-1, A prince, the son of Ardra; 2, the son of
Prasenajit, and father of Mandhatra, q. v. ; 3, the son of Am-
barísha.
Yuyudhana-The son of Satyaka, and grandson of Siuí.
Yuyutsu--The youngest son of Dhritarashtra, by a woman of
the Vaisya caste, making altogether a hundred and two children.
APPENDIX.
A
Adityas--[Page 10]-The sons of Aditi. They were first
reckoned as seven or eight. In the later Indian literature they
are always said to be twelve. Contradictory accounts of them are
cited by Dr. Muir (IV, 104). In texts from the Mahábhárata the
Adityas, though their names are not always uniformly given, are
stated to be twelve in number, except in one case where only
eleven are specified. Vishnu is always named as one of them, and
as by the time when these works were written, his dignity had
become enhanced in general estimation, he is declared to be the
greatest of the twelve. In the V. P. and Harivamsha it is stated
that those who formerly, in the Chakshusha Man wantara, were
called the Tushitas, are known as the twelve Ádityas in the
Vaivasvata Manwantara.
Professor Roth, (in the Journal of the Germ. Or. Soc. VI, 68)
has the following observations on the Adityas. There (in the
highest heaven) dwell and reign those gods who bear in common
the name of Adityas. We must, however, if we would discover
their earliest character, abandon the conceptions which in a later
age, and even in that of the heroic poems, were entertained
regarding these deities. According to this conception they were
twelve sun-gods, bearing evident reference to the twelve months.
But for the most ancient period we must hold fast the primary
signification of their name. They are the inviolable, imperishable,
eternal beings. Aditi, eternity, or the eternal, is the element
which sustains them, and is sustained by them. The eternal and
inviolable element in which the Adityas dwell, and which forms.
766
APPENDIX.
their essence, is the celestial light. The Ádityas, the gods of this
light, do not therefore by any means coincide with any of the
forms in which light is manifested in the universe. They are
neither sun, nor moon, nor stars, nor dawn, but the eternal sus-
tainers of this luminous life, which exists, as it were, behind all
these phenomena.-O. S. T., V, 56.
Ahi-A name of Vrittra, the demon who personifies drought,
and is also called Sushna.
After death and the
Ajobhaga-The unborn part of mau.
cremation of the body, Agni is supplicated to kindle the unborn
part with his heat and flame, and, assuming his most auspicious
form, to convey it to the world of the righteous. Before, however,
this unborn part can complete its course from earth to the third
heaven, it has to traverse a vast gulf of darkness. Leaving behind
on earth all that is evil and imperfect, and proceeding by the paths
which the fathers trod, the spirit, invested with a lustre like that
of the gods, soars to the realms of eternal light, &c.-O. S. T.,
Vol. V, p. 303.
Akampana-A king who lived in the Krita Yuga, but who
was so far from enjoying the tranquillity generally predicated of
that happy time, that he was overcome by his enemies in a battle,
in which he lost his sou, and suffered in consequence severe afflic-
tion.-O. S. T., Vol. I, p. 505.
Anakadundubhi-A name of Vasudeva, q. v.
See
Aranyani-The goddess of forest solitude. Several hymns in
the Rig- and Atharva-vedas are addressed to this goddess.
O. S. T., V, 423.
Arhat-A perfect saint, amongst the Jains or Buddhists; one
in whom evil desire is entirely destroyed; oue entitled to the
homage of gods and men.
Aruna-The ruddy. The son of the patriarch Kasyapa and
his wife Vinata; the younger brother of Garuda, the bird vehicle
of Vishnu. This deity has in the classical period taken the place
of Ushas, the personification of dawn in the Vedic creed.
Arushi-The daughter of Manu and wife of the great sage
Chyavana.-O. S. T., Vol. I, p. 124.
APPENDIX.
767
Arvalan-The son and heir of Rája Kehama, who offered
violence to Kaliyal, the beautiful daughter of a peasant in the
neighbourhood of the palace, and was felled to the earth and slain
by the avenging arm of her father.
Aryabhata-At page 48 this name was spelt after Colebrooke
as Aryabhatta; but in old Sanskrit works recently discovered
it is written almost invariably with one t Aryabhata; and this is
therefore the spelling now adopted. It is ascertained on his own
authority that he was born at Kusumapura, near the modern
Patna. The date which he assigns for his birth corresponds with
A. D. 476. Aryabhata was evidently a great man and is recognised
as such by all Orientalists. Lassen calls him the founder of
mathematical and astronomical science in India.' His chief work.
is the Arabhatíya Sútra, which includes two other works, the
Dasagíti Sútra, and the Aryashtasata.-Mrs. Manning, A. & M.
I., Vol. I, p. 365-6.
(
Asruvindumati-The daughter of Kámadeva, who was sent
by Indra, along with her father, to endeavour to excite passion in
the breast of Yayáti. In this they succeeded, and in order to
become a fit husband for his young bride, the aged king applied to
his sons to give him their youth in exchange for his decrepitude.
As elsewhere related they all refused, except Púru, the youngest.
After a time, however, Yayáti was prevailed upon by the persua-
sion of his young bride, at the instigation of Indra, to go to
heaven, on which he restored his youth to Púru, and proceeded
with his subjects to Indra, who sent them to Śiva, and he directed
them to Vishņu, in whose sphere they obtained a final abode.-
Wilson's Works, III, 37.
Atikaya-One of the sons of the giant Rávaṇa, who was killed
at the siege of Lanka.
Atit-From Atita, passed away; a religious mendicant liberated
from worldly cares and feelings.
Atyarati-The unwise man mentioned in the Aitareya Brah-
mana, who by meaus of a Rajasuya sacrifice or religious ceremony,
subdued the whole earth; but when the brahman who had offi-
ciated asked for his reward, Atyaráti replied: "When I conquer
:
768
APPENDIX.
Uttara Kuru, thou shalt be king of the earth, holy man, and I will
be merely thy general." The brahman replied: "Uttara Kuru
is the land of the gods; no mortal can conquer it. Thou hast
cheated me, therefore I take all from thee. And Atyaráti, thus
deprived of vigour, was slain by king Sushimua. For Atyaráti
had not kept his oath.-A. & M. I., Vol. I, p. 104.
B
Badarikasrama-The part of the Himalaya known as
Badarínáth. It is a shrine of ancient celebrity.—Wilson.
Bahu-A king of Ayodhya, the seventh in descent from
Harischandra. He was overcome by the Haihayas and Tálajangas,
and compelled to fly with his queens to the forest, where he died.
After his death one of his wives gave birth to a son, who received
the name of Sagara (q. v.) When he had grown up the youth
learnt from his mother all that had befallen his father, and vowed
to exterminate the enemies who had conquered his paternal king-
dom, He acquired great celebrity, and takes a conspicuous place
in Hindu history.
Bahusalin-A name of Bhíma.
Bhima-Page 95. "Bhíma is the Hercules or Orlando of the
mythological poetry of the Hindus; his uncommon strength was
a supernatural endowment. In his youth he was the great plague
of the Kuru princes, beating them in every sport and contest.
They therefore plotted to get rid of him, and at a juvenile party at
one of the water palaces of the king, administered a poisonous
drug to him, and took advantage of his slumber to push him into
the Ganges. He fell into the region of the sub-terrene snakes, by
whom he was bitten; one poison was the antidote of the other, and
Bhíma, recovering from his sleep, soon beat off his antagonists;
they fled to their king Vásuki who was induced by their report to
see the wonderful boy, and went to meet him. In his train was
Aryaka, the maternal great great grandfather of Bhíma, who
recognised, and welcomed his descendant. Aryaka being a great
APPENDIX.
769
favourite with the king of the Nágas, Vásuki offered to give his
relation any treasure or gems he could desire, but Aryaka asked
permission for him to quaff the invigorating beverage, of which one
bowl contained the strength of a thousand Nágas; permission being
granted, Bhíma drained this bowl eight times at as many draughts,
and then went quietly to sleep for eight days: on his waking he
was feasted by the Nágas aud then restored to his sorrowing
mother and brethren. From this period, dates his miraculous
strength. Many of these incidents find parallels in Western
Romance. The lady of the Lake inhabits the depths of the water,
and is called by Merlin the "white serpent ;" the Fata Morgana
resided beneath a lake while caressing one of her lovers as a
serpent. She is also styled the Fairy of Riches: her treasures
were spread over a plain to which Orlando arrived by falling in a
conflict with Arridano to the bottom of an enchanted lake: Mauto,
the protecting fairy of Mantua [Orl. Fur. 43, 74.] being saved by
Adonis when pursued in the form of a snake, proffers him anything
he may desire. The account she gives of herself makes her to be
a regular Nága Kanyá, or Ophite Maiden. The feat of Bhíma may
be paralleled by a similar one of Orlando, and many others of the
preux chevaliers of chivalry.”—WILSON'S WORKS, III, 237.
(C
Bhimasena-A name of Bhíma.
Bhujyu-The son of Tugra, who was abandoned by his
malevolent companions in the middle of the sea, and rescued by the
Aşvins, who are said to have conveyed Bhujyu out of the liquid
ocean with their headlong flying horses. Another account states
Tugra abandoned Bhujyu on the water-cloud, as any dead man
leaves his property. Ye, Aṣvins, bore him in animated water-tight
ships, which traversed the air. Three nights and three days did
ye convey him in three flying cars, with a hundred feet and six
horses, which crossed over to the dry land beyond the liquid ocean."
O. S. T.,
, p. 244.
ར,
*
Bibhatsu-A name of Arjuna.
Bindumati―The daughter of Śasabindu, who was married to
the celebrated king Máudhatri, and became the mother of three
sous and fifty daughters.
97
770
APPENDIX.
Brahmaketu-A prince, the son of Visvaketu, king of Drá-
vida, who was doomed to die in his sixteenth year, but who, by
advice of Angiras, went to Benares, and lay down in the path of
Yama, when on a visit to Śiva. Yama who never deviates from a
straight path, and even an equal step, and could therefore neither
walk round Brahmaketu nor stride over him, at last, to induce
him to rise, promised to allow him to live a century, which
accordingly happened. There is an underplot of Brahmaketu's
marrying the daughter of the king of Kámpilya, in lieu of the
hunchbacked son of the king of Kekaya, which has some resem-
blance to a story in the Arabian Nights.-WILSON'S WORKS,
III, 44.
Bura Pennou-The deity worshipped by the Khonds; he is
called the god of light and source of good; while his consort Tari-
Pennou is the source of evil in the world.
Byroba--A demi-god of the herdsmen ; worshipped wherever a
few of the pastoral tribes are settled.
C
Chanda-A demon servant of the demon chief Sumbha, who
was killed by the goddess Umá, who ultimately slew his master
also. The Kálipúja festival is in commemoration of the victory
of Umá over Chánda and Munda.
Chandrakanta-The moon-gem, which is supposed to absorb
the rays of the moon, and emit them again in the form of pure
and cool moisture.
Cobra--"Next to the Rakshasas the Cobra, or deadly-hooded
snake, plays the most important part in the legends, as a super-
natural personage. This is only one of the many traces still extant
of that serpent-worship formerly so general in western India.......
Serpent-worship, as it still exists is something more active than
a mere popular superstition. The Cobra, unless disturbed, rarely
goes far from home, and is supposed to watch jealously over a
hidden treasure. He is, in the estimation of the lower classes,
invested with supernatural powers, and according to the treatment
APPENDIX.
771
he receives, he builds up or destroys the fortunes of the house to
which he belongs. No native will willingly kill him if he can get
rid of him in any other way; and the poorer classes always after
he is killed, give him all the honours of a regular cremation,
assuring him, with many protestations, as the pile burns, that
they are guiltless of his blood; that they slew him by order of
their master;' or 'that they had no other way to prevent his
biting the children or the chickens.' Sir B. Frere.*
D
Dadhicha-One of the nineteen Bhrigus, composers of hymus.
— O. S. T., Vol. I, p 279.
Dadhyauch-One of the ancient great sages, the son of
Atharvan.
Damins-The name of brahmans in Kusa-dwípa.
Danayja-A name of Arjuna.
Dasagriva-A name of the giant Rávana.
Devadatta-One of the five sons of a brahman named Govinda-
datta who lived on the banks of the Gauges. The sons were of goodly
persons, but rude manners and uncultivated minds. A brahman of
great learning having on one occasion, when the father was abroad,
demanded the rites of hospitality, was treated with disrespect by
the youths, and was about to depart in wrath when the father
arrived. The severity with which he rebuked the lads pacified the
brahman and he was induced to remain. The anger of his parent
produced a favourable impression on Devadatta, who, repenting of
his idle habits, set off to Badarikáṣrama to propitiate Śiva. The
rigour of his austerities engaged the approbation of the god. Śiva
appeared to him and promised that he should become possessed of
learning, for which purpose he directed him to go to Pátaliputra,
and study under Vedakhumba. He afterwards repaired to Pra-
tishṭhána, where he studied with diligence and success under
another teacher of repute.
* Introduction to Old Deccan Days.
772
APPENDIX.
He there beheld the daughter of the king Suṣarma at a balcony
of the palace. She also noticed him, and the attraction was
mutual. After they had interchanged glances she beckoned to
him to approach. He obeyed; on which she took a flower, and
having touched her teeth with it, threw it to him, and then disap-
peared. Devadatta taking the flower returned home. The flame
that preyed on his heart soon betrayed itself to the experience of
his preceptor, and he quickly drew from him the secret of his
passion. He explained the story of the flower to signify an assign-
ation on the part of the princess to meet Devadatta at a temple
called Pushpa, (a flower.) The youth was charmed with this
explanation, and set off to the temple to await the coming of the
princess. On her arrival in due course she enquired how he had
so readily apprehended her meaning; but when he confessed he
was indebted to his preceptor's sagacity, rather than to his own,
she was highly offended with his lack of discernment and left him
in displeasure.
(6
Devadatta was now more wretched than ever, when Sambhu,
commisserating his condition, sent one of his attendants, Panchi-
sikha, to console and assist him. Panchisikha made the youth put
on a female garb, whilst he assumed the appearance of an aged
brahman. Thus changed, they repaired to the palace, when the
supposed brahman thus addressed the monarch : King, I am an
old man, without connections in your capital. I sent my only son
on family affairs some time ago to a distant country, and he does
not return. I am weary of expecting him, and fear some evil may
have befallen him. I will therefore go forth in quest of him ; but
how can I dispose of my daughter-in-law in the mean time? I
leave her, king, as a sacred deposit in your charge." The monarch,
afraid of the brahman's malediction, reluctantly accepted the trust,
and the supposed brahman departed. The daughter was trans-
ferred to the interior of the palace, where, revealing himself to the
princess, Devadatta succeeded in pacifying her indignation, and
recovering her regard. She listened to his suit with complacency,
and they pledged their troth to each other by the ritual that unites
in wedlock the inferior spirits of heaven.
When it became no longer possible to conceal their secret inter-
APPENDIX.
773
course, the friendly spirit was summoned by a wish to their assist-
ance-he appeared, and conveyed Devadatta out of the palace by
night. The next morning he made the youth discard his female
habiliments, and accompany him, again metamorphosed to a
venerable brahman, to the palace, in the character of the son of
whom he had been in search. He came, he said, to claim his
daughter-in-law, and the king ordered her to be sent for; but all
parties were struck with real, or seeming consternation, when it
was announced that she was nowhere to be found. The king, at
a loss to comprehend the possibility of her evasion, and recol-
lecting old legends, suspected that the brahman was not what he
seemed to be, and, apprehensive of incurring his displeasure,
professed himself willing to submit to any conditions he should
impose. These were readily arranged, and the princess was given
to the brahman's supposed son, in exchange for the bride that he
pretended to have lost. The princess bore a son, who was named
Mahídhara. When the king was advanced in years, he retired to
the forests, resigning his sovereignty to his grandson; and after
witnessing the glory of Mahídhara, his parents also withdrew
from the world to the silence of the hermitage: devoting all their
thoughts to Sambhu, they obtained his favour; and when released
from this mortal coil, they were elevated to the rank of spirits,
attendant on the god and his celestial consort, as Pushpadanta and
his wife Jaya, the same whose indiscreet curiosity had lately been
punished by their temporary return to the infirmities of human
nature.-WILSON'S WORKS, III, 185.
Devantaka-One of the sons of the giant Rávana, who was
killed at the siege of Lanka.
Dhananjaya-"The conqueror of wealth;" a name of Arjuna,
the third of the Pándava princes, eminent for his valour, and the
particular friend of Krishṇa.
Dhanyas-The designation of Vaisyas in Krauncha Dwípa.
Dhumraksha-One of Rávana's generals who was killed at
the siege of Lanka.
Dipakarni-An ancient monarch, whose wife, named Śakti-
mati, more dear to him than his existence, whilst reposing in a
774
APPENDIX.
bower in the garden, was bitten by a snake, and died. The king,
overcome with grief for her loss, made a vow to observe perpetual
continence-a vow to which he rigidly adhered, although the
want of a son to succeed him in the kingdom was a subject of
Whilst thus distressed, he was directed
by Śiva, in a dream, in what manner to obtain a son and successor,
without violating his faith to his departed wife. For the remainder
of the legend, see SÁTAVÁHANA.
profound affliction to him.
Dyutirnan-The king of Krauncha Dwipa.
E
Ekashtaka-The mother of Indra. Ekáshṭaká, practising
austere fervour, bore as a child the glorious Indra. In the next
verse Ekáshtaká is called the mother of Soma as well as of Indra,
and the daughter of Prajapati."-O. S. T., Vol. V, p. 80.
Ereenia-The benevolent Glendoveer (Gandharba) in Southey's
poem "the curse of Kehama."
G
Garuda-[Page 224]-A wundervogul, or wonderful bird, is
the property of all people; and the Garuda of the Hindus is
represented by the Eorosh of the Zend, Simoorgh of the Persians,
the Anka of the Arabs, the Kerkes of the Turks, the Kirni of the
Japanese, the sacred dragon of the Chinese, the Griffin of Chivalry,
the Phoenix of classical fable, the wise and ancient bird that sits
upon the ash Yggdrasit of the Edda, and according to Faber, in
common with all the rest, is a misrepresentation of the holy cheru-
bim that guarded the gate of paradise. Some writers have even
traced the twelve knights of the round Table to the twelve
Rocs of Persian story.-WILSON'S WORKS, III, 193.
Gonika-The mother of Patarjali the grammarian.
Govindadatta-A brahman who lived on the banks of the
Ganges; he had five sous, one of whom was Devadatta, (q. v.)
whose subsequent celebrity conferred distinction on the father.
APPENDIX.
775
Gritsamada-A name given by Indra to the Muni Saunahotra,
because he delighted in praising. His hymn was termed In-
drasya indriyam, the might of Indra. He was born again as
Saunaka, in the race of Bhrigu, and saw the second Mandala
of the Rig Veda as it was revealed to him together with the hymn
Śajaníya, &c.—A. S. L., 231.
Gudakesa-A name of Arjuna.
Gunadhya-The human name of Mályaván, when he was con-
demned to return to the infirmities of human nature.
He was
born at Pratishthána, the capital of Sáliváhana, supposed to be
the same as Pattan or Pyetan on the Godáveri.-WILSON.
I
Ida-The wife of Manu, and mother of the human race after
the deluge.
Indrasena-The charioteer of Yudhishthira.
J
Jrimbhaka--A celestial or magical weapon, which causes
drowsiness. These weapons are of a very unintelligible character.
Some of them are occasionally wielded as missiles, but in general
they appear to be mystical powers exercised by the individual;
such as those of paralysing an enemy, or locking his senses fast
in sleep, or bringing down storm and rain and fire from heaven.
There is a list of one hunderd of these weapons given in the first
book of the Rámáyana.-WILSON, XI, 297.
K
Kaliyal-The beautiful daughter of the peasant Ladurlad
whose violation was attempted by Arvalan, the son of Rája
Kehama. Arvalan was slain in consequence by Ladurlad, upon
whom was afterwards pronounced the doom which gives the title
776
APPENDIX.
to Southey's poem. Kaliyal afterwards joined her father, and often
soothed him under the withering effects of Kehama's curse, and
Ladurlad is often able to extricate his daughter from great dangers
of fire and flood.
Kamadhenu-The sacred cow of the Muni Jamadagni, which
was stolen by Rája Kártavírya, and afterwards recovered by the
Muni's son Paraṣaráma, who slew the robber king.
Kamalasna-A name of Brahmá, as the soul of the universe,
contained in the Egg of the world.
Kanakhala—A place of pilgrimage celebrated in Hindu
fiction; it is near Gangadwára, the modern Haridwár.
Katyayana-A name of great celebrity in the literary history
of India. It belongs in all probability, to several personages
renowned for their contributions to the grammatical and ritual
literature of the Brahmanical Hindus; but it is met with also
amongst the names of the chief disciples of the Buddha, Sakya-
muni. The most celebrated personage of this name, however, is
Kátyáyana, the critic of the great grammarian Pánini; and he is
most likely the same with the Kátyáyana who wrote the gramma-
tical treatise called the Prátiṣákhya of the white Yajurveda,
(q. v.) Professor Goldstücker, in his Pánini, &c., his Place in
Sanscrit Literature (London, 1861,) has shewn that he cannot
have been a contemporary of Pánini, as was generally assumed ;
and in a paper recently read by him before the Royal Asiatic
Society (February, 1863,) he has proved that this Kátyáyana
lived at the same time as the great grammarian Pátanjali, whose
date he had previously fixed between 140 and 120 before the
Christian era.
See PATANJALI.-Chambers' Encyclopædia.
Kehama-The name of the mythical Rája who is the principal
figure in Southey's poem "The Curse of Kehama." By a long
course of penances and austerities he acquired supreme power over
the world, and caused the gods themselves to tremble for their inde·
pendence. His son Arvalan, the heir apparent to all his power and
wickedness, was slain with a stake by a peasant whose daughter he
was attempting to violate. The incensed Rája pronounced on the
peasant, Ladurlal, the doom which gives name to the poem.
APPENDIX.
777
Kuhu-The goddess of the day, when the moon is in the first
and second quarters.
Kundoba-A deified hero of the shepherds, who, amongst the
pastoral tribes supersedes all other popular idols.
Kunjara-An old parrot mentioned in the Pádma Purána.
When the sage Chyavana was wandering over the world in pilgri-
mage, he came to the south bank of the Narmadá, where a linga
called Omkára was erected; and having worshipped it, he sat
under an Indian fig tree where he overheard a conversation
between Kunjara and his four sons, in which the latter related to
the former what they had beheld in their flight during the day.
Several stories were related the moral of which was the same, the
good effects of venerating holy men, and meditating upon Vishnu.
Kunjara then related to Chyavana an account of the preceding births
of his sons and himself.-WILSON's Works, Vol. III, p. 37.
Kusadhvaja-A rishi, the father of Vedavati. He was slain
by Sambhu, king of the Daityas.
L
Ladurlad-The name of the peasant in Southey's poem, on
whom the curse of Kehama is pronounced. See YEDILLIAN,
KEHAMA, &c.
M
Mada-A demon, created by the sage Chyavana, intoxication
personified; in terror of whom and of the power of the saint, the
gods acceded to the participation of the Asvini Kumáras in divine
honours. Mada was afterwards divided, and distributed amongst
dice, women, and wine.-WILSON, XI, 263.
Mahatmya-A legendary and local description of the greatness
or holiness of particular temples, or individual divinities. A
chapter taken from some Purána, descriptive of the virtues of some
place or person, is termed a Mahatmya.-WILSON.
Mahidhara--The son of Devadatta, (q. v.)
98
778
APPENDIX.
Mandakini-A river near the hill Chitrakuta in Bundelkund ;
regarded as a sort of sacred stream on account of Ráma, Laksh-
mana, and Síta, having resided in its neighbourhood, Ráma thus
points out to Síta, some of the beauties of the river.
"My life in fair Ayodhya's town
Was not so sweet to me,
As gazing on this lovely flood,
That glorious hill and thee.
Bathe in the gentle stream, to her
With friendly love repair,
And pluck her lilies in thy play,
And twine them in thy hair.
This mount, with all its savage life,
Ayodhya's city deem,
And on this beauteous river look
As our own Sarju's stream.
O Síta, I am wild with joy,
So rare a lot is mine,
Cheered by a duteous brother's care,
And loved with love like thine."
GRIFFITH. Scenes from the Rámáyana.
Maruty-A name of Hanumán, the offspring of Marut, a name
of Pávana or Váyu, all meaning wind.
Mrigavati-The wife of Sahasráníka, (q. v.)
Munda-A demon servant of the demon ruler Nișumbha, who
was killed by Umá. The goddess ultimately slew his master also.
The Kálipúja festival in Bengal is held annually in commemora-
tion of the victory of Umá over Chánda and Munda.
N
Namuchi-One of the demons who personify drought; they
are represented in the Rig Veda as hostile powers in the atmos-
phere, who malevolently shut up the watery treasures in the
clouds
APPENDIX.
779
Nandaka-One of the hundred sons of Dhritarashtra. Duryod-
hana was the eldest, but as the legend of their birth was not given
in the article under his name, it may be recited here. One day
the sage Vyása was hospitably entertained by the queen Gándhári,
and in return he granted her a boon. She choose to be the mother
of a hundred sons, and soon afterwards became pregnant. After
two years gestation she produced a mass of flesh which was divided
by Vyása into a hundred and one pieces, (as big as the joint of a
thumb) and placed in jars. In due time the eldest son Duryodhana
was born, but not till after the birth of Pritha's son Yudhishthira.
In another month the remaining ninety-nine sons were born from
the remaining jars, and one daughter, called Duhṣalá (afterwards
married to Jayadratha.) The hundred names are all given in the
Mahábhárata ; it will be sufficient here to mention the principal
ones :-Duryodhana, Durvishaha, Durmukha, Dushpradarṣana,
Vivinṣati, Vikarna, Duhṣaṣana, Virochana, Kundaka, Nandaka, &c.
-WILLIAMS. I. E. P.
Nishada-The progenitor of the wild races, extracted from the
left thigh of king Vena.-WILSON.
Nisumbha-A demon ruler of prodigious strength and power
who was destroyed by the goddess Umá. The Devimahátmya
narrates this as one of her chief martial exploits.
P
Panchasikha-One of Śiva's attendants who was sent down to
earth to console and assist Devadatta, when his course of true love
did not seem likely to run smooth.
Paramarthika-Being, in its highest sense.
Pataliputra-The famous and much disputed city of Palibo-
thra; an ancient place of great sanctity, being the favoured shrine
of Lakshmi and Sarasvati. Its origin is thus narrated. A Brah-
man from the south, whilst engaged on a pilgrimage to Kanakhala,
near Gangádwára, died, and left three sons. They subsequently
repaired to Rájagriha for instruction, and thence removed to
780
APPENDIX.
Chinchiní, a city on the seashore, south from the shrine of Kumára
Swámi. They were kindly entertained by Bhojika, a Brahman,
who gave them his three daughters in marriage. After a time,
the country was afflicted by famine; and the three husbands,
deserting their wives, set off to seek their fortunes elsewhere.
Talents and relationship touch not the hearts of the wicked. The
wife of the second brother proved pregnant, and was delivered of
a son, whose helpless situation attracted the pity, and propitiated
the guardian care of Deví and Siva. The first effect of this
powerful patronage was the discovery, by the women, of an
immense treasure, which being judiciously expended, elevated the
boy to princely possessions. By the advice of his grandfather's
friend, and his own guardian Yajnadatta, Putraka, as the lad had
been named, distributed publicly splendid gifts, at various seasons,
to the Brahmans, in the hope of attracting and discovering his
father. The scheme succeeded, and the three brothers returned
to claim their wives, and interest in the young Rája. The claim
was joyfully recognized; but the evil propensities of the fraternity
prevailing over natural affection, they conspired the death of the
prince, and his own father led him into a temple, where he left
him to be murdered by assassins, covertly stationed for the purpose.
The murderers were, however, induced, by the intreaties and
presents of Putraka, to let him escape, and he fled into the forests.
His father and uncles met the fate that ever attends the ungrateful :
the officers of the young Rája accused them of having killed him,
and falling upon the culprits, sacrificed them to his memory.
:
In the meantime, Putraka, whilst wandering in the woods, beheld
two men struggling with each other. He enquired who they were.
They replied, that they were the sons of Mayásur, and were
contending for a magic cup, staff, and pair of slippers the first of
which yielded inexhaustible viands, the second generated any
object which it delineated, and the third transported a person
through the air. The strongest of the two was to possess these
articles. Putraka then observed to them, that violence was a very
improper mode of settling their pretensions, and that it would be
better they should adjust the dispute by less objectionable means.
He therefore proposed that they should run a race for the contested
APPENDIX.
781
articles, and the fleetest win them. They agreed, and set off.
They were no sooner at a little distance, than Putraka, putting his
feet into the sleepers, and seizing the cup and staff, mounted into
the air, and left the racers to lament in vain their being outwitted.
Putraka alighted at a city called Ákarshiká, and took up his
residence with an old woman, from whom he received accounts of
the beauty of the king's daughter, whose name was Páțali. Having
in consequence formed an intimacy with the princess, he carried
her off, and alighted on the bank of the Ganges, where tracing the
walls and buildings of a city with his staff, a stately town imme-
diately arose. The people attracted to this place he maintained by
the stores of his cup; and the place named after his bride and
himself Páṭaliputraka, became the capital of a mighty empire.
WILSON, III, 165.
Patanjali-Is the name of two celebrated authors of ancient
India, who are generally looked upon as the same personage, but
apparently for no other reason than that they bear the same name.
The one is the author of the system of philosophy called Yoga,
the other the great critic of Kátyáyana and Pániui. Of the former
nothing is known beyond his work-see YOGA. The few histori-
cal facts relating to the latter, as at present ascertained, may be
gathered from his great work the Mahábháshya, or the great
Commentary. The name of his mother was Goņika; his birth-
place was Gonarda, situated in the east of India, and he resided
temporarily in Kashmir, where his work was especially patronised.
From circumstantial evidence Professor Goldstücker has, more-
over, proved that he wrote between 140 and 120 в. C. (Pánini, his
place in Sanskrit Literature.) The Mahábháshya of Patanjali is
not a full commentary on Pánini, but with a few exceptions, only
a commentary on the Várttikas, or critical remarks of Kátyáyana
on Páņini. Patanjali being the third of the grammatical triad of
India, and his work therefore having the advantage of profiting by
the scholarship of his predecessors, he is looked upon as a para-
mount authority in all matters relating to classical Sanskrit Gram-
mar; and very justly so, for as to learning, ingenuity, and con-
scientiousness, there is no grammatical author of India who can
be held superior to him.-Chambers' Encyclopædia.
782
APPENDIX.
Pavana-The god of the wind, Váyu, (q. v.)
Pitamaha--A name of Brahmá.
Pratibhasika-Being, merely seeming-that belonging to what
presents itself in dreams, &c., illusions rather than realities.
Pururavas-See pages 486-90. In a recent paper read before
the Philological Society," On Nomina Numina in its Two Phases.”
Professor Goldstücker said its object was to illustrate the influence
which in ancient times, the mistaken etymology of words exercised
on the formation of religious ideas and myths, and in modern times
the mistaken interpretation of myths on the formation of wrong
etymologies. In adverting to Max Müller's view of the supposed
original import of Daphne in Greek, and of Urvasí in Hindu
mythology, Professor Goldstücker observed that the common
feature of the Greek and Hindu legends of Daphne and Urvasí,
was the transformation of these beings-of Urvașí into a bird or
vine, and of Daphne into a laurel tree. Moreover in the Hindu
legend, Urvașí disappears in the lightning of the Gandharbas who
steal her rams, and Purúravas establishes a new ceremony, which
consists in producing fire by means of the attrition of two pieces
of wood. And finally in all legendary accounts Urvașí is repre-
sented as an Apsarasas, or as the name indicates (from ap water,
and saras, arising,) from a water-born being; while Daphne as we
are told by the Greek mythonomists, is the daughter of a river.
Not any one of these essential features of the legend receives any
light from the assumption that Daphne or Urvașí is the Dawn.
Professor Goldstücker therefore proposed to read the legend thus:
the sky is clouded (the ram being the symbol of the cloud) and the
atmosphere charged with electricity. Lightning flashing through
the cloud disperses them (the Gandharbas,) under lightning, steal
the rams of Urvașí; the sun comes forth and absorbs the vapours
which had enveloped the scene, when the objects hidden until then
become visible. Again the effect of the tropical sun may be a
conflagration of the dry forest wood; or as the legend says, Purú-
ravas is the institution of the ceremony by which fire is produced
through natural heat.
APPENDIX.
783
Pushpotkata-One of the wives of the patriarch Pulastya and
the mother of the great giant Rávaṇa.
Putraka--The founder and sovereign of Páṭaliputra; his
history will be found under that heading.
R
Raktavija-A powerful demon possessed of a charmed life,
cach drop of his blood when shed producing hundreds of demons
like himself; he was slain by Umá, and his destruction is regarded
as one of the great martial feats of the goddess.
Rudra-In the Vedic period, Rudra was the god of the tempest.
The Maruts are called the sons of Rudra. As their father he is
very often mentioned; as a divinity with independent attributes
he is of much rarer occurrence; hymns addressed to him alone
are but few. He is, as might be expected, a terrible god he
carries a great bow from which he hurls a sharp missile at the
earth; he is called the slayer of men; his wrath is deprecated,
and he is besought not to harm his worshipper; if not in the Rik,
at least in the Atharva and Bráhmanas, he is styled lord of the
animals,' as the unhoused beasts of the field are especially at the
mercy of the pitiless storm. At the same time, he is to propitiate
him, addressed as master of a thousand remedies, best of physicians,
protector from harm; this may have its ground, too, partly in the
beneficial effects of the tempest in freshening the atmosphere of
that sultry clime. Rudra's chief interest consists in the circum-
stance that he forms the point of connection between the Vedic
rcligion and the later Śiva worship. Śiva is a god unknown to
the Vedas; his name is a word of not unfrequent occurrence in
the hymns, but means simply propitious; not even in the Atharva
is it the epithet of a particular divinity, or distinguished by its
usage from any. other adjective. As given to him, whose title it
has since become, it seems one of those euphemisms so frequent in
the Indian religion, applied as a soothing and flattering address to
the most terrible god in the whole pantheon. The precise relation
784
APPENDIX.
between Śiva and Rudra is not yet satisfactorily traced out. The
introduction of an entirely new divinity from the mountains of the
north has been supposed, who was grafted in upon the ancient
religion by being identified with Rudra; or again, a blending of
some of Agui's attributes with those of Rudra to originate a new
development perhaps neither of these may be necessary:
Śiva
may be a local form of Rudra, arisen under the influence of peculiar
climatic relations in the districts from which he made his
way into
Hindustan proper; introduced among, and readily accepted by, a
people which, as the Atharva shows, was strongly tending towards
a terrorism in its religion."-Professor Whitney, as quoted in
O. S. T., IV, 337.
S
Sabhika-A person who presides at houses where assemblies
are held for purposes of gambling, and who provides the dice and
all other materials.
Saganka-"Fawn-spotted," a name of the god Soma or
Cháṇḍra. He is also called Sasin; from a fancied resemblance
of the spots of the moon to a leveret.
Sahasranika-The son of Śatáníka, (q. v.) The fate of his
father naturally interested Indra for the young prince, and he not
unfrequently conveyed him to visit the regions of the skies. On
one of these occasions he incurred the displeasure of Tilottamá, a
nymph of paradise, and she denounced an imprecation on his
future fortune, sentencing him to the pangs of separation from
his beloved. Sahasráníka was married to Mrigávatí, daughter of
Kripavarmá, king of Oude. During her pregnancy she was
seized with a strange fancy, inspired, in fact, by the influence of
the imprecation, to bathe in human blood. When the king found
compliance with her longing was unavoidable, he deceived her by
substituting an infusion of the lac-dye, in which the queen con-
upon her
tentedly performed her ablutions. The crimson tint left
person by the effect of the immersion, deceived one of the gigantic
brood of Garuda, as he pursued his flight through the air. Think-
APPENDIX.
785
ing her to be a lump of flesh, he pounced upon the queen, and
carried her off to the mountain Udya, where, finding her alive, he
abandoned her to her destiny, having thus been the unconscious
instrument of separating Sahasráníka from his bride.
In this helpless condition the queen, overcome with terror and
affliction, sought alone for death to terminate her distress. With
this view she threw herself in the way of the wild elephants and
the vast serpents, with which the thickets were peopled ; but in
vain--an uuseen spirit of the air protected her, and guided her
unharmed amidst the ferocious monsters of the forest, until she
was encountered by a holy hermit, Jamadagni, who resided on the
mountain, and who led her to his cell, where he consoled her
with assurances, that she would in time be re-united to her lord.
Mrigávatí was here delivered of a son, whom, in allusion to the
place of his nativity, she named Udayana, and who was trained in
letters and arms, and in the duties of his regal birth, by his
venerable guardian.-WILSON, III, 192. [VATSA.]
Salivahana--A Hindu king who reigned in Magadha. He
instituted an era which bears his name and is still commonly used
in the Deckan. It commenced when 3179 years of the Kali-Yuga,
or the present mundane age, had expired; that is 78 years after
the beginning of the Christian era. This era is called Sáliváhana
Śáka, or simply Śáka. Thus 1871 of the Christian era would be
tantamount to 1793 of the Sáka era. The Śáka year is the same
as and begins with the common solar year.
Sambhu-A name of Śiva.
Thy journey next o'er Kanakhala bends,
Where Jahnu's daughter from the hills descends ;
Whose sacred waters to Bhagirath given,
Conveyed the sons of Sagara to heaven.
She who with smiling waves disportive strayed
Through Sambha's locks, and with his tresses played;
Unheeding, as she flowed delighted down,
The gathering storm of Gauri's jealous frown.
Sambhu--2, The king of the Daityas, who slew the rishi
Kusadhvaja, the father of Vedavati.
99
786
APPENDIX.
Sammada-The name of the fish that lived in the pond where
the sage Saubhari was immersed for twelve years.
Sanmukha-A name of Kartikeya, the war-god.
Satabali-One of the generals of the monkey king Sugríva.
Satanika-The son of Jauamejaya and grandson of Parikshit.
He was killed in battle with the Titans, having gone to the assist-
ance of Indra, and was succeeded in his throne by Sahasráníka.
Satva-devi-1, A name of Párvati; 2, The name of a nurse
to the children of the giant Rávana.
Satavahana-The son and successor of Dípakarní, (q. v.)
Dípakarní, in obedience to Śiva's commands, repaired to a certain
forest to hunt; and whilst thus employed, met, as he had been
forewarned, a lovely boy riding upon a monstrous lion. Still
acting as he had been enjoined, the king aimed an arrow at the
beast, and he fell as dead. Immediately, however, up rose from
the carcase a celestial form, who thus addressed the astonished
monarch. Dismiss your apprehension; I am a Yaksha, Sáta by
name. It was my chance to see and love the beautiful daughter
of a holy sage; my passion was returned; and this boy whom you
behold, is our son. When the secret of our union was discovered,
the angry sire condemned us both to wear the forms of brutes
during the remainder of our earthly career. My bride was liberated
from the effects of the curse in giving birth to her son; and your
shaft has rendered me the same kind office. I am now at liberty;
but ere I depart to the region of the gods, I bequeath to you
this child, to be cherished by you as your own.' So saying, he
vanished, leaving the boy with the king, who gladly received him,
and gave him the name Sátaváhana, in reference to the appellation
of his father and the váhana, or vehicle, on which the king had
first beheld the infant mounted. Upon the death of his adoptive
father Sátaváhana succeeded to the throne and became a mighty
monarch.-WILSON'S WORKS, III, 183.
Satyavama-One of the wives of Krishna. She is also known
as one of the wives of Vishnu; in his avatar of Krishna she was
with him, and Lakshmi is said to have been also incarnate as
Rukminí.
APPENDIX.
787
Satyavrata-The original name of Trisanku, (q. v.)
Savitri-One of the twelve Ádityas. Súrya and Savitri are
exact personifications of the sun. It is under these two different
appellations that the sun is chiefly celebrated in the Rig Veda.
Savitri is permanently the golden deity; being hiranyáksha, golden-
eyed; hiranya-hasta, golden-handed, &c. Luminous in his
aspect, he ascends a golden car, drawn by radiant, brown, white-
footed horses; and beholding all creatures he pursues an ascending
and descending path. Surrounded by a golden lustre, he illumi-
nates the atmosphere and all the regions of the earth. His robust
and golden arms, which he stretches out to bless, and infuse energy
into all creatures, reach to the utmost ends of heaven. In one
place, however, he is called ayohanu, the iron-jawed, though even
there the commentator says that ayas, which ordinarily means
iron, is to be rendered by gold. His ancient paths in the sky are
said to be free from dust. He is called (like Varuna and others of
the gods) asura, a divine spirit. His will and independent autho-
rity cannot be resisted by Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Rudra,
or by any other being. The other gods follow his lead. The
waters and the wind obey his ordinance. His praises are celebrated
by the Vasus, by Aditi, by the royal Varuna, by Mitra, and by
Aryaman. He is lord of all desirable things, and sends blessings
from the sky, from the atmosphere, and from the earth. He
impels the car of the Asvins before the dawn. He is Prajapati,
the lord of all creatures, the supporter of the sky and of the world,
and is supplicated to hasten to his worshippers with the same
eagerness as cattle to a village, as warriors to their horses, as a
cow to give milk to a calf, as a husband to his wife. He is called
vişvadeva," in all attributes a god." He measured (or fashioned)
the terrestrial regions. He bestows immortality on the gods, as
he did on the Ribhus, who by the greatness of their merits attained
to his abode. He is prayed to convey the departed spirit to the
abode of the righteous. He is supplicated to deliver his worship-
pers from sin.
[
Savitri is sometimes called apam napat, son of the waters, an
epithet which is more commonly applied to Agui.
788
APPENDIX.
The word Savitri is not always a proper name; but is some-
times used as an epithet.-O. S. T., V, 164.
Sena or Sein-Sometimes written Gandharba-Sena, or Gun-
drusein, a Gandharba who was condemned for an affront to Indra,
to be born on earth in the shape of an ass, but on entreaty the
sentence was mitigated, and he was allowed at night to re-assume
the form and functions of a man. This incarnation took place at
Ujein, in the reign of Rája Sundersciu, whose daughter was
demanded in marriage by the ass; and his consent was obtained on
learning the divine origin of his intended son-in-law, confirmed, as
he witnessed, by certain prodigies. All day he lived in the stables
like an ass; at night, secretly slipping out of his skin, and assum-
ing the appearance of a handsome and accomplished young prince,
he repaired to the palace and enjoyed the conversation of his
beauteous bride.
In due time the princess became pregnant; and her chastity
being suspected, she revealed to her father the mystery of her
husband's happy nocturnal metamorphosis; which the Rája, being
conveniently concealed, himself beheld; and unwilling that his son
should return to his uncouth disguise, set fire to, and consumed,
the vacant ass's skin.
Although rejoiced at his release, the Gandharba foresaw the
resentment of Indra, disappointed of his vengeance; and warned
his wife to quit the city, about to be overwhelmed with a shower
of earth. She fled to a village at a safe distance, and brought
forth a son, the celebrated Vikramaditya; and a shower of cold
earth; poured down by Indra, buried the city and its inhabitants.
—As. Res., Vol. VI. [UJEIN.]
This legend gives a date to the catastrophe; for the prince, so
renowned in his origin and birth, was not less so as a monarch and
an astronomer; and his name marks an era much used all over
India, commencing fifty-six years before our cra.-Moor, H. P.,
p. 262.
6
This story is supposed to be the original form of the Golden
Ass' of APULEIUS, which is in fact the story of Beauty and the
Beast.
Sramanaka--A Buddhist mendicant.
APPENDIX.
789
शु
Tunda-A powerful demon, that was destroyed by Nalusha,
the son of Ayus; the Pádma Purána contains a long narrative of
the event.
mers.
U
Ujein--The ancient Avanti ; a city of great antiquity, that is
considered the first meridian by Hindu geographers and astrono-
The ancient city was about a mile further south, and now
lies buried in the earth, to the depth of from fifteen to eighteen
feet on digging, its walls are said to be found entire, pillars
unbroken, &c. Whatever may have been the real cause of this
catastrophe, Hindu fancy has attributed it to the intervention of
the gods, and dressed it up in a mythological allegory which is
believed to be the original form of the "Golden Ass of APULEIUS.”
See SENA.
Upakosa--The wife of Vararuchi, (q. v.) During her hus-
band's absence she attracted the notice and desires of several
suitors, whom she succeeded in exposing and punishing in a very
ludicrous manner. See Wilson's Works, III, 170.
Upayaja-A braliman of eminent learning and sanctity, to
whom king Drupada applied in his auxiety to procure a son,
promising a million of cows if he enabled him to obtain the son he
desired. Upayája however declined the task, and referred him to
his elder brother Yája, (q. v.)
V
Vaitalika--A sort of poetical warder or bard, who announces
fixed periods of the day, as dawn and evening, &c., in measured
lines, and occasionally pours forth strains arising from any incidental
occurrence.— Nilson, X1, 209.
Vatsa-A celebrated character in Hindu fiction. He was the
son of Sahasranika, (q, v.) and king of Kausambi. Vatsa was
790
APPENDIX.
named Udayana, from being educated on the Udya mountain,
by the sage Jamadagui. When arrived at maturity he was decoyed
into captivity by the king of Ujein. On his escape he carried off
Vasavadatta, the daughter of his captor. Vatsa is the hero of the
Ratnávali.-See Wilson, XII, 264.
Vigneswara--A name of Ganeṣa, (q. v.)
Vina-The Hindu lute; an instrument of much sweetness and
compass, but little power.
Vittora-The name of Vishnu in one of his minor Avatars, as
related in some of the Puránas. He is represented as retaining
on his breast an indelible mark of Bhrigu's foot, with which the
following legend is connected. In a divine assembly Bhrigu was
asked who, of the gods, was the most mighty; he said he would
proceed to inquire, and first went to Brahmá, in approaching whom
it was usual to pay very respectful obeisance, which on this
occasion, Bhrigu purposely omitted, and experienced in consequence
severe reprehension, including copious abuse, (for the Hindu gods,
like Homer's, are very abusive,) from Brahmá, who however
became pacified by seasonable apologies. Bhrigu next proceeded
to Śiva, and omitted, as before, the usual tokens of adoration on
entering the divine presence; Śiva was still more enraged than
Brahmá, but was in like manner pacified by Bhrigu's apologies.
He then repaired to Vaikuntha, the celestial residence of Vishnu,
whom he found asleep, with Lakshmi shampooing his feet. Bhrigu
knew that the mere omission of respect would not be sufficient to
move the gentle god to anger, and to make a trial of his temper he
boldly gave the recumbent deity a severe kick on his breast.
Vishnu awoke, and seeing Bhrigu arose, and in place of anger,
expressed apprehensions that he must have hurt his foot by striking
it against his (Vishnu's) breast, and proceeded to lament it and to
rub and chafe Bhrigu's foot to remove any consequent pain.
This, said Bhrigu, is the mightiest god; he overpowers by the
most potent of all arms, affability and generosity?' See MOOR's
HINDU PANTHEON, p. 418.-This is a favourite story amongst
the Brahmans of the south.
6
Vithoba--A deified sage, very popular, and extensively wor
shipped in the Poona Deccan.
APPENDIX.
791
1
Vetal--The demon-god of the outcaste helot races; the circle
of large stones, which may be observed outside almost every
village, is sacred to this god; the superstition has for ages held,
and still holds, its ground against all Brahmanical innovations.
The stones remind the traveller of the Druid circles of the
northern nations. Sir B. FRERE.*
Y
The
Yaja-A brahman of distinguished attainments to whom king
Drupada was referred when he was seeking to obtain a son.
king promised Yája ten million of kine; and with much reluctance
Yája undertook to direct a sacrificial ceremony by which the king
should obtain offspring and called his younger brother to his assist-
When the rite had reached the proper period, the queen was
invited to partake of it, but she had not completed her toilet and
begged the brahmans to delay the ceremony. It was too late, and
the sacrifice proceeding without her, the children were born inde-
pendent of her participation. -WILSON, III, 326.
ance.
Yajur Veda-" The history of the Yajur Veda differs in so far
from that of the other Vedas, as it is marked by a dissension
between its own schools, far more important than the differences
which separated the schools of each other Veda. It is known by
the distinction between a Yajur Veda, called the Black-, and another,
called the White-Yajur Veda. Tradition, especially that of the
Puránas, records a legend to account for it. Vaiṣampayana, it
says, the disciple of Vyása, who had received from him the
Yajur Veda, once having committed an offence, desired his disciples
to assist him in the performing of some expiatory act. One of
these, however, Yajnavalkya, proposed that he should alone per-
form the whole rite; upon which, Vaiṣampáyana, enraged at what
he considered to be the arrogance of Yajnavalkya, uttered a curse
on him, the effect of which was, that Yajnavalkya disgorged all
the Yajus texts he had learned from Vaiṣampáyana. The other
* Introduction to Old Deccan Days.
792
APPENDIX.
disciples, having meanwhile been transformed into partridges
(tittiri), picked up these tainted texts, and retained them. Hence
these texts are called Taittiriyas. But Yajnavalkya, desirous of
obtaining other Yajus texts, devoutly prayed to the Sun, and had
granted to him his wish-' to possess such texts as were not known
to his teacher.' And because the Sun on that occasion appeared
to Yájnavalkya in the shape of a horse (vája), those who studied
these texts were called Fajins. That part of this legend was
invented merely to account for the name of the Taittiriyas, after
whom a Sanhitá and Brahmana of the Black Yajur Veda, and for
that of the Vajasaneyins, after whom the Sanhitá of the White
Yajur Veda is named, is clear enough. Nor is greater faith to be
placed on it when it implies that the origin of this dissension
ascended to the very oldest period of the Yajur Veda; for there is
strong reason to assume that the division took place even after the
time of the grammarian Pániní, (q. v.). But so much in it is
consistent with truth-that the Black Yajur Veda is the older of
the two; that the White Yajur Veda contains texts which are not
in the Black; and that, compared to the motley character of the
former, it looks white,' or orderly. This motley character of the
Black Yajur Veda, however, arises from the circumstance, that the
distinction between a Mantra and Brahmana portion, is not so
clearly established in it as the other Vedas; hymns and matter
properly belonging to the Brahmanas there being intermixed.
This defect is remedied in the White Yajur Veda; and it points,
therefore, to a period when the material of the old Yajus was
brought into a system consouaut with prevalent theories, literary
and ritual.
The contents of both divisions of the Yajur Veda are similar in
many respects. Two of the principal sacrifices of which they
treat are the Darṣapúrnamása, or the sacrifice to be performed at
new and full moon, and the Aswamedha, or the horse-sacrifice, at
the performance of which 609 animals of various descriptions,
domestic and wild, were tied to 21 sacrificial posts. A Purusha-
medha, or man-sacrifice, unknown to the other Vedas, is also
mentioned in it; its character, however, is symbolical.
APPENDIX.
793
The text of the Black Yajur Veda is extant in the recension of
two schools-that of Apastamba, to which the Taittiriya Sanhitá
belongs, and that of Charaka. The former, which is in course of
publication--the first volume and part of the second having been
already published, with the commentary of Mádhaváchárya
(Sáyana), by Dr. E. Roer and E. B. Cowell in the Bibliotheca
Indica (Calcutta, 1860--1864)--consists of seven Kánda, or
books, which comprise 44 Prapáṭhaka, or chapters sub-divided into
651 Anuváka, or sections, and containing 2,198 Kándikás, or
portions.
The Vajasaneyi-Sanhitá, or the Sanhitá of the White Yajur
Veda, exists in the recension of the Madhyandina and Kánva
school. In the former-the text of which, apparently also with
the commentary of Mahidhara, has been edited by Professor A.
Weber (Berlin, 1852)--this Sanhitá has 40 Adhyayas, or books,
sub-divided into 303 Anuvákas, with 1,975 Káṇḍikás.
The principal Brahmana of the Black Yajur Veda is the Tait-
tiriya-Brahmana, which, with the commentary of (Mádhava)
Sayana, is in the course of publication by Baboo Rajendralála
Mitra--the first volume and part of the second having already
appeared in print (Calcutta, 1860-1865) in the Bibliotheca
Indica. That of the White Yajur Veda is the Śatapatha-
Brahmana, the most complete and systematic of all Bráhmanas.
Its text, with a semblance of the commentary of Sayaṇa, has been
edited by Professor A. Weber (Berlin, 1855).-Chambers'
Encyclopædia, Vol. IX, p. 727.
FINIS,
SUPPLEMENT
TO A
CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF INDIA
ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE
MYTHOLOGY PHILOSOPHY
LITERATURE ANTIQUITIES ARTS
MANNERS CUSTOMS &c.
OF
THE HINDUS
BY JOHN GARRETT
DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION JN MYSORE
EDITOR OF THE BHAGAVAT GITA, IN SANSKRIT AND CANARESE
PANCHA TANTRA, KATHA MANJARI, SHABDA MANI DARPANA, ETC.

MADRAS:
HIGGINBOTHAM AND CO.
1873.
[All rights reserved.]
REGISTERED UNDER ACT XXV OF 1867.
PRINTED BY HIGGINBOTHAM AND CO,, MOUNT ROAD, MADRAS-JAN. 1873.
PREFACE.
THE CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF INDIA was published in
September, 1871, and received with marked favour by the
local press. The author begs to return his best thanks to
the writers of the various notices of the work which
appeared. As anticipated, it was pointed out that several
names and subjects that should have been included had
been overlooked. The Calcutta Review and the Madras
Times called attention to omissions of this nature, without
expressing much surprise at their occurrence. It is to
remedy these defects, and make the DICTIONARY more com-
plete, that the present SUPPLEMENT has been published.
It will of course be incorporated with the work if a new
edition should be required.
January, 1873.
J. G.
B. W. G.
D. P. I.
I. E.
S. M.
ABBREVIATIONS.
Birth of the War-God. A Poem by Kálidása,
translated by R. T. H. GRIFFITH, M. A.
Description of the Manners and Customs of the
People of India, by the ABBE DUBOIS.
Iliad of the East, by FREDERIKA RICHARDSON.
Selections from the Mahábhárata, by F. JOHN-
SON.
S. O. I. P. Specimens of Old Indian Poetry, by R. T. H.
GRIFFITH, M. A.
S. R.
Scenes from the Rámáyan, by the same.
T. M. L. S. Transactions of the Madras Literary Society,
T. C. I.
vol. I.
Tribes and Castes of India, by the Rev. M. A.
SHERRING, M. A.
SUPPLEMENT
TO
CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF INDIA.
Abhinayagupta-A celebrated teacher of Alankára, under
whom Kshemendra states that he studied. Abhinayagupta is sup-
posed to have lived at the beginning of the tenth century, a. D.,
and is cited by various writers as an authority on Alankára.
Adoption—(Add at page 10.) The Brahman who is desti-
tute of male issue looks out amongst his nearest relations, such as
his brothers or uncles, for a youth whom he may adopt. If he
cannot find one in that class of relatives, he goes to his wife's
kindred. He may even adopt the children of his own daughter.
Those who have several male children, very willingly part with
one of them to a relation who has none, particularly if he be rich;
by which means the property is retained in the family. But if he
does not find a suitable youth, among his own relations or those
of his wife, he has recourse to some poor Brahman with a large
family; and if he be in tolerable affluence himself he is not likely
to be unsuccessful.
The ceremonies connected with the act of adoption differ in
various parts of India, though essentially of the same character
everywhere. They generally commence with a sacrifice or offer-
ing to the patron god of the house or to Ganesa; followed by the
sprinkling of holy water by the Purohita. The sacrificial offer-
ings terminated, the adopting father and mother sit down in a
place prepared for the occasion; the natural mother of the child,
after receiving presents in money and clothes, as her wages for
Λ
2
ADO
nursing, approaches the adopter, who in the presence of all the
assembly, inquires whether she delivers him her child to be
brought up; to which she replies 1 do deliver him to you to bring
up. This phrase is held distinctly to import, that she gives up
her son, not as a slave who is sold, but to be reared as a child of
the family.
A dish is then brought in, filled with saffron water, consecrated
with mantras by the Purohita; and the mother, taking the dish,
delivers it to the adopter, and at the same time invoking the fire
to bear witness, she thrice repeats the words, "I give thee this.
child; I have a right to him no more." The adopter, taking the
child, says, "This child has been given to me, and the fire ad-
jured as a witness of it; and I, having drank of the saffron water,
promise to rear him as my own son. He enters into all that
belongs to me; my property and my debts."
Then he and his wife, pouring saffron water into the hollow of
their hands, and dropping some into the hands of the child, say
before the assembly, "we have acquired this child to our stem,
and we incorporate him with it." Then drinking the water from
their hands, they make a profound obeisance to the assembly, and
the officiating Brahmans reply Ásírvádam (Blessing). The cere-
mony is terminated as all their festivals are, by a repast to the
Brahmans and the distribution of betel and pieces of money.
Amongst the Sudras the adopting parents pour on the feet of
the child water from the pitcher which they hold in one hand
;
and catching it with the other hand, drink it.
In some cases the child is simply surrendered and accepted in
the presence of fire, which is appealed to as witness of the adop-
tion; and this suffices to render it valid and legal.
On the banks of the Ganges the act is performed by taking the
river to witness the mutual agreement; and this stands in the
place of other ceremonies.
In whatever way adoption is consummated, the adopted child
loses all right to the property of his natural parents, and is not
answerable for the debts they may leave behind them. The
AGA-AGN
3
adoption of girls is rare, though not without example. See Du-
BOIS, D. P. I.
Agastya-(Page 13.) In a note of Professor Wilson's to the
Uttara Rama Charitra (vol. xi, p. 322), there is a legend of Agastya
similar to that related of Astika, q. v. "Agastya having seen
his ancestors suspended by their heels in a pit, was told by them
that they could only be extricated from their position by his
begetting a son. In order to obtain a wife for this purpose he
made a girl of the most graceful parts of the animals of the forest,
and gave her without his privacy to the king of Vidarbha, to be
his daughter. She was named Lopamudra from the distinctive
beauties (mudra) of animals, as the eyes of deer, &c., being sub-
jected to loss (lopa) in her superior charms. When marriageable
Agastya demanded her of her father, and although sorely against
his will, the king was obliged to consent to her becoming the wife
of the sage."-WILSON, XI, 322.
Agneyastram-(Add at page 14.) Fiery arms or rockets, were
possibly employed by the Hindus in remote antiquity, as well as
in recent times; whence came the notion of certain mysterious
weapons framed of the elements, and to be wielded only by deities
and demi-gods. These make a great figure in the battle scenes of
the Rámáyana and Mahábhárata.
Agni-(Add at page 16.) "Agni, who in the Vedas is the
type of the sacrifice, and with it of civilization and social virtue,
takes an entirely different character in his capacity of kravyád,'
or flesh-eater. He is represented under a form as hideous as the
beings he is invoked to devour. He sharpens his two iron tusks,
puts his enemies into his mouth and swallows them. (R. V., x,
87, 2 ff.) He heats the edges of his shafts, and sends them into
the hearts of the Rákshasas. He tears their skin, minces their
members, and throws them before the wolves to be eaten by them,
or by the shrieking vultures."-MUIR, II, 391.
Agnivesa-A sage named in the Mahábhárata, the son of
Agni, the deity of fire. He was one of the early teachers of medi-
cine.
4
AHA-AKS
Ahavaniya-The consecrated fire for oblations. This, with
the Gárhapatya and Dakshiná form the Tretágni, or triad of sacred
fires, in opposition to the Laukíka or merely temporal ones. See
Fire, Sacrificial.
Aindrajalika-Conjuring; from Indra, a deity, and jála, a
net. The art of magic or necromancy has always been prevalent
in India, aud attained a degree of perfection that has perhaps not
been surpassed in any other country. Even to this day feats are
performed which it is difficult for the most acute observers to
explain. The apparent production and growth of a mango tree.
is a performance so cleverly executed as to excite the astonish-
ment of those who have been most determined to discover how
the illusion is effected. In the Hindu dramas magiciaus are
described as having a bunch of peacock's feathers in their hands,
and this bunch still forms the implement of conjuring, and is
carried by mendicants in India who pretend to skill in magic; it
is especially used by Jaina-vagrants.
Aindri―The son of Indra; a name of Arjuna, the third of the
Pándava princes.
Akampan-One of the giant-leaders of Rávana's army; it
was Akampan who told his king of the strength and invincibility
of Ráma.
"No power can check, no might can tame,
Ráma, a chief of noblest fame.”
He then counselled Rávana to try stratagem to effect his pur-
pose.
"That hero in the wood beguile
And steal his lovely spouse the while."
Aksha-(Page 23.) Aksha was heir to the throne, a youth
merely, but who had already made himself a name in the battle
field. He entreated his father to allow him to try his strength
with Hanumán. When the noble son of the wind saw this
new opponent, his heart was filled with compassion. This
hero is still but a child,' he thought; it were against my will
to slay him in an hour when life seems filled with beauty. Ac-
ALA-ANA
5
10
cordingly, the gallant monkey, wishing to spare Aksha, sprang to
the ground, overturned the chariot with a blow and killed the
horses. But nothing daunted, the brave youth sprang up, and
bounded through the air to meet Hanumán, 'well done, valiant
Simian!' he shouted, but thou hast not yet triumphed.' When
he saw that Aksha's daring only augmented with the combat,
"There is no help for it said the, magnanimous ape regretfully,
A fire that increases cannot be despised; I cannot let pity for
this hot headed boy imperil my mission!' Thereupon he seized
the young warrior by the feet and threw him down head foremost.
So Aksha, the lion-hearted, the joy of the city of Lanka, lay cold
and dead on the breast of the one mother-earth.-I, E., 233.
Alankara-Ornament, decoration, Alankára is frequently
mentioned as one of the daily ceremonies to be observed, and
means then the putting on of ornaments. Alankára Sástri means
Rhetoric, a subject on which various treatises exist, but none of
any intrinsic value.
Amavasu―The third of the six sons of Purúravas and Urvasí,
and one of the progenitors of the lunar race of kings.
Anagundi-Part of the Dekhin, the maps of which are dis-
gracefully defective. The mountain Rishyamúka, and the scenes
in its vicinity, alluded to in the Rámáyana, are said to be now
known by the same appellations in the neighbourhood of Ana-
gundi.-WILSON.
Anala-One of the daughters of Daksha, who was married to
Kasyapa, and became the mother of all fruit trees.
Anargha-Raghava-A drama in seven acts; better known
under the appellation of Murari-Náṭaka, which it derives from its
author. The story is similar to that of the Víra Charitra. It has
no dramatic merit, being deficient in character, action, situation,
and interest. As a poem it presents occasionally poetic thoughts,
but they are very few, and are lost amid pages of flat common
place, quaint conceit, hyperbolical extravagance, and obscure my-
thology. Yet this drama bears in general, a much higher cha-
6
ANG-ANI
racter with the pandits of the present day, than the truly poetical
compositions of Bhavabhúti and Kálidása.-WILSON, Works, Xll,
377.
Angada-The son of Bálin and one of the principal monkey
chiefs in the army that assisted Ráma at the siege of Lanka. He
was distinguished for his bravery, and when the sight of Kumbha-
karna produced a panic in the monkey host, it was Angada who
prevented a flight and recalled the few who had fled.
Anguliya-mudra-A finger ring-seal. The use of this seal
amongst the Hindus at the present day, as amongst the ancients,
is not, as with us, to secure an envelope, but to verify letters and
documents, in place of a written signature. Amongst the natives
of Hindustan, both Mahommedan and Hindu, the seal is engraved
with the name of the wearer; and the surface being smeared
superficially only with ink, the application of the seal to the paper,
leaves the letters which are cut in the stone, white on a black
ground. Such also was the manner in which the seals of the
Greeks and Romans were applied. Seals or signets of this kind
were from the earliest periods commonly used in the East. Aha-
seurus takes his signet off his hand, and gives it first to Haman,
and again to Mordecai: and Herodotus notices that each of the
Babylonians wore a seal-ring. The Greeks and Romans had their
rings curiously engraved with devices, and that cast by Polycrates
into the sea was the work of an engraver whose name the histo-
rian has not thought unworthy of commemoration.-WILSON,
Works, XII, 163,
Animisha-One whose eyes do not twinkle; a term applied to
a deity. The gods are supposed to be exempt from the momen-
tary elevation and depression of the upper eyelid, to which mortals.
are subject, and to look with a firm, unintermitted gaze. Various
allusions to this attribute occur in poetry. When Indra visits
Síta to encourage her, he assumes at her request the marks of
divinity-he treads the air, and suspends the motion of the eyelids
(Rámáyana). When Agni, Varuna, and Indra, all assume the
form of Nala at the marriage of Damayanti, she distinguishes her
mortal lover by the twinkling of his eyes, whilst the gods are
ANJ-ARB
7
stabdha-lochana, fixed-eyed, (Mahabharata, Nalopákhyána). And
when the Aswiní- Kumáras practise the same trick upon the bride
of Chyavana, she recognizes her husband by this amongst other
indications (Padma-Purána). The notion is the more deserving
of attention, as it is one of those coincidences with classical
mythology which can scarcely be accidental. Heliodorus says:
"The gods may be known by the eyes looking with a fixed regard,
and never closing the eyelids ;" and he cites Homer in proof of it.
An instance from the Iliad which he has not noticed, may be
cited perhaps as an additional confirmation, and the marble eyes
of Venus, by which Helen knew the goddess, and which the com-
mentators and translators seem to be much perplexed with, are
probably the stabdha-lochana, the fixed eyes, of the Hindus, full,
and unveiled even for an instant, like the eyes of a marble statue.
WILSON, XI, p. 237. There are other marks which distinguish
divine from mortal bodies. They cast no shadow: they are
exempt from perspiration; they remain unsoiled by dust; they
float on the earth without touching it; and the garlands they
wear stand erect, the flowers remaining unwithered.
Anjali-The cavity formed by putting the hands together and
hollowing the palms; being in this form carried to the forehead
it is an appropriate salutation to a superior.-WILSON.
Ankalamma-A grámadevata extensively worshipped in the
south. Her office is to ward off evil, and to expel demons. Like
the other goddesses she enjoys a yearly moveable festival, lasting
about a week, when her image is carried about, morning and
evening, with music and dancing.
Annapurna-The supplier of food; a goddess of great repute.
in Benares, inasmuch as, under the express orders of Bisheswar,
she is supposed to feed all its inhabitants, and to take care that
none suffer from hunger.*
*
Arbuda-A powerful Dasyu, mentioned in the Rig-Veda, as
having been overcome and trodden under foot by Indra.
* SHERRING, S. C. H., p. 57.
00
ARJ-ASH
Arjuna-
Note to page 44, line 9 from the top.
NOTE.-The Mahabharata seems to intend stating that a moveable mark
was suspended in the air and whirled rapidly round upon a pivot; that
upon a level with the plane of the circle which it described was fixed, upon
one side of it, a hoop or ring; and that five arrows were to be simulta-
neously shot through the ring as the mark came opposite to it. This feat
was worthy of Arjuna, It might have baffled Robin Hood. None of the
competitors, however, have any chance; for like the suitors of Penelope,
they cannot even bend the bow-
—ουδ έδμναντο
Ενταύσαι, πολλον δε βίης έπι δενεες ἦσαν.
It is still a favourite exercise with the Hindus to bend a bow made of a
very stubborn bambu, and strung with an iron chain, or cord loaded with
iron plates; and it requires no ordinary muscularity to effect the object."
F. Johnson, S. M., p. 39.
Ashtavakra (Page 53.) Ashṭávakra is the hero of a curious
legend in the Mahábhárata. Kahoda, his father, was the pupil
of Uddálaka and married his preceptor's daughter. He was
so much addicted to study that he rather neglected his bride
when far advanced in her pregnancy, and was rebuked for
his conduct by his son yet unborn. The father indignantly
pronounced that he should be born crooked, in punish-
ment of his impertinence, and hence his name Ashta, eight
limbs), and Vakra, curved. Kahoda went to the great sacrifice
To
of Janaka, king of Mithilá, soon after the birth of his son.
that festival came a seeming Bauddha sage, who, overcoming all
his competitors in argument, had them thrown into the river.
Kahoda venturing to encounter him suffered this fate. When
Ashtavakra was in his twelfth year he first heard of his father's
mischance, and to revenge it, set off for the yet unfinished sacri-
fice, it being one of those already noticed as of twelve years' dura-
tion. Although young in age, the saint was mature in wisdom,
and overcame his father's conqueror. When he insisted on his
being thrown into the river, the supposed disputant declared him-
self to be the son of Varuna, the god of the same waters, who had
commenced a similar sacrifice with that of Janaka, at the same
time, and to secure the attendance of learned Brahmans, had
ASI
9
adopted the expedient of sending his son to defeat them in dispu-
tation, and give them a subsequent ducking. The object being
effected, they were dismissed with honour, and the parties sepa-
rated mutually content. Ashṭávakra, by his father's instructions,
bathed in the Samangá river, and by so doing was rendered perfectly
straight. (Mahábhárata, Vana-Parvan.)-He was married to the
daughter of the sage Vadánya, Dana-Dharma.) WILSON, XI, p. 293.
Asita-The Indian Simeon.
There exists a legendary history in prose and verse of the life
of Buddha, the founder of the religion which bears his name, in
which it is related that an inspired sage named Asita, who dwelt
on the skirts of the Himalaya mountains, having become informed,
by a variety of portents, of the birth of the future lawgiver or
Saviour, Buddha, as the son of king Suddhodanda in the city of
Kapilavasta, in Northern India, went to pay his homage to the
infant. Dr. Muir has published a metrical translation of this
remarkable legend, from which we make a few extracts.
The word Buddha, we may observe, means "the enlightened,"
or "the intelligent," and various Buddhas are mentioned in the
Buddhist books. The founder of the existing system was also
known as Gautama, as Sákyasinha, as Sákyamuni, i. e., the lion,
and the devotee, of the tribe of the Sákas to which he belonged.
Buddha was charged by a Brahmanical opponent with having said
"Let all the evils (or sins) of the Káli age fall upon me; but let
the world be redeemed." This passage is thought by some to
give the character of a vicarious redeemer to Buddha. Others in-
terpret it to mean that Buddha voluntarily underwent great
sufferings and privations during a long course of probation, in
order that he might attain the truth and teach it to men, and so
redeem them from worldly existence. Professor Cowell does not
understand the passage as implying any theological notion of
vicarious atonement, but rather the enthusiastic utterance of
highly strong moral sympathy and charity; and would compare
it with St. Paul's words in Romans ix, 3, and explain it in just
the same way as, he thinks, Chrysostom does that verse.
B
10
ASI
We now proceed to the metrical translation of the legend we
have thus introduced, and quote a few stanzas.
On Himalaya's lonely steep
There lived of old a holy sage,
Of shrivelled form, and bent with age,
Inured to meditation deep.
He-when great Buddha had been born,
The glory of the Sákya race,
Endowed with every holy grace,
To save the suffering world forlorn-
Beheld strange portents, signs which taught
The wise that that auspicious time
Had witnessed some event sublime,
With universal blessing fraught.
The cause exploring, far and wide
The sage's vision ranged; with awe
Within a cradle laid he saw
Far off the babe, the Sákya's pride.
With longing seized this child to view
At hand, and clasp, and homage pay,
Athwart the sky he took his way
By magic art, and swan-like flew ;
And came to king Suddhódan's gates,
And entrance craved-" Go, royal page,
And tell thy lord an ancient sage,
To see the king permission waits."
*
*
*
*
*
With all due forms, and meet respect,
The king received the holy man,
And bade him sit; and then began-
"Great sage, I do not recollect
"That I thy venerable face
Have ever seen before; allow
That I inquire what brings thee now
From thy far distant dwelling place."
*
ASI
11
"To see thy babe," the saint replies,
"I come from Himálaya's steeps.
""
The king rejoined-" My infant sleeps;
A moment wait until he rise."
*
*
*
*
!
"In every grace complete, thy son
Of truth shall perfect insight gain,
And far sublimer fame attain
Than ever law-giver has won.
"He such a Wheel* of sacred lore
Shall speed on earth to roll, as yet
Hath never been in motion set
By priest, or sage, or god of yore.
"The world of men and gods to bless,
The way of rest and peace to teach,
A holy law thy son shall preach-
A law of stainless righteousness.
"By him shall suffering men be freed
From weakness, sickness, pain and grief;
From all the ills shall find relief
Which hatred, love, illusion, breed.
"His hand shall loose the chains of all
Who groan in fleshly bonds confined,
With healing touch the wounds shall bind
Of those whom pain's sharp arrows gall.
"His words of powers shall put to flight.
The dull array of leaden clouds
Which helpless mortals' vision shrouds,
And clear their intellectual sight.
* "The term thus rendered, dharmachakra, expresses a somewhat sin-
gular figure. It denotes the "wheel of the law," or the "wheel of righte
ousness," or the "wheel of religion."-MUIR.
12
ASO
"By him shall men who, now untaught,
In devious paths of error stray,
Be led to find a perfect way-
The final calm* at last be brought.
"But once, O King, in many years,
The fig tree somewhere flowers perhaps ;
So after countless ages lapse,
A Buddha once on earth appears.
"And now, at length, this blessed time
Has come for he who cradled lies,
An infant there before thine eyes
Shall be a Buddha in his prime.
"Full, perfect, insight gaining, he
Shall rescue endless myriads tost
On life's rough ocean waves, and lost,
And grant them immortality.
*
*
*
*
*
"Thee, child, th' immortals worship all,
The great Physician, born to cure
All ills that hapless men endure ;
I, too, before thee prostrate fall."
We may observe that while some of the incidents in the legend
are similar to portions of the narrative in the Gospel of St. Luke
(Chapter II, 25, &c.), Dr. Muir assures us that he has not at all
exaggerated the expressions in the text which speak of Buddha as
a deliverer, or redeemer, and that he has not assimilated his cha-
racter more than was justifiable to the Christian conception of a
Saviour, and confidently appeals to any one qualified to examine
the original for himself.
Asoka-The name of one of the most beautiful of Indian trees.
Sir W. Jones observes the vegetable world scarcely exhibits a
(
* “The word in the original is nirvána a term of which the sense is
disputed-some scholars esteeming it to mean absolute annihilation; others
explaining it as the extinction of passion, the attainment of perfect dis.
passion.”—MUIR.
ASV-AYA
13
richer sight than an Aṣoka tree in full bloom. It is about as
high as an ordinary cherry tree. The flowers are very large and
beautifully diversified with tints of orange scarlet, of pale yellow,
and of bright orange, which form a variety of shades according to
the age of the blossom.' The Asoka is sacred to Siva, and is
planted near his temples. It grows abundantly in Ceylon. In
Hindu poetry despairing lovers very commonly address objects of
nature, clouds, elephants, and birds, on the subject of their lost or
absent mistresses.
Asvatthama—(Asvattháma), the son of Drona; an active com-
batant in the great war; who conceived and carried out the terrible
revenge which ended in the treacherous slaughter at midnight of
the Páṇḍava forces. As the son of a Brahman he is made to express
a regret that his "ill luck" caused him to follow the pursuits of a
Kshattriya. But the only attempt at an excuse for his conduct
which the compilers of the Mahábhárata put into his mouth is
contained in the words "as I have now at will taken upon myself
the duties of a soldier, I shall enter upon the path of a king, and
that of my high-minded father."—Goldstücker.
Atithigva-A name of Divodása (q. v.) who is said in the Rig-
Veda to have slain Karanja and Parṇaya with his glittering spear.
Atreya-A descendant of Atri, one of the seven Rishís, and a
writer on medicine of some celebrity. The period at which he
lived has not been satisfactorily determined.
Avanti―The name of a city, the modern Oujein; also called
Ujjayini, Viṣálá, and Pushpakaraṇḍini. This city is noticed in
the story of Nala, and in the Megha-dúta, verses 28 and 31.
Behold the city whose immortal fame
Glows in Avanti's or Vișálá's name.
Ayanar (Lord). The chief male deity among the Grámade
vatas. His temples are so numerous that there is one near
every village. They are generally small, and have at their en-
trance two terrible looking stone door-keepers. In the interior
Ayanár is represented in a human form in a sitting posture, with
14
AYO
his two wives Púranai and Pudkalaí, on his right and left, and
round about them seven figures of stone, representing virgins,
which however are not worshipped. Ayanár is daily besought to
protect his worshippers from evil spirits. The inhabitants of the
villages have an annual festival in his honour, usually after the
harvest.
Ayomukhi-Iron-faced; a huge misshapen giantess who was
wounded by Lakshmana in the forest of Krauncha.
Ayouija- Not of woman born,' a name of Drona, in allusion
to the legend of his having been born in a bucket.
B
Babhravya-An envoy from Vatsa, king of Kausámbí, to the
king of Simhala or Ceylon, in the drama of the Ratnávali.
Badagas-The most numerous of the hill tribes on the Nilgiris.
To the eye of the European there is nothing to distinguish one
Badaga from another, but among themselves they recognize eigh-
teen different classes, each of which has its own peculiar charac-
teristics. The Badagas are worshippers of Śiva, and many of their
temples contain a Mahalinga, a long rude stone in the shape of a
lingam. The fane of this deity is nearly always built in a coni-
cal form, outside the village, with a Basava placed at the entrance.
Baheliya or Badhak-A tribe of hunters, game-keepers, and
bird-catchers. They are exceedingly expert in the art of catching
birds, and great practice has given them wonderful powers of
manipulation. The birds are caught by means of a long pole,
which sometimes has a sharp spike attached to one end, and some-
times bird-lime from the Maddár tree. The pole is introduced
among a number of birds while they are hopping about picking
up grain, and moved slowly with a snake-like motion, then sud-
denly jerked when near one of the birds which is caught either by
the spike or lime as the case may be.- SHERRING, T. C. I., p. 352.
Bahlika-The son of Pratípa, brother of Sántanu and grand-
uncle of Dhritarashtra. He governed an independent kingdom,
which bore the same appellation, and is identifiable with the
modern Balkh.
Baibhar-The modern name of the mountain called in the
Mahábhárata Vaihára, q. v.
Baidyanatha-A celebrated place of pilgrimage situated on
the north-western confines of Bengal, about 200 miles from Cal-
cutta, and marked in the maps as Deogurh. It is said that the
16
BAI
shrine of Baidyanatha traces its origin to a Santhal. The legend
is that in the olden time a tribe of Brahmans settled on the banks
of the highland lake near the temple. There was then nothing
but forest and mountains amongst which dwelt the black races.
The Brahmans placed the symbol of Śiva near the lake, and made
sacrifices; the black tribes would not worship the new god, but came
as before to the three great stones which their fathers worshipped.
In process of time the Brahmans became indolent and neglected
the worship of Śiva. This excited the wonder of the black tribes,
till at last one of them named Byju, a man of great strength and
rich in cattle, vowed he would beat the symbol of the Brahman's
god Śiva every day before touching food. This he did; but one
day his cows strayed into the forest, and after seeking them all
day he came home hungry and weary, bathed in the lake and sat
down to supper. Before eating, he remembered his vow, and
tired as he was set off and beat the idol with his club. Suddenly
a splendid form rose from the waters and said "Behold the man
who forgets his hunger and weariness to beat me, while my priests
sleep at home and give me neither to eat nor to drink. Let him
ask of me what he will and it shall be given." Byju answered I
am strong of arm and rich in cattle; I am a leader
what want I more. Thou art called Nath (lord).
called Lord, and let thy temple go by my name." Amen! replied
the deity; henceforth thou art not Byju but Byjunáth, and my
temple shall be called by thy name.* In Mookerja's Magazine
there is a description of the temple in which it is said that in the
right of the doorway in the verandah lie couchant the figures of
four bulls, representing Nandi, the vahana or vehicle of Śiva.
They are of different sizes, but none so large as a calf. In the
inmost sanctum it is dark amid the blaze of noon, where the em-
blem is fixed. Before it burns a lamp day and night, fed with
ghee. This helps to make visible a little stone-a phallus, crop-
ping out of the ground, not higher than a span. It is Baidyanatha
himself that stands manifest and greets the eye.†
of my people ;
Let me to be
*HUNTER'S Annals of R. B.
+ Friend of India.
BAI-BAW
17
Bairagi―A mendicant of the Vaishnava sect.-WILSON. The
word Bairági is commonly applied as a generic term to many sects
of devotees. Pure Bairági devotees, says Mr. Sherring, are profes-
sedly followers of Rámanand, the founder of a famous Hindu sect,
and his celebrated disciple Ramanuj. They are mostly taken
from the Śúdra castes.
Bala-Chakravarti-A celebrated daitya or giant, who along
with Narakasura was slain by Vishnu, after a terrific combat.
The conflict ended as the sun went down, and Vishnu was thus
unable to perform his diurnal ablutions in the day-time, and had
to make them at night. In consequence of this the Brahmans
once a year at the Dipavali habba bathe at night, a nocturnal
ceremony of great merit, conducted with solemnity.
Balavatsa-The
beloved faithful wife of king Dyumatsena,'
and mother of Satyavan, (q. v.)
Bali-An oblation; the last portion of the offering of rice, &c.,
thrown into the air for the spirits of ill, the genii locorum. At the
end of the daily ceremony the householder is enjoined by Manu
"to throw up his bali in the open air to all the gods, to those who
walk by day and those who walk by night."
Bari-A caste whose special occupation is to stitch together
large leaves by the insertion of small wooden pegs-makers in
fact of Hindu crockery. These leaf-plates and dishes form a con-
siderable item in the daily expenses of respectable families-being
used to hold the food. On festive occasions broad platters of
leaves are used in great quantity.
Basusi-The serpent who vomited forth poison at the churn-
ing of the milk-sea.
Bawarya-A very rude tribe residing in the jungles to the
south of the Mirzápúr district. They are of primitive habits and
lead a precarious life. Their practice in raising crops is peculiar.
Before the rainy season commences timber is cut down in the
forest, burnt, and reduced to ashes. When the seed is sown the
ashes are scattered over the ground together with it. The harvest
of grain which is reaped maintains the tribe only for a few
C
18
BEN-BHA
months. For the rest of the time they are dependent on the flesh
of animals and the roots of trees.-SHERRING, T. C. I.
Ben Bans-An appellation of a tribe of hillmen in the neigh-
bourhood of Allahabad. The present Rája of Singrauli, to the
south of the Mirzápúr district, who is a Kharwár, yet styles him-
self Ben Bans.
Bhadramada-One of the daughters of Krodhavaṣa, and
mother of fair Irávatí."
Bhaganetra-A Daitya or Titan slain by Śiva.
Bhagiratha-(Add at page 84). "The saintly king Bhagí-
ratha, in his chariot of gold and ivory, put himself at the head
of the Gangá to direct and guide her footsteps. Sing-
ing, and dancing, and laughing, and scattering jewels on
all sides, the obedient Gangá followed, kissing the trace of his
chariot, and babbling words of endearment. Bhagíratha direct-
ing his steps to the sea, the docile Gangá followed. From thence
he led her into the bowels of the earth, into the gloomy regions
of Tartarus. There having performed the ceremony of lustrous
waters in honour of his sixty thousand ancestors, he beheld the
illustrious Sagarides, clothed in ethereal purity, ascend with rap-
turous joy to the home of the deathless gods."
Bhakti-Faith; this is regarded by a sect.of the Vaishnava,
that founded by Chaitanya, as infinitely more efficacious than
abstraction; than knowledge of the divine nature-as evjoined by
the philosophical systems-than the subjugation of the passions,
than the practice of the Yoga, than charity, virtue, or anything
deemed most meritorious. A consequence resulting from this
doctrine is, that all castes become by such faith equally pure, and
therefore that all castes are admissible into the sect; that all are
at liberty to sink their social differences in the condition of
ascetics, in which character they may live with each other without
regard to former distinctions, and that all members of the sect
are equally entitled to the food which has been previously pre-
sented to the deity. The Bhakti, or faith, comprehends five
stages quietism, as that of sages; servitude, which every votary
takes upon himself; friendship for the deity, such as is felt by
BHA
19
Bhíma and others honoured with his acquaintance; tender affec-
tion for the deity, of the same nature as love of parents for their
children; and the highest degree of affection, such passionate
attachment as the Gopis felt for their beloved Krishna.-WILSON.
Bhamaha-The commentator on the oldest extant grammarian
Vararuchi. His commentary is called Manoramá.
Bhana-In dramatic compositions a monologue in one act, in
which the performer narrates dramatically a variety of occur-
rences as happening either to himself or others.
Love, war,
fraud, intrigue, and imposition, are appropriate topics, and the
narrator may enliven his recitation by a suppositious dialogue with
an imaginary interlocutor. The language must be polished, and
music and singing should precede and close the performance. It
is not improbable that ventriloquism assisted to give effect to the
imaginary dialogue, as the art is not unknown in India.-WILSON,
Works, XI, p. 28.
Bhanumati-(Bhánumati), the wife of Duryodhana.
During
the great war she is said to have had a dream in which she saw a
Nakula or mungoose destroy a hundred snakes. This was con-
sidered ominous, Nakula being the name of one of the Páṇḍava
princes, and the sons of Kuru amounting to a hundred. Duryod-
hana was at first disposed to be alarmed by it, but afterwards
determined to disregard it.
Bhar-A very numerous tribe of aborigines known by the
terms Rajbhar, Bharat, Bharpatwa, and Bhar, who once inhabited
a wide tract of country extending from Gorakhpur in Northern
India, to Saugor in Central India. Their forts on the Ganges and
Jumna, called Bhar-dih, some of which are of vast size, are very
numerous; and they have the credit of having excavated all the
deep tanks. Some sculptures have been found in a Hindu mo-
nastery near Mirzápúr, which are remarkable for their peculiar
head-dress, and long pointed beards. These have been shown to
be Bhar figures, and their position and attitude indicate that they
were a people of importance, if not the dominant race at one
time. That the Bhars were partially civilized is sufficiently
proved by the numerous works of skill which they have left.
20
ВНА
Their massive forts testify to their warlike propensities. The
same energy and talent which they exhibited in defending them-
selves against their enemies, they also displayed in more peaceful
pursuits. Whence they obtained their civilization, which placed
them much above the condition of many other aboriginal tribes,
it is hard to say, unless we suppose it had its origin in themselves.
-SHERRING, T. C. I.
Bhasakarna—A distinguished warrior of Rávana's, who at-
tacked Hanumán armed with a lance, after several of his compa-
nions had perished by the superhuman strength of the indomit-
able Ape. Bhásakarna rushed on him uttering cries for vengeance;
accompanied by Praghasa armed with an axe; Hanumán though
severely wounded himself waited for them to come near, when he
seized a huge rock and hurled it at his adversaries with such force
that they were both crushed beneath its weight.
Bhasi-One of the five daughters of Támrá, and mother of
water-fowl.
Bhat-A tribe of bards who at a remote period were distin-
guished for their cultivation of the art of making poetry on the
spur of the moment, at marriage festivals, and on other great
occasions. They are still in request for the exercise of their
talents and skill in the recitation of poetry. In Rájpootana the
Bháts exercise a great influence over the people. They rank, says
Malcolm, as the genealogists of proud and ignorant chiefs; and
favoured individuals often combine with that office the station of
counsellors, and establish an ascendancy over the minds of their
superior, which is stronger from being grounded on a mysterious
feeling of awe. It is to them that the proudest Rájpoot looks for
solace in adversity, and for increased joy and exultation in pros-
perity.
Bhatti Kavya-An epic poem composed in the Silver age of
Sanskrit literature, for the purpose of illustrating, by every variety
of example, the rules of grammar, poesy, and its sister rhetoric.
Valuable as the work is to a student of the language in which it
is written, for its copious illustration of the grammatical treatises of
Pánini and Vopadeva, and curious as a portion of it is as an Art
BHU-BOD
21
of Poetry,' teaching by example only-it has additional claims.
upon our consideration, in its comparative antiquity of compo-
sition, and its classic purity and eloquence of style; nor is the
poem without passages of great descriptive power and general
poetical merit. It narrates the oft-told adventures of the sub-
ject of all verse,' the beloved Man-God Ráma; his birth and life,
his sufferings and triumphs, are celebrated at full length, and in
language and style not unworthy of the inspiring theme.-
GRIFFITH.*
Bhurisravas-A name of Vishnu, with reference to his becom-
ing incarnate to relieve the earth of her burthen.
Bhutavidya-That branch of medicine which treats of the
restoration of the faculties from a disorganised state induced by
demoniacal possession. This art has vanished before the diffusion
of knowledge, but it formed a very important part of medical
practice, through all the schools, Greek, Arabic and European, and
descended to days very near to our own, as a reference to Bur-
ton's Anatomy of Melancholy may prove to general readers.-
WILSON.
Birappa-The demon god of the Kurubaru, or shepherd caste
in Mysore. At the annual festival of this god it is the custom
for the priest to sit on his hands and knees before the idol, with
his eyes shut, holding out his shaven head, his body being naked
except a cloth round the waist. Four men stand near the priest,
to whom the elders hand the cocoanuts which the people have
brought, and these are broken on the bare head of the priest who
sits without uttering a sound until great heaps of cocoanut frag-
ments are piled upon both sides of him.
Bisheswar—A name of Śiva, whose image is the linga, a plain
conical stone set on end. Bisheswar is the reigning deity of
Benares, and, in the opinion of the people, holds the position of
king over all the other deities, as well as over all the inhabitants.
Bodhi-sattwa-A technical term in Buddhist theology, de-
noting a potential Buddha, or one who has only one more birth
*
Specimens of Old Indian Poetry,
22
BRA
remaining before he becomes a perfect Buddha, and meanwhile
waits in heaven until his period comes round.
Brahma-(Page 105.) The name of one of the principal Bhú-
tas, worshipped by the hill tribes, especially in Nagara Maluád.
Brahma Marriage-The first of the eight modes of marriage
enumerated by Manu; the procedure is as follows: the parents
having voluntarily invited a man versed in the Vedas, and of good
character, give their daughter to him, after clothing both of them,
and honouring them with ornaments, etc.
Brahmans-(Page 108.) The Brahmans of all tribes, according
to Hindu writings and traditions, are originally descended from
seven Rishis, or sages, held by Hindus universally in profound ve-
neration as semi-deities of great sanctity and wisdom. These, as
given by the Nirni Sindhu, and also by the Dharma Sindhu, are
as follows:
1. Brighu.
2. Angirá.
3. Atri.
4.
Vishwamitra.
5. Kasyapa.
6. Vasishtha.
7. Agastí.
Each of these Rishis stands at the head of a great division, the
various members of which are further sub-divided into sections,
termed gotras or classes. These gotras are found more or less in
all the Brahmanical tribes.
In their ceremonies the Brahmans follow the rituals or instruc-
tions of one or other of the four Vedas. Five of the principal
gotras observe the Sama Veda; five others, the Rig Veda; five
others, the Yajur Veda; and five, the Atharva Veda. The rest of
the Brahmans of all gotras follow the Yajur Veda.
Great and important distinctions subsist between the various
tribes of Brahmans. Some are given to learning; some to agri-
culture; some to politics; some to trade.
But all are classed under two great divisions, named Gaur and
Drávira, each of which consists of five tribes. These are mostly
BRA
23
separated by geographical boundaries. Speaking somewhat gene-
rally, the Gaur tribes are found in Northern India, and the Drá-
vira tribes in the Deccan or Southern India. The river Nir-
budha in Central India is commonly regarded as a rough geo-
graphical line of demarcation between the Gaurs and Dráviras.
Yet there is an important distinction between them which ought
to be always borne in mind, that the former are of greater anti-
quity than the latter, the Southern Brahmans having in fact ori-
ginally migrated from the tribes in the North. In addition to the
ten well-known principal tribes, there are several supplementary
tribes, which, although not usually reckoned amongst them, are
doubtless of Brahmanical origin.
DIVISIONS OF BRAHMANS.
The Gaur, or Northern Division, consisting of Five Tribes.
I. Kányakubja or Kanoujiya.
Sáraswat.
II.
III. Gaur.
IV.
Maithila.
V. Utkala.
The Drávira, or Southern Division, consisting of Five Tribes.
I. Maháráshtra.
II. Tailanga.
III. Drávira.
IV. Karnáta.
V. Gurjar.
Besides these there are twenty-five supplementary tribes.
The Kányakubja Brahmans belong to the old kingdom of
Kanouj, and are found dispersed over a large portion of the North-
Western Provinces, as far as Benares, where they are very nume-
rous, especially that branch of them known as Sarwaria or Sárju-
pári, which is scattered over the country from the northern bank
of the Sarju, on the confines of Oudh, its original home, to Benares,
and beyond. The Saraswat Brahmans are in the North-west of
India; the Gaurs are found in the vicinity of Delhi, and in Ben-
gal; the Maithilas inhabit the northern part of Behar; and the
Utkalas have their home in Orissa. The five Drávira tribes may
24
BRA-BRI
be separated, like the five Gaurs, by geographical boundaries.
The Maháráshtras belong to the Mahratta country; the Tailan-
gas, to Telingáná; the Dráviras, to the Tamil-speaking districts;
the Karnátas, to the Karnatic; and the Gurjars, to Gujerat. Of
the subordinate or supplementary tribes, the Máthurs are found
in the city of Mathura and its neighbourhood; the Sákádwípís,
in the old Magadh country; the Málwá Brahmans, in Málwá ; the
Kurmáchalís, in Kumaon; the Naipális, in Nepal; the Káshmírís,
in Cashmere; the Sapt-Shati Brahmans, in Bengal; the Shenevi
Brahmans, in the Mahratta country; the Palashe Brahmans in
Southern India. The remainder are found in various places,
chiefly in Northern India, and are of little weight or importance.
It is important to observe, as a distinguishing caste character-
istic of all these tribes, that, although some of them may partake
of cooked food together, yet they do not intermarry. The five.
Gaur tribes are entirely distinct from one another, both in regard
to marriage and eating food; and are likewise, in these respects,
distinct from the five tribes of Southern Brahmans. Yet the five
Dráviras are not quite so exclusive in their relations to one ano-
ther. None of them intermarry; nevertheless, four out of the
five can eat together. These are the Maháráshtra, the Tailanga,
the Drávira, and the Karnáta. None of them, however, eats with
the Gurjar tribe, owing to certain peculiarities in this tribe not
found in the rest. The supplementary tribes keep themselves aloof
from one another and from all other tribes.-SHERRING, T. C, I.
Brahmi-One of the eight Śaktis, or hideous goddesses, who
attend upon Śiva as Bhairava, the terrific and destructive deity,
who is propitiated by offerings of wine and flesh.
Brinjaries-A tribe of vagrants who correspond in many of
their habits with the Gipsies of Europe. They do not live entirely
by feats of dexterity, sleight-of-hand, fortune-telling, and the like,
but are dealers in grain, which they convey on the backs of the
cattle in districts where, for want of roads, carts cannot be
employed. Sir Arthur Wellesley in his Dispatches refers to their
value as carriers of grain; but they were also addicted to plun-
dering villages or travellers whenever an opportunity occurred.
C
Caste-(Page 123) "There is one peculiarity observable in
all the castes in modern days, not to be found in any one of them
in primitive ages. The facility for intermarriages has given place
to rigid exclusiveness, so that it is now absolutely impossible for
the pure castes to intermarry with the mixed, or for the mixed to
intermarry with one another. Yet all such intermarriages were
permitted in early Hindu times.
It is common to
speak of the castes of India in their relation to the Hindu religion;
and in that light they may very properly be regarded. Yet they
sustain another highly important relation. Ethnologically they
are so many tribes and clans, with separate histories and customs.
The members of a caste are, doubtless, united together by peculiar
sacred and social ties. In addition they bear a tribal relation to
one another of great significance. Each caste, in virtue of its
distinctiveness, and of its holding no marriage connection with
other castes, either in its neighbourhood or elsewhere, is in fact a
tribe governed by laws of the most imperious character. The
races of men, whether in ancient or modern times, have seldom,
in any country, been divided into separate tribes and clans by such
sharply defined boundaries, over which it is impossible for one to
pass to another, as we find separating the various castes of India.
Indeed so absolute and tyrannical is this spirit of exclusiveness
that the castes are taught to believe that there is a natural dis-
tinction subsisting between them, which utterly forbids their
union."-SHERRING. T. C. I.
Chai-(Cháí.) A class of jugglers, thimble-riggers, and adven-
turers, who attend fairs and other festivals like men of the same
profession in England. They are notorious for all kinds of arti-
fices for making money. They are very numerous in Oudh and
the districts to the east.- SHERRING.
D
26
CHA
Chaityaka-The modern Mount Sonár; the fifth and largest
of the five mountains of Rajgir; forming a portion of a rocky
mountain chain stretching nearly thirty miles from the neighbour-
hood of Gaya, north-west as far as Giryak in Bihar. Their sides.
are rugged and precipitous, and are mostly covered with an im-
penetrable jungle, broken only by irregular pathways overgrown
with brushwood, which are yearly trodden by hundreds of Jaina
pilgrims from Murshidábád, Benares and even Bombay, who
throng to Rájgir during the cold and dry seasons to do homage
to the sacred charanas or 'foot-prints' of their saints, enshrined
in the temples which crown the mountain tops.-I. A.
Chakravaka-The ruddy goose, (Anas Casarca) commonly
called the Brahmany duck or goose. These birds are always
observed to fly in pairs during the day, but are supposed to remain
separate during the night. "The Chakravákí," in the poetry of
the Hindus, is their turtle-dove for constancy and connubial
affection; with the singular circumstance of the pair being.
doomed for ever to nocturnal separation, for having offended one
of the Hindu Munis, or sages. If we believe popular tradition
and assertions, the cause is so far confirmed by the effect observ-
able in the conduct of these birds to the present day, who are said
to occupy the opposite banks of a water or stream regularly every
evening, and exclaim the live-long night to each other, thus:
CC
Say shall I come my love to thee?
Ah no, indeed, that cannot be,—
But may I wing my love to you?
Nay, chuck, alas! this will not do."-WILSON.
Chamar-The caste of workers in leather; one of the most
numerous of the inferior castes. Many of its members are menial
servants. From their appearance, &c.,' it is considered that they
are descended from aboriginal tribes. Yet that there has been a
great intermingling of races in India is indisputable. This is mani-
fest from the countenance alone of many members of the lower
castes, and is often strikingly exemplified amongst the Chamárs.
The word Chamár comes from Chám leather, and the members
of the caste are tanners, leather sellers, dyers, shoe-makers, cur-
CHA
27
riers, and harness-makers. In regard to the origin of the Chamár
caste we are not left to mere assumption. Manu states it autho-
ritatively. The Karávera, or worker in leather, he says, is
descended from a Nisháda father and Vaidiha mother, and the
Nisháda, on the same authority, is the offspring of a Brahman
husband and Sudra wife; and the Vaidiha of a Vaisya husband
and Brahman wife. If the workers in leather of the present day
are lineal descendants of the workers in leather in Manu's time,
the Chamárs may fairly consider themselves of no mean degree, as
they may hold up their heads boldly in the presence of the supe-
rior castes.-SHERRING.
Chamunda-Was an emanation of the goddess Durgá or Uma,
springing from her forehead to encounter the demons Chanda
and Munda.
Chandi or Chandika-A form of Parvati. Human sacrifices
are believed to have been formerly made to this goddess. Blood
drawn from the offerer's own body is looked upon as a proper obla-
tion to the goddess Chandika. "By human flesh Chandika is
pleased one thousand years. An oblation of blood, which has been
rendered pure by holy texts, is equal to ambrosia; the head and
flesh also afford much delight to the goddess Chandika."-Asiatic
Researches, Vol. V, Art. XXIII.
Chandi-One of the principal female Bhútas, worshipped by
the hill tribes of Nagara Malnád.
Chandra-The moon; who is fabled to have been married to
the twenty-seven daughters of the patriarch Daksha, who are in
fact personifications of the lunar asterisms. His favourite amongst
them was Rohiní, to whom he so wholly devoted himself as to
neglect the rest. They complained to their father, and Daksha
repeatedly interposed, till, finding his remonstrances vain, he
denounced a curse upon his son-in-law, in consequence of which he
remained childless aud became affected by consumption. The
wives of Chaudra having interceded on his behalf with their father,
Daksha modified an imprecation which he could not recall, and
pronounced that the decay should be periodical only, not perma-
nent, and that it should alternate with periods of recovery. Hence
.28
CHA-CUR
:
the successive wane and increase of the moon.
(Padma-Purána,
Swarga Khanda, Sec. II.) Rohing in astronomy is the fourth
lunar mansion, containing five stars, the principal of which is
Aldebaran.
Chandrakanta-(Chandrakanta), the moon-gem, which is sup-
posed to absorb the rays of the moon, and to emit them again in
the form of pure and cool moisture.
Charanas-Inferior demi-gods, or heavenly spirits, who are
often introduced into Hindu dramas, and represented as mingling
freely with human beings, to the extent of intermarrying with
mortals, and even electing earthly princes and heroes to be their
leaders and rulers. It is difficult to describe accurately the per-
sons, character, and offices, of the various inferior races of divini-
ties, being as WILSON says "very ill-defined in the heavenly polity
of the Hindus."
Cheru-One of the aboriginal tribes. The tradition of the
Cherús is that they belong to the great Serpent Race whose traces
and descendants are found in various parts of India. They are pro-
bably related to the Nága tribes in the Assam hills, and to the
aborigines of Nágpúr. The Cherú has distinctive features, but
this is true likewise of most of the aboriginal tribes.-SHERRING.
Chitra-javanika-A painted cloth; a screen or veil suspended
in a temple before the adytum: the term is sometimes applied to
arras or tapestry, or cloth covering the walls of a temple.
Chyavana-(Add at page 139), is the son of Bhrigu, the son
of Brahmá, by his wife Pulomá. A Rákshasa, or fiend, attempt-
ing to carry off Pulomá the child was prematurely born, whence
his name from Chyu, to fall from. Upon his birth his splendour
was such as to reduce the insulter of his mother to ashes.
Comedy-See RÚPAKA, NÁTAKA, PRAKARANA, &c..
Cural-See Kural.
D
Dadicha-(Add) He was a votary of Śiva, who had not been
invited to the sacrifice, There is a legend in the Mahábhárata in
which it is stated that the thunderbolt of Indra was formed of
Dadícha's bones to destroy the Dauavas or Titans.
Daiva Marriage-The second of the eight modes of marriage
enumerated by Manu. It consists in the giving away of a
daughter after having decked her with ornaments, to the priest
officiating at a properly conducted sacrifice.
Dakshina-A fire for sacrifices placed to the south of the
household fire and fire for oblations. The sacred fire of the Hin-
dus, which was originally one, is said to have been made three-
fold by Purúravas. See FIRE-SACRIFICIAL.
Dama-The eldest son of Bhíma, king of Vidarbha ; and brother
of Damayantí.
Damana-One of the three sons of king Bhíma, of Vidarbha ;
and brother of Damayantí.
Damana-A great sage who visited the court of king Bhíma
at Vidarbha, where he was so kindly and hospitably received by
the childless king and his royal consort, that he bestowed on them
a boon-that they should have children—as he knew it was for
children they had long pined. In due course the promise was
fulfilled; and there were born to the happy parents :-
"One sweet girl, the pearl of maidens,--and three fair and noble sons,
Damayantí, Dama, Dánta-and illustrious Damana ;
Richly gifted with all virtues-mighty, fearful in their might.
Damayanti with her beauty—with her brilliance, brightness, grace,
Through the worlds, unrivalled glory-won the slender-waisted maid.”*
The four children being all named in honour of the sage who
had conferred the boon.
* MILMAN'S Translation of the Story of Nala and Damayantí.
30
DAN-DAS
*
Danta-The youngest of the three sons of Bhíma, rája of
Vidarbha ; and brother of Damayantí.
Danu-A fallen demi-god who was restored by Ráma. Danu
was the son of Lakshmí; but was brought by a curse to the state
of a demon, and reduced to a headless trunk by the weapons of
Indra; but on meeting with Ráma his miraculous recovery is said
to have been instantaneous. Danu then counselled Ráma and his
brother to go to Rishyamúka; for said he there dwells an emi-
nent monkey named Sugriva who will give you tidings of your
lovely Síta. Danu had previously been employed by Mályaván
to mar the forest in order to ruin Ráma.
Dasakhandara-A name of Rávaṇa, the ten-headed sovereign
of Lanka.
Dasa-Rupaka-An ancient and valuable treatise on dramatic
literature. It is a description of the ten kinds of theatrical com-
position of which the term Rúpaka, (that which has a form)
is the proper designation. The work consists of a Text and a
Gloss, with examples. The text is the composition of Dhananjaya
the son of Vishņu, who styles Munja, his patron, and who conse-
quently wrote in the eleventh century. The Gloss might be
thought to be by the same hand as the Text, the author being
Dhanika the son of Vishnu; agreeing in the patronymic and
differing little in the name. But the date of the Gloss remains
undetermined, though it is no doubt of some antiquity.—WILSON.
Dasyus-(Add) There is no doubt that in many passages of
the Rig-Veda, the words Dasyu and Dása are applied to demons of
different orders, or goblins, (Asuras, Rákshasas, &c.) but it is toler-
ably evident from the nature of the case, that in all, or at least
most of the texts, we are to understand the barbarous aboriginal
tribes of India as intended by these terms. This is yet more
clearly established by the sense in which the word Dasyu is used
(i. e., for men and not for demons) in the Aitareya Bráhmana, in
Manu, and in the Mahábhárata."-MUIR, II, 68.
Professor Roth, in his Lexicon, defines Dasyu as denoting 1,
"a class of superhuman beings, who are maliciously disposed both
to gods and men, and are overcome by Indra and Agni in particu- .
DEM
31
lar. 2, the word is an approbrious designation of hostile, wicked,
or barbarous men." Professor Müller remarks, "Dasyu simply
means enemy; for instance when Indra is praised because he
destroyed the Dasyus and protected the Arian colour." Dr. Muir
quotes some passages in which the Dasyus are spoken of as mon-
sters.
Demons-A belief in demons is found to prevail all over India.
Every Hindu work containing allusions to native life, and the
Dictionaries of all the Hindu dialects, prove the general prevalence
of a belief in the existence of malicious or mischievous demons, in
demoniacal inflictions and possessions, and in the power of exor-
cisms. The majority of the demons are supposed to have been
originally human beings; and the class of persons most frequently
supposed to have been transformed into demons are those who
had met with a sudden or violent death, especially if they had
made themselves dreaded in their life-time. Demons may in con-
sequence be either male or female, of low or high caste, of Hindu
or foreign lineage. Their character and mode of life seem to be
little if at all modified by differences of this nature. All are.
powerful, malicious, and interfering; and all are desirous of bloody
sacrifices and frantic dances.
In every part of India innumerable legends respecting goblins
and their malice are current; but scarcely any trace of their
worship in the proper sense of the term, much less of their exclu-
sive worship, can be discovered beyond the districts in which the
Shánárs, or other primitive illiterate tribes, are found. This
superstition respecting demons, in whatever form and under
whatever modifications it may appear, is found to be productive
of evil; but it was reserved for the Shánárs and a few other
illiterate tribes to exemplify the debasing effect of it in its fullest
extent by their worship of demons, a degradation beneath which
the human mind cannot descend.
In all Brahmanical myths the demons are represented as being
the ancient enemies of the gods, as warring against the gods, and
sometimes gaining the upper hand; and as the inventors and
special patrons of bloody sacrifices. Every new deity gains pro-
32
DHA
digious victories over the demons, and yet somehow they never
are thoroughly conquered.
In all Brahmanical books and legends in which the state of
the original inhabitants of Peninsular India is described, we are
referred to a period when demons ruled in the primeval jungles,
and when those jungles were inhabited solely by vile sinners who
ate flesh and offered bloody sacrifices. In like manner the Bud-
dhists represent Ceylon, prior to the advent of Buddhism, as having
been overrun with serpent gods and demons.*
Mr. Caldwell shows conclusively that a high antiquity must be
assigned to demon-worship, that it was established in the arid
plains of Tinnevelly and amongst the Travancore jungles, long
anterior to the influx of the Brahmaus and their civilization of the
primitive Tamil tribes.
Dhananjaya-Vijaya—A drama in one act, the subject of which
is taken from the Viráța Parvan of the Mahábhárata, and de-
scribes the recovery of the cattle of the Rája Viráța by Arjuna,
after they had been carried off by Karna and the Kuru princes.
The different chiefs appear and threaten each other, and praise
themselves very much in the strain of Homer's heroes. The
battle is thrown into narrative, being described in a conversation
between Indra and some of his attendants as they contemplate it
from the clouds. The drama belongs to the class termed Vyáyoga.
Dhangar-A tribe chiefly employed in felling the jungle. They
are an industrious and active people, who put their hands to any
service and are able-bodied and well-conducted. In Southern
India the Dhangars are shepherds and cultivators.
Dharkar-(Dharkár), a very low caste, much lower than the
Chamárs, yet considerably above the Doms. They are workers in
reeds and canes, and manufacture cane stools and chairs, palm
leaf fans, matting for floors and the like. Some of them are
employed as porters.-SHERRING.
Dharmaraya habba-An annual festival in honor of the five
Pándava princes, the eldest of whom Yudhishthira, is also called
Dharmaraya. The festival is a very popular one amongst the
* The Tinnevelly Shánárs, by Rev. R. CALDWELL.
DHA-DIR
33
Śúdras, though Brahmans take no part in it. The pújárí or
priest who officiates is a Súdra. In the morning ablutions are
performed in tanks; during the day buffaloes and sheep are
sacrificed; and in the evening a car is drawn through the prin-
cipal streets.
Dhaumya-2. A great sage who is said to have had iron
teeth.
Dhobi-The washerman caste. Hindus, even the poorest, do
not wash their own clothes. Although the garments worn by
many are both scanty and simple, yet the thought never occurs
to them that, for the sake of economy, it would be advisable for
themselves or their wives to devote an hour or two occasionally
to this operation. That it is contrary to custom is a sufficient
reason with them to pay a Dhobí for doing that which they could
so easily do themselves.
Dhobís first steam the clothes by hanging them in a bundle
over a cauldron of boiling water. They are then taken to a stream
or pond where they are thoroughly washed with the aid of fuller's
earth. The Dhobí stands in the water, and taking a quantity of
clothes by one end into his two hands he raises them aloft in the
air and brings them heavily down upon a huge stone slab at his
feet. This operation he repeats until the clothes are perfectly
clean. They are not, however, quite so strong as when he com-
menced.-SHERRING.
Dima―A drama of a similar but more gloomy character than the
Samavakára, (q. v.) and is limited to the representation of terrific
events, as portents, incantations, sieges, and battles. It compre-
hends four acts. The hero should be a demon, demi-god or deity.
WILSON.
Dirzi―The tailor-caste. The occupation of a tailor is held in
much greater estimation in India than in England. It is com-
mon for a family to keep its own Dirzi who ranks equal to any
servant of the house. They have no power of invention, but in
imitative ability they are prodigies. Tailors form a separate tribe,
and are divided into seven or eight sub-castes or clans, who do
not intermarry.-SHERRING.
E
34
DOL-DRA
Dola Yatra or Dolotsava-The swinging festival; as com-
memorated in Bengal, this festival begins on the fourteenth day
of the light half of Phálguna (about the middle of March.) The
head of the family fasts during that day. In the evening fire-
worship is performed; after which the officiating Brahman sprinkles
upon an image of Krishna, consecrated for the occasion, a little
red powder, and distributes a quantity of the same among the
persons present. [HOLI.] A bonfire is made on a spot previously
prepared, and a sort of Guy-Fawkes-like effigy, termed Holiká, made
of bamboo laths and straw is formally carried to it and committed
to the flames. In many cases musicians and singers are in attend-
ance. The day is then spent in merriment and feasting, with
many of the sports practised during the Holi, q. v.
Dom-An aboriginal tribe, of dark complexion and small
stature, considered by Hindus to be the type and representa-
tive of all uncleanness. In their opinion humanity finds its
extremest degradation in the Dom. He is loathed and avoided
as scum and filth; in fact no language can properly designate
the social degradation of his position. The occupation of the
Dom is, in some respects, the same as that of the Dharkár caste,
namely, to make cane chairs and stools, and palm leaf fans. He
also manufactures various articles from the bark of the bamboo.
Doms are also employed as street-sweepers; and assist at the
cremation of the dead, laying the logs of wood in order on the
ground, and bringing the lighted straw; the Dom in fact is the
only person who can furnish the light for the purpose.-SHERRING.
Drama-It is said by Professor Wilson that the invention of
dramatic entertainments is usually ascribed by Hindu writers to
a Muni or inspired sage, named Bharata.
The dramatic represen-
tations originally were of three kinds, Nátya, Nritya, and Nritta;
and were exhibited before the gods by the Gandharbas and Apsa-
rasas, the musicians and nymphs of Indra's heaven, who were
trained by Bharata to the exhibition.
Of these different modes of representation the Nátya is the only
one strictly dramatic, being defined to be gesticulation with lan-
guage. The Nritya is merely pantomime, and the Nritta, simple
DRA
35
dancing. The other two modes of performance termed Tándava
and Lasya are merely styles of dancing.
An intimate connexion between the idea of dancing and dra-
matic representation may be observed, and this no doubt subsisted
in the classical drama. The dances of the Chorus were no less
important than their songs, and the arrangement of the ballet was
as much the task of the author as the invention of the plot.
Bharata was probably one of the earliest writers by whom the
art was reduced to a system. His Sutras, or aphorisms, are con-
stantly cited by commentators on different plays, and suggest the
doctrines which are taught by later authors. One of the best and
earliest existing treatises on dramatic literature, as the Dasa-
Rúpaka, or description of the ten kinds of theatrical composition,
of which the term Rúpaka is the most appropriate designation.
This work is exclusively devoted to dramatic criticism. An ac-
count of other works treating of poetical or rhetorical composition
will be found under their respective titles. For the different
kinds of dramatic entertainments consult RÚPAKA, NATAKA,
PRAKARANA, &c.
"The plays of the Hindus are not numerous; they were only
acted on special occasions, and the subject of the plot is with
predilection borrowed from the legendary literature of ancient
India. Hindu dramatists have little regard for unity of time,
place and action; and with the exception of Kálidása, they must
be considered as inferior in poetical worth to the renowned dra-
matic writers of ancient Greece and of modern Europe. Besides
the reasons to be sought for in the religious, mystical and meta-
physical tendencies of the Hindu mind, a free development of the
Hindu drama was probably also impeded by the heavy and arti-
ficial canon which weighed upon Hindu dramaturgy, and which,
ascribed to sacred sources, and looked upon as a law not to be
transgressed by any dramatic poet, did not allow much scope for
poetical imagination, and would keep down any free movement
upon which it might have ventured. The various kinds of dra-
matic performances, the number of their acts, the characters of the
plays, the conduct of the plot, the sentiments to be represented,
36
DRA-DUS
and even the modes of diction-all these were strictly regulated;
so much so, that in spite of the differences which must exist be-
tween different authors and plays, there is still a kind of uniformi-
ty which pervades the whole Hindu drama and must strike any
one unacquainted with this elaborate dramatical canon."-GOLD-
STUCKER.
Draunayani-The son of Drona; a patronymic of Aswat-
tháman.
Drishtadyumna-(See page 171.) The son of Rája Drupada and
brother of Draupadí. Their birth was remarkable and occurred
under the following circumstances: King Drupada, after his dis-
grace and the dismemberment of his kingdom, burning with resent-
ment, had recourse to supernatural agency to procure the birth of
a son, who should one day avenge his defeat and accomplish the
death of Dróṇa. After some difficulty he prevailed on two learned
Brahmans, named Yája and Upayája, who performed a sacrifice for
this purpose, and at the proper period summoned the Queen of
Drupada to assist at the rite. Her Majesty was engaged at her
toilet, and delaying her arrival with true feminine want of punc-
tuality, the ceremony was completed without her. Two children,
one male, one female, arose from out of the sacrificial fire. The
former was Dhrishṭadyumna, who appeared with a diadem on his
head, armed in full mail, and bearing a bow and arrow in his
hand. The latter was Krishná, so named from her black com-
plexion, though of exceeding beauty. She is better known by her
patronymic Draupadí, the daughter of Drupada. Dhrishṭadyumna
proclaimed the terms of her Swayamvara.-F. JOHNSON.*
Durdharsha-One of the Rávaṇa's five renowned warriors who
were sent against Hanumán. He aimed an arrow that struck the
undaunted Ape in the neck and then lashed his steeds nearer ;
but when he was close to the doorway, Hanumán with a sudden
cry, let himself fall upon the chariot; it was shivered into frag-
ments, and the Rákshasa hurled from it lifeless.-I. E., 232.
Dushana-(Add) He was the brother of Rávana, the great
giant of Lanka.
* Selections from the Mahábhárata.
DYU
37
Dyumatsena-A king of the Salwas, described as just and
brave, but becoming blind while his son was only an infant, the
kingdom fell to a kinsman, a ruthless enemy; Dyumatsena then
fled to a hermit grove with his wife Balavatsa, and his only son
Satyavan, (q. v.) When the son grew up he was seen by the
princess Savitri, (q. v.) and by her selected as her future husband.
She afterwards obtained as a boon from Yama, the restoration of
the old king's sight; and he recovered possession of his kingdom,
when he was again anointed severeign.
*
* “Thus David was anointed a second time as king of Israel; and Cœur
de Lion on his return from the Holy Land, caused himself to be crowned
anew,—' as if he intended, says Hume, by that ceremony, to reinstate
himself in his throne, and to wipe off the ignominy of his captivity.”—
GRIFFITH, S, O. I. P.
E
Eclipse-The popular notion of the cause of an Eclipse cur-
rent among the Hindus is founded on the following mythological
legend. When the gods had obtained Amrita, (q. v.) or ambrosia,
by the churning of the ocean of milk, one of the giants stole and
drank some portion of it secretly. The sun and moon however
observed the theft and informed Vishnu of it, who upon this got
very angry and severed the head of the giant from his trunk; but
because the giant had tasted Amrita, both parts remained alive
invisible in the sky; they are regarded as the eighth and ninth
planets named Ketu and Rahu, and are said every now and then
to take revenge on the sun and moon by swallowing them for a
short time, thus causing eclipses.
Ekadasi-(Add at page 207.) It is also observed by Saivas,
and especially by the Madhiva sect.
Erannoboas-The ancient name of the river Sone. The ancient
city of Palibothra stood at the confluence of the Ganges and
Erannoboas. "The capital of Chandragupta, Pátaliputra, was no
doubt the same as the Palibothra of Sandracottus, the modern
Patna. But exception was taken on the ground that Patna was
not situated near the confluence of the Ganges and Sone, or Eran-
noboas, where Palibothra stood. This, however, has been explained
by a change in the bed of the river Sone, which is established on
the best geographical evidences.'
**
* MAX MULLER, A. S. L., p. 280.
;
F
Festivals " Among all the nations of the ancient world a con-
siderable portion of the year was devoted to the solemnization of
public festivals, at which the people found in the assemblage of
multitudes, in the exhibition of games, and in religious pageants
and ceremonies, a compensation for the want of those more refined
entertainments which are created by the necessities and the
luxury of a more advanced stage of civilization. Some of these
primitive celebrations have retained their hold upon national
tastes and feelings long after their origin and meaning were for-
gotten, and become interwoven with new conditions of society,
with altered manners and institutions, and with a total change of
religion. In all the countries of Europe they have left at least
traces of their former prevalence in the nomenclature of our calen-
dars, and many of the holidays which are appropriated to the
saints of the Christian Church have been borrowed from the public
festivals of ancient paganism. In proportion also as nations, or
as different classes of the same nation, retain their primitive habits,
the observances of olden times enjoy their veneration and interest
their affections. They are, however, fast fading in the Western
world, even from the faith of tradition, before the extension of
knowledge and refinement, and before the augmented demands for
toil which the present artificial modes of life impose, when holidays
are denounced as an unprofitable interruption of productive indus-
try, and a festival or a fair is condemned as a wasteful expen-
diture of time and money. It is only therefore in regions remote
from the reach of the task-master, where exemption from work
is occasionally the equal right of all classes of the community,
that we may expect to find the red letters of the calendar signi-
ficant signs-importing what they designate, public holidays—
days on which the artificer and the peasant rest from physical
exertion, and spend some passing hours in a kindly communion
40
FES
of idleness with their fellows; in which, if the plough stands
still and the anvil is silent, the spirit of social intercourse is kept
alive, and man is allowed to feel that he was born for some nobler
end than to earn the scanty bread of the pauper by the unrelaxing
labour of the slave.
It is in the remote East, and especially in India, that we may
expect to find the living representation of ancient observances, and
the still existing solemnizations which delighted the nations of
antiquity; and we shall not be altogether disappointed; although
even here they begin to languish under the influence of a foreign
government; under the unsympathizing superiority which looks
upon the enjoyments of a different race with disdain; under the
prevalence of the doctrine which regards public holidays as deduc-
tions from public wealth, and under the principles of a system of
religious faith which, although it might be indulgent to popular
recreations, cannot withhold its disapprobation of them when their
objects and origin are connected with falsehood and superstition.
From the operation of these causes the Hindu festivals have
already diminished both in frequency and in attraction; and they
may become, in course of time, as little familiar to the people of
India as those of European institution are to the nations of the
West." WILSON.*
The principal festivals are the same in the different provinces
of India, though celebrated under different names: there are
others that belong to peculiar localities; and even those which
are universally held, enjoy various degrees of popularity in different
places, and are celebrated with various local modifications. The
periods also vary within certain limits, according as the lunar
month is reckoned to begin from the new moon, or from the full
moon; the former mode of computation prevailing in Bengal and
in Telingana, whilst in Hindustan and in the Tamil countries
of the South the latter is followed.-(PRINSEP's Useful Tables.)
The principal festivals are the following; an account of the
observances peculiar to each will be found under the respective
heads.
Works, vol. I, pp. 151-3.
FES
41
Bhaimyekadasi.
Bhishmashtami.
Shat Tila Dánam.
Yugádya or Yugadi Padya.
Sivarátri.
Dola Yátrá, or swinging festival.
The Hólí.
Varadá Chaturthi.
Srí Panchamí.
Srí Rámanavamí.
Janmashtami, or nativity of Krishna.
Gokalashtami.
Rath Yatra.
Ras Yatra.
Pánchálapura.
Vrishaketu.
Sudhanva
Shrígiri.
Ramanujacharier Punya Divasa.
Tekacharier Punya Divasa.
Aksha Tadige.
Ganéṣa chavati.
Gauri habba.
Sanitrayodasi.
Ananta chalurdas.
Dasara.
Maha Navami.
Vijaya Deshami.
Vyása pavarnavami.
Dípávali.
Balissádya.
Dhátri.
Uttarayana, called also Sankranti, and in the South Pongal.
Perumal Tirumal.
Tirukalyám.
Pitrapaksha Amavadasi.
F
1
G
Gajasura-A Titan or Asura in the form of an elephant, who
was killed by Śiva. Part of the scanty raiment worn by Śiva con-
sists of the skin of the above elephant.
Galava-A saint of some note, the hero of a long legend in the
Mahábhárata. He there appears as the pupil of Viswamitra. At
the expiration of his studies he importuned his master to tell him
what present he should make him. Viswamitra, being out of
humour, at last desired him to bring him eight hundred horses,
each of a white colour, with one black ear. Gálava in his distress
applied to Garuda, who was his particular friend, and with him
repaired to Yayáti, king of Pratishthána. Yayáti, being unable
to comply with the sage's wish, presented him his daughter Mádhaví,
whom Gálava gave in marriage successively to Haryaswa, king of
Ayodhya, Divodása, king of Káṣí, Usínara, king of Bhoja, and
received from each, upon the birth of a son by her, two hundred
of the steeds he was in quest of.
These horses were originally a
thousand in number. The saint Richika, having demanded the
daughter of Gádhi, sovereign of Kányakubja, as his wife, that
prince, to evade the match, being afraid to decline it, required the
steeds in question as a present in return. Richíka obtained them
from the god of ocean, Varuna, and transferred them to his
father-in-law, by whose descendants six hundred were sold to
different princes, and the rest given away to the Brahmans.
Gálava, having procured the horses which were in possession of
the kings, took them and the damsel, still by virtue of a boon a
virgin, and presented them together to Viswámitra. The sage
received them and begot a son by her, Ashtaka, to whom he
resigned his hermitage and his steeds, and retired to the woods; the
place was thence called Ashtakapura. The lady after this was
GAN
43
re-conducted by Gálava to her father, and he, in imitation of his
preceptor, spent the rest of his days in solitary devotion.-WILSON,
XI, p. 225.
Ganapati-The master of attendants. A name of the god
Ganéṣa, who resembles the Janus of the Romans.
Gandhari (Page 219.) The wife of Mahárája Dhritarashtra,
the daughter of Gandhára, king of the province so named; the
country of the Gandharü of Herodotus; that bordering on the Indus,
westward as far as to Candahár, in which the ancient name probably
is traceable. As her husband was blind she always wore a handker-
chief over her eyes which made it necessary for her to be told
what was going on.
r;
Ganga-dwara-The portal of Gangá, is the opening in the
Himalaya mountains by which the Ganges descends into the plain
of Hindustan. It is celebrated as the scene of Daksha's great
sacrifice. It is now more usually known by the name of Hardwár
properly Haridwára, the gate of Vishnu, or Śiva; appellations
bestowed upon it probably in times more recent than the composi-
tion of the Mahábhárata, when the Hindus were first ranged
under the different and sometimes contending sects of Vaishnavas
and Saivas.
Gandhakali-An Apsara, who had been condemned by a sage,
whose reflections had been disturbed by her beauty, to wear the
form of a crocodile, and was released by Hanuman who slew the
crocodile in the lake of Gandhamádana.
Gandharva marriage-The sixth of the eight modes of mar-
riage enumerated by Manu. It is described as the reciprocal
connexion of a damsel and her lover from mutual desire; unat-
tended with any of the forms or ceremonies ordinarily connected
with weddings.
Gangamma-A river goddess among the hill tribes; she is
supposed to be present at every stream. On the Nílagiris it was
formerly the practice for every owner of cattle to throw a quarter
of a rupee into the rivers before crossing them, as the cattle were
sometimes carried away by the torrent. It is enumerated amongst
44
GAR-GIT
the great sins of the hill tribes at their funerals that they had
crossed a stream without paying due adoration to Gangamma.
Garhapatya-Perpetual household fire, which is to be always
burning; and, in the event of becoming extinct, can be renewed
only by igniting certain consecrated sticks by attrition. The
household fire is never to be used for domestic or culinary pur-
poses. It is the pure vestal flame, the emblem of eternal light,
and is maintained solely for religious offices. See Fire-sacrificial.
Gaunharin-Nátch girls or dancing women. They form a
numerous class in all towns and cities in India. They are not a
distinct caste, but are more or less attached to all castes. Although
notoriously immoral, yet they are sent for by all classes of the
community, even the most respectable and virtuous, on occasion of
a great family festivity. The Gaunharins, not only dance and sing
but play on the Sáringí and Tablá,
Gavaksha-One of the monkey chiefs of Sugríva's army, who
at the first sight of the giant Kumbhakarna threw down his
weapons and fled, but was recalled to his post by Angada.
Gethu-The associate of Raghu in the theft of the nectar, and
also one of the constellations.
Girija-The mountain-born; a name of Párvatí. She was
originally Sati, the daughter of Daksha; was born again as the
daughter of the mountain Himálaya, and was again married to
Śiva. From this, her second birth, she is called Párvatí the
mountaineer, or Girijá the mountain-born.
Gita Govinda-The Song of the Divine Herdsman, a beautiful
little pastoral drama, furnishing a specimen of that mystical or
emblematical theology, "that figurative mode of expressing the
fervour of devotion, or the ardent love of created spirits towards
their beneficent Creator, which has prevailed from time immemo-
rial in Asia.'
""
Under the figure of the love, quarrels, and reconciliation of the
incarnate Deity, dwelling like the Grecian Apollo, amongst the flocks
Sir W. JONES. "On the Mystical Poetry of the Hindus."
GOK-GOP
45
and herds, under the name of Krishna, with the beautiful shepherdess
Rádhá, it shadows forth the reciprocal attachment which exists
between the human soul and Divine Beauty, goodness, and know-
ledge. As Krishna, faithless for a time, discovers the vanity of
all other loves, and returns with sorrow and longing to his own
darling Rádhá, so the human soul, after a brief and frantic attach-
ment to objects of sense, burns to return to the God from whence
it came-
-" from its original instinct it vergeth towards him as its
centre, and can have no rest till it be fixed on him.........He doth
cherish and encourage our love by sweetest influences and most
consoling embraces ;" and "in that mysterious union of spirit
whereby we do closely adhere to, and are, as it were inserted in
him,
we cannot but feel very pleasant transports.'
"%
With respect to the date of the composition nothing certain is
known, but it seems now to be generally believed that the author,
Jayadena, flourished at least as late as the twelfth century of our
era.” Mr. GRIFFITH, from whose Specimens of old Indian Poetry the
above has been taken, has translated a few stanzas, but says
"the
exquisite melody of the verse can only be appreciated by those
who can enjoy the original."
Gokalashtami-A festival to celebrate the birth-day of
Krishna. It is customary in the South of India for all Brahmans
to fast until midnight, and then, after worship, to partake of food.
Gopichandana-A magnesian or calcareous clay, forming the
white earth used by the Vaishnavas to make the sectarial streaks
on their faces, breasts, and arms. The purest description is
brought from Dwáraká, being said to be the soil of a pool at that
place in which the Gopís drowned themselves when they heard of
Krishna's death. The Rámánujas mark two perpendicular white
lines, drawn from the root of the hair to the commencement of
each eyebrow, and a transverse-streak connecting them across the
root of the nose; they have also patches of Gopichandana, with a
central red streak, on the breast and each upper arm.
* These passages are extracted from one of Barrow's Sermons, quoted by
Sir W. Jones, in his Essay on the Mystical Poetry of the Hindus,-
S, O. I. P.
46
GOS
Gosain-Any devotee is called a Gosain, whether he lives a
life of celibacy or not, whether he roams about the country col-
lecting alms, or resides in a house like the rest of the people,
whether he leads an idle existence, or employs himself in trade.
The mark however, that distinguishes all who bear this name is,
that they are devoted to a religious life. Some besmear their
bodies with ashes, wear their hair dishevelled and uncombed, and,
in some instances, coiled round the head like a snake or rope.
These formerly went naked, but being prohibited by the British
Government to appear in this fashion in public, bid defiance to
decency nevertheless by the scantiness of their apparel. They
roam about the country in every direction, visiting especially spots
of reputed sanctity, and as a class are the pests of society and in-
corrigible rogues. They mutter sacred texts or mantras and are
notably fond of uttering the names of certain favourite deities.
Some of them can read and a few may be learned; but for the
most part they are stolidly ignorant. Others, of a much higher
grade, reside in maths, or monasteries, where they lead a life of
contemplation and asceticism. Yet they quit their homes occa-
sionally, and, like the first named, undertake tours for the purpose
of begging, and also proceed on pilgrimage to remote places. Most
of them wear a yellowish cloth, by which they make themselves
conspicuous.
Fakirs or devotees of both of these classes, usually wear several
garlands of beads suspended from their necks and hanging low
down in front; and carry a short one in the hand which by the
action of a thumb and finger, they revolve perpetually, but slowly,
keeping time with the low utterances proceeding from their lips.
They also bear upon their foreheads, and frequently on other
parts of their bodies, particularly the arms aud chest, sacred marks
or symbols, in honour of their gods.
In addition there is a considerable number of Gosains, not
however separated from the rest by any caste distinctions, who
although by profession belonging to this religious class, apply
themselves, nevertheless to commerce and trade. As merchants,
bankers tradesmen, they hold a very respectable position. Some
carry on their transactions on a large scale.
GRI
47
One of the chief peculiarities of this caste is, that besides its
natural increase from within, it is constantly adding to its numbers
from without. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, the
two former especially, may if they choose, become Gosains; but
if they do so, they are cut off for ever from their own tribes. It
is this circumstance which constitutes the Gosains a distinct and
legitimate caste, and not merely a religious order.—SHERRING,
p. 256.
Griha-devata-Household gods. No house is supposed to be
without its tutelary divinity, but the notion attached to this cha-
racter is now rather vague. The Kula-devata is always one of
the leading personages of the Hindu mythology; but the Griha-
devata rarely bears any distinct appellation. In Bengal the
domestic god is sometimes the Sálagrama stone; sometimes the
tulasi plant; sometimes a basket with a little rice on it, some-
times a water-jar to either of which a brief adoration is addressed,
most usually by the females of the family. Occasionally small
images of Lakshmi or Chandí fulfil the office, or should a snake
appear, he is venerated as the guardian of the dwelling. In gene-
ral, however, in former times, the household deities were regarded
as the unseen spirits of ill, the ghosts and goblins who hovered
about every spot, and claimed some particular sites as their own.
Offerings were made to them in the open air, by scattering a little
rice with a short formula, at the close of all ceremonies, to keep
them in good humour. In this light the household gods corres-
pond better with the genii locorum, than with the lares or penates
of antiquity.-WILSON, Works, XI, p. 21.
H
Halabhrita-A name of Balaráma, implying his use of a
ploughshare as a weapon. He is represented of a white colour,
clothed in a dark blue vest.
Hanuman-(See Page 239) is called Hanumán of the broken.
jaw. When he was a child in his mother's arms, the ruddy sun
laughed down into his face; and he, thinking it was some splendid
blossom, sprang from his mother's arms five yojanas into the air in
his eagerness to clutch the radiant thing. In the fall that happened
to him then he broke his jaw.
(At page 240 after the Poetry.)
The dangers to which Hanuman was exposed in crossing the ocean
to Lanka may be seen by referring to the articles SURASA, and SIN-
HIKA. See also. MAINAKA, for the supernatural help he received on
the same journey. Arriving at Lanka he reduced his size to that
of a cat; and when night had let down shadow on the town, he
sprang into the ramparts, and crouching down surveyed the posi-
tion from thence. As the sky is adorned by its constellations so
was Lanka embellished by its glorious palaces. Hanumán ex-
amined every dwelling and saw some strange and memorable sights.
6
After he had discovered Síta in the Asoka grove and received
her message to Ráma about the red tilaka* that he might know that
Hanuman had really seen his beloved; the brave monkey said to
himself, shall I quit this isle of Lanka' and do no damage to this
Rávaṇa, who has dared to menace the peerless bride of Ráma ?
So he set about tearing up the trees in the grove, and to defacing
the monuments and grottoes it contained. Eight thousand war-
riors rushed forth, by command of Rávaṇa, against the noble
* Tilaka, a mark on the forchead and between the brows, cither as an
ornament or a sectarial distinction. --WILSON,
HAN
49
Simian. The agile son of the wind sprang out of them, and
bounding on to the roof of a lofty palace, he uprooted a huge column
of marble, exclaiming, I am Hanumán, the messenger of Ráma;
death to Rávana; then hurling the pillar amongst them he
crushed the whole army of Rákshasas. Other heroes and warriors
were then sent against the valiant Ape, who though wounded
several times, succeeded in killing all who came against him. (See
JAMBUMÁLIN, DURDHARSHA, PRAGHASA, AKSHA, &c.) At last
Indrajit was sent by Rávana to capture or slay the monkey hero.
Indrajit, with a miraculous arrow he had received from the gods,
wounded the intrepid Hanumán, who with his strength paralysed
fell crushing down to the earth incapable of motion. The gigantic
ape was thus fettered with iron chains by officious Rákshasas.
But Indrajit drew forth the miraculous arrow and motioned Hanu-
mán to follow him into the presence of Rávana. The incensed
king ordered his execution but Vibhíshana, Rávana's brother,
reminded him that the life of an ambassador was always sacred.
Rávaṇa, however, ordered his servants to set fire to the tail of
Hanumán; but Síta prayed to the Fire, and the fire, leaping up
in a bright golden flame played around the tail as though it were
performing a pradakshina, and did not burn it. And thus it
answered the gentle princess: I am good to Hanumán. The
marutide then reduced his size to that of a grasshopper and
stepped out of his bonds; swiftly resuming his gigantic pro-
portions, he sprang to the roof of the nearest dwelling, and lash-
ing his tail, round which the fire still played, from side to side,
soon set the palace in a blaze.—I. E., p 240.
Hanuman Nataka--A play, the subject of which is the story
of the Rámáyana; it is often emphatically termed the Maha, or
great, Nátaka. It is said to be originally the work of Hanumán
who engraved or wrote it on the rocks. Valmiki saw it and antici-
pated that the greater beauty of its style would throw his Rámáyaṇa
into the shade. When he complained to the monkey the latter
had so little of the author about him, that he told the bard to
cast the verses into the sea. Valmiki obeyed the injunction and
the Maha Nátaka remained for ages under the waves. At last
portions were discovered and brought to Raja Bhoja, by whose
G
50
HAS-HOL
command Damodara Misra arranged the fragments, filled up the
chasms, and formed the whole into an entire work. There is no
reason to doubt so much of this story as is credible, or that the
fragments of an ancient drama were connected in the manner
described. Some of the ideas are poetical and the sentiments just
and forcible; the language is in general very harmonious; but
the work itself is after all a most disjointed and nondescript com-
position, and the patchwork is very clumsily put together.
The date of the play is established by the mention of Bhoja,
to be a work of the tenth or eleventh century; and it is in part
corroborative of the correctness of the assertion, that the drama
was the work of Damodara Misra, that the poet is named in the
Bhoja Prabandhu as one of the many writers patronised by that
monarch. That work also records the anecdote of some verses
attributed to Hanumán being discovered by a merchant in Bhoja's
reign, engraved upon some rocks on the sea shore; the merchant
brings a copy of the first two stanzas of one verse, and Bhoja
travels to the spot to obtain the other two.-WILSON.
Hasti-siksha-The management of elephants; an accomplish-
ment curiously characteristic of national manners. The profi-
ciency of the Indians in this art early attracted the attention of
Alexander's successors; and natives of India were so long exclu-
sively employed in this service, that the term Indian was applied
to every elephant driver, to whatever country he might belong.-
SCHLEGEL.
Hayamukhi―The horses head; one of the Rákshasí guardians
of Síta when a captive in Lanka. She told Síta that youth and
beauty were capricious gifts, and recommended her to respond
to Rávana before grief and fasting had impaired her charms.
Himapandura-One of the four elephants by whom the earth
is believed to be supported. The sublime Himapandura has the
eastern quarter assigned to him. See VIRUPAKSHA.
Holi-A vernal festival originally designed to typify the genial
influence of Spring upon both the inanimate and animated crea-
tion, and to express the passionate feelings inspired by the season,
and the delight which the revival of nature diffused. The primi-
HOL
51
tive institution was the adoration of the personified Spring as the
friend and associate of the deity of Love. In the South of India
the festival is in honour of Kámadeva, whose effigy is committed
to the flames; though, as Professor Wilson remarks, the buf-
foonery of the Hólí and barbarity of the Charak púja, but ill express
the sympathy which man, in all countries, feels with the vernal
season, and has little in common with the worship that might be
supposed acceptable to Káma and his lovely bride, and which it
would appear they formerly enjoyed. The time for the celebra-
tion of the Hólí (15th day of Phálguna) is the season of Spring,
when the foliation of trees, the budding of the grass, and the
pairing of birds are observed. The festival is considered to be
especially promotive of the multiplication of offspring, and pre-
servative of the health and life of children. But though traces
of the original purport of the festival are palpable enough, yet
Love and Spring have been almost universally deposed from the
rites over which they once presided, and have been superseded by
new and less agreeable mythological creations; new legends have
also been invented to account for the origin and object of the
celebration, having little or no obvious relation to the practices
which are pursued.-WILSON.
The festival in Bengal is observed by the worship of the juvenile
Krishna, whilst in Hindustan the personified Hólí is a female
hobgoblin, a devourer of little children. But in every part of
India it is customary for the lower orders to sally forth into the
streets and throw a red powdert over passers by, or a red liquid is
squirted over them through a syringe, the operators often using
abusive or obscene language. "In the villages the men generally
take part in the mischief, and persons of respectability and females
*This is supposed to commemorate the legend of Káma's having been.
consumed by the flames which flashed indignant from the eye of Siva, when
the archer-god presumed to direct his shaft against the stern deity, and
inflame his breast with passion for Párvatí.—WILSON.
+ This powder termed Phalgu, or Abíra is made chiefly of the dried and
pounded root of the Curcuma Zerumbet, or of the wood of the Cæsalpinia
Sappan, which are of a red colour, or in some places the yellow powder of
turmeric is substituted.-WILSON.
52
HOL
•
are encountered with gross expressions, or sometimes with rough
usage, and rarely, therefore, trust themselves out of their houses
whilst the license continues." Where there is no police to inter-
fere an open spot in the vicinity of the village is selected, and the
materials of a bonfire brought together; useful articles, if not
vigilantly guarded, being often appropriated for this purpose, and
if once added to the pile the owner cannot retain them. "During
the whole period the people go about scattering the powder and
red liquid over each other, singing and dancing, and anuoying
passengers by mischievous tricks, practical jokes, coarse witticisms,
and vulgar abuse." The bonfire is consecrated and lighted up by
a Brahman, and when the flames break forth, the spectators crowd
round it to warm themselves, an act that is supposed to avert ill-
luck for the rest of the year; they engage also in rough gambols,
and as the blaze declines jump over and toss about the burning
embers.
According to Colonel Tod the utmost license prevails amongst
the Rajputs; the lower classes regale in stimulating confections
and intoxicating liquors, and even respectable persons roam about
the streets like bacchanals, vociferating songs in praise of the
powers of nature. A characteristic mode of keeping the festival
is playing the Hólí on horseback, when the riders pelt each other
with balls of the red powder inclosed in thin plates of tale which
break when they strike.
Of the songs which are sung at this season the character is
generally said to be highly exceptionable. Professor Wilson states
that all he had an opportunity of seeing were characterized by
little else than insipidity. They were either praises of the mouth,
or allusions to the juvenile Krishna in connexion with the festival,
and supposed to be uttered by the female companions of his boyish
frolics at Vrindávana.
The practices of the carnival as now observed in Italy have
been trimmed of their excesses, but even in them there remain
vestiges which denote their community of origin with the Hólí of
the Hindus. The time properly embraces the whole period from
the beginning of the year, but as in the festival of Phálguna, the
last few days are those in which the principal demonstrations take
HTE
53
place, and in the license which is permitted both in speech and
conduct, the wearing of masks and disguises, the reciprocal pelting
with real or with mock comfits, and in some places sprinkling with
water or throwing powder over each other, obvious analogies
exist. There is another practice which presents also a parallel,
the extinguishing of the carnival. This in Italy is refined into
frolicsome attempts to blow out each others lighted candles; but
the notion appears to be the same as the burning of the Hólí, the
lighting and extinction of the bonfire, and scattering of the ashes.
There is another of the usages of the Hólí which finds a parallel
in modern times, although at a somewhat later period. One sub-
ject of diversion during the Hólí, is to send people on errands and
expeditions that are to end in disappointment, and raise a laugh
at the expense of the person sent. The identity of this practice
with making April Fools is noticed by Maurice, who remarks that
the boundless hilarity and jocund sports, prevalent on the first of
April in England and during the Hólí festival in India, have their
origin in the ancient practice of celebrating, with festival rites,
the period of the vernal equinox, when the new year of Persia
anciently began.'
There was a Festum Stultorum about this period amongst the
Romans; some antiquaries have supposed that it constituted the
originals of the festivals of the Roman Church, the extravagances
of the Abbot of Unreason, and the sleeveless errands of All Fools,
or April Fool Day. The identity of designation and similarity of
practice, render it not unlikely that the day of All Fools had
originally something in common with the Festum Stultorum and
with the Hólí.*
Htee-A Buddhist symbol; an umbrella-shaped ornament
which surmounts most of the pagodas in Burmah; just as the
weather-cock still surmounts many of the churches in England.
But the Htee has a significance unknown to the weather-cock,
Gautama Buddha was a Kshatriya, the son of a Mahárája; and
* WILSON, Works, II, 243. Reference is made to Brand's Popular
Antiquities and various other works for still more striking coincidences
between the Hólí and the other above-mentioned festivals.
54
HUH
amongst the Kshatriyas the Htee or Umbrella has been the
insignia of sovereignty from time immemorial. Many of the Htees
are elaborate ornaments of gold and jewels. Some are set upon
an ornamental frame work of a similar character, and are sur-
mounted by rich metal flags, whilst the giver of the Htee and
every one who has contributed to its ornamentation, derives a
certain amount of religious merit from the act, which ensures him
a higher scale of being in the next life, and smooths his path to
Nirvána.
Huhu and Haha-(Húhú and Háhá), two kings of the Gand-
harvas, mentioned in the Rámáyaṇa.
I
Ihamriga-A class of comedy, a piece of intrigue in four acts,
in which the hero is a god or illustrious mortal, and the heroine
a goddess. Love and mirth are the prevailing sentiments. The
heroine may be the subject of war or stratagem, and the devices of
the hero may end in disappointment but not in death-WILSON.
Ilwala―(Add at Page 261). One legend of Ilwala is that he
was accustomed to assume the form of a Brahman, and in con-
junction with his brother Vátápi, lure many of them to destruc-
tion, as related in the account of AGASTYA, (q. v.) the sage by
whom Ilwala was destroyed.
Iravati-The mother of Airávata the elephant of Indra, which
is elsewhere said to have been produced at the churning of the
milk sea.
J
Jambumalin-A formidable Rákshasa the son of Prahasta,
who was sent by Rávaṇa against Hanumán, with orders not to return
until he had slain the boasting monkey. After a severe contest in
which Hanumán was wounded on the cheek and breast, he seized a
marble pillar and dashing it down on Jambumálin, the tiger
amongst warriors, he crushed the gigantic Rákshasa into a form-
less mass.-I. E., 230.
Janamejaya-(Substitute this for that in the text.) 1, The
king of Vaişáli, whose father Sómadatta celebrated ten times the
sacrifice of a horse; 2, A son of Puranjaya, a descendant of Ana ;
3, A son of Paríkshit, the son of Kuru; 4, The son of Parikshit
who was grandson of Arjuna, and with whose reign the Kaliyuga
commenced just after the death of Krishna. There is a copper
grant still in existence belonging to the Gowja Agrahár, Ananta-
pura Taluq, Mysore, which was executed in the reign of this king.
The language is a mixture of Sanskrit and Canarese. It begins
as follows: "Emperor Janaméjaya, the refuge of the whole
universe; the master of the earth; the king of kings; the Para-
méswara of rulers; the great Mahárája; the sovereign of Hasti-
napura, the flower of cities; the bestower of widowhood on the
wives of the hostile kings of Aróha, and Bhagadatta; the son of
the lotus of the Pándava race; most skilled in warfare; whose
bow resembled the Kálinga serpent; the unassisted hero; the
dauntless in battle; the slayer of Asvapatiraya, Disápata and
Gajapatiraya; the smiter on the head of Narapatiraya; the most
accomplished equestrian; the terror of the 14 States of Konkana,
Rékha Révanta, Sámanta, Mrigachamara, &c.; the ever brilliant;
the son of other's wives; the bearer of the flag with the emblem
of the golden boar; the most glorious of Rájas; the adorned; the
JAN-JAY
57
descendant of the great lunar race; the son of Emperor Paríkshit ;
was reigning at Hastinapura, (diverted) by happy historic amuse-
ments."
Janasthan-An extensive forest inhabited by Rakshasas,
Of Janasthan I need not tell,
Where Surpanakhá, Khára, dwell
And Dúshan with the arm of might
And Trísiras, the fierce in fight,
Who feeds on human flesh and gore ;
And many noble giants more,
Who roam in dark of midnight through
The forest, brave and strong and true.
By my command they live at ease,
And slaughter saints and devotees.*
Janiwara-(Janiwára). The Brahmanical cord or thread with
which children of Brahmans are invested when they attain the
age of seven or nine years. It costs something considerable, and
Brahmans who are poor are, in order to acquire it, obliged to ask
contributions from their friends; and Hindus of all castes believe
they perform a meritorious act in contributing to the charges of
the ceremony.
The cord has to be made with much care, and
with many observances. The cotton with which it is formed ought
to be gathered from the plant by the hands of Brahmans only, in
order to avoid pollution. For the same reason it should be corded,
spun, and twisted, by persons of the tribe, and be always kept
exceedingly pure. The ceremony of investiture with the cord is
termed UPANAYANA, and to the article under that head the reader
is referred for a description of the procedure adopted on the
occasion.
Jaya-2. A name of Arjuna; a bold metonymy: not merely
Victor, but Victory.
Jayadratha—1. A rája of Sindhu chiefly known in connec-
tion with the following incident: When the Pandava princes
accepted the terms proposed by their cousins, and entered upon
their exile, twelve years of which were spent in the forests of
* GRIFFITH'S Rámáyan, vol. iii, p. 165.
H
58
JAY
India ; one day they were out hunting, and their wife was left
at home with their domestic priest, king Jayadratha passed through
the forest with a large retinue on his way to the South, whither
he went to obtain in marriage a princess of Chedi. But seeing
Draupadí he was so much struck with her beauty, that he at
once entertained the desire of possessing her. He sent in conse-
quence a messenger to her hermitage to ascertain her name and
lineage, and to get himself introduced to her as a guest. Draupadí,
unaware of the danger which threatened her, received him hospi-
tably, according to the laws of her religion, and the more so as she
recognised in him a distant kinsman. Jayadratha however soon
disclosed his disloyal intentions, and when Draupadí indignantly
repelled them, he carried her off forcibly. Soon after the Pándu
princes returned home from their hunting excursion, and learned
the outrage that had been committed on them, off they started in
pursuit of Jayadratha. He was soon overtaken and his army
routed. Draupadi was released, and after an unsuccessful fight
Jayadratha himself made a prisoner. In the end, however, Drau-
padí, out of regard for their relationship, interposed in his favour
with her husbands, and he was allowed to depart to his own
country. He was ultimately killed by Arjuna, in the great war,
for aiding and abetting the death of Abhimanyu.
Jayadratha-2. The Rája of the Sindhu-Sauvíras, sometimes
termed the Rája of the Sindhus, or Saindhavas; whether the same
as the dwellers on the Indus, or a kindred tribe, must have occu-
pied much the same territory-the western and southern portion
of the Panjab. Jayadratha, accompanied by six brothers and
many followers, joined the Pandavas before the great war. In
the Mahabharata it is stated that they had on some occasion
five hundred deer, &c., for breakfast! Whence was Draupadí to
procure all this good cheer? The mystery is explained by reference
to a passage in the beginning of the Vana Parva. When the
Pandavas repaired to the forest they were followed by a number of
Brahmans who adhered to their party. Yudhishthira endeavoured
to persuade them to return, alleging the impossibility of his feed-
ing them, and the sin he should incur if they were starved. As
they persisted in their purpose Yudhishthira was advised by
Dhaumya to have recourse to the Sun as the source of all suste-
JIM JOG
59
nance.
He accordingly worshipped Súrya, who appeared to him,
and gave him a copper cauldron, which he told the prince should
be filled with fruits, roots, potherbs, and even flesh, ready dressed,
whenever food was wanted, until the exile of the Pándavas should
terminate. With such an inexhaustible larder, Draupadi was able
to entertain the followers of Jayadratha.-WILSON.
Jimala-A notorious thief, of whom the following legend is
told. He was one day surprised by a tiger, and in his fright
ejaculated the words, Oh, Hari! Hari! The god immediately sent
help, and relieved Jimala from his danger, The robber was so
grateful for the divine interposition that he erected a shrine on
the spot, and became an ascetic.
Jimutaketu-In Buddhist mythology the king of the Vidyá-
dharas, or celestial choristers, corresponding to the Gandharbas of
Hinduism.
Jimutavahana-The son of Jimútaketu, and prince of the
Vidyadharas; he is the hero of the Nágánanda, q. v.
Jogi-A class of devotees of which there are many kinds. Some
are prognosticators of future events; others lead about animals of
monstrous formation in order to excite religious wonder and
curiosity; others have their ears split and wear in them a kind
of ear-ring for sacred purposes. Persons of all castes can now
enter the order; but this was not the rule originally. Jogis are
not particular on the subject of marriage, and some of them take to
themselves wives. At death their bodies are buried; and their
tombs, termed Samádh, are held in sacred estimation and are often
visited by pilgrims for idolatrous purposes.
The term Jogí or Yogí is properly applicable, says Mr. Wilson,
to the followers of the Yoga or Patanjala school of philosophy,
which, amongst other tenets, maintained the practicability of
acquiring, even in life, entire command over elementary matter by
means of certain ascetic practices.-SHERRING.
1
K
Kabir Panthis-(Page 296). The designation of the sect
founded by Kabír, who is supposed to have lived towards the closc
of the 14th century. The circumstances connected with his life
are all related as miraculous, and nothing certain is known of his
history. According to the doctrine of this sect, there is but one
God, the creator of the world; but, in opposition to the Vedanta
(q. v.), they assert that he has a body formed of the five elements
of matter, and a mind endowed with the three gunas or qualities :
he is of ineffable purity and irresistible power, eternal, and free
from the defects of human nature, but in other respects does not
differ from man. The pure man is his living resemblance; and
after death, becomes his equal and associate. God and man are
therefore not only the same, but both in the same manner every-
thing that exists. For 72 ages, God was alone; he then felt the
desire to renew the world, which desire assumed the shape of a
female form; and this form is Máyá, (q. v.), or illusion, with whom
he begot the triad, Brahma, Vishnu, and Śiva. He then dis-
appeared, and Máyá approached her offspring, in order to frame
the universe. Vishnu hesitated to associate with her, and is
therefore more respected by the Kabir Panthis than the other two
gods of the triad; but the latter were frightened by her, and the
result of their submission was the birth of Saraswatí, Lakshmí and
Umá, whom she wedded to the three deities to produce the world.
To understand the falsehood of Máyá is, therefore, the chief aim.
of man; and so long only as he is ignorant of the source of life,
he is doomed to Transmigration (q. v.), which, according to tho
belief of this sect, is also extended to the planetary bodies-a
falling star or meteor being a proof, for instance, that it undergoes
a fresh change. The moral code of the Kabír Panthis is, in many
respects, creditable to them. Life, they teach, being the gift of
God, must not be violated by his creatures. Humanity and truth
KAL-KAN
61
are two of their cardinal virtues; retirement from the world is
deemed desirable ; and implicit devotion, in word, act, and thought,
to the Guru, or spiritual teacher, a supreme duty. But, as regards
the latter point, it is characteristic that the pupil is enjoined first
to scrutinize the teacher's doctrine and acts, and to be satisfied that
he is the sage he pretends to be, before he resigns himself to his
control. It is no part of their faith to worship any deity, or to
observe any ceremonies and rites of the Hindus; but they are
recommended outwardly to conform to all the usages of tribe and
caste, and some even pretend to worship the usual divinities,
though this is not considered justifiable.*
Kalinga Is usually described, says Wilson, as extending from
Orissa to Drávida, or below Madras, the coast of the Southern.
Sircars. It appears, however, to be the Delta of the Ganges. It
is familiar to the natives of the Eastern Archipelago by the name
of Kling, and was known to the ancients as the Regio Calingarum.
"Under the name of Kalinga it appears in the list of countries
so frequently re-produced in Sanskrit writings, and generally in one
stereotyped order, coming immediately after Lower Bengal, as if
adjoining it, in the same way as the Lower Provinces of Bengal
are invariably placed after the northern ones. It formed one of the
five outlying kingdoms of ancient India,† with its capital situated
about half-way down the coast, and still surviving in the present
city of Kalingapatnam."
Kanakhalu-(Add at Page 312.) The name is still retained,
as appears from the testimony of an impartial witness, Lieutenant
Webb, in his survey of the source of the Ganges; a survey which
has essentially improved the geography of those regions;-" The
party arrived at Haridwára, and encamped at the village of Kana-
khala, on the west bank of the Ganges, at the distance of about
two miles from the fair."-As. Res. XI, 449. The Ganges does
not now descend at Kankhal; and it is a question for geologists
to solve, whether the Ganges has, in the course of nineteen con-
turies, so corroded the skirts of the mountain, as to have thrown
* WILSON, Works, I, 68 ff.
.
† Anga, Banga, Kalinga, Sumha, and Pundra,
62
KAN-KAT
back the gorge through which she passes, a distance of two miles."
-WILSON, IV, 359.
Kandarpa-A name of Káma-deva, the Hindu Cupid, or god
of love.
Kanjar-The Kanjar and Nat tribes are supposed to be the
same as the Gipsy tribes of Spain, England, and other parts of
Europe. The Kanjars make ropes, matting, and kaskas tatties.
They also twist cotton and hemp into threads, and manufacture
large brushes for the cleaning of cotton yarn.
Kanta or Santa-(Kánta or Sánta), the lovely daughter of
king Lomapáda, who became the wife of Rishya-sringa, (q. v.)
Kaparddin-An epithet applied in the Rig-Veda to RUDRA, who
is described as the father of the winds, and is evidently a form of
either Agni or Indra. Kaparddin may intimate his head being
surrounded by radiating flame, or the word may be an interpola-
tion. The same epithet Kaparddin is also applied to Púshan. It
is sometimes translated simply' braided hair.'-MUIR.
Karane-An immense horn, quite straight, about five feet
long, so heavy that a man can barely raise it at intervals, to
bellow forth a thundering blast, when he is forced to drop it again.
It is an appanage of some of the principal temples in Mysore, and
brought into use to meet distinguished visitors.
Karkotaka-One of the principal Nágas, or semi-divine beings
with a human face and the tail of a serpent, inhabiting the regions
under the earth. This Nága was rescued by Nala from a flaming
bush, and in return for the service Karkoṭaka promised to deliver
Nala from the power of Kali. He accordingly metamorphosed
Nala into a dwarfish charioteer, but gave him a magic garment by
assuming which he could at any time regain his proper form.
Nala, thus transformed to the short-armed Váhuka entered the
service of Rituparna king of Ayodhya.
Kathak―The Kathaks are professional musicians. They are
'to the manner born,' and form a distinct tribe and caste. The
gift or inspiration of music is hereditary in this tribe; though
they are only one of several tribes of Hindus devoted to
music, dancing, and singing: their women are not usually scen
}
KAT-KAV
63
in public, but live in the retirement of the Zenána. The Kathaks
instruct dancing girls in singing, &c., and receive one-half of the
earnings of these women in payment for the instruction they have
given. They are frequently hired together, the Kathaks to play
on instruments, the women to dance and sing.-SHERRING.
Kathasaritsagara-'The ocean of fabled streams,' the largest
collection of fables in India, made by Somadeva about the begin-
ning of the 12th century. He declares that its 24,000 stanzas
contain the essence of the Vrihat katha, written by one Gunadhya
in the Paisachi Prakrit—the dialect of the goblins,—and that it
differs from its original only in the language and by a condensa-
tion of the too prolix narrative. Professor Wilson and others
doubted this assertion, and were of opinion that Somadeva had
collected various works of fiction and digested them into a har-
monious whole. But recent researches and discoveries have made
the statement of Somadeva that he remodelled a Prakrit original
perfectly credible.*
Kattan-(Káttán), one of the Grámya-devatas; he was the ille-
gitimate son of a Brahman's wife; being exposed by his mother he
was found and brought up by a pariah. When grown up he obtained
reputation as a necromancer. He died by his own hand, and was
then deified as having been received into the service of Máriamma,
that he might convey to her all suicides. He is an object of dread,
and many goats and cocks are sacrificed to him.
Kaumari (Kaumárí), one of the eight hideous goddesses
termed Śaktis, who attend upon Śiva when he assumes his terrific
and destructive form of Bhairava.
Kavya-darsa-(Kávya-darsa), a treatise on poetical composi-
tion, by Dandin, the author of the Dasa Kumára, and supposed
to be contemporary with Bhoja.
Kavya Prakasa—(Kávya Prákáṣa), a work on rhetorical com-
position in general, and an authority of great repute. The author
was Mammața Bharra, a Cashmírian. It contains such details.
relating to dramatic writings as are common to them and other
poems, illustrated by extracts from celebrated poems, which
* Dr, BUHLER, Indian Antiquary, September 1872,
64
KAY KLE
however are never named, either in this or in many other works
of the same class. WILSON.
Kayasth-The Writer caste; it stands at the head of the
Śúdras, or between them and the Vaisyas. Nothing is known
decisively respecting its origin. The Kayasth themselves affirm
that their common ancestor, on the father's side, was a Brahman.
Wilson states that they sprang from a Kshatriya father and a
Vaisya mother. In point of education, intelligence, and enterprise,
this caste occupies deservedly a high position. Yet they are
notorious for their drinking and gambling prospensities, and for
the very large sums expended on occasions of marriage.*
Kharwar or Kairwar-Au aboriginal tribe inhabiting the
pargannahs of Barhar, Agorí Bijaigarh, Singraulí and other places
to the south of the Mirzápúr district. There are several temples
at Gothání and in the fort of Agorí. Ruins are also found on
most of the neighbouring hills. The fort was for ages the abode
of the Baland Rájas of this tribe, whose memory still lingers
among the hills and villages. All the great architectural works
found in those tracts are ascribed to the Balands, who are believed
to have ruled over an enterprising and industrious people. It is
remarkable that they are said to have erected their buildings by
the labours of Asúrya architects, whom they retained in their
employ.-SHERRING.
Kiratas-(Add at Page 336). Kirátas, or mountaineers may
come from any part of India. They are known in classical geo-
graphy as the Cirrhadæ, or the Cirrodes; the latter in Sogdiána,
near the Oxus.
Klesas-In Buddhist theology the Kleṣas are the ten vices,
thus divided:-Three of the body, murder, theft, adultery; four
of speech, lying, slander, abuse, unprofitable conversation; three
of the mind, covetousness, malice, scepticism. In the Yoga
philosophy there are five; ignorance, egotism, desire, hatred,
tenacity of existence.-BOYD.†
SHERRING, T. C. I,
† Nagananda, or the Joy of the Snake World; a Buddhist Drama. By
PALMER BOYD, B. A., 1872.
KOT-KUM
65
Kol-A low caste or tribe employed in cutting down jungle from
year to year, and in conveying the wood to Benares and other
places for sale. The Kols are also water-carriers and fishermen.
The word Kúli, anglicized cooly, is derived from these people.-
SHERRING.
Kotikasya-A prince of whom nothing is known beyond the
brief statement in the Mahábhárata. He was the son of Suratha,
Rája of the Saiva tribe, and friend and follower of Jayadratha.
When Draupadí entered into amicable conversation with him, she
laid aside the branch of the Kadamba tree which she held in her
hand, from which it is inferred that such a branch was used as a
signal to warn off trespassers. Kotikásya is termed the chief
of the Sivis, a tribe mentioned by the historians of Alexander's
Indian conquests.
Kratha-(Krátha), the name of a prince mentioned in the
Mahábhárata of whom nothing particular is known.
Kraunchi-(Kraunchí), one of the five daughters of Támra,
and mother of cranes and owls.
Krisasva-1, A king of Ayodhya, the son of Várhadásva and
father of Prasenajit. But the solar genealogies do not all agree;
the V. P. omits Krísáṣva. 2, A sovereign of Viṣalá, son of
Samyama and father of Somadatta. Buchanan places the Ayódhyá
prince in the eighteenth century before Christ, and the sovereign
of Visala in the fourteenth; the latter is therefore made subse-
quent to Ráma, who is supposed by him to have flourished in the
fifteenth.
Kshanadachara-(Kshanadáchara), a night-walker, or a
spirit of ill who walks in woods at night, but can assume various
shapes, and is therefore an object of dread.
Kumbararu-The potter caste. They manufacture all kinds.
of earthen vessels, whether for domestic or general use. These
are made by the hand and often display considerable ingenuity.
A large wheel is placed in a horizontal position on a small and
well lubricated pivot fixed strongly into the ground. On the centre
of the wheel, above the pivot, a quantity of prepared clay is depo-
sited; then by means of a stick the wheel is made to revolve very
I
66
KUR-KUT
rapidly, and sufficient impetus is imparted to it to keep it in
motion for several minutes. Seating himself on the ground before
the wheel, and stretching his arms over, the potter manipulates
the revolving clay into the shape intended, and, having done so,
separates it by means of a cord from the rest of the clay, and re-
commences the same operation, there being enough clay on the
wheel for a dozen vessels or more. When the wheel slackens in
speed he places the stick in a hole near one of the spokes, aud
revolving it a few times forcibly, sends it on again with its original
speed. The vessels when made are burnt in a kiln.
Kural-A Tamil poem of great celebrity.
'Its sentences
are counted as binding as the ten commandments on the Jews.
Its very language has become the text of literary excellence. It
is no exaggeration to say that it is as important in Tamil litera-
ture, as influential on the Tamil mind, as Dante's great work on
the Language and Thought of Italy." The Kural is divided into
three parts, and contains one hundred and thirty-three pathigams,
or chapters, of ten verses each. The popular reverence it gained
from the very first, has insured its preservation, and it is probable
that we have it almost unaltered. The first poem invokes, not
Ganesa or Sarasvati, but "the everlasting God." The next is in
praise of rain; then on virtue and moral excellence, then follow
songs on the duties of husbands, wives, and children; then on
Love, Hospitality, Gratitude, Patience, Backbiting, Benevolence,
&c., all full of the noblest sentiments; and maxims that seem as
if they had been taken from the Christian Scriptures. In Gover's
"Folk Songs of Southern India," will be found some excellent
translations of Poems from the Kural. See TIRUVALLAVA,
Kutsa-The son of Arjuna. Kuhu considers that Kutsa is a
personification of the lightning, a view which he considers to be
confirmed by his patronymic of Arjuna, Arjuna being an epithet
of Indra and of the thunderbolt.
L
Lambanies-A tribe of people resembling the gypsies of
Europe. They live in forests but migrate from place to place.
When there were few or no roads they carried grain and salt on
oxen, as also bamboos and firewood on their own heads. They
were formerly considered as suppliers of grain to armies, and their
value in this respect is often mentioned in the Mysore Despatches
of the late Duke of Wellington; but they are really a predatory
tribe. Their women are peculiarly clad and decorated. The
hand and finger rings, bangles and bracelets worn by them, are
made of bone; they have also rows of flowers and balls suspended.
from their hair. Their dirty dress is chiefly composed of thick
aprons, interwoven with black and red coarse cotton thread, and
rude needle work, suspended from the waist downwards, and also
a bodice made of the same material. The men wear tight breeches
coming a little below the knees, and cover their heads with coarse
turbands.
Lasika―(Lásíka), the name of an entertainment in one act
of which love is the subject, and the general strain is comic or
farcical. It is sometimes termed Vilásika.
Lasya-(Lásya), a mode of dramatic performance or rather
style of dancing, taught by Párvatí to the princess Ushá, who
instructed the Gopís of Dwáraka, the residence of her husband, in
the art; by them it was communicated to the women of Suráshtra,
and from them it passed to the females of various regions.--WILSON.
Lingadikaries-(Lingadikáries), a sect of the Badagas who
wear the lingam. The division was occasioned by the act of a
headman of the Adikaries, who, to appease the cravings of hunger,
ventured to eat a little meat. His descendants are not allowed to
wear the lingam, and can only intermarry with common Badagas:
68
LIN-LYR
Lingayits-A caste who carry the "Linga" or emblem of Śiva
tied round their necks: some keep it in a gold or silver case, and
others tie it up in a cloth; but in all instances it is worn round
the neck. They are for the most part traders in grain and spices.
The Lingayits consist of many clans who do not intermarry, but
can eat together. They are very stationary in their habits; are
respected by other castes, but regarded as exceedingly stubborn,
especially when irritated. They inter the remains of their guru
or priest in a mosque, after the Mussulman fashion, and their
devotion to the worship of the tomb cannot be surpassed. They
bury their dead, and it is their custom to assemble round a corpse
and partake of food before interring it. They universally abstain
from animal food and intoxicating liquors. The women are very
good looking.
Lomapada-A king of the Angas in whose reign there was a
great dearth for want of rain. "The sufferings of the earth-
mother were shared by all living creatures; the gasping land was
too feeble to bring forth fruit or herb, so the animals died and the
men grew wan from hunger." Lomapáda, after in vain suppli-
cating Vishņu, called his councillors together, and was advised to
allure Rishya-sringa from his father's hermitage in the forest, as
the youth was destined to be the achiever of noble deeds; and
that in return the grateful clouds would pour their treasures of
rain on the thirsty land. See RISHYA-SRINGA.
Lopamudra-The name of a girl who is made by Agastya, (q.
v.) of the most graceful parts of the animals of the forest. She
was named Lopamudra from the distinctive beauties (mudra) of
animals, as the eyes of deer, &c., being subjected to loss (lopa) in
her superior charms. When marriageable she became the wife of
Agastya.-WILSON, XI, 322.
Lyric Poetry-There are several works of this class in Sanskrit
literature, of which the principal are the following: the Ritusanhara,
or a description of the Seasons, attributed to Kálidása; the Megha-
duta or cloud messenger, also by Kálidása,-a poem in which a
demi god, separated by fate from his wife, is imagined to make a
cloud, the messenger to her of his woes, and incidentally as it were
describes his course over a large tract of India; the Amarús a taka,
LYR
69
or hundred stanzas of Amaru, on amatory feelings and scenes, the
natural sense of which commentators have twisted into a mystical
character, so as to make them appear less objectionable, especially
as they were supposed by some to have been composed by the
celebrated theologian Sankara, when he had animated the dead
body of king Amaru; these stanzas have an epigrammatic cha-
racter, and share in this respect the style of the first Sataka, or
hundred verses on love by Bhartrihari; the Bhaminivilasa by
Jaganatha Panditarája, in four books, the second of which is con-
nected with amatory subjects, while the third is a beautiful elegy
on the death of the poet's wife; the Gitagovinda by Jayadeva,
who probably lived in the 12th century, which in ten sections
describes the amours of Krishna with the cowherdesses, his separa-
tion from his wife Radha, and his ultimate reconciliation with her,
and which like the Amarastaka has also been explained in a mysti-
cal sense, (see Gitagovinda) Krishna then being represented as the
soul, which for a time becomes estranged from the supreme soul,
but finally returns to it. This poem differs from those mentioned
before in being intended for singing, and for representation at a
festival held in honour of Vishņu; it combines the lyric and melo-
dramatic character."-GOLDSTUCKER.*
* Chamber's Encyclopædia, vol. viii, p. 476.
M
Mada-The juice which exudes from an elephant's temples in
the season of rut. Wilson says it is rather extraordinary that this
juice should have been unnoticed by modern writers on natural
history until the time of Cuvier, although mention of it is made.
by Strabo from Megasthenes. The exudation and fragrance of
this fluid is frequently alluded to in Sanskrit poetry. Its scent is
commonly compared to the odour of the sweetest flowers, and is
then supposed to deceive and attract the bees. On each side of
the elephant's temples there is an aperture about the size of a pins
head whence the juice exudes. In the Megha-duta we read-
"Where the wild elephant delights to shed
The juice exuding fragrant from his head."-I, 132.
And in the Ritu Sanhara, as quoted by Wilson-
“Roars the wild elephant inflamed with love,
And the deep sound reverberates from above;
His ample front, like some rich lotus, shows
Where sport the bees, and fragrant moisture flows."-II, 15.
Madari―(Madárí), a tribe of snake-charmers and jugglers.
They rear both snakes and scorpions which they carry about the
country for exhibition. In decoying snakes from holes, or from
any places in which they may have secreted themselves, they are
marvellously clever. They seem to accomplish the feat mainly by
playing plaintive strains on a musical instrument. In tricks of
jugglery they appear to be equally accomplished.-SHERRING.
Madhavacharya-(Mádhavácharya). (Add at Page 364).
Lived in the commencement of the fourteenth century. He was the
minister of one of the earliest chiefs of Vijayanagar. His Digvijaya
is a composition of high literary and polemical pretension, but not
equally high biographical value.-WILSON, Works, I, p. 198.
MAD-MAH
71
Madras-A people of the Panjab, whose capital was Sakala,
the Sangala apparently destroyed by Alexander. Salya, one of the
principal leaders and warriors of the party of Duryodhana, was a
king of the Madras.
Mahabharata-(Page 369). The Mahábhárata may be
regarded under a three-fold aspect as a work relating events of
an historical character; as a record of mythological and legendary
lore ; and as the source whence especially the military caste was
to obtain its instruction in all matters concerning their welfare in
this, and their bliss in a future life.
The Mahábhárata is a traditional record of an early period of
Hindu history, compiled, however, by eminent men of the Brah-
manical caste, and modelled by them to suit a special purpose of
their own, that of imposing their own law on the Kshatriya, or
military caste. The fabric of the great epos was not built up at
once. Different times supplied different materials for it, and with
the importance of the object the greatness of the task increased.
Of all the traditions related in the Mahábhárata, there is, in the
face of them none more opposed to the spirit of the Brahmanical
religion than the marriage of Draupadí to five husbands. Poly-
andry never found any place in the Brahmanical Code, or in the
habits of the Hindus, as we know them from their literature; and
if, in spite of its thorough offensiveness, it nevertheless was
imputed to the very heroes of the ancient epos, there seems to have
been no alternative but to admit it is a real piece of history.
But if this marriage of Draupadí is a real event it throws at
once the life of the Páṇḍavas into such a remote period of Hindu
antiquity, as to leave behind not only Manu, the oldest represen-
tative of Hindu law, but even those vedic writings of Asvalayana
and others, on which the ancient law of India is based. It remains
to be seen whether there are not other facts recorded in the history
of the war which likewise are at variance with this law, but were
not, or could not, be suppressed by the compilers of the Mahá-
blárata. For if there are they would still more strongly corrobo-
rate the conclusion we have drawn, and indicate a standard by
which to test the age and the historical reliability of the record
itself.
72
MAH
A few such facts may be mentioned. The institution of caste,
as Mr. Muir, in his excellent work, has proved, did not exist at
the earliest Vedic period. It was fully established, however, and
circumscribed with stringent rules, at the time when the code of
Manu was composed. At the Vedic period a warrior, like Visvá-
mitra, for instance, could aspire to the occupation of a Brahman,
and a Brahman, like Vasishta, or the son of Jamadagni, could be
engaged in military pursuits. At the time of Manu such a con-
fusion of occupations, as an orthodox Hindu would say, was no
longer allowed; it recurs only at the latest period of Hinduism.
Yet in the history of the great war we find the Brahman Drona
not only as the military instructor of the Kauravas and Páṇḍavas,
but actively engaged in a war against Drupada; we find him, too,
as a king over half the kingdom of Pánchála; and finally as one
of the commanders-in-chief of the Kauravas.
Another fact, which, after the establishment of caste, must have
been highly objectionable, but could not be eliminated from the
epos, is the disguise of the Pánḍavas. "False boasting of a
higher caste" is an offence which Manu considers so grave that he
ranks it with the killing of a Brahman; and there could certainly
be no greater danger to the preservation of caste than the possible
success of false pretenders. We have seen, however, that the
chief personages of the great epos, the Pánḍavas, though Kshat-
riyas, assume the character of Brahmans, and even retain it at
the tournament of Draupada; that Yudhishthira, too, resorts to
the same "false boasting of a higher caste" a second time, when
he offers his services to king Viráta. Had it been possible to
suppress such a dangerous precedent, there is little doubt that the
Brahmanical arrangers of the national tradition would not have
held up their military heroes as successful violators of the law
which they were bent on inculcating to the Kshatriyas.
Those events which bear on the law of marriage and inheritance,
form another class of passages in the Mahábhárata which forcibly
prove that the incidents described must have been historical and
anterior to the classical state of Hindu society. Nor is it possible
to assume that the occurrences mentioned in those passages are
innovations on Manu and the lawgivers; the contrary is the case.
MAH
73
It is Manu who criticises them, and rejects their authoritativeness;
as in the instance of Vichitravírya, and the mode adopted to raise
children for a deceased relative. Manu admits that the practice
existed, but strongly condemns it.
A comparison between the marriage law as mentioned by Manu,
and that alluded to in some passages of the Mahábhárata leads to
an analogous inference. Manu limits the right of a girl to choose
herself a husband to the condition that her father did not give her
away in marriage, at the proper time. In the epos a girl often
chooses her husband before her father gives her away. This mode
was called the Swayamvara or self-choice. We see it observed
in the marriage of Pánḍu with Pritha, Nala with Damayantí, &c.,
and we have a full description of it when Draupadí chooses Arjuna.
This greater freedom of women is consonant with the position
which, to judge from some vedic hymns, they must have held in
society during the vedic time, but it is foreign to the period of
Manu. No such privilege as the Swayamvara is mentioned in the
code of Manu.
Enough has been adduced to indicate that there are portions in
the Mahábhárata-occupying a considerable part of it-in which
a state of Hindu society is pictured that is anterior to the code of
Manu; and an investigation of those portions would show that
this society differs from the society mirrored by this ancient code
not only in regard to positive laws, but also in customs and
morality.*
Mahapadma-One of the four elephants that support the
earth; usually designated the magnanimous Mahápadma, at the
Southern quarter. See VIRUPÁKSHA.
Maharajas-A title assumed by the chiefs of the sect of
Vallabhácháryas; besides this proud designation they have other
distinctive titles, such as Vallabha Kula, Guru, &c. The members
of the sect are widely diffused throughout Western and Central
India. It has been remarked as a curious feature in the notions
of this sect that the veneration in which the Gosains, or heads, are
*-
Abridged from GOLDSTUCKER, on Hindu Epic Poetry, in the West-
minster Review, April 1868.
J
74
MAH
held, is paid solely to their descent and unconnected with any
idea of their sanctity or learning: and that though they are not
unfrequently destitute of all pretentions to individual respectability,
they nevertheless enjoy the unlimited homage of their followers.
The doctrine that the Guru or Maháráj is the impersonation of
Krishna himself, that God and the Guru are necessarily to be
worshipped, and that the sectary is bound to bestow on him his
body, organs of sense, life, heart, and other facilities, and wife,
house, family, property, with his own self,' tended to much evil.
The gross abuse which was made of this tenet, became apparent
in a remarkable trial, the so-called Maháráj Libel case, which
occurred in 1861, in the Supreme Court of Bombay, and revealed.
the licentiousness of some of the then Mahárájas of the sect at
Bombay; the defendant sued for libel being a highly respected
and distinguished member of the sect, Mr. Karsandas Mulji, who
had the courage of calling, in a native newspaper, on the Mahárájas
to reform, and to return to the ancient Hindu faith.
Mahavanso-A work written in the Páli language, and which
Professor Weber considers to have a resemblance to the Adventures
of Odysseus and his companions on the island of Kirke. He
furnishes the following epitome of the story. When Vijaya, sent
into exile on account of his insolence by his father Sihabahu, king
of Lála, landed in Lanka with 700 companions exhausted by the
fatigues of the voyage, they immediately fell in with the tutelary
divinity of the island, the god Uppalavanna, (Vishnu), who was
sitting in the form of a devotee at the foot of a tree, for the
purpose of receiving them and providing them with a counter-
charm against enchantment. In reply to their inquiry he told
them the name of the island, he besprinkled them with water out
of his pitcher, tied charmed threads round their arms, and vanished.
Immediately thereafter there appeared to them a Yaksha female
attendant in a canine form. Although the Prince warned him not
to do so yet one of the men followed her, saying to himself,
"Where you see dogs you may look for a village." And so by
and bye he found himself in the presence of her mistress, the
Yakshini Kuveni, who was sitting spinning under a tree near a
tank. When he saw this tank and the anchoress sitting beside
MAH
75
it, he bathed and drank from it, and collected edible roots, as well
as water with lotus flowers. Whereupon she stood up and said
to him, "Thou art my prey." Then he stood spell-bound; but
because the charmed thread was on his hand she could not devour
him; and although she begged him to give her the thread he
would not. She therefore laid hold of him and cast him bellowing
loudly (Od. x, 241) into an underground cave. And in like
manner the whole 700 companions of the Prince were gradually
one by one caught and shut up in the cave. Seeing that none of
them came back Vijaya became anxious, went after them, and also
arrived at the tank. Then he saw that there were no footsteps of
any that had come out; but he saw the anchoress, and asked her
"Hast thou not seen my attendants ?" She said, what are thy
attendants to me, Prince? Drink and bathe! Then he perceived
that she was a Yakshini, and springing, seized her, saying "Slave,
deliver up my attendants or I will put thee to death." Struck
with terror she begged for her life. Lord, grant me life; I will
give thee a kingdom; I will serve thee as thy wife, and do every-
thing that thou may'st wish." In order to avoid the risk of a
similar danger being repeated, he made her swear an oath, (Od. x,
299, 343.) Forthwith she restored to him his attendants, supplied
them all with abundant food, &c. She afterwards changed her form
to that of a maiden of 16 and was married to the Prince-after a
time however he put her away again when the opportunity pre-
sented itself of winning a queen consort of equal rank to himself,
in the daughter of the Pándava king of Madhura; and the Yakshini
met her death by the hand of one of her Yaksha relations, who
was enraged on account of her treachery.*
Mahendri and Mahesvari-(Mahendrí and Maheṣvarí), two
of the Śaktís, or eight goddesses so termed, who attend on Śiva
when he appears as the terrific and destructive deity Bhairava,
who is propitiated by offerings of wine and blood.
Mahishasura-The chief of the demons, who had discomfited
all the gods and expelled them from paradise. The gods, thus
forced to wander like mortals on the face of the earth, had recourse
* Indian Antiquary, June 1872.
76
MAH-MAI
to Brahmá, Vishnu, and Siva, and these were filled with the great-
est indignation at the audacity of the demon. A fiery light issued
from their faces when in this state of fury. A similar light or
energy simultaneously proceeded from all the other divinities.
This unprecedented energy, emanating from the bodies of all the
gods, produced by concentration, a female, filling the three worlds
with her brilliance. This was Durga or Deví. The gods furnished
her with weapons. Thus produced and equipped, riding on a lion
she attacked the demon. He advanced furious with rage, assum-
ing different forms, now an elephant, now a buffaloe. The goddess
fought him with the aid of her lion, and after a short struggle cut
off his head.
This struggle of the goddess with Mahishasura is annually
commemorated in Bengal at the festival called the Durga-púja.*
Mahodaga-An anchorite who refused to attend the Asva-
médha proclaimed by Visvamitra in behalf of Trisanku, and was
in consequence changed into a ferocious hunter, unmoved at the
spectacle of suffering, and taking pleasure in destroying life.-Iliad
of the East, p. 67.
Mahodara (Mahódara), one of Rávana's councillors-distin-
guished for wisdom. It was he who induced Kumbhakarna to
come to the aid of Ravana.
Mainaka-The golden-hearted mountain that dwelt at the
bottom of the sea; who aided Hanumán by rising to the surface
for him to rest on as he was flying over to Lanka. This was done
at the suggestion of the Spirit of the ocean who whispered to
Maináka, Hanumán, son of the wind, is in peril, Maináka.' Thou
dost owe thy life to his father; rise up from the depths of my
kingdom, O Pearl among mountains, that the gallant messenger
of Ráma may rest on thy summit. So the golden-hearted moun-
tain rose up through the whispering waters, all clothed in flutter-
ing verdure, that was skimmering with ocean spray. 'It was
generous of thee,' Hanumán said, to force thy way through the
waters to afford me a resting place. But tell me why was thy
golden-hearted mountain sunk away thus in the depths of the sea?
* Markandeya Purana, by Rev. K. M. BANNERJEA,
MAI-MAL
77
Then the Spirit answered: In the early days we had wings and
could roam through Indra's world. But all creatures were in
coustant terror, lest they should be crushed by these flying
monsters; so the great Father, in whose sight life is precious,
charged Indra to take these wings from the mountains.
But it is
a glorious delight to fly. There is no joy in life to be compared
to it. Who would not rather die than lay aside his wings. So I
fled from the god's command. But Indra pursued me, and in bis
wrath burned my wings by Vajra, the thunderbolt. And he had
slain me utterly, but that thy father, the kindly wind, who had
fluttered often among my groves and prairies, snatched me up in
his arms, and carried me to the large-hearted sea. 'Thou hast
known sorrow,' he said to her, have pity, then, and shelter this
poor Maináka. So the generous Sea took me to her breast, and
hid me away from the Storm-god. And I have dwelt many years
beneath the waters; but when I heard thou wast weary, Hanumán,
in spite of my dread of Mahéndra, I came forth to bring thee rest.
Stay then on the summit of my mountain, and then continue thy
voyage refreshed.' Hanuman said he had promised to perform his
exploit without taking any rest, but with thanks continued his
journey. Then Indra smiled down and said Rest without fear,
noble Maináka, for the kindness thou hast shown to the messenger
of Ráma, I forgive thee about that matter of the wings. So the
golden-hearted mountain, all a flutter with trees and verdure,
remained in the midst of the sea; once more brightened by
sunbeams, and sung to by birds and zephyrs.-I. E., 207.
Maitreya-(Add at Page 376). 3. A Brahman, in the play
of the Toy cart; the friend and companion of Chárudatta; the
Vidúshaka or Gracioso of the play, a character of mixed shrewd-
ness and simplicity, with an affectionate disposition.
Malati and Madhava-A drama by Bhavabhúti, which has
been translated by Prof. WILSON. The incidents of the story are
varied, and some of them are highly dramatic. The fervour of
attachment which unites the different personages of the drama so
indissoluble in life and death is creditable to the national character.
The passion of Málatí is equally intense with that of Julict; but
her unconquerable reserve, even to the cxtent of denying her
こ
​78
MAL-MAN
utterance to him she loves more than life, is a curious picture of
the restraint to which the manners of Hindu women were sub-
jected, even whilst they were in the enjoyment, as appears from
the drama, of considerable personal freedem.-WILSON.
Malyavan-(Mályaván), the grandfather and prime minister
of Rávana. He tried to dissuade Rávaṇa from attempting to
carry off Síta, and afterwards urged him to send her back to Ráma.
All his efforts being unavailing he sought in various ways to
hinder the success of Ráma, and endeavoured to incite against him
Jamadagnya, the great hero who had displayed such valour on the
extirpation of the Kshatriyas.
Manasa, Manasarovara-A celebrated lake situated in the
centre of the Himálaya mountains, that was long considered to be
the source of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers; with respect
to the first of these the statement has been found to be erroneous;
and we have no positive proofs of its accuracy with regard to the
latter.-WILSON.
Mandavi-(Máṇḍavi), the third daughter of king Janaka; she
was married to the third son of Dasaratha and brother of Ráma.
Mandodari-(Mandódari), the favourite wife of Rávana; the
Diamond amongst beautiful women. When Rávaṇa fell she stood
by the corpse, and after uttering reproaches that he who had once
loved her above all should have deserted her for Síta, fell herself
lifeless by the dead body of her husband.
Mandakarni-(Máṇḍakarni), a devout sage mentioned in the
Rámáyana, who by his great and long-continued austerities had
nearly raised himself to a position amongst the gods; the latter
however sent five 'loveliest nymphs' to "seduce
From his stern vows the great recluse,
Though lore of earth and heaven he knew
The hermit from his task they drew ;
And made the great ascetic slave
To conquering love, the gods to save.
Each of the heavenly five became
Bound to the sage, his wedded dame." *
-See PANCHAPSARAS.
* GRIFFITH'S Ramayan, vol. iii.
MAN-MAR
79
•
Mandakini-(Mandákiní), a sacred stream often mentioned
in the Rámáyana. It was near the woodland home of the sage
Sutíkshna.
Mara-The Buddhist Eros, or god of love, corresponding to the
Hindu Káma. One of the most celebrated scenes in the mythic
history of Buddha is his temptation under the Bodhi tree by Mára,
who at first attempted to frighten Buddha by legions of armed
warriors; failing in this Mára tried to seduce him by his daughters
the Apsarasas. The great sage however endured both temptations
with unruffled equanimity, and eventually the tempter retired utterly
baffled. Mára is located in the sixth or highest heaven, and has
more or less influence over all the beings beneath him.-BOYD.
Mari or Mariamma-The demon goddess widely worshipped
by all castes in Southern India. Her name means the mother of
death, or of contagious diseases, more especially of the small-pox.
She is popularly supposed to inflict the small-pox, measles, and
similar diseases, and also to deliver from them. Máriamma is
represented in a sitting posture with four hands, in which she
holds respectively a kind of drum called Damaru; a trident called
Súla; a bundle of ropes called Pása; and a skull. Her pagodas
are found everywhere, usually at some distance from the villages,
in groves. Many of them are large, and surrounded with a wall,
within which there is a vaulted stage, containing figures of wood,
in which she is carried about at festivals; and in front of all of
them stands a sacrificial altar of stone. In the pagoda is placed
her image of stone, together with that of Vignésvara.
The goddess has an annual festival in her honour, which lasts
eight days, when her image is carried about every morning and
evening. On the last day of the festival the women make offer-
ings of boiled rice, &c. The men bring goats, swine, and cocks,
and beheading them before the pagoda, ask the goddess to protect
them in the coming year from all evil. At the same time Rúpa-
kas, (q. v.) are acted, and there is much dancing.
Maricha-1, A Daitya, the son of Sunda; 2, A celebrated
Rákshasa of much vigour and daring, who assumed the garb of a
penitent, and embraced an ascetic life, that his strength might be
redoubled. It was at this period when he was living in the forest
80
MAR-MAT
of Dandaka, that he was visited by Rávana. The recluse prayed
him courteously to name his errand. “How can I serve you, O
Bull amongst malevolent beings," he said; You are my
sovereign; demand of me what you will. Rávana replied that he
wished Marícha to help him to rob Ráma of his incomparable Star
of Beauty, Síta. Marícha remonstrated in vain and tried to dis-
suade Rávaṇa from the enterprise. Marícha then took the form
of a Gazelle, the like of which was never seen by mortal eyes,'
and passed the cabin of the exiles several times. See, Ráma, cried
the delighted Síta, clapping her hands for joy.
him to pursue and capture it for her; and the hero bounded forth
in pursuit of the radiant Gazelle, after committing Síta to Laksh-
mana's care. Ráma after a long chase came up with the Gazelle,
and shot it between the horns. As it staggered and fell its form
was changed and the Rakshasa Marícha, bleeding from a mortal.
wound, lay stretched upon the grass. Dying, the demon raised
him on one arm, and shrieking in a voice that copied the tones of
Ráma, "Help, Lakshmana, help, help," he fell back and expired.
She then begged
The Rakshasa's treacherous shriek went singing through the
wood of Dandaka and reached the hermitage where Lakshmana
and Síta were awaiting the return of Ráma. The startled princess.
urged the immediate departure of Lakshmana, and though he
strongly objected to leave her alone he was overcome by her
entreaties to go to the succour of Ráma, and it was during his
absence that Rávana effected his purpose and carried off Síta.-I. E.
Marichipas and Mashas-Two classes of supernatural beings,
"of seed divine" who lead the lives of hermits.
Marka-One of the priests of the Asuras, usually associated
with Śanda, q. v.
Matanga-2. A sage who lived in the wood of Rishyamúkha,
who cursed the monkey king Bálí, and charged him under pain of
death never to enter the wood again, because he had flung the
dead body of the giant Dundhubi there, after slaying him, and the
blood defiled the hermitage of the sage. Hence it was that
Sugríva made this wood his residence, as he knew he was there
safe from the anger of his brother Bálí.
MAT-MED
81
Mattangi-(Mattángi), the pariah woman on whom the head
of Renuka was placed by Paruşarama when he could not find the
body of his mother. She has since been worshipped as a tutelar
deity under the name of Ellamma, (q. v.)
Matali—(Add) Mátali is the celestial charioteer who is sent to
Ráma with Indra's car of Victory before the last combat with
Rávana. It was Mátali who told Ráma not to aim at the demon's
heads, but at his heart, and thus effected his destruction.
Mayavin-An Asura who challenged Bálí the monkey king
to come and wrestle with him. Bálí rushed forth followed by his
brother Sugríva; when Máyávin saw both of the formidable apes
his courage failed bim, and turning back into the forest he fled
with the speed of the wind. The monkeys pursued him for many
miles, but his swiftness of foot was extreme, and the morning
dawned ere they had come up with him. Then just as they were
close on his heels the wily demon stepped on one side, and rushed
into a cavern whose entrance was concealed by shrubs and creep-
ing plants. But Bálí had seen his place of refuge and followed
him into it, requesting Sugríva to remain outside. Sugríva stood
at the mouth of the cavern two days and nights, when concluding
that his brother had been slain he blocked up the entrance of the
cave by a huge stone in order that Máyávin might not escape,
and returned to tell the doleful news to the whole Simian tribe,
that they might mourn for Bálí as never Ape was mourned before.
Sugríva was then made king; but one day Bálí himself re-
appeared, having been the victor over Máyávin, but unable to get
out of the cavern, and thinking that his brother had blocked it
up in purpose to deprive him of his crown, vowed to take his life;
Sugríva however took refuge in the wood of Rishyamúka, from
which Bálí had been excluded by the curse of the sage Mátunga,
-I. E., 169.
Medicine-In Medicine, as in astronomy and metaphysics, the
Hindus once kept pace with the most enlightened nations of the
world; and attained as thorough a proficiency in medicine and
surgery as any people whose acquisitions are recorded, and as
indeed was practicable, before anatomy was made known to us by
K
82
MEH
the discoveries of modern inquirers. The Nidána or Diagnosis of
Hindu medical books, appears to define and distinguish symptoms
with great accuracy; and their Dravyábhidháne, or Materia
Medica, is sufficiently voluminous. They have also paid great
attention to regimen and diet, and there are a number of works
on the food and general treatment suited to the complaint, or
favourable to the operation of the medicine administered. This
branch they entitle Pathyápathya. To these subjects are to be
added the Chikitsá, or medical treatment of diseases, in which
subject there are a variety of compositions, containing much
absurdity with much that is of value; and the Rasavidyá, or
Pharmacy, in which they are most deficient.
The Ayur Veda, as the medical writings of highest antiquity
and authority are collectively called, is considered to be a portion
of the fourth or Atharva Veda, and is consequently the work of
Bráhmá-by him it was communicated to Daksha, the Prajapati,
and by him the two Asvins, the sons of Súrya, the Sun, were
instructed in it, and they then became the medical attendants of
the gods-a genealogy that cannot fail recalling to us the two
sons of Esculapius, and their descent from Apollo. Now what
were the duties of the Aṣvins according to Hindu authorities ?
The wars between the gods and demons, and the conflicts amongst
the gods themselves, in which wounds might be suffered although
death was not inflicted, required chirurgical aid-and it was this
accordingly which the two Asvins rendered.
The meaning of these legendary absurdities is clear enough,
and is conformable to the tenor of all history. Man, in the semi-
barbarous state, if not more subject to external injuries than
internal disease, was at least more likely to seek remedies for the
former, which were obvious to his senses, than to imagine the
means of relieving the latter, whose nature he could so little com-
prehend. See SURGERY.
Mehtar Mihtar-The sweeper or scavenger caste, a very
unclean and despicable tribe in the opinion of the Hindus. The
caste has many sub-divisions which are perfectly distinct from one
* WILSON'S Works, III, pp. 269–273.
MRI-MUD
83
another and do not intermarry. In Oudh and some other districts
the clans do intermarry. One sub-division, the Helas, will not
touch dogs, an important distinction in the eyes of the caste
because the cleaning and feeding of dogs is one of the usual
duties that it performs.-SHERRING.
Mrichchhakati-The Toy-Cart; a Sanskrit drama of great
interest both in the literary and national history of the Hindus.
There is reason to infer that it was written much earlier than the
tenth century. Its composition is attributed to a king named
Súdraka, but over what kingdom he ruled is not mentioned, though
it gives him a high character both in arms and letters. The sub-
ject is the love of a respectable Brahman for a courtesan ; the
practice of antiquity, as regarded the intercourse of the sexes,
being much more lax than in modern days. From the accuracy
with which Bauddha observances are described, and the flourishing
condition in which the members of that sect are represented to
exist, it is thought we cannot assign to this drama a later date
than the first centuries of the Christian era.
The Mrichchhakatí is a curious and interesting picture of national
manners, free from all exterior influence or adulteration.
It is a
portrait purely Indian. It represents a state of society sufficiently
advanced in civilization to be luxurious and corrupt, though not
without some attractive features.-WILSON.
Mrigavati-(Substitute for that in the Appendix.) (Mrigávati),
the daughter of Kripavarman king of Oude, who was married to
Sahasránáka, king of Kausambí,
Mrigi and Mrigamanda-Daughters of Krodhavaṣa and
Kaṣyapa and mothers of various classes of animals :—
Mrigi, O prince without a peer,
Was mother of the herds of deer,
The bear, the Yak, the mountain roe.
Their birth to Mṛigamanda owe.
Mudra Rakshasa—A Sanskrit drama that has been translated
in WILSON'S Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus. It
is wholly of a political character, and represents a series of Machia-
vellian stratagems, influencing public events of considerable impor-
84
MUN-MUS
tance. Those events relate to the history of Chandragupta, who
has been identified with the Sandracottus of the Greeks, and the
drama therefore, both as a picture of manners, and as a historical
record, possesses no ordinary claims upon our attention.
The object of the play is to reconcile Rákshasa, the hostile
minister of Nanda, the late king of Palibothra, to the individuals
by whom, or on whose behalf, his sovereign was murdered, viz., the
Brahman Chanakya, and the prince Chandragupta. With this view
Rákshasa is rendered by the contrivances of Chánakya, an object
of suspicion to the prince with whom he has taken refuge, and is
consequently dismissed by him. In this deserted condition he
learns the imminent danger of a dear friend whom Chánakya is
about to put to death, and in order to effect his liberation surren-
ders himself to his enemies--they offer him, contrary to his expec-
tations, the rank and power of prime minister, and the parties are
finally friends.
The author of the play is called in the prelude Visákhadatta,
but nothing is known of him. He was not a poet of the sphere of
Bhavabhúti or Kálidása; his imagination never rises to their
level but he has a vigorous perception of character and a manly
strain of sentiment. He is the Massinger of the Hindus.*
:
Mundamalini-(Mundamálíní), "she with the chaplet of
skulls;" one of the terrific forms of Parvatí.
Mura-The mother of Chandragupta. This is not stated in the
Puránas nor Vrihat-katha, and rests therefore on rather question-
able authority; at the same time it is very generally asserted, and
is corroborated by the name Maurya, one of Chandragupta's de-
nominations, explained to be a patronymic formative, signifying
the son of Murá.-WILSON.
Music-The vocal and instrumental Music of the Hindus
appear, to many Europeans, equally unworthy of regard. Yet,
says the Abbé Dubois, they have a Gamut like ours, composed of
seven notes; and they are taught music methodically. They are
likewise expert in keeping time, and they have also our variety of
keys. In their vocal music a monotonous dulness prevails; and,
* WILSON. Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus.
MUS
85
on the Instrumental, they produce nothing but harsh, sharp, and
piercing sounds, which would shock the least delicate ear.
(6
But, although the Hindu music, when compared with the
European, does not deserve the name, I conceive that we have
degraded it beneath its humble deserts. European ears and musi-
cians are by no means impartial judges. To appreciate their
music rightly, we ought to go back two or three thousand years,
and place ourselves in those remote ages when the Druids and
other leaders of the popular belief in the greater part of Europe,
used, in their rites, nothing but dismal and horrid shrieks, and had
no instrumental music but what was produced by clashing one
plate of metal against another, by beating on a stretched skin, or
raising a dull and droning sound from a horn or a rude instrument
of twisted bark.
"We ought to recollect that the Hindus have never had the
thought of bringing anything to perfection; and that, in science,
arts, and manufactures, they have remained stationary at the point
where they were two or three thousand years ago. Their musicians,
in those remote ages, where as skilful as those of the present time.
But if we compare the Hindu music, as we now hear it, with that
of Europe, as it was two or three thousand years ago, I have no
doubt that the former would take high precedence over all others
in a similar stage of society.
"The Gamut has been known to the Hindus from the earliest
times; and it is probable that it has been borrowed from them by
the other nations who now use it. It is but in modern times that
it has been introduced into Europe by the Benedictine Monk Guido
Aretino, who adapted it to the seven signs, ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, sa,
which are the first syllables of some words contained in the first
strophe of the Latin hymn composed in honour of St. John the
Baptist, which runs thus:
1
2
"Ut queant laxis resonare fibris
3
4
"Mira gestorum famuli tuorum,
5
6
“Solve polluti labii reatum,
7
"Sancte Joannes ?”
86
MUS
"The gamut of the Hindus is exactly the same as ours, being
composed of the same number of notes, and arranged in the same
way. It is expressed by the signs or syllables following:
Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni, Sa; or
ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, ut:
and also Sa, Ni, Da, Pa, Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa; cr
ut, si, la, sol, fa, mi, re, ut.
The musicians of India have no more than three and thirty
tunes; each of which has its particular name. Yet, though their
whole musical knowledge is limited to these thirty-three airs
there are few that know them all; and the greater number are
not capable of playing one half of them."*
* Description of the Manners and Customs of the People of India.
N
Nadichakra-(Náḍichakra), the heart, as the centre of the
circle of the different organs and tubular vessels, along which the
vital air or spirit is conveyed, and this spirit being one with Śiva
(sarvam Sivamáyam) his form or nature (rúpa) may be said to be
seated in the heart. The six organs are the ear, the navel, the
heart, the throat, the palate, and the eyebrow. The Nádís, or
tubes, are one hundred and one in number, but ten are principal,
Ila, Pingala, Sushumna, Gandhári, Hastijihwa, Púshá, Aruná,
Alambushá, Guha, Sankini: these all unite in the heart. These
notions belong to the Yoga. According to other doctrines there
are sixteen principal Nádís. To those who have thus discovered
the actual presence of divine spirit in themselves, the deity Śiva
gives the eight Siddhis, q. v.
Nagananda-The joy of the Snake World; a Buddhist Drama,
written in Sanskrit by Śri-Harsha-Deva. It is a sister play to
the Ratnávali, but not by the same author. The story of the
Nágánanda is a Buddhist legend. It has been translated into
English by Mr. Palmer Boyd, with an Introduction by Professor
Cowell.
Nahtuva-The performer in a band of musicians who beats
time. He does it by tapping with his fingers on each side of a
sort of drum tightly braced. As he beats, his head, shoulders,
arms, and every muscle of his frame, are in motion. He rouses
the musicians with his voice, and animates them with his gestures;
and, at times, he appears agitated with violent convulsions.*
Naishada-A name of Nala, so called from being king of
Nishadha, a country in the south-eastern division of Central India.
Nakshatra-A star. One of the most curious notions of the
Hindu theology is contained in the belief that the stars are human
DUBOIS, Description, &c., of the People of India.
88
NAK
beings who have been exalted to that honour; but who will only
retain possession of it for a time proportioned to the amount of their
merits while on earth; when this stock of merit is exhausted they
again descend to earth. The phenomena of shooting stars is
deemed a confirmation of this belief, as it is said their descent to
earth is then visible.
Nakshatras -The Nakshatras are regarded by Hindu astro-
logers as heavenly bodies which have great influence on mankind,
not only at the time of their birth, but during the whole course of
their life on earth. They are also said to constitute the twelve
signs of the zodiac, two and-a-quarter Nakshatras forming one
sign. Again, they are spoken of as quasi-deities, whose favour
needs to be propitiated, and whose frown is fatal to health and life.
There is no question that the Nakshatras are a source of infinite
terror to Hindus of all castes, and of vast emolument to the
Brahmans. They are consulted at births and marriages, and in
all times of difficulty, of sickness, and of anxiety. Journeys are
commenced under their direction; and according to their decision,
days and events become lucky or unlucky. The consultation of
the Nakshatras is a part of the Hindu's life, and is as important
in his eyes as the institution of caste or the worship of the gods.
The Nakshatras are twenty-seven in number. In the following
list it will be observed that the word 'shanti' is affixed to several
names. It means 'rest' or 'quiet' and shows that the ill-natured
deity, to whom it refers, requires a ceremony of pacification to be
performed in the event of a child being born at the time of her
appearance in the heavens, in order that calamities and dangers
which she threatens to send upon the child, or its parents, or other
relatives, or on its friends, or on its caste, may be averted.
Wherever the word 'shanti' is added, the particular danger, and
the object of it, are likewise stated.
The Twenty-seven Nakshatras.
1. Ashwani-Shánti. Danger is threatened to the parents of
the child.
2. Bharaní.
3. Kritiká.
:
NAK
89
4. Rohiní.
5. Mrigashirá.
6. Argrá.
7.
Punarvasú.
8. Pushya-Shánti. Danger is threatened to parents and
other relatives.
Out of sixty hours
9. Ashlesá or Ashya-lekhá-Shánti.
during which she is dominant, only the last four are fraught with
danger. If a child be born in the last of these, evil may happen
to its father; if in the third, to its mother; if in the second, to
itself; and if in the first, to its parents, to its brother, to its caste,
and to wealth, if it has any.
10. Maghá-Shánti. Danger is threatened to parents and
other relatives.
11. Purváphálguni.
12. Uttaraphalguni.
13. Hasta.
14. Chitrá-Shánti. Danger is threatened to parents, and to
the men of the same gotra or branch of families.
Swati.
15.
16. Visháká-Shánti. Danger is threatened to the younger
child of the father's brother, if a daughter; and if a son,
the danger will pass to the younger sister of his wife.
Anurádhá.
17.
18. Jeishthá-Shánti. The sixty hours of its dominance are
dangerous, as follows: the first six, to the maternal grand-mother
of the child; the second six, to its mother's father; the third six,
to its mother's brother; the fourth six, to its mother; the fifth
six, to the child itself; the sixth six, to all the members of the
same gotra; the seventh six, to its own family; the eighth six, to
its brother; the ninth six, to its father-in-law; the tenth six,
to all its relatives.
19. Múl-Shánti. If a child is born during the first fifty-six
hours of her dominance, danger impends over the entire family;
if in the fifty-seventh, danger threatens the father only; if in the
fifty-eighth, the mother only; if in the fifty-ninth, itself. The
L
90
NAG-NAN
last hour, or the sixtieth, is devoid of danger, but nevertheless,
requires Shanti.
20.
Purváshárá.
21.
Uttaráshárá.
22. Sravan.
23. Dhanishta-Shánti. Danger is threatened both to its
father and itself.
24.
Shatatáraka.
25. Purvábbádrápadá.
26. Uttarábhádrápadá.
27. Revatí-Shánti. Danger is threatened both to its parents
and itself.
Nagapasa-(Nágapása), the name of the arrow presented by
Brahma to Indrájit, and with which the latter cast Ráma and
Lakshmana senseless on the ground at the siege of Lanka.
Nakshatra-Mala-(Nakshatra-Málá), a garland of twenty-
seven pearls, the number of the Nakshatras or lunar mansions.
This "starry garland" is worn on the brow of a princess at the
time of the marriage ceremony. Garlands made part of the bridal
as well as sacrificial ornaments among the Greeks.
Namaskara-(Namaskára), a mode of salutation or obeisance,
made by joining the hands together, and raising them to the fore-
head. This is the ordinary salutation or recognition amongst Hindus.
Nandi-That which is the cause of gratification to men and
gods; a sort of benedictory formula, at the commencement of a
drama, invoking the protection of some deity in favour of the
audience. This benediction may consist of one, two, or three
stanzas. The recitation of the Nándí is always considered indis-
pensable; and after it there usually follows some account of the
author of the piece about to be acted. It may consist in the
eulogium of a king or praise of a deity, recited in benedictory
verses at the commencement of a religious ceremony or at the
opening of a drama. "Every Sanskrit play opens with one or
more Nándís, or benedictions, in which the blessing of some
deity is invoked on the audience." The Nágánanda furnishes
"the only instance in Sanskrit literature in which the power thus
invoked is Buddha."-BOYD.
NAP-NAT
91
Napita Nau-(Napita Náú), the barber caste, called also
Hajám. The occupation of a barber in India is far wider in its
operations than in England. He shaves the head as well as the
face, pares the nails both of hands and feet, cleans the ears, bleeds
and cups. In addition he is a very important personage in Hindu
families, on certain public occasions. At a marriage feast, and
also at other festivals, the Napita is commissioned to visit the
persons who are to be invited, and to solicit their attendance.
When all are assembled the Napita is present to hand the guests
water, or pawn, or the hookah, as they may desire. He also par-
takes of the food either with the guests, or retired to a short
distance from them, in the intervals of his service. And when the
feast is over the Napita removes the food that remains and dis-
tributes it among the poor. The Napita is also sometimes em-
ployed as a go-between in making arrangements for marriages
between parties, and in seeking out for a youth a suitable girl to
be his bride. In many social ceremonies, his position ranks next
to that of the Brahiman. On occasion of a funeral, he shaves the
head of the living and of the dead; and invites friends and
relatives to the funeral.- SHERRING.
Nara-Is the name of a holy sage, called hyperbolically the
sovereign of the gods; supposed to have been the same as Arjuna
in a former existence. See BADARI.
Narak-asura-A formidable giant or daitya who had become
the scourge of the human race and the terror of the three worlds.
The monster was at length slain by Vishnu, after a severe conflict
that it is said lasted through the entire day. And as Vishnu was
unable to go through his diurnal ablutions before sunset, he had
to perform them in the night. The Brahmans to celebrate this
great event, put off their ablutions to the night-the only occasion
in the course of the year in which they bathe after sunset. This
is termed the festival of Dipavali habba, q. v.
Nat-A tribe of aborigines who like the Kanjars, lead a vagrant
life, avoiding houses, and preferring the shade of trees, or light
temporary habitations, to a fixed and permanent home. These
two races, although their modes of life are so much alike, are
nevertheless quite distinct in India. It is commonly believed that
92
NAT
the gypsies of Europe have sprung from them. The Nats will eat
all kinds of flesh except beef, but do not drink intoxicating liquors.
Nataka-The Play par excellence, which comprises all the
elements of a dramatic composition. The subject should always
be celebrated and important. Like the Greek tragedy the Nátaka
is to represent worthy or exalted personages only; and the hero
must be a monarch, as Dushyanta; a demi-god, as Ráma; or a
divinity, as Krishna. The action, or more properly the passion,
should be but one, as love or heroism. The plot should be simple,
the incidents consistent; the business should spring direct from
the story as a plant from its seed, and should be free from episo-
dical and prolix interruptions. The time should not be protracted,
and the duration of an act, according to the elder authority should
not exceed one day but the Sahitya Darpana extends it to a few
days or even to one year. The diction should be perspicuous and
polished. The piece should consist of not fewer than five acts,
and not more than ten.
In many of these characteristics, the Náṭaka presents an obvious
analogy to the tragedy of the Greeks, which was 'the imitation
of a solemn and perfect action, of adequate importance, told in
pleasing language, exhibiting the several elements of dramatic
composition in its different parts, represented through the instru-
mentality of agents, not by narration, and purifying the affections
of human nature by the influence of pity and terror.'
An important difference from the classical drama, and from that
of most countries, is the total absence of the distinction between
Tragedy and Comedy. The Hindu plays confine themselves
neither to the crimes nor to the absurdities of mankind; neither
to the momentous changes nor lighter vicissitudes of life; neither
to the terrors of distress nor the gaieties of prosperity. In this
respect they may be classed with much of the Spanish and Eng-
lish drama, to which, as Schlegel observes, the terms Tragedy
and Comedy are wholly inapplicable, in the sense in which they
were employed by the ancients.' They are invariably of a mingled
web, and blend seriousness and sorrow with levity and laughter.
They never offer, however, a calamitous conclusion, which as
Johnson remarks, was enough to constitute a Tragedy in Shak-
NAY
93
spear's days; and although they propose to excite all the emotions
of the human breast, terror and pity included, they never effect
this object by leaving a painful impression in the mind of the
spectator. The Hindus, in fact, have no Tragedy; a defect that
subverts the theory that Tragedy necessarily preceded Comedy,
because in the infancy of society the stronger passions predominated,
and it was not till social intercourse was complicated and refined,
that the follies and frivolities of mankind afforded material for
satire. The absence of tragic catastrophe in the Hindu
dramas is not merely an unconscious omission; such catastrophe
is prohibited by a positive rule, and the death of either the hero
or the heroine is never to be announced. With that regard indeed
for decorum, which even Voltaire thought might be sometimes
dispensed with, it is not allowed in any manner ensanglanter la
scéne,' and death must invariably be inflicted out of the view of
the spectators.-WILSON, Works, X1, p. xxvii.
Nayaka (Náyaka), the hero of a drama. The hero may be
a god or a demi-god, or a mortal, in the higher kinds of com-
position he is drawn in the latter case from mythology, history,
or fable, or as the creation of the author. As love enters largely
into the business of the Hindu theatre, the attributes of the hero
are defined with reference to his fitness for feeling and inspiring
passion; and he is to be represented young, handsome, graceful,
liberal, valiant, amiable, accomplished, and well-born. Heroes
are classified and subdivided into forty-eight species, and one
hundred and forty-four kinds. The writer is never to give his
hero qualities incompatible with his organisation. Thus it is said
it is incongruous to ascribe liberality to the demon Rávana; to
unite piety and pride in the son of Jamadagni; or to accuse the
high-minded Ráma of compassing the death of Bali by fraud.
These blemishes, when they occur in the original legend, should
be kept out of view by the dramatist,-WILSON, Works, XI, p. xlii.
Nayika-The heroine of a drama; the extent to which females
are partakers of scenic incident, affords an interesting picture of
the relations of that sex in Hindu society. In the Nátakas we
have the nymphs of heaven, the brides of demi-gods, the wives of
saints, and female saints themselves, and the deified woods and
94
NIL-NIR
rivers; in the plays of pure fiction we have princesses and cour-
tesans; and in the pieces of intrigue the different inmates of the
harem. The first class of females is the legitimate creation of
poetry and mythology, the others are portraits from social life.
The introduction of the unmarried female of high birth into the
lighter scenes of common life, is an accession to which ancient
comedy was a stranger. The unmarried girl of family is never
introduced in person in the scenes of Plautus and Terence. It
may be observed, however, to the honour of the Hindu drama,
that the Parakiya, or she who is the wife of another person, is
never to be made the object of a dramatic intrigue; a prohibition
that would have sadly cooled the imagination and curbed the wit
of Dryden and Congreve.
The Nayika or heroine has always her companion and confidante,
and the most appropriate personage to fill this capacity is a foster
sister. Where queens are the heroiues a favourite damsel dis-
charges this duty. Female devotees play a leading part in several
dramas as well as novels, and in that case are usually described
as of the Bauddha sect.-WILSON, Works, XI, pp. xlii, xlviii.
Nilakuntha—(Nílakuntha), a name of Śiva; the god with a
dark blue throat. The colour was the effect of the poison generated
at the churning of the ocean, and which Śiva swallowed.
Nirmali (Nirmáli), a sect of Vaishnavas who devote all their
time to the one purpose of keeping themselves clean. They bathe
many times and wash their hands one hundred and eight times
daily. While they do not separate themselves from their families,
they refrain from touching even their children, lest they should be
defiled. They are very careful not to take the life of any creature.
Women as well as men may belong to this sect.—SHERRING.
<
Nirukta-Or Explanation,' is the name of one of the six
Vedângas (see Veda) which explains difficult Vedic words. That
there have been several works engaged in such a task, even at a
very remote period of Hindu antiquity, and that they bore the
name of Nirukta is probable, for Nirukta authors' are quoted
either generally or by name in several Sanskrit authors; but the
work which is emphatically called Nirukta, and which, for the
present, is the only surviving representative of this important
NIS-NYA
95
Vedânga, is that of Yáska, who was a predecessor of Pânini, (q. v).
His work consists of three parts-the Naighantuka, where for the
most part, synonymous words are taught; the Naigama, which
contains words that usually occur in the Vedas only; and the
Daivata, which contains words chiefly relating to deities and
sacrificial acts. A commentary on this work has been composed
by the same Yâska, and it likewise bears the name of Nirukta.
In the latter, Vedic passages are quoted in illustration of the words
to be explained, and the comment given by Yáska on these pas-
sages is the oldest instance, known at present to Sanskrit philology,
of a Vedic gloss. Besides the great importance which Yâska's
Nirukta thus possesses for a proper understanding of the Vedic
texts, it is valuable also on account of several discussions which it
raises on grammatical and other questions, and on account of the
insight it affords us into the scientific and religious condition of
its time."-GOLDSTUCKER. X
Nisakara-A great sage mentioned in the Rámáyaṇa whose
hermitage was at the foot of the Vindhya mountains; at evening
he used to be lovingly escorted to his abode by a troop of wild
animals, lions, tigers, leopards, bears, &c. When Sampáti lost his
wings he consulted the sage, and asked "of what good is life to a
bird who has no wings." Of what pleasure thou would'st say,'
answered Nisákara gravely. "Were thy life of no good the Lord
of creatures had not left it thee. But I understand that it seems
hard to thee; thou art but one of the younger sons of Brahm,
and even his eldest-born, Man, frets often at the fact that his own
happiness is not the object of his being. Know then for thy
comfort thou shalt have thy wings given back to thee some day.".
I. E., p. 192.
Nyasa-A form of gesticulation made with a short and mystic
prayer to the heart, the head, the crown of the head, and the eye;
as Om sírase namali, Om; salutation to the head; with the addi-
tion of the kavacha, the armour or syllable phat, and the astra, the
weapon or syllable hum. The entire mantra, the prayer or in-
cantation, is then "Om sírase namalí, hum, phat."-WILSON,
Works, XII, 53.
* CHAMBER'S Enclyclopædia, vol. vi.
0
Ordeal-The judgment by ordeal is a leading feature of Hindu
jurisprudence. There are four principal kinds of ordeals; viz.,
by the balance, by fire, by water, and by poison.-T. M. L. S.,
p. 108.
The gods themselves are represented as having often had
recourse to it to establish the truth of dubious facts. The ordeal
by fire was the most common amongst them.
Special seasons are fixed for the trial by ordeal, and various
solemn ceremonies performed on the occasion. Brahmans always
officiate; and the person who is to pass through the ordeal must
prepare for it by fasts and ablutions.
There are also a number of private ordeals which do not require
so much solemnity; such as that of compelling the suspected
person to sink his arm to the elbow into a vase filled with boiling
oil, with which cow-dung has been mixed in order to increase its
ardour; that of enclosing a snake, Cobra Copella, in a basket, into
which a ring or a piece of money is cast, and the accused com-
pelled to fetch the ring or piece of money after having been blind-
folded; and many others. If in the first instance, he does not
experience the effects of the builing oil, and if he is not bitten by
the snake in the second, he is reputed not guilty; and guilty if
the reverse happens.
The ordeals are recurred to in dubious cases, not only by public
magistrates, but also oftener by private persons, to ascertain a
fact which interests them. A housekeeper, or the chief of a village
in the houses of which any article of value has been stolen, will
frequently compel the inhabitants to undergo the ordeal, in order
to find out the thief. Jealous husbands often have recourse to it
in order to ascertain the virtue of their wives.
ORI
97
These ordeals have sometimes the advantage of intimidating
the persons against whom they are directed, who, when they per-
ceive they cannot escape them, confess their guilt. But this
advantage is far from compensating for the real and serious evils
which in most cases result from them, by causing the condemna-
tion of innocent persons. [See an account of the Ordeals pre-
vailing among the Hindus, by the Abbé DuBois, in T. M. L. S.,
vol. I, pp. 108—18.]
Orissa-The holy land of the Hindus. It has been so
regarded for two thousand years. Its Sanskrit name Utkala-déṣa,
the glorious country, accords with the many texts that describe it
as "the realm established by the gods," and "the land that taketh
away sin." An ancient sage in explaining the various places of
pilgrimage to his pupils, says, "Of all the regions of the earth
India is the noblest ; and of all the countries of India Utkala boasts
the highest renown. From end to end it is one vast region of
pilgrimage. Its happy inhabitants live secure of a reception into
the world of spirits; and even those who visit it, and bathe in
its sacred rivers, obtain remission of their sins, though they may
weigh like mountains. Who shall adequately describe its sacred
streams, its temples, its holy places, its fragrant flowers, and
exquisite fruits? Who shall estimate the soul's gain from a sojourn
in such a land? But what need for enlarging on the praises of a
realm in which the gods themselves delight to dwell?”*
"Orissa is divided into four great regions of pilgrimage. From
the moment the pilgrim passes the Baitaraní River, on the high
road forty miles north-east of Cattack, he treads on holy ground.
Behind him lies the secular world, with its cares for the things
of this life; before him is the promised land, which he has been
taught to regard as a place of preparation for heaven. On the
southern side of the river rises shrine after shrine to Śiva, the
All-Destroyer. On its very bank he beholds the house of Yama,
the king of the dead; and as he crosses over, the priest whispers
into his car the last text which is breathed over the dying Hindu
at the moment the spirit takes its flight: In the dread gloom of
* Quoted in HUNTER'S Orissa, I, 82.
AL
98
ORI
Yama's halls is the tepid Baitaraní River.' On leaving the stream
he enters Jájpur, literally the City of Sacrifice, the head-quarters
of the region of pilgrimage, sacred to Párvatí, the wife of the All-
Destroyer. To the south-east is the region of pilgrimage sacred
to the sun, now scarcely visited, with its matchless ruins looking
down in desolate beauty across the Bay of Bengal. To the south-
west is the region of pilgrimage dedicated to Śiva, with its city
of temples, which once clustered, according to native tradition, to
the number of seven thousand, around the sacred lake. Beyond
this, nearly due south, is the region of pilgrimage beloved of
Vishnu, known to every hamlet throughout India, and to every
civilized nation on earth, as the abode of Jagannáth, the Lord of
the World."*
HUNTER'S Orissa.
Р
Pacottah-A machine for raising water from deep wells by
hanging a bucket at the end of a long pole, and then attaching
the other end of the pole to one arm of an elevated horizontal
lever. The weight of a man on the other end of the lever raises
the pole and with it the water. This apparatus is found to be the
most efficient means of raising water in a land where coal is costly.
It is another instance of the mode in which Hindus have very
frequently hit upon the very best means of employing natural
forces for human purposes. No European Engineer would have
dreamt of such a contrivance, so simple and so inelegant-yet
none can supersede it. The Railway Companies have tried every
possible device and the best of English machinery, but have been
driven back on the Pacottah.*
Paka--(Páka), a fierce demon slain by Indra.
Pali-The sacred language of the Buddhists; a language which
is extinct in India, but in which numerous canonical books of the
Bauddha religion, still extant in Burma and Ceylon, are written.
Though, however, this language has had the singular fate of
having now disappeared from its native soil, to become a sacred
language in foreign countries, it is yet nothing more than one of
the ancient vernacular dialects of Northern India. Mágadhí is the
appellation which the Buddhists of Ceylon themselves give to it.
It is indeed true, as we are informed by Mr. Turnour, that "the
Buddhists are impressed with the conviction that their sacred and
classical language, the Mágadhí or Palí, is of greater antiquity than
the Sanskrit; and that it had attained a higher state of refinement
than its rival tongue had acquired." Mr. Turnour however is
inclined to entertain an opinion adverse to the claims of the Bud-
dhists on this particular point. The general results of the
* GOVER, Folk Songs of Southern India.
100
PAM-PAN
researches hitherto made by Europeans, both historical and philo-
sophical, unquestionably converge to prove the greater antiquity of
the Sanskrit." There is no question that Mr. Turnour is right,
and that the priests of Ceylon, who are no philologists, are wrong.
The Pali bears as distinct traces of derivation from Sanskrit, in an
early stage of its development, as any of the other northern dialects.
-MUIR, II, 55.
Pampa (Add at Page 436). A river that is described in the
Rámáyana as singing all day long and even through the night.
"In every one of its ripples a water nymph seemed weeping ;
there were never heard such mournful songs as those it chanted to
itself yet the music of these waters was as sweet as it was
sorrowful."-I. E., p. 156.
Panchakarya-The five products derived from the cow, viz.,
milk, curds, clarified butter, urine and dung. When any one is
near death the purohitá pours a little of this mixture into the
mouth of the sick man and by the virtue of that nauseous draught
the body is perfectly purified. See Prúyaschita.
Panchapsaras-(Panchápsaras), the lake of the five nymphs.
The nymphs were sent from heaven by Agni and the gods to lure
away the sage Mándakarni, (q. v.) from his severe austerities. In
this they were successful-
And he for his beloved's sake,
Formed a fair palace 'neath the lake.
Under the flood the ladies live,
To joy and ease their days they give.
And lap in bliss the hermit wooed
From penance rites, to youth renewed.*
Pancha Saradiya Sava-A sacrifice and festival which is
supposed to have held the same position in ancient India as the
Dúrga-puja does now. It was celebrated successively for five
years, the length of the ceremony being limited to five days on
each occasion, and beginning with the new moon. The chief
sacrifices consisted of seventeen five-year old humpless dwarf
bulls, and the same number of dwarf heifers under three years.
* GRIFFITH'S Ramayan, vol. iii.
PAN
101
The former were simply consecrated and then set free; and the
latter, after various invocations and religious observances, were
immolated, three on each day, excepting the last, when five were
sacrificed.*
Panchavati-A charming valley in the heart of the dark forest
Danḍaka; it abounds in fruit trees and limpid waters, like Nan-
dana the garden of Indra. By the advice of the sage Agastya,
this blooming valley was selected by Ráma and Lakshmana for
their hermitage when in exile: it was here that Lakshmana con-
structed a graceful cabin, built by branches and thatched with
leaves; "and over it a neem tree extended its kindly arms, and
whispered something amidst its rustling foliage, which was surely
a blessing." "When she saw their new dwelling Síta clapped her
hands together for joy." It was from this hermitage that Rávaṇa
afterwards carried off Síta.
Panchavati is near Nasik on the Godayery. A letter from a
native friend in 1865 describes the locality with great vividness as
if the events for which it is celebrated were quite of recent occur-
rence. The residence of Rúma is pointed out; and the Sitágum-
phá, where Síta used to sit, and from whence Rávana is said to
have carried her off; the Tapóvana, where the Munis resided ; and
the place where Lakshmana cut off the nose and ears of Súrpanakhí.
;
Pandya-A part of the south of the Peninsula of which Madura
was the capital. It was a state of great political power for some
centuries before, and after the Christian era. It was well known
to the Romans, as the kingdom of king Pandian, who is said to
bave sent ambassadors, on two different occasions, to Augustus
Cæsar. It seems to have sunk into insignificance, under the
ascendancy of the Chola Rájas, about the 7th or Sth century.--
F. JOHNSON.
Pantheism—The identification of God and the Universe. This
is a principle which the Puránas most unequivocally and resolutely
maintain. Vishņu, Śiva, or Sakti, whatever individual they
undertake to glorify, is not only the remote and efficient, but the
proximate and substantial cause of the world. Thus in the Linga
Puráṇa, Brahmá addresses Śiva, Glory to thee whose form is the
* Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Part I, No. 2, 1872.
102
PAN
universe.' In the Vishnu Purána, 'This world was produced from
Vishņu; it exists in him; he is the cause of its continuance and
cessation; he is the world.' In the Kalika Purána, the goddess
Kalí is said to be identical with the universe, as well as distinct
from it; and in the Brahmá Vaivartta, even Rádhá is eulogised as
the mother of the world, and the world itself; as one with
primæval nature-with universal nature, and with all created
forms; with all cause and with all effect.' Expressions of this
tenor occur in every page of the Puráņas; and although some-
thing may be ascribed to the exaggerations of panegyric, and the
obscurities of mysticism, yet the declarations are too positive and
reiterated to admit of reasonable doubt. And it cannot be ques-
tioned that these writers confound the creature with the Creator,
and expose themselves justly to the imputation of gross materialism.
Little doubt can be entertained that the materialism of the
Puráņas derives some countenance from the Vedas, Universality
is there predicated of the Supreme Being directly, without the
intervention of any one of his bypostasis. Thus it is said, 'This
whole is Brahrná, from Brahmá to a clod of earth. Brahmá is
both the efficient and the material cause of the world. He is
the potter by whom the fictile vase is formed; he is the clay of
which it is fabricated. Everything proceeds from him without
waste or diminution of the source, as light radiates from the sun.
Everything merges into him again, as bubbles bursting mingle
with the air, as rivers fall into the ocean,
and lose
their indentity in its waters. Everything proceeds from
and returns to him, as the web of the spider is emitted from and
retracted into itself.'* These and similar illustrations speak the
language of materialism too plainly to be misunderstood, although
it may be possible that the full extent of their signification was
not intended; that these comparisons are not to be interpreted too
literally; that they purpose no more than to assert the origin of
all things from the same first cause; that the authors of the texts
may have been in the same predicament as the author of the Essay
on Man,' and inculcated materialism without being aware of it.†
6
*Trans. R. As. Society, 111, 413.
+ WILSON, Works, II, 94, 95.
PAR-PER
103
Parandala-(Parándalá), a local name of Vishnu.
Parasurama-Ráma of the axe. A Brahman, called also
Jámadagnya, (q. v.) celebrated as the destroyer of the Kshatriyas.
Parshata-(Párshata), son of Prishata, the patronymic of
Rája Drupada.
Partha-The son of Prithá; applicable, therefore, to the three
elder Páṇḍava princes, but always restricted to Arjuna.
Parvathi—(Párvathi), a divine Rishi, of whom little is known
except that he is called a son of Kasyapa. He is usually named
together with Nárada.
Pasi-An aboriginal race that has now sunk so low socially, as
to have lost all traces of the independence it professes to have once.
enjoyed. In villages Pásís are commonly employed as watchmen
to catch thieves; in return for which they receive either a plot of
land or some other consideration. Should they fail in producing
the thief who has stolen any property, they have to make good the
loss. In addition Pásís tend pigs and labour in fields and gardens.
SHERRING.
Pasumedhra-(Pașumedhra), a disciple of Visvamitra, who
visited the princes, Ráma and Lakshmana when they were resid-
ing in the forest of Dandaka.
Perumal Tirumal-This is a festival in honour of Vishnu
celebrated by the Vishnubhaktis. It lasts eleven days or longer,
Vishnu and his consort being daily carried about the streets with
great pomp-in the first two days in a palanquin; on the third
day in his vehicle Garuda; on the fourth on the monkey Hanu-
mán ; on the fifth on a lion; on the sixth under a small arch or
bow of metal called Tiruvasi; on the seventh under a large
Tiruvasi; on the eighth on a horse; and on the ninth on a large
at these processions the idols are followed by many Vaishnava
Brahmans, beating cymbals and chanting the praises of Vishnu ;
on the tenth day-the great day of the feast, Vishnu is for the
last time carried about early in the morning; and in the evening
of the eleventh day, which is called Dhar-ba-tirumal, he and his
consort Lakshmí are seated on a couch of Dharba-grass, placed on
a raft in a tank; and Brahmans, musicians and dancing girls,
car
ز
104
PHA-PIL
having entered on the same raft, it is floated from one end of the
tank to the other, thrice, in the sight of a multitude of people
standing on the banks, which are studded with many lights and
adorned with many flowers.-Metzger's Ziegenbalg.
Phalguna-(Phálguna), a name of Arjuna, the third of the
Pánḍava princes.
Pilgrimage-Pilgrimages have been customary in India for
many centuries. In various parts of the country there are cele-
brated temples or places of reputed sanctity, at which great
numbers of people annually assemble for professedly religious
purposes. "The name of Jagannath still draws the faithful from a
hundred provinces of India to the Puri sands. This yearning
after holy places seems, indeed, to form part of the universal
religion of mankind. To gaze upon the scenes amid which the
deity has dwelt, to bathe in the rivers that once laved his mystical
incarnate frame, to halt at noon-day under hoary trees beneath
which the divine presence has reposed, to pray upon the mountain
hallowed by his lonely communings, and to behold in the ever-
lasting rock the foot-prints of the god, are longings which have, at
one period or another, filled the imagination and stirred the inner-
most heart of all noble races. From that ancient night on which
the ladder was let down from heaven, and the angels ascended and
descended before the sleeper on the pillow of stones at Bethel, till
the time when the true cross began to give off its inexhaustible
splinters to the christian world, and thence down to the present
hour, a strip of sand and rock has been regarded with passionate
tenderness by the august dynasty of religions to which our own
belongs.
"This longing after shrines forms a very important feature in the
national character of the Hindus. Day and night throughout
every month of the year, troops of devotees arrive at Puri, and for
three hundred miles along the great Orissa road, every village has
its pilgrim encampment. The parties consist of from 20 to 300
persons. At the time of the great festivals these bands follow so
close as to touch each other; and a continuous train of pilgrims,
many miles long, may often be seen in the Puri high road. They
march in orderly procession, each party under its spiritual leader.
PIL
105
At least five-sixths, and often nine-tenths of them, are females.
Now a straggling band of slender, diminutive women, clothed in
white muslin, and limping sadly along, announces a pilgrim com-
pany from lower Bengal; then a joyous retinue, with flowing
garments, of bright red or blue, trudging stoutly forward, their
noses pierced with elaborate rings, their faces tatooed, and their
hands encumbered with bundles of very dirty cloth, proclaims the
stalwart female peasantry of Northern Hindustan. Ninety-five
out of a hundred are on foot. Mixed with the throng are devotees
of various sorts, almost naked.
The great spiritual army that thus marches its hundreds, and
sometimes its thousands of miles, along burning roads, across
unbridged rivers, and through pestilent regions of jungle and
swamp, is annually recruited with as much tact and regularity as
is bestowed on any military force. Attached to the temple is a
body of emissaries, called pilgrim hunters, or pilgrim guides,
according as a friendly or hostile view is taken of their functions,
numbering about 3,000 men, who visit every province and district
of India in search of devotees. They wander about from village
to village within their allotted beats, preaching pilgrimage as the
liberation from sin, and sometimes using arguments as worldly, and
drawing pictures as overstrained, as those by which the flagging
devotion of Europe was lashed into zeal during the later Crusades.
The arrival of a pilgrim hunter is a memorable event in the
still life of an Indian village. There is no mistaking the man
He waits till the men have gone out to the fields, and then
makes a round of visits to the women. Skilled in every artifice
of persuasion, he works upon the religious fears and the worldly
hopes of the female mind; and by the time the unsuspecting
husbands come home from their work every house has its fair
apostle of pilgrimage......... The shut-up aimless life of Indian
women gives a peculiar charm to the enterprise. The arrival of a
pilgrim-hunter sends a flutter through the whole zenanas of the
district. The great majority of pilgrims are always females.
Many of them die on the road. Those who reach the end of their
journey have their bleeding feet bound up in rags.
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106
PIT-POE
During their stay in Puri they are badly lodged and miserably
fed. The scenes of agony and suffocation that take place in the
putrid dens in which they lodge baffle description. On the return
journey, the misery of the pilgrims reaches its climax. The
rapacity of the Puri priests and lodging house-keepers has passed
into a proverb. When the stripped and half starved pilgrims
leave the holy city hundreds of them have nothing left to pay for
being ferried over the net work of rivers in the Delta. The
numbers that perish annually are computed at from 10,000 to
50,000.
It has been absolutely established that cholera is exclusively
propagated in India, and that every outbreak of the disease
beyond the confines of British India may be traced back to
Hindustan, America, Europe, and the greater part of Asia, may
justly blame India for all they have suffered from cholera, and
India can blame Puri for annually subjecting whole provinces to
the chance of the epidemic. These over-crowded pest-haunted
dens around Jagannath may become at any moment the centre
from which the disease radiates to the great manufacturing towns
of France and England. One of man's most deadly enemies has
his lair in this remote corner of Orissa, ever ready to rush out
upon the world, to devastate households, to sack cities, and to
mark its line of march by a broad black track across three con-
tinents. The squalid pilgrim army of Jagannath, with its rags and
hair and skin freighted with vermin and impregnated with infec-
tion, may any year slay thousands of the most talented and the
most beautiful of our age, in Vienna, London, or Washington.*
Pitakattaya-The three pitakas, which now form the Bud-
dhistical scriptures; divided into the Vinaya, Abhidharma, and
Sutra pitakas.-See ABHIDHARMA.
Poetry-The classical literature of India is all poetical. The
two great poems are the Ramáyana and Mahábhárata; the
Puráņas are all in metre. "Tender attachment to natural objects
is one of the most pleasing features in the poetical compositions
of the Hindus. It is very frequently expressed, and perhaps in
* Abridged from HUNTER'S Orissa.
PRA
107
few places with more beauty than in the drama of Śakuntalá,
where upon departing from the bower of her foster father, she
bids adieu to the plants she had carefully tended, and the orphan
fawn she had reared. The whole of this scene must be read with
pleasure; and may be classed with the departure of Goldsmith's
village family from Auburn, and the farewell of Eve to the bowers
of Paradise."-WILSON.
Pradakshina-A method of salutation consisting of turning
round the person to be greeted, taking care always to have him
to the right of one.
Praghasa-A distinguished warrior of Rávana's, who attacked
Hanuman armed with an axe. The intrepid Simian, stained by
blood, arrows everywhere quivering in his colossal frame, seized a
huge rock which he hurled at his adversary with a shout of fury,
and the warrior disappeared beneath the whelming mass.
Prahasana-A farcical or comic satire, that might be thought
to have originated, like the old comedy, from the Phallic Hymn.
Unlike the aristophanic comedy, however, it is not levelled at the
many-headed mob, but in general at the sanctified and privileged
orders of the community, as Ascetics, Brahmans, men of rank and
wealth, and princes. The vices satirised in the two latter are
those which emanate from an abuse of riches rather than of power,
and are those of low luxury, not tyrannic despotism; the objects
of satire in the former are sensuality and hypocrisy. It is in their
extreme indelicacy that they resemble, although perhaps they
scarcely equal, the Greek comedy; but they have not its redeem-
ing properties, exuberant gaity and brilliant imagination: they
have some causticity and humour, but they are deficient in the
high merits of poetry and wit. The Prahasana is generally a
drama in one act, intended to excite laughter. The story is
fictitious, and the hero an ascetic, a brahman, a king, or a rogue.
The dramatis personæ are courtiers, menials, mendicants, knaves,
and harlots; the inferior persons speak low Prákṛit, or a local
dialect.-WILSON, Works, XI, p. xxxi.
Prahasta-A general in the army of the Rákshasas, who
reported to Rávana the arrival of Ráma; informing him that
108
ᏢᎡᎪ
though the sea was terrible and rough, with a line of huge breakers
on all sides, yet Ráma had crossed it like a mere cow's track, and
having encamped his army on Suvelá occupied in person the out-
skirts of the city.
Prajapatya Marriage-(Prajapatya Marriage), the fourth of
the eight modes of marriage enumerated by Manu. It is de-
scribed as the giving away of a daughter with due honour after
having uttered the injunction, "May both of you perform your
duty."
Prakarana—A second species of Rúpaka or dramatic compo-
sition, which agrees in all respects with the Nátaka, (q. v.) except
that it takes a rather less elevated range. The fable is to be a
pure fiction drawn from real life in a reputable class of society,
and the most appropriate subject is love. The hero may be of
ministerial rank, or a brahman, or a merchant of respectability.
The heroine may be a maid of family or a courtesan. In the
former case the Prakarana is termed Suddha, or pure; in the
latter Sankírna, or mixed.-WILSON, Works, XI, p. xxviii.
Prakrit-The name of the early vernaculars of India; a form
of speech used in ancient Indian dramas by the inferior castes and
by women, while kings and brahmans are made to speak Sanskrit ;
the Prákrit differs both from Sanskrit and from the existing
vernacular tongues. The Prákrit Grammar of Vararuchi is con-
sidered by Lassen to have been composed about eighteen hundred
years ago.
It is clear from an examination of the Indian dramas, and of the
examples furnished by the grammarians who treat of the dramatic
dialects, that the words which we find in Prákrit are in great part
identical with those of Sanskrit, but more or less modified in their
forms, and that these modifications are, in numerous instances,
intermediate between the original Sanskrit words and the still
more corrupted forms which we discover in the languages descended
from the Prákrits, the modern vernacular dialects.
But, while the majority of Prákrit words can, by the application
of proper methods, be traced back to a Sanskrit source, there are
some others which refuse to yield to the action of even the most
PRA
109
4
powerful tests which criticism can employ, and successfully assert
their claim to an origin independent of classical Sanskrit, and
which we must therefore conclude either to belong to the vernacu-
lar Áryan speech, or to be of non-Áryan derivation.—MUIR, II, 26.
Prasthana-The name of a class of dramas specifically de-
signed for the lowest description of people. Such an appropri-
ation, as remarked by Professor Wilson, is highly characteristic of
the social system of the Hindus. In the Prasthána the hero and
the heroine are slaves, and their associates outcastes. Singing, music
and dancing, are its chief ingredients; and the subjects are love
and mirth.
Pratinayaka (Pratináyaka), the counterpart and antagonist
of the hero in a poem or drama. Such is Rávana as opposed to
Ráma; and Duryodhana to Yudhishthira.
Prayaschita-Penance; expiation. The ceremony of general
cleansing or general expiation, performed when a Brahman is at
the point of death, is termed Prayaschita. This is accomplished,
after the administration of the Panchakarya (a. v.) by the Purohita
and chief mourner, going up to the dying man and making him.
recite within himself, if he cannot articulate, the proper Mantras ;
by the efficacy of which he is delivered from all his sins. This is
followed by another ceremony which the Abbé DuBois remarks can
scarcely be described with gravity.
“A cow is introduced with her calf. Her horns are decorated
with rings of gold or brass, and her neck with garlands of flowers.
A clean cloth is laid over her body; and thus bedecked she is led
up to the sick man, who takes hold of her tail. Mantras in the
meantime are recited or sung, the prayer of which is that the cow
would conduct him by a blessed path to the next world. He then
makes a gift of the cow to a Brahman, on whose hand a little
water is poured while he accepts the present; which is the ordinary
ratification of a gift.”
When the soul leaves the body for the abode of Yama it has
to pass a river of fire, and those who have presented a cow to a
Brahman, as above, are met on the banks by a cow sent from
Yama, and by her enabled to cross the fiery stream without injury.
110
PRE-PUS
"It is fitting that a Brahman should die on the ground, not on a
bed, nor even on a mat; and the reason is this; his soul being
disengaged from his body must enter another which will carry it
to the world that is destined for it. And if he should die on his
bed or on a mat, he must carry these moveables wherever he goes,
which would be very tormenting."*
Pregshagara (Add to what is in the book).-(Pregshágára)
denotes a series of scaffolds or pavilions, open or enclosed, except
in front, erected round an arena or place prepared for the exhibi-
tion of sports, like the temporary structures at the jousts and
tournaments of the middle ages, and booths and stands of modern
fairs and races.
Prishata-A prince of the lunar dynasty of the branch of Puru,
and father of Drupada, king of Panchála.
Pudkalai-One of the two wives of the gramadevata Ayanár.
Punarvasu-(Punarvasú), the seventh lunar mansion or
Nakshatra, (q. v.)
Punjakasthali-The daughter of Varuna, in the Puranic
mythology.
Punyasloka—A name of Nala.
Puranai-One of the two wives of the gramadevata Ayanár.
Purvaphalguni—(Purvaphalguni), the eleventh lunar mansion
or Nakshatra, (q. v.)
Pushkara-1. The brother of Nala, who engaged him in the
gambling match that cost him his kingdom. When Nala was
dispossessed of Kali, and received king Rituparna's skill in dice,
he won back his kingdom, gold, jewels, and all his treasures, but
treated Pushkara kindly and gave him a city to dwell in.
Pushpagiri-The mountain of flowers; the residence of Varuna
in the more recent mythology.
Pushpamitra-A king of Pátaliputra, who obtained the throne
about 178 B. C. The Matsya Purána assigns him a reign of 36
years, from 178 B. C. to 142 B. C. It was during this reign that
* Abbé DuBois, D. P. I.
PUS-PYA
111
Patanjali lived and wrote his commentary on Pánini. He pro-
bably wrote the third chapter of his Bhashya between 144 and
142 B. C. And this agrees with the conclusion drawn by Pro-
fessor Goldstücker, that the author of the Mahabhashya flourished
after the Maurya dynasty was extinct. This date of Patanjali
may be regarded as trustworthy, and in the history of Sanskrit
Literature it is of great importance. See IND. ANTIQ., Sept. 1873.
Pushya-Shanti-The eighth lunar mansion or Nakshatra, q. v.
Pyall-A sort of bench, made of brick and mortar, extending
along the whole front of the house against the main wall. Almost
every house in Southern India possesses such a bench or pyall; it
is usually about two-and-half feet high and three feet broad. It
is the first reception place of all visitors or strangers. The laws
of caste render some such arrangement as this necessary; for
otherwise the cultivator might receive into his house a low caste
trader or messenger who would polute the whole house in native
estimation. The pyall is outside the house and, by a convenient
custom, cannot be polluted. Hence every stranger must halt here
until his business and caste are known. In the hot weather the
males of the family usually sleep on the pyall.*
*
* GOVER'S Folk Songs of Southern India.
R
Radha-(Rádhá), the wife of the charioteer of Duryodhana,
who bred Karna as her son, after he was exposed on the banks of
the Yamuna by his own mother Prithá.
Raghuvamsha Tilaka-The glory of the house of Raghu; a
name of Ráma, the son of Dasaratha, who was grandson of Raghu.
Rakshasas-(Add at Page 500). "The author of the Rámá-
yaṇa has no doubt, in mythical allegory, applied the hated name
of Rakshasas to a barbarous people who were hostile to the Sanskrit-
speaking Indians, and differed from them in civilization and
religion. These Rákshasas were, I say, robbers or pirates who
occupied the southern coasts of India and the island of Ceylon."
— (GORRESIO.) They were a ferocious black race, opposed to the
worship of the Aryas, and called by them Rákshasas, an appella-
tion which in the Veda, is assigned to hostile, savage, and hated
beings. It is against this race that the expedition of Ráma was
directed. The Aryan tradition undoubtedly altered the attributes
of these tribes, transforming them into a race of giants, deformed,
terrific, truculent, and able to change their form at will. But
notwithstanding these exaggerations the Rámáyana has (Gorresio
thinks) preserved here and there certain traits and peculiarities of
the race in question which reveal its real character."-MUIR,
II, 420.
Raktavija-A demon who had a sort of charmed life, but was
ultimately slain by Deví. The contest took place after the goddess
had killed Chanda and Munda. "Each drop of blood shed from
his body had the singular virtue of producing hundreds of demons
like himself. The strokes of the goddess's weapons began, there-
fore, to harass her own self more than her malignant enemy, and
that exactly in proportion to her success. The demons produced
RAM
113
by the Asura's blood infested the whole universe. The gods were
sore afraid. Seeing them affrighted, the goddess struck Raktavíja
with her spear and received his blood into her mouth; and ate up
the other demons produced from the blood previously shed. Thus
fell Raktavíja the great Asura, on the earth, wounded by various
weapons, his blood drunk up by Chámuṇḍá.*
Ramanuja-(Add at Page 502). He was a native of the
South of India, and according to the legendary narratives of his
life which are current there, he was an incarnation of the serpent
Śesha, while his chief companions and disciples were the embodied
Discus, Mace, Lotus, and other insignia of Vishņu. In a Kanara
account of his life called the Divya charitra, he is said to have
been the son of Śrí Kesava Acharya and Bhúmi Devi; and, as
before, an incarnation of Sesha. He was born at Perambur and
studied at Conjeveram, where also he taught his system of the
Vaishnava faith. He afterwards resided at Srí Ranga, worshipping
Vishnu as Śrí Rauga Nátha, and there composed his principal
works; he then visited various parts of India, disputing with the
professors of different creeds, overcoming them of course, and
reclaiming various shrines, then in possession of the Shaivas, for
the worshippers of Vishnu, particularly the celebrated temple of
Tripety.
On his return to Śrí Ranga the disputes between the Vaishnava
and Saiva religions, became exceedingly violent, and the Chola
monarch commanded all the Brahmans in his dominions to sign
an acknowledgment of the supremacy of Siva. Rámánuja was
impracticable, and the king sent armed men to seize him. With
the assistance of his disciples he effected his escape and found
refuge with the Jain sovereign of Mysore. In consequence of
rendering medical service to the daughter of this prince, or in the
terms of the legend, expelling an evil spirit by whom she was
possessed, he obtained the monarch's grateful regard, and finally
converted him to the Vaishnava faith. Rámánuja remained several
years in Mysore at a temple in Yádava Giri, now known as Mél-
kóté.-WILSON, Works, I, 37.
Markandeya Purána, by Rev. K. M. BANNERJEA.
114
RAM-RAT
Ramanujiyas―(Rámánujiyas), the followers of Rámánuja, a
numerous sect who are distinguished by some peculiar rites and
observances which will be found described under the article
Vaishnavas.
Ramayana-(Add at Page 504). Professor Weber, of Berlin,
in a recent dissertation on the sources of the Rámáyana, gives it
as his opinion that the rape of Helen and the siege of Troy have
served as a model for the corresponding incidents in the poem of
Válmíki. "I do not imagine that he had himself studied Homer,
or even that he must have been aware of the existence of the
Homeric poems. Nor am I inclined to go so far as to attach
importance to the apparent analogies between Agamemnon and
Sugríva, Patroklos and Lakshmana, Nestor and Jámbavat, Odysseus
and Hanumán, Hektor and Indrajit,-analogies which have led
Hippolyte Fauche, who has translated the Rámáyana into
French, to adopt the converse theory that Homer has borrowed
the materials of his work from that of Válmíki! I pass over the
coincidences, noticed by Monier Williams,*—the consoling of the
forsaken Síta by means of a dream; the surveying and enumerat-
ing of the hostile troops from the battlements of Lanka; and the
appearing of Síta before the army. Nor do I wish to discuss the
very wide and far-reaching question, In how far an acquaintance
with the Greek epic may have exercised an influence on the deve-
lopment of the Indian one?' I content myself rather with the
simple assumption that in consequence of the mutual relations,
which Alexander's expedition into India brought about, between
that country and the Greeks, some kind of knowledge of the sub-
stance of Homeric story found its way to India."-INDIAN ANTI-
QUARY, June 1872.
Rati-(Add at Page 506). The bride of Káma, the god of love.
Rati is personified as a young and beautiful female, richly attired
and decorated, dancing and playing on the Víṇá.
Ratnagir-The modern name of the mountain called in the
Mahábhárata Yaráha, (q. v.)
* Indian Epic Poetry.
RAT-RIT
115
Ratnavali-(Ratnávalí), the princess of Simhala or Ceylon,
daughter of king Vikramabáhu.
Ratnavali, or the Necklace-The title of a Sanskrit Drama
that has been translated by Professor Wilson; who states, that
considered under a purely literary point of view it marks a change
in the principles of dramatic composition, as well as in those of
social organization. Besides the want of passion, and the substi-
tution of intrigue, there is in it no poetic spirit, no gleam of in-
spiration. The only poetry of the play is in fact mechanical.
The structure of the original language is eminently elegant,
particularly in the Prákrit. This dialect appears to equal advantage
in no other drama; the Sanskrit style is also very smooth
and beautiful, without being painfully elaborate. The play
is indeed especially interesting in this account, that whilst both in
thought and expression there is little fire or genius, a generally
correct and delicate taste regulates the composition, and avoids
those absurdities which writers of more pretension than judgment,
the writers of more recent periods, invariably commit. The play
must have been written between A. D. 1113 and 1125.
Rishyamukha-A well-wooded mountain near the river
Pampa. In this wood there dwelt a Prince of the Simian tribe,
the august monkey king Sugríva, who had been banished from the
city by his brother Bálin. As he was walking on the banks of
the river early one morning he saw Rávana the king of Rákshasas,
sailing overhead; and struggling in his swarthy arms a lovely
young woman, whose garments seemed woven out of sunbeams.
This was Síta, who called out for help, and dropped a golden anklet
and a scarf. These were carefully preserved by Sugríva, and
shown to Ráma, when he and Lakshmana visited the wood. This
mountainous region comprised of course the whole of the tract
about the sources of the Pampa; but in the Rámáyana, Ráma
passes them before he comes to the dwelling of the monkey chief.
Rituparna-A king of Ayodhya, a monarch celebrated for his
skill in dice. He determined to be present at the second Svayam-
vara of Damayanti, but could only be so by the help of hist
charioteer Váhuka whose skill in horsemanship enabled him to
116
RUM-RUP
drive from Ayodhya to Vidarbha in one day. On the road Nala,
disguised as Váhuka, agreed to impart to Rituparna his knowledge
of horsemanship in return for that monarch's skill in dice. They
made the exchange, and, arriving at Ayodhya, Nala re-assumed
his own form and was restored to his wife. Returning with her
to Nishadha he sought Pushkara, renewed the game and won back
his kingdom.
Rumanwat-(Rumaṇwat), the general-in-chief of king Vatsa
in the play of Ratnávalí.
Rupaka-The general term for all dramatic compositions, from
rúpa, form; it being their chief object to embody characters and
feelings, and to exhibit the natural indications of passion. A play
is also defined a Poem that is to be seen, or Poem that is to be
seen and heard. Dramatic writings are arranged in two classes,
the Rúpakas, properly so termed, and the Uparúpakas, the minor
or inferior Rúpakas, "le théâtre du second ordre," although not
precisely in the same sense. There are ten species of the former,
and eighteen of the latter class, —WILSON.
S
Sachi-(Sáchi), the consort of Indra, called also Indrání, (q. v.)
Sachidananda-(Sachidananda), a name of Brahma, meaning
the eternal source of wisdom and happiness.
Sacrifice-Sacrifices have always been an important part of the
ritual of the Hindu religion. (See FIRE-SACRIFICIAL.) An account
of the great horse sacrifice, the subject of so many legends, will
be found under ASVAMEDHA. The sacrifice of the cow, or GOMEDHA,
appears also to have been common in the earliest periods of the
Hindu ritual. "It has been conceived" says WILSON, "that the
sacrifice was not real, but typical; and that the form of sacri-
ficing only was performed upon the victim, after which it was set at
liberty. The text of this passage (in the Meghaduta) however, is
unfavourable to such a notion, as the metamorphosis of the blood
of the kine into a river, certainly implies that blood was diffused.
The expression of the original, literally rendered, is 'sprung from
the blood of the daughters of Surabhi, that is kine, Surabhi being
a celebrated cow produced at the churning of the ocean. Daughter
of Surabhi' is an expression of common occurence to denote the
cow."
Manu authorises the consumption of animal food at all seasons
of the year, on the condition that a portion must first be offered
to the gods. In the Brahmana of the Black Yajur Veda, also,
mention is made of numerous ceremonies, in the performance of
which the flesh of cows was required, and directions are given with
respect to the kind of cattle to be used for the gratification of
particular divinities. The Taittiriya Brahmana enumerates a
hundred and eighty animals, including horses, bulls, cows, goats,
and deer, meet for sacrifice, and notices a ceremony in which a
large number of cattle were immolated.* See PANCHASARADYA
SAVA and SALA GAVA.
* Friend of India, Dec. 5, 1872.
118
SAG-SAL
Sagarika (Ságariká), the princess of Simhala or Ceylon, called
also Ratnávalí.
Sahitya-Darpana-(Sáhitya-Darpana), a work of great merit
and celebrity, in poetical writing, in ten sections, of which the
sixth is mostly appropriated to theatrical technicalities. Date
not known.
Sahtuva-The same as Nathuva, (q. v.)
Sakas—(Add at Page 538). The Śakas are perpetually named
in the Hindu dramas and other works, and seem to have been
known on the borders of India, or in its western districts, in the
first century preceding Christianity. Vikramaditya, king of Oujein,
being known as the Śakári, or enemy of the Sace, his era dates
B. C. 56, and it appears that about this date some northern tribes
had settled themselves along the Indus, constituting the Indo-
scythi of Arrian. Their attempt to penetrate farther to the east,
by way of Kandesh and Malwa, was not improbably arrested by
Vikramaditya, whence the epithet Śakári.-WILSON, XII, 179.
Saktinath—A name of Śiva; the lord of Śaktí, or the divine
energy under a female personification. In this sense Śaktí is
applicable to every goddess, but it is more especially the name of
Bhavání; and her lord or husband is Śiva.
Sala Gava--A sacrifice of spitted cow, (literally, roast beef),
and performed either in the autumn or spring. Baboo Rajendralala
draws special attention to this sacrifice.* The animal selected
was a cow spotted with white, and the choicest of the fold. Black
spots were, however, not objectionable. It was first bathed with water
in which paddy had been steeped, and then let loose for a certain
period. The place of sacrifice was an unfrequented spot, outside,
and to the east or the north, of a village or town, and the time
midnight. The officiating Brahman began the ceremony by
making offerings to the fire, and erecting a sacrificial post made
from green palasa wood, to which the victim was tied and killed.
The mantra for the purpose consisted of twelve principal names of
Śiva. The sacrificers ate of the oblation in the usual way after
*See Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Part I, No. 2, 1872.
SAL
119
the benediction.' This ceremony insured to the performer long
life, wealth, high position, great religious merit, and numerous
herds and children. Every householder was enjoined to perform
it at least once in the course of his life. In order to show that
the animal slaughtered was intended for food the Baboo quotes
the following passage from the Brahmana :
'Celestial and human executioners, commence your work; carry
the victim for the purpose of cutting it up. Anxious to divide
the victim for the masters of the ceremony, collect the ulmuka fire
for the animal brought here (to the shambles). Spread the kusa
grass; obtain the permission of the mother, of the father, of the
brother, of the friendly members of the herd of the victim. Place
it so that its feet may point towards the north; let the eyes reach
the sun; let its vital airs attain the regent of the wind; let the
ears attain the regents of the quarters; let its life reach the
ether above; let its body abide on the earth. Separate its hide
so that it may remain entire (without rents). Before cutting
open the navel separate the fat. Close its breath that it may
remain within (i. e., by tying up the mouth). Cut open its
breast so as to make it appear like an eagle (with spread wings).
Separate the fore-arms; divide the arms into spokes; cut out
the shoulders in the form of tortoises; remove the hips so as not
to injure them; divide the thighs with the bone entire in the
shape of a door, or of the leaf of the oleander; separate succes-
sively in order the twenty-six ribs; divide the different members
so that none be less than what it should be. O Adhrigu, accom-
plish it.'
"It is scarcely possible that the animal would be thus divided
if not intended for distribution. Baboo Rajendralala Mitra con-
clusively proves that the Vedas and other sacred writings enjoined
the eating of beef. But, he asks, whence comes the feeling of
Hindus of the present day against the ordinances of the vedas ?
This question can only be answered by the supposition that when
the Brahmans had to contend against Buddhism in its palmiest
days, they found the respect for animal life too strong and too
popular to be fought against with any hope of success; and
therefore perverted the real meaning of the Hindu writings,
120
SAL-SAM
making it appear that they, in common with those of the
Buddhists, denounced the sacrifice of cows, and above all the
consumption of their flesh."*
Salakya-(Sálákya), the treatment of external organic affec-
tions, or diseases of the eyes, ears, nose, &c.- it is derived from
Saláká, which means any thin and sharp instrument, and is either
applicable in the same manner as Salya to the active causes of the
morbid state, or it is borrowed from the generic name of the slender
probes used in operations.
Salya-Surgery; The art of extracting extraneous substances,
whether of grass, wood, earth, metal, stone, &c., violently or
accidentally introduced into the human body, with the treatment
of the inflammation and suppuration thereby induced. Śalya
means a dart or arrow, and points clearly to the origin of this
branch of Hindu science. Dhanwantari says that "Śalya is the
first and best of the medical sciences; less liable than any other
to the fallacies of conjectural and inferential practice; pure in
itself; perpetual in its applicability; the worthy produce
of heaven, and certain source of fame." It is thus clear that
Surgery was once extensively cultivated, and highly esteemed
by the Hindus; though its rational principles and scientific
practice may now be wholly unknown to them.t
Samaradana-Public feasts, often given to Brahmans. The
entertainment is given as a meritorious action. They are given
on various grounds; as on the dedication of a new temple, to
expiate by so good a work the sins of the dead; or to obtain
success in war; sometimes to avert an evil constellation ; to
procure rain in a great drought; to celebrate a birth or marriage
in high places; &c. When a Samaradana is announced a general
concourse of men and women assemble from considerable distances,
perhaps to the extent of a thousand people; and as all are Brah-
mans, keeping a strict watch on each other, ceremonies are
most scrupulously observed. The men and women partake of
the food provided, seated on
on the ground, in separate rows.
During or after the meal Sanskrit hymns are often sung. The
* Friend of India, Dec. 5, 1872.
+ WILSON, Works, III, 276.
SAM
121
giver of the entertainment, if not a Brahman himself, cannot sit
down with his guests, but shows himself in the assembly after the
feast is over, when he prostrates himself before those "gods of the
earth" whom he has had the honor to entertain, and they in their
turn give him their benediction.
Samavakara-The dramatic representation of some mytho-
logical fable in three acts; the business of the first is to occupy
about nine hours; the second three aud a half; and the third an
hour and a half. The story of the piece relates to gods and
demons, although mortals may be introduced. There is no indi-
vidual hero, or the heroes may be as many as twelve, as Krishṇa
and other divinities. The metre is that most usually employed in
the Vedas, or the verses termed Ushnih, and Gayatri. Although
love may be touched upon, heroism should be the predominant
passion; and the acts of enmity may be exhibited, both covert
and avowed, such as ironical commendation and open defiance.
Tempests, combats, and the storming of towns, may be represent-
ed, and all the pride and pomp of war, as horses, elephants, and
cars, may be introduced.-WILSON, Works, XI, p. xxix.
Sampati-A semi-divine bird, the king of vultures, son of
Garuda, and brother of Jatáyu. In their young days they dwelt
among the crags of Himálaya; and said Sampáti, though a nest
is of such insignificant size, it fills the heart more than the whole
universe.' The two birds once upon a time started to fly a race
together through Indra's world. But when noon came, and the
fierce sun looked straight on them, Jatayu fainted and tumbled
through the air head foremost. Then full of love and pity, Sam-
páti spread his large wings between him and the cruel sun; but
the hot beams withered them up, and maddened with pain he
staggered earthward and fell on the summit of Mount Vindhya.
Here he was found by Hanumán and Angada, when they were
searching for the lost Síta. From them Sampáti heard that his
brother Jatayu had been killed by Rávana. Suparsva, the son of
Sampáti, gave the monkey chieftains tidings of Síta, and showed
them the road they should take to Lanka. It was then that
Sampáti had his vigour renewed and a spreading pair of wings.
again bestowed on him.-I. E, p. 196.
P
122
SAM-SAR
Samudra Mathana-The churning of the Ocean, (q. v.)
Sanda-(Śanda), one of the priests of the Asuras. He is
associated with another named Marka; the two are represented as
being formidable to the gods, who had to resort to stratagem in
order to overcome them. From the obscure accounts quoted by
MUIR it appears that they were persuaded to partake of the
intoxicating draughts, and then became an easy prey. Other
accounts make the four sons of Sakra to be the priests of the
Asuras.
Sangita-Ratnakara-(Sangíta-Ratnákara), a work which, as
the name implies, treats more of singing and dancing than of
dramatic literature. It furnishes however some curious notices of
theatrical representation and gesture. The author was Śárngi
Deva, the grandson of a Cashmírian pandit, who sought his fortunes
in the south.
Santa or Kanta-(Śánta or Kánta), the beautiful daughter of
king Lomapúda of Angas, who was married to Rishya-sringa,
(q. v.) In the Uttara Ráma Charitra Sánta is said to have been
a daughter of king Dasaratha, and given by him to Lomapáda to
adopt.
Sarabha-A monkey chief in the army of Sugriva, who was
fighting the Rakshasas in Lanka, but threw down his weapons and
fled at the sight of Kumbhakarna. He was recalled by the angry
taunts of Angada.
Sarama-One of the female guardians placed over Síta when
she was a captive in Lanka. This elderly Rakshasí differed from
the others, and was of a kind disposition. The beauty and mis-
fortune of the gentle princess touched her with pity; and in the
extremity of Síta's distress, when an attempt had been made to
convince her that Ráma was dead, Saramá took the fainting Síta
in her arms, bending tenderly over her, whispered comforting words
in her ears: "He is not dead, my gentle singing bird: thy hero
is not dead. It was a cruel trick of magic, meant to conquer thee
by robbery of hope." Then Saramá told how she had heard
Rávana and the wizard plan this scheme for persuading Síta her
hero was no more, Further, the kindly Rakshasí narrated the
SAR-SAT
123
landing of a vast army, that seemed to have sprung from the
bosom of the sea.
Sarasvati-Kanthabarana-(Sarasvati-Kanthábarana), a work
ascribed to Bhója Rája. It treats generally of poetical or rheto-
rical composition, in five books, the last of which comprehends
many of the details peculiar to dramatic writing.
Sardula (Sardúlá), a daughter of Krodhavașa, and mother of
pards, langurs, and tigers.
Sarika (Grakula religiosa). A small bird better known by
the name of Maina. It is represented as a female while the parrot
is described as a male bird; and as these two have, in all Hindu
tales, the faculty of human speech, they are constantly introduced,
the one inveighing against the faults of the male sex, and the
other exposing the defects of the female. They are thus repre-
sented in the fourth section of that entertaining collection, the
Baitál Pachísi : "The maina said Men are devoid of religion,
sinful, treacherous, and murderers of women.' The parrot replied,
'woman is also deceitful, false, silly, avaricious, and a murderess."
Ladies have always been distinguished for maintaining pet animals;
and the fancy seems to have been equally prevalent in the East
and West, and in ancient or modern times. In the Megha-duta
the Sáriká. is the favourite bird of the wife of the Yaksha, and
may rival, says WILSON, the Swallow of Lesbia, Passer delicix
meæ puellæ,' and Bullfinch of Mrs. Throckmorton."
C
Saringi (Saringí), a musical instrument, in appearance like a
violin, and is played with a bow. It is used on all festive occa-
sions, and dancing girls frequently play on it during their per-
formances.
Sarvamaya-(Sarvamáya), all deceit; the Rákshasa priest of
Rávaṇa.
Sashtanga (Sáshtánga), a mode of prostration by which
eight parts of the body, viz., the two hands, the two feet, the
breast, the forehead, and the two shoulders, are made to touch the
ground at the same time.
Satananda (Satánanda), the family priest of king Janaka.
124
SAT-SEO
Sati-Truth; one of the daughters of Daksha, whom, at the
recommendation of the Rishis he espoused to Śiva; but he was
never wholly reconciled to the uncouth figure and practises of his
son-in-law. Having undertaken to celebrate a solemn sacrifice he
invited all the gods except Śiva, which so offended Satí that she
threw herself into the sacrificial-fire. [Hence the name Suttee,
q. v.] To avenge her fate Śiva created Virabhadra and other
formidable beings, and sent them to the scene of action, where
they disturbed the rites, beat and mutilated the assistants, and
even maltreated the gods, till Śiva was appeased and arrested their
excesses. Daksha, who had been decapitated in the scuffle, was
restored to life, but the head of a ram was substituted for his own.
Satí was born again as the daughter of the mountain Himálaya,
and was again married to Śiva. From this, her second birth, she
is called Párvati, the mountaineer, or Girija, the mountain-born.
The disturbance of Daksha's sacrifice appears to have been a
favourite legend with the Hindus who excavated the cavern tem-
ples of Ellora and Elephanta, the leading incidents appearing
sculptured in both.
Saumanas-One of the four elephants who are said to uphold
the earth : the western quarter is assigned to the robust Saumanas.
See VIRUPAKSHA.
Saushkala-A messenger of Rávaṇa, who was sent to demand
Síta in marriage for his master, but refused on his part to submit
to the test of bending Śiva's bow. Saushkala waited until Rúma had
won Síta, when he departed, highly indignant, to convey the infor-
mation to his master.
Savitra-The thirteenth of the Nakshatras, or lunar mansions,
or portions of the heavens amongst which the moon's course is
divided. It is commonly called Hastá, and comprehends five stars,
of which the brightest is y or s Corvi.
Seori-(Seurí), a tribe of aborigines who have existed side by side.
with the Bhars, Cherús, Kols, Kharwárs, and other indigenous races.
They resemble the gipsies of Europe. They live in light and
easily made booths, and are addicted to intoxicating liquors. They
procure wives for their young men by kidnapping female children;
SHA-SID
125
and live principally by jugglery, coining false money, and theft.-
SHERRING.
Shanars-A low caste very numerous in Tinnevelly, whose
hereditary occupation is that of cultivating and climbing the
Palmyra palm, the juice of which they boil into a coarse sugar.
This is one of those occupations which are restricted by Hindu
usage to members of a particular caste. The majority of the
Shánárs confine themselves to the hard and weary labour appointed
to their race; but a considerable number have become cultivators
of the soil, as land-owners or farmers, or are engaged in trade.
They may in general be described as belonging to the highest
division of the lower classes, or the lowest of the middle classes;
poor, but not paupers; rude and unlettered, but by many degrees
removed from a savage state. Demonolatry, or devil-worship, is
the only term by which the religion of the Shánárs can be accu-
rately described. The demons worshipped by themselves and
their forefathers are beings of unmixed malignity-bona fide
fiends; and it is supposed to be necessary to worship them simply
and solely because they are malignant.-CALDWELL.
Shatatarka-(Shatatárka), the twenty-fourth lunar mansion
or Nakshatra, (q. v.)
Shat Tila Danam-(Shat Tila Dánam). The object of this
festival is the removal or expiation of sin; it is a sort of continua-
tion of the Bhaimyekádesí. As the name implies, six different
acts are to be performed, in all which Tila or sesamum seeds, are
an essential ingredient. The person who observes the rite is to
bathe in water in which they have been steeped-to anoint himself
with a paste made of them—to offer them with clarified butter
upon fire-to present them with water to the manes of his ances-
tors—to eat them-to give them away. The consequences of so
doing are purification from sin, exemption from sickness and
misfortune, and a sojourn in Indra's heaven for thousands of years.
According to the Brahma Purána, Yama created sesamum after
long and arduous penance upon this day, whence its sanctity.
Siddhas-(Add at Page 582). In Buddhist mythology the
Siddhas are demi-gods or angels of undefined attributes and cha-
126
SID-SIN
racter, inhabiting, together with the Vidyadharas, Munis, &c., the
region between the earth and the sun.
Siddhas-Beings of an intermediate order between men and
gods, tenanting the middle regions above the earth, and are usually
described as attending upon Indra, although they have chiefs and
kings of their own. The Siddhas are of a more retired caste than
the Vidyadharas, and are rarely the subject of fabulous or mytho-
logical legend.
Siddhis-(Add at Page 582). According to other writers.
the eight Siddhis are:-mahiman, the faculty of enlarging the
bulk; laghiman, that of making it light; animan, that of making
it small or atomic; prákámya, the power of gratifying passion;
vasita, that of subjecting all; isita, supreme sway; prápti, the
faculty of reaching or grasping objects, however remote; and
kámávasáyitwa, the accomplishment of every natural desire.
Silpaka-A species of drama; it is in four acts; the scene is
laid in a place where dead bodies are burned; the hero is a
Brahman, and the confidant, or Pratinayaka, an outcaste, Marvels.
and magic constitute the leading business of the piece. To borrow
an illustration from the dramatic literature of Europe, we might
class the Freyshütz under this head.-WILSON, Works, XI, p. xxxiii.
Sinhika-A female Rákshasí who was accustomed to seize the
shadows of beings she wished to devour. On one occasion in her
old age she fastened on the shadow of Hanumán as the illustrious
monkey was sailing through the air to Lanka. Hanuman feeling
himself shaken from side to side, as one who is dragged by the
cloak, looked down to the surface of the water, and saw Sinhiká
holding on by his shadow with her large mouth open wide, ex-
pecting him to drop into it; and her bleared eyes shut, becausc
they were not used to look up to the sunlight. So doubling
himself together for a spring, Hanumán darted into the monster's
throat, and with his claws tore his way out through the evil
creatures' back! This was the end of Sinhiká who had destroyed
many harmless beings by that way of catching hold of their
shadows.-I. E., 208.
SIV
127
Siva-linga-About the time of the Mahomedan invasion of
India there were twelve places in high repute as seats of Linga
worship. At these shrines were ancient Lingas of great dimen-
sions; these were termed Śiva-lingas. Some of these shrines still
retain their reputation, as the temple of Vaidyanath in Bengal,
where an annual Melá takes place at the Śiva-rátri, when more than
a hundred thousand pilgrims assemble.
Siva-Ratri—This, in the estimation of the followers of Śiva,
is the most sacred of all their observances, expiating all sins, and
securing the attainment of all desires during life, and union with
Śiva, or final emancipation, after death. The ceremony is said to
have been enjoined by Siva himself, who declared to his wife Umá,
that the fourteenth of Phalguna, if observed in honour of him,
should be destructive of the consequences of all sin, and should
confer final liberation. According to the Isána Sanhita, it was on
this day that Siva first manifested himself as a marvellous and
interminable Linga, to confound the pretensions of both Brahmá
and Vishnu, who were disputing which was the greater divinity.
To decide the quarrel, they agreed that he should be acknowledged
the greater, who should first ascertain the limits of the extraor-
dinary object which appeared of a sudden before them. Setting
off in opposite directions Vishnu undertook to reach the base,
Brahma the summit, but after some thousand years of the gods
spent in the attempt, the end seemed to be as remote as ever,
and both returned discomfited and humiliated, and confessed the
vast superiority of Śiva. The legend seems to typify the exalta-
tion of the Śaiva worship over that of Vishnu and Brahmá, an
event which no doubt at one time took place.
The three essential observances of Śiva-rátri are, fasting during
the whole Tithi or lunar day, aud holding a vigil and worshipping
the Linga during the night; but the ritual is loaded with a vast
number of directions, not only for the presentation of offerings of
various kinds to the Linga, but for gesticulations to be employed,
and prayers to be addressed to various subordinate divinities con-
nected with Śiva, and to Śiva himself in a variety of forms. After
bathing in the morning the worshipper recites his Sankalpa, or
pledges himself to celebrate the worship. He repeats the ablu-
128
SKA-SON
tion in the evening, and going afterwards to a temple of Śiva
renews his pledge.
Those modes of adoration which are at all times addressed to
the different forms of Śiva, and those articles which are peculiarly
enjoined to be presented to the Linga, form of course part of the
observances of Śiva-rátri. Amongst the forms is the Japa, or
muttered recitation of his different names as the worshipper turns
between his fingers the beads of a rosary, made of the seeds of the
Rudraksha or Eleocarpus. The fullest string contains one hundred
and eight beads, for each of which there is a separate appellation,
as Śiva, Rudra, Hara, Śankara, Iswara, Mahésvara, Súlapáņi,
Pasupati, and others.
Notwithstanding the reputed sanctity of the Siva-rátri, it is
evidently of sectarial and comparatively modern institution, and
offers no points of analogy to the practices of antiquity. The
Linga worshipped at Vaidyanath in Bengal, is one of the twelve
great Lingas worshipped in India ten centuries ago. An annual
Melá takes place there at the Śiva-rátri when more than a hundred
thousand pilgrims assemble. A still more numerous concourse
occurs annually at the temple of Mallikarjuna in the Dekhan, also
one of the twelve ancient Lingas. There is also a numerous
assemblage of Hindus at the Śiva-rátri on the island of Elephanța,
the great cave temple of which place contains the well-known
three-headed image of Siva.-WILSON, Works, vol. II, pp. 210
to 221.
Skambha-The Hindu Atlas; the guardian and keeper of the
pillars which hold up the heaven above the earth; the supporter
of the universe.
Soma-plant-(Add at Page 594). The botanical name of the
Soma-plant is the Asclepias Acida.
Sonargir (Sonárgir), the modern name of the mountain Chai-
tyaká, (q. v.)
Sonars-The caste of goldsmiths, silversmiths and jewellers.
Whatever may have been the origin of the Sonárs they are not
now socially of higher rank than the Vaisyas, to which great family,
as manufacturers and traders, they properly belong.-SHERRING.
SRI-SUB
129
Sri-(Add at Page 605). According to the Hindus every city
has its own Sri, its own fortune or prosperity, which in former
times seems to have been represented by an image, with a temple
of its own. The practice amongst the ancients of considering a
city under the protection of some well-known divinity is more
familiar to us, but an analogous superstition with that of the
Hindus also prevailed amongst the polytheists of Europe. Thus
in the Seven Chiefs before Thebes, the Theban women seek the
shrines of the gods who are the guardians of the city. And Virgil
states, that on the fall of Troy the deities who had protected the
empire departed from the shrines. The public Penates were those
who presided over fortresses and cities.-WILSON, XII, 65.
Srigadita-An entertainment in one act, in which the goddess
Sri, the goddess of fortune, is introduced, or is imitated by the
heroine. It is partly recited and partly sung.
Sri Panchami-(Srí Panchami), a festival that occurs at the
beginning of February. The designation Srí indicates the bride
of Vishņu, the goddess of prosperity and abundance, Lakshmi;
some however dedicate the day to Sarasvati, (q. v.) the goddess
of learning; and pens, ink and books are reverenced at the festival.
There are some remarkable varieties regarding the seasons of this
festival, in different parts of India, whether it be considered as
devoted to Sarasvati or Lakshmi.
Sri Rama Navami
(Srí Ráma Navamí), a festival to cele-
brate the birthday of Ráma Chandra.
Srutakirtti-(Srutakírttí). 2. The youngest daughter of
king Janaka, who was married to Satrughna, the youngest brother
of Ráma.
Sthulasiras-(Sthúlaṣiras), an eminent Rishi, who, while
"culling in the woods his hermit food," viewed with fear the
hideous shape of the Rákshasa Kabandha, (q. v.) and in deep
indignation cursed him to retain his grisly form until he should be
released by Ráma.
Subramanya-The name commonly given in the South of
India to Kartikeya, (q. v.) the Hindu Mars, on god of war. Subra-
manya (diamond-like) is said to be the younger son of Śiva (or
Q
130
SUK-SUN
Isvara) the more recent mythology differing from the ancient
legends on the subject of his birth. The purpose of it seems
however to be the same in all, viz., the destruction of the demons
Súra and Taraka. Indra, the story runs, by severe penance, in-
duced Śiva to promise that a god of war should be born and be a
deliverer from the tyrant Súra. But his birth was caused in the
following manner: Śiva emitted from his eyes six sparks of fire,
which being thrown into a lake became six infants, who were
nursed by the wives of the Rishis, that are to be seen in the sky
as the Pleiades. When Párvati saw the children she was trans-
ported with their beauty, and embraced all of them together so
forcibly that their six bodies became one, while their six heads
and twelve arms remained. Thus originated Subramanya, who
owing to his having been nursed by the Kártikas, i. e., the Pleiades,
is also called Kártikeya, and thus he became the son of Párvati.
See SKANDA. Twenty-eight different names are given to Subra-
manya. The Skanda Purana relates his war with Súra in full
detail ; also how he was sent by his father to frustrate the sacri-
fice of Daksha, and how he was delayed on his way, at the instiga-
tion of Daksha, by beauteous damsels, who courted and entertained
him with song and music-his character in this respect being like
that of MARS. Hence the Deva-dásis, or dancing girls, who serve
in the temples, are betrothed and married to him, and then not
allowed to marry men, though allowed to prostitute themselves.
Subramanya's principal pagodas are built on mountains, and in
the month of Kártika (October), bonfires are blazing on them in
his honor throughout the land.
The Kumára Sambhava, or Birth of the War-God, a poem by
Kálidása, has been translated from Sanskrit into English verse, by
Mr. R. T. H. GRIFFITH, to whom we are indebted for so many
excellent specimens of old Indian Poetry.
Suketu A Rákshasí, the mother of Tátaká the terrible, (q. v.)
Sundagara-(Sundágara), a Rákshasa, mentioned in the
Rámáyana, the husband of the fierce Tátaká,
Sundaramurti-A rishi who is supposed to have lived about
fourteen centuries ago, and who, by the sanctity of his life when
i
SUN-SUR
131
on earth, obtained at death a place near Śiva, and is therefore
adored with him. Images of Sundaramúrti are found in many
temples, placed near to the lingam or emblem of Śiva.
Sunitha―(Sunítha), the name of a prince mentioned in the
Mahábhárata of whom nothing particular is known.
Suparsva-A son of the vulture-king Sampáti, who tended his
father when confined to the summit of Mount Vindhya. One day
Suparsva returned without the usual supply of food, on which
Sampáti said, 'Thus it is that young birds of the present day
neglect their aged parents. As they wing their way lightly through
the air it never occurs to them-my father, that old bird whose
wings are scorched, has had no dinner; or if the thought strike
them, they probably say, 'Let the old fowl starve! thus the
trouble of him will be off my shoulders. That is the way with
young birds now-a-days.' Then Suparsava answered meekly,
"my father I scoured the country far and wide, seeking some
provisions for thee; but all creatures seemed hiding out of the
way of some great peril. Whilst I hung on the air wondering I
saw a monster with ten heads and large limbs sailing towards me;
and in his arms he held a young daughter of man clad in bright
raiment, who looked like a pure bright Star in the dark bosom of
a cloud. As they neared me I heard her scream Ráma, help!
dear Ráma!' And I hesitated whether to succour her or no.
But he with the ten heads cried to me courteously to make way for
him; and no bird of breeding answers a polite request with a
challenge to combat, so I let him pass. When he was out of
sight the Bhútas that float in mist, cried to me, 'Thou hast been
near to death! That was Rávaṇa the terror of the three worlds
had he not held a woman in his arms the dreadful Rákshasa had
not let thee live!' And so, father, I return to thee glad that life
is mine, though like thee I am wearied and a-hungered."—I.
E., 194.
Suras (Súras), heavenly spirits or inferior demi-gods, resemb
ling Cháranas, (q. v.)
Surasa-The mother of the Nágas who dwelt in the ocean, who
assumed the form of a monstrous Rakshasa, and rose up through
132
SUR
the water to stop Hanumán as he was flying over the sea to Lanka.
'Stop, O colossal Ape, she shouted, the immortals have given thee
to me for a meal! therefore enter my mouth without delay.'
Hanuman looked down her mouth, that was like a yawning cavern.
'Magnificent Parent of Nágas, he said, I am employed on an im-
portant errand just now; let me continue my voyage and I will
return to be the will of the immortals.' Surasa was impatient; as
Hanumán enlarged his bulk she expanded her jaws, and so they went
on till Surasá's mouth was a hundred yojanas wide. Yield to thy
destiny,' said she, for I swear thou shalt not continue thy voyage
ere thou hast entered my mouth.' So be it, said the dauntless
Ape; and quick as thought reduced himself to the dimensions of
a man's thumb-then he slipped into the monstrous jaws of the
Rákshasí, and as quickly darted out again. Farewell, gallant
monkey, cried the mother of Nágas, I wished only to put thy in-
genuity to the proof.-I. E.
<
Suratha-(Add at Page 618). 3. A Rája of the Sivis, a tribe
mentioned by the historians of Alexander's Indian Conquests.
"After reaching the confluence of the Acesines with the Hydaspes,
Alexander made a retrograde march towards the Indus, upon an
incursion against the Siba; who from being clothed with skins,
and armed with clubs, the latter of which they stamped on their
cattle, the Greeks fancied to be descendants of Hercules." They
are said to have been the posterity of king Śiva; but the name
and the practices of the people most probably allude to, their
especial worship of Śiva.-F. JOHNSON.
Surgery-Professor Wilson believed that Surgery was once
extensively cultivated and highly esteemed by the Hindus,*
though the successful cultivation of the healing art by European
skill and learning has left us nothing to learn from Hindu writers.
Surgical skill preceded the knowledge of medicine; as Celsus has
asserted, when commenting on Homer's account of Podalirius and
Machaon, who were not consulted, he says, during the plague in
the Grecian camp, although regularly employed to extract darts
and heal wounds. The same position is maintained by Hindu
writers, in plain as well as in legendary language.
WILSON, Works, III, 276.
SUS-SUV
133
According to some authorities, the Asvins instructed Indra, and
Indra was the preceptor of Dhanwantari; but others make Atreya,
Bharadwaja, and Charaka prior to the latter. Charaka's work,
which goes by his name, is extant. Dhanwantari is also styled
Kásírája, prince of Benares. His disciple was Susruta, the son of
Visvamitra, and consequently a contemporary of Ráma; his work
also exists, and is our chief guide at present. It is perhaps the
oldest work on the subject, excepting that of Charaka, which the
Hindus possess. It is divided into six portions, all of which treat.
of Surgery, not general medicine.
The Áyur Veda is distributed into eight sub-divisions, includ-
ing all the real and fanciful pursuits of physicians of every time
and place. Suşruta however confines his own work to the classes
Śalya and Śálákya, or Surgery, though, by an arrangement not
uncommon with our own writers, he introduces occasionally the
treatment of general diseases, and the management of women and
children, when discussing those topics to which they bear relation.
Pure Surgery, however, is his aim, "the first and best of the medi-
cal sciences; less liable than any other to the fallacies of conjec-
tural and inferential practice; pure in itself, perpetual in its
applicability; the worthy produce of heaven, and certain source
of fame."*
Susamgata-The confidential friend of the princess Ságariká
in the drama of Ratnávalí.
Susruta-A medical writer of great antiquity and high repute.
He was the son of Viṣvámitra, and consequently a contemporary
of Ráma. He is said to have studied under Dhanwantara, and his
work, termed the Sausruta, still exists, and is considered a valu-
able treatise on Surgery.
Sutikshana-(Add at Page 622). Sutíkshana's hermitage was
near the celebrated Rámagiri, or Ráma's hill, now Rám-tek, near
Nagpore-the scene of the Yaksha's exile in the Cloud Messenger.
Suvela-A mountain in Lanka, on the rugged top of which
Ráma encamped his army when he invaded the island.
* WILSON, Works, III, 276.
;
134
SVA-SYA
Svayamprabha-A recluse, of whom nothing particular is
known. He is named in the Rámáyana.
Sveta-(Svetá), a daughter of Krodhavaşa, and mother of the
eight elephants attached to the four quarters and intermediate
points of the compass, to support and guard the earth.
Swati-The fifteenth lunar mansion or Nakshatra, (q. v.)
Syama-(Śyámá), the black goddess; one of the terrific forms
of Párvati, worshipped in the month of Kártic.
T
Tabla-A small drum with only one opening, which is covered
with a thin skin, the part opposite to this being round and made
of wood. The drum rests upon the ground, the covered opening
being uppermost, and is struck rapidly and sharply by the fingers.
Sometimes two such drums are played by the right and left hands
together.
Takshaka―The younger brother of the Ádityas, and ruler of
snakes.-WILSON, Works, XI, 219.
Tandu-One of Śiva's attendants whom the god instructed
in a new style of dancing, hence termed Táṇḍava, and which is
reckoned one of the modes of dramatic performance.
Mimansa
Tantravarttika-(Tantravárttika), a celebrated
treatise by Kumarila Bhatta, forming a commentary on the
Jaimini-sutras. Mr. Burnell states that it contains the earliest
known mention in Sanskrit of the Dravidian languages. * Kuma-
rila Bhatta lived at the end of the seventh century, A. D., and
"it is interesting to remark that the words he mentions are still
good current Tamil words."+ Bhatta regarded the Dravidian
dialects as Mlechchka or unbrahmanic, uncivilized languages, he
does not say so expressly, but his words imply that he thought so.
"It is not to assume too much therefore if we infer that about
700 A. D., brahmanical civilization had but little penetrated the
South of India."t
Tapati―(Tapatí), the wife of Samavarṇa, and mother of
the Kurus, (q. v.)
Taraka—A star; Kshinapunya Táraka, the stars that have
lost their virtue. The Hindu notion is that the stars are indi-
* Indian Antiquary, September 1872.
+ Ibid.
+ Ibid.
136
ᎢᎪᎡ
viduals raised to that honour for a time proportioned to the sum
of their merits; this being exhausted they descend to earth, often
visibly, as in the case of shooting stars.-WILSON.
Taroba-A lake in the Chánda district of the Central Pro-
vinces; it is situated east of Segaon, in a basin of the Chimur
hills at a considerable height above the plain, and is believed by
the natives of the surrounding country to owe its origin to enchant-
ment. It is far from any village, and though artificially embanked
at one point has all the appearance of a natural lake. The legend
connected with it is as follows: In the early ages a marriage
procession was passing through these hills from the west. Hot
and thirsty they sought for water but found none, when a strange-
looking old man suggested that the bride and bridegroom should
join in digging for a spring. Laughingly they consented, and
with the removal of a few spadesful of earth a clear fountain leapt
to the surface. While all were delightedly drinking, the freed
waters rose and spread into a wide lake, overwhelming bride,
bridegroom, and procession; but fairy hands soon constructed a
temple in the depths, where the spirits of the drowned are sup-
posed still to dwell. Afterwards on the lake side a palm tree
grew up, which only appeared during the day, sinking into the
earth at twilight. One morning a rash pilgrim seated himself
upon the tree-top, and was borne into the skies where the flames
of the sun consumed him. The palm-tree then shrivelled into
dust, and in its place appeared an image of the spirit of the lake,
which is worshipped under the name of Taroba. Formerly at the
call of pilgrims, all necessary vessels rose from the lake, and after
being used were washed and returned to the waters. But at last
one evil-minded man took those he had received to his home;
they quickly vanished, and from that day the mystic provision
wholly ceased. In quiet nights the country-folk still hear faint
sounds of drum and trumpet passing round the lake-
“She is not dead, she has no grave,
She lives beneath Lough Ullin's water,
And in the murmur of each wave,
Methinks I catch the songs I taught her."
TAT-TIR
137
The old men say that in one dry year when the waters sank
low, golden pinnacles of the fairy temple were seen glittering in
the depths-
"On Lough Neagh's banks as the fisherman strays,
On a cold calm eve's declining,
He sees the round towers of other days
In the waves beneath him shining."
The lake is much visited, especially during the months of De-
cember and January; and the rites of the god are performed by a
Gond. Wives seek its waters for their supposed virtue in causing
fertility, and sick persons for health. Fish in the lake grow to a
large size, the skeleton of one which was stranded some years ago
measuring eight feet in length.*
Tataka―(Tátaká), a terrible Rákshasí, the daughter of Suketu,
wife of Sundágara, and mother of Marícha. She was killed by
Ráma, after his scruples about taking the life of a female who had
been overcome by the reasoning of Viṣvámitra.
Tharu-The Thárus are one of the aboriginal races of India,
now in a depressed and abject condition, yet formerly of consi-
derable influence and power. They claim to have been originally
Rájputs; and state that their ancestors lost their caste by taking
to intoxicating liquors and rearing fowls; but this is very doubt-
ful. The Thárus keep their residences scrupulously clean.-
SHERRING.
Tilaka-A mark on the forehead and between the eye brows,
either as an ornament or a sectarial distinction.-WILSON.
Tirukalyana-This is a festival in commemoration of the
marriage of Śiva and Párvati. It is celebrated by various cere-
monies performed by Brahmans, and usually lasts nine or ten
days, during which daily offerings are made, and images of the
gods carried about in the streets in the morning and evening.
Multitudes of people assemble on these occasions, when musicians.
and dancing girls are always present.
Tiruvallava―The author of the celebrated Dravidian poem
"The Kural." He lived about the third century of the Christian
* Indian Antiquary, June 1872.
R
138
TIR
era.
His parents were Bhagavan and Adiyal, an eminent brahman
and a beautiful pariah; the condition on which they lived together
was that every child born should be at once abandoned.
A girl
was first born named Avveyar, (q. v.) The mother longed to keep
the child; but Bhagavan replied in words that are still often
quoted-
Is that God dead who wrote upon our brow
The things that are to be ? Can deepest pain
Be more than he can bear? Doth not he know
Thou hast a child? Let not thy fear complain.
Four other children were born, two girls and two boys, all of
whom were similarly forsaken, the mother being comforted on each
occasion by a verse on the goodness of God, composed by Bhaga-
van. Mr. Gover says these verses are now most sacred and are
always quoted with deep reverence. He thinks they are probably
quotations from some larger work on the Providence of God which
has been lost during the many centuries that have passed since
the days of Tiruvallava.
"Bhagavan and Adi came towards Madras, and at Mylapore,
one of its present suburbs, Tiruvallava was born. For the last
time the poor mother cried out against the hard lot which com-
pelled her to abandon her child." Bhagavan gave her the usual
consolation by reminding her of the God whose care protects all
living things, and the infant was left under the branches of a tree,
the Bassi Longifolia. The wife of a cultivator found and adopted
the child, calling it Tiruvallava, or the holy pariah. He left his
adoptive parents at an early age, and was educated by some asce-
tics in the hill country.
When Tiruvallava was grown up a fearful monster invaded the
plains, for the destruction of which a rich land-owner offered
immense rewards. Tiruvallava succeeded in killing the monster
and restoring peace and prosperity to the country. The grateful
landowner gave all that he had promised, and added the hand of
his daughter Vasukí, whom Tiruvallava married. "She proved
almost a miracle of goodness, and the songs in the Kural describ-
ing the excellency and value of a good wife, were confessedly
drawn from her life."
TOD-TRE
139
"Tiruvallava was now wealthy, but he thought it wrong for any
man merely to live without producing some share of that which
he consumed. After careful thought therefore he became a weaver.
His good wife and he toiled hard at their work, living the while
in the performance of every public and private duty. He now
gathered many disciples, instructing them in all that concerned
holy living. As his disciples increased they desired that he should
make a book in his own name, so that all the world might know
how best to live, both in this life and those that were to come.
In reply to this repeated request he sung the Cural in thirteen
hundred and thirty verses. He divided it into three parts, treating
respectively of virtue, wealth, and physical pleasure.
"Strip the story of its brahmanical element and we learn that
Tiruvallava was a member of a low Dravidian caste, that he
attained great celebrity as a poet and as a noble man, that he
owed nothing and gave nothing to the sacerdotal caste, and that
he was but one of many great Tamil poets who lived about the
same time. He probably flourished about the third century of
our era.”—GoVER'S FOLK Songs, 217.
Todas-One of the most remarkable and interesting of the hill
tribes of Southern India. Their personal appearance, isolated
customs, and primitive form of religion, all combine to attract
the attention of scientific inquirers; and many theories have been
started respecting them. Those who regard the cairns and
cromlecks that stud the hills in all directions as the work of Todas,
have put them down as descended from the Scythians. Others
judging from their personal features have given them a Roman
origin. But nothing has hitherto been satisfactorily determined.
The custom of polyandry prevails amongst them, which may
eventually lead to the extinction of the tribe. The Todas are
considered by the other hill tribes to be the lords of the soil, and
are accordingly paid a tribute in kind by them in acknowledgment
of this right. The language of the Todas is a dialect of Canarese.
Tragedy-See RÚPAKA, NÁTAKA, PRAKARANA, &c.
Tretagni—(Tretágni), the triad of sacred fires, in opposition
to the Laukika or merely temporal ones. The sacred fire of the
140
TRI
Hindus, originally one, was made three-fold by Pururavas. The
three fires are, 1st Gárhapatya, perpetual household fire; 2nd,
Dakshina, a fire for sacrifices; and 3rd, Ahavaniya, a fire for
oblations. See FIRE SACRIFICIAL.
Triambaka —The three-eyed, a name of Śiva, derived from tri,
three, and ambaka, eye.
Trigartta-The country of the three strongholds, mentioned
in the Mahábhárata, has been recently determined to be the
modern hill state of Kotoch, which is still called by the people
Traigartt-ka-mulk.
Trijata―(Trijatá), one of the Rákshasí guardians of Síta, when
a captive in Lanka. She in consequence of a dream prevailed on
the other Rakshasís not to oppress or torment Síta.
Trilochana-(Trilochana), the three-eyed; a name of Śiva.
Trinavindu-3. There is a third Triņavindu who was amongst
the brahmans and ascetics who followed the Pandavas into exile.
He was originally a king but became a Rishi.
દ
Tripati or Tirupati—A sacred hill in the Arcot district, about
eighty miles from Madras; celebrated as the scene of a minor
incarnation of Vishnu, in whose honour a splendid temple has
been erected and richly endowed. There is an image of Vishnu,
seven feet in height, with four arms, and having in three of his
hands, the Chakra, the Chank, and the lotus. The temple, which
is of great antiquity, is built of stone, and covered with plates of
gilt copper. It stands in a valley in the centre of a range of hills.
Pilgrimages are made to Tripati from all parts of India, especially
from Gujarat, the trading inhabitants of which province are
in the habit of presenting five or ten per cent. of their annual
profits to this temple, whose deity appears to be the tutelary
patron of traffic; rich gifts and votive offerings are likewise
received from other quarters. Princes send their vakíls or ambas-
sadors to present their offerings to the shrine; and the poor
peasant wraps up some petty oblation in a piece of wax cloth.
These offerings are made generally from personal motives, and
comprise the widest possible range of articles. The writer has
seen the long hair cut from the head of a respectable young
TRI
141
Hindu female, given up by her in compliance with a vow made
by her parent in infancy, and taken as an offering to the idol.
Coleman says that a man who is lame presents a silver leg; if
blind, a gold or silver eye. The reason of all these offerings is
said to be to enable a rája to repay to Kuvera the money lent by
him ages ago, when the idol was married to the daughter of a
neighbouring rája.
Tripura-A demon who was destroyed by Siva: There is a
drama of the Dima class, termed the Tripuradáha, the subject of
which is the destruction of the demon Tripura, and the corflagra-
tion of the three cities over which he ruled, and whence he derived
his appellation.—WILSON.
Tripurardana or Tripurantaka-A name of Śiva, from his
having destroyed Tripura an Asura.
C
Trisanku-[Substitute this] A king of the solar line, who loved
justice and truth and governed his dominions wisely. One fault
marred the perfection of his character; and that was an overween-
ing love for his body. The thought that death would deprive him
of it, and that it would be reduced to ashes upon the funeral pile,
was very grievous to him. He sought out the sage Vasishtha, and
wished him to offer a solemn aşvamedha to obtain from heaven per-
mission to retain his cherished body. The Brahman, however,
refused his request, as did also the hundred sons of Vasishtha to
whom he next applied. Farewell' then, he said haughtily, 'I
shall seek no more counsel from you or Vasishtha. It is clear to
me that you are unable to obtain my petition.' 'We will give
thee a proof of our power,' said they, 'may this precious body thou
thinkest so beautiful, assume the degraded form of a Chandála !'
The curse took immediate effect, and the unhappy monarch dared
not return to his palace. But having heard of the astounding self-
macerations of Visvamitra he sought out that elephant among men.*
When the royal ascetic saw the condition of Trisanku, he was filled
with compassion, and asked who had dared to reduce him to such
*
"Such expressions are frequent in the Rámáyana. We meet with
'Lion among kings,' 'Tiger of men,' 'Bull among penitents,' when we
should say the most excellent of anchorites, the most eminent of men, the
noblest of kings, &c."-FAUCHE.
142
TRI
a condition. The sons of Vasishtha, answered Trisanku; and then
related the circumstances. Visvamitra was very indignant, and
vowed to obtain the vow that Trisanku wished for. He proclaimed
a great asvamédha and sent messengers far and near to summon to
it all who devoted their lives to prayer. Those who disregarded
the summons were punished in various ways. But when the
asvamédha was celebrated, the gods themselves paid no heed to
the sacrifice. Then this Tiger amongst kings in a rage exclaimed,
listen noble Trisanku. By virtue of my severe penances I myself
will perform this deed. Mount up into heaven with the body thou
lovest. I, Visvamitra, in the hearing of gods and men, command
it.' Then like a bubble of air through the water, Trisanku began
to ascend, conquering the waves of space; but when his head
struck against the celestial azure, Indra, looking over, said Fall,
Trisanku! and the luckless monarch began to fall, but was
arrested by the powerful voice of Visvámitra, the indomitable
Lion among ascetics, when half-way between heaven and earth,
where the body of the monarch still remains, and is supposed by
the uninformed to be merely an astral constellation.-Iliad of the
East, p. 70.
Trisula—(Trisúla), the trident of Śíva. It is considered to be in
continual motion over the face of the universe to guard and preserve
its creatures. To oppose its course would be to incur instant death.
Its motion is regular but varying according to the days of the
week. Thus it is imagined that it is unlucky to proceed towards
the westward on Sundays and Fridays, to the northward on Tues-
days and Wednesdays, to the eastward on Saturdays and Mondays,
and to the southward on Thursdays.
Trivena-Three plaited locks; indicating the mystical union
of the three sacred rivers, the Ganga, Yamuna, and Sarasvati,
severally the consorts or energies of the three great Powers ;
Trivena is regarded as symbolical of a female Triad, like the
Trimurti of male powers. The Ganges and Jumna unite near
Allahabad, and the Sarasvati, which is also supposed to join the
other two under-ground. A person dying near the imagined
confluence of the three streams is supposed toa ttain immediate
beatitude.
TRI
143
Trivikrama-A name of Vishnu, meaning, he who took three
steps or paces; this, Colebrooke thought might have formed the
ground-work of the Pauráņik legend of the dwarf avatár. It may
have been suggestive of the fiction; but no allusion to the notion
of avatárs occurs in the Veda, and there can be little doubt that
the three steps here referred to, are the three periods of the sun's
course, his rise, culmination, and setting.-(WILSON) "Vishnu is
the sun. How? Because he says 'thrice he planted his foot.'
Where did he do so? On the earth, in the firmament, and in the
heaven, says Sákapúni."-(MUIR, II, 204.)
U
Udayagir―The modern name of the hill called in the Mahá-
bhárata Rishígíri. See VARAHA.
Udayana-(Add at Page 648). Udayana, is a celebrated charac-
ter in Hindu fable. He was the king of Vatsa, and is constantly
termed Vatsa. He is so designated throughout the RATNAVALI, of
which he is the hero.
Upanayana-The ceremony of investiture with the sacred
thread or cord, worn over the left shoulder and under the right.
This ceremony is performed on all Brahman youths at the age of
seven or nine years, and constitutes the right initiation into caste.
It means, the introduction to the sciences, and is regarded as a
new birth; hence Brahmans are commonly designated the twice-
born. The Brahmachari has after this ceremony the privilege of
studying all the sciences; other castes being permitted to learn
but a small number.
The cord or thread is termed the Janivara, (q. v.) and the process
of investiture commences by the father of the young Brahman
selecting, agreeably to the rules of Hindu astrology, the month of
the year, the week, the day of the week, and the minute of the
day, most favourable for the ceremony. Part of what is necessary
is laid down in the Hindu Almanac. The Purohita is charged
with what remains; and it is no trifling affair, so intricate are the
calculations and combinations which he has to undertake.
The father is required to make an ample provision of rice, peas,
pumpkins and all other vegetable food, of curdled milk and melted
butter, of cocoanut, and the various kinds of fruit which can be
found, to be the ground-work of the entertainment to be given
to the Brahmans. It is especially necessary that he should be
provided with betel, and with abundance of money in silver and
copper, together with some pieces of new cloth. All these articles
UPA
145
must be distributed to his guests at the close of the ceremony,
which continues four days. He must also provide a new dish
of copper or brass, and several earthen vessels which have never
served for any such purpose before, and must never be used again.
All the relatives and Brahman friends of the family are invited
to be present on the first day of the ceremony. Any neglect in
this particular would be regarded as an insult by those who had
grounds for expecting to be invited. The Purohita is first called,
he brings the sacred Kusa grass, and other articles to be used on
the occasion. The house having been previously purified and
cleansed by rubbing the floors and inside walls with cow-dung
diluted with water, while the outside walls are adorned with broad
perpendicular stripes in red earth, the purohita invokes the house-
hold deity, and recites a mantram. Offerings are also made to
Vigneswara that he may not throw any obstacles in the way of
the favourable progress of the ceremonies.
The youth who is the subject of all these has his head shaved,
leaving only a small tuft on the crown. His head is then
anointed with oil and his body well smeared with ground saffron.
After this he is bathed, covered with a silk raiment, and taken
into the midst of the assembled friends. The women who are
present then perform the ceremony of the Artaí, (q. v.) All then
unite in chanting praise to the gods, and good wishes for the young
man. This
This is followed by an offering of boiled rice, &c., to the
household deity. The guests then partake of food, and after the
distribution of betel withdraw for the day.
The next morning the father of the youth, after bathing, again
invites the relatives and friends to the ceremonies that have yet
to be observed; the assembly being formed, the Bramachari is
bathed and decorated as on the preceding day. He and his
parents ascend the pile of earth thrown up beneath the pandal,
and seat themselves on three little stools. The purohita now
enters, carrying fire in an earthen vase which he places upon the
pile; and by means of the mantram secures the divine presence
in the fire. The father advances and offers the sacrifice of the
Homa in honour of the fire; this is followed by nine similar sacri-
fices in honour of the nine planets. The Hindus reckon them
S
146
URA-UTT
nine, because in addition to the seven which we admit with them,
they add the increasing and waning moon as two distinct planets.
These nine are considered as malevolent deities, and the design of
the sacrifice of the Homa is to render them propitious.
Various other ceremonies are then performed of which the reader
will find a detailed account in the work of the Abbé DuBois, from
which the principal part of the above description has been
condensed.
Urana-One of the demons who personify drought. See Vrittra,
Sambara, Súshana, &c.
—
Urmila (Urmilá), a daughter of king Janaka, and sister of Síta.
She was given in marriage by her father king Janaka to Lakshmana,
the brother of Ráma.
Uttarayana-The winter solstice. The festival which in the
South of India is termed the Pongal, is celebrated in Upper India
as the Uttarayaṇa or Makara Sankranti, or sun's entrance into the
sign Capricornus. The observances enjoined on this occasion are
partly of a private, partly of a public character. The first consists
of offerings to the Pitris, or progenitors, whether general, as of all
mankind; or special, as of the family of the worshipper; to the
Vástu devas, the Dii Lares, or domestic genii; the guardians of
the dwelling, or the site on which it is erected; and to the Viswa
devas or universal gods. The ceremonies addressed to all these are
performed within the abode of the householder, and are conducted
by the family priest. The principal article of the offering is tila
or sesamum seeds, either separately or mixed with molasses, or the
saccharine juice of the fruit of the date tree, and made up into a
kind of sweetmeat, called Tilüá. Pishtakas, or cakes, also are
offered, composed of ground rice, mixed with sugar and ghee;
whence the festival has the denomination of Tilüá Sankranti and
Pishtaka Sankranti, the solar conjunction of the sweetmeat in the
cake.
The good things prepared on this occasion are not intended
exclusively for those imaginary beings who are unable to eat them.
They are presented merely for the purpose of consecration, and
that they may be eaten with greater zest by the householder and
UTT
147
his family; nor is that all, for a portion of them is sent to friends.
and relations, as memorials of regard, enclosed in fine linen, silk or
velvet, according to the means of the presenter, and the station of
those to whom they are presented.
In many places in Bengal a curious practice is observed, called
Báwanna bandhana, particularly by the females of the family. In
the evening one of the women takes a wisp of straw, and from the
bundle picks out separate straws, which she ties singly to every
article of furniture in the house, exclaiming 'Bawanna pauti,'
implying 'may the measure of corn be increased fifty-two fold,'
pauti denoting a measure of grain. In the villages similar straws
are attached to the Golas, or thatched granaries, in which the
grain of the preceding harvest has been stored.
All the Uttarayana bathing at the confluence of the Ganges
with the ocean is particularly meritorious, and accordingly a
vast concourse of people is annually assembled at Gangá Ságar, or
the mouth of the Hoogly branch of the Ganges; and as usual in
all such assemblages, objects of a secular nature are blended with
those of devotion; and the Melá, which originates in purposes of
pilgrimage, becomes equally a meeting of itinerant merchants, or
a fair.
On the first day bathing in the sea is to be performed; and
many of those whose parents are recently deceased celebrate their
ṣraddha, or obsequial ceremonies, on the sea-shore. After ablution
the pilgrims repair to the temple of Kapila, (q. v.) Vishnu became
incarnate in the person of Kapila for the destruction of the sixty
thousand wicked sons of king Sagara. He is said to have
stationed himself at this place which was then on the brink of a
vast chasm leading to the infernal regions. The temple is under
the alternate charge of a Bairági and Sannyási, mendicants of the
Vaishnava and Śaiva sects; they exact a fee of four annas from
each person who comes to the temple.*
* WILSON, Works, II, pp. 158-168.
V
Vadava-(Váḍava), a Being consisting of flame, but with the
head of a horse, which sprang from the thigh of Aurva, (q. v.) and
was received by the ocean. He is regarded as the destined consumer
of the world at the end of the "Kalpa." The word is sometimes
translated sub-marine Fire.
Vahuka-The name of Nala when he was disguised, and
employed as the charioteer of Mahárája Ritupurna, king of Ayodhya.
Vahuka drove his royal master in one day from Ayodhya to far
Vidarbha, when Damayantí, as a means of recovering her lost Nala,
proclaimed that her Svayamvara was to be held. It was during
this journey that Nala was dispossessed of Kali, and only then
wanted his proper form.
Vaidehi-A name of Síta, who was princess of Vaidehá and
Mithila.
Vaidika—The designation of a class of Brahmans who never
follow any wordly occupation, or mix themselves up with the
public service; their pursuits are exclusively religious, and they
are supported by the charitable contributions of others. The
Brahmans who are employed in public offices are termed Laukika,
or men engaged in the business of the world. Many of the
Vaidíka class now engage in tuition and often make excellent
school-masters.
Vaihara (Vaihára), a mountain mentioned in the Máhabhá-
rata, now identified as one of the five mountains of Rájgir, in
Magadha; it is called Mount Baibhar, and is a rocky hill running
three or four miles north-west, and terminating at its eastern side
in the hot wells of Rájgir. Here the valley is entered by a narrow
ravine through the midst of which the Sarasvatí rivulet forces its
way into the low country to the north of the hills.-I. A., p. 70.
VAI-VAN
149
Vairochana-A name of Bali, the son of Prahláda, the son of
Hiranyakaṣipu, all eminent princes of the Daitya or Titanic
family. See BALI.
Vaishnavi, Varahi—(Vaishnaví, Varáhí), two of the Śaktis, or
eight goddesses so termed, all of them hideous, who attend on
Śiva when he appears as the terrific and destructive deity, Bhairava,
who is propitiated by offerings of wine and blood.
Valkala-A garment of bark worn by anchorites in the
desert.
Vallabhacharyas—(Vallabhácháryas), a numerous sect in
Western and Central India; the chief book of authority to the sect
is the Bhagavata Purána, and after it the works of Vallabha, the
founder of the sect. The object of their adoration is Vishnu in
his incarnation as Krishna, whose residence is Goloka, far above
the three worlds. There he originally lived alone, but in meditat-
ing on the works of creation, created a female form, which became
the primary agent in creation; this was Máya. He then produced
crude matter, the five elements and all the divine beings; the
Trimúrti, their female consorts, and 300 millions of Gopis, or
cowherdesses, who are the special attendants on Krishna."*
Vana-devatas and Sthala-devatas-(Vana-devatas and
Sthala-devatas), genii of the soil and forest, who are often invoked.
and supplicated; like the Fauns and Dryads of European literature,
who preside over the mountain and wood.
Vanaras-(Vánaras), monkeys; the term applied in the
Rámáyana to designate the savage tribes occupying the Vindhya
and its neighbourhood. They differed from the Aryas in race,
language, colour, and features, but must, in the opinion of Signor
Gorresio, have shown a disposition to receive the Aryan civilization;
since they entered into league with Ráma, and joined in his expedi-
tion against the black tribes further south. The greater part of
the tribes south of the Vindhya submitted to the institutions of the
Áryas. "The woodland inhabitants of India south of the Vindhya
range are called in the Rámáyana monkeys in contempt, I conceive,
* GOLDSTUCKER in Chambers' Encyclopædia.
150
VAN-VAR
of their savage condition, and also, perhaps, because they were
little known at that time. In the same way Homer related fabu-
lous stories about the races who in his age were unknown to the
Greeks. The occupants of the Dekhan differed from the Sanskrit
speaking Indians in origin, worship, and language."-GORRESIO,
quoted by MUIR, II, p. 417.
Vanechari-A female forest-goer; the Dryad under whose
protection the wood, or any part of it, may be.
Vangrida―(Vangrida), a prince who had under his rule a
hundred cities. He is mentioned in the Rig-Veda as having
been subdued by Indra who broke down the hundred cities
which had been blockaded by Rejiṣvan.'
Varaha-(Varáha), one of the five mountains of Rájgir, in
Magadha, now called Mount Vipula, on the eastern side of the
Sarasvatí; it is a lofty mountain, and a branch of it runs as far
as Giryak, a distance of six miles. Hardly a quarter of a mile
from the western side of the hill it is joined at right angles by
a third mountain running from the north called Ratnagir ;—the
Vrishába of the Mahábhárata. This hill is of inconsiderable
length and terminates in a narrow ravine branching away to the
west. On the opposite side of this ravine rises Mount Udayagír,
(the old Rishigiri) a less important hill, running due south, and
terminating in the ancient wall and fort of Bángangá, the southern
gate of the ancient capital of Magadha.-I. A., p. 70.
Varuda Chaturthi-(Varudá Chaturthí), a festival that occurs
in the fourth lunar day of the light half of Mágha (30th Jany.-
1st Feby.) The name implies a goddess, the giver of boons, who
in some of the Puráņas is identified with Gauri, or with Umá, the
bride of Śiva. She is on this day to be worshipped with offering
of flowers, of incense, or of lights, with platters of sugar and
ginger, or milk or salt, with scarlet or saffron-tinted strings and
golden bracelets. She is to be worshipped by both sexes, but
especially by women; and women themselves are to be treated
with peculiar homage. The due observance of this festival is said
to secure a flourishing progeny. The worship of Gauri at this
season, is popular in the South of India.
VAS-VID
151
Vasantaka-The confidential companion of king Vatsa in the
Ratnávalí.
Vasantotsava-(Vasantótsava), the feast of Vasanta, or Spring.
See HOLI.
Vasavadatta-(Vasavadattá), the queen of Vatsa, (Udáyana),
king of Kausambí.
Vasubhuti (Vasubhúti), the ambassador of the king of
Śimhala, or Ceylon, in the drama of the Ratnávalí.
Vibhandaka-(Vibhaṇḍaka), a sage who retired from the world
to the deepest shades of the forest, with his heart full of bitterness
and morose hatred for men, because amongst them he had found
crime and folly. He despised pleasure too and scorned beauty;
for once he had been deceived by both. Taking with him his infant
son, Rishya-sringa, he chose a cave, in the glen of the wood, to be
this young child's nursery.
'I give thee, my son,' he said, the savage beasts of prey for
comrades; from them thou wilt learn less cruelty and wickedness
than from thy fellows! Thou shalt hear the parrot shriek, the
jackal howl, the lynx mewl, and the hyæna screech, but thou shalt
be spared the discordant voice of man! Here, amid reptiles and
venomous insects, thou shalt yet live in ignorance of what is most
vile and loathsome in Nature! Exposed to the caprices of heaven,
a thousand dangers attending thy every footstep, thy life a series
of hardships, afflictions, and perils, thou shalt know more peace and
security than in the crowded city. Grow then; and, if it be
possible, lose the base nature Brahm has laid on thee; and ignore
that thou art a vile and miserable creature,-a man! See RISHYA-
SRINGA.
Vibhuti-(Vibhuti), a grayish-white coloured powder made of
the ashes of burnt cow-dung; Śiva is represented with his person
sprinkled or smeared with this powder; and it is used in a similar
way by all the Saiva and many of the Vaishnava ascetics.
Vidushaka (Vidúshaka), the buffoon in the theatre of the
Hindus. He is the humble companion, not the servant, of a
prince, or man of rank; and it is a curious peculiarity that he is
always a Brahman. He bears more affinity to Sancho Panza,
152
VID-VIN
perhaps, than any other character in western fiction, imitating him
in his combination of shrewdness and simplicity, his fondness
of good living, and his love of ease. This character is always
lively, and sometimes almost witty, although in general his
facetiousness does not take a very lofty flight. According to
the technical definition of his attributes he is to excite mirth by
being ridiculous in person, age, and attire.-WILSON, XI, p. xlvii.
Vidyadharas-(Vidyádharas), in Buddhist mythology are the
bards ef heaven, or celestial musicians, demigods or angels, corres-
ponding to the Gandharbas of Hinduism.
Vidyujjihva-A magician in the service of Rávana; when the
latter wished to persuade Síta that Ráma had been killed in battle,
he called the magician, who produced by illusion a head bearing a
resemblance to the noble countenance of Ráma; this was thrown
down on the floor near to Síta, along with a mighty bow, which
seemed the one Visvamitra had given to Ráma.
Vignesvara―(Vigneṣvara), a name of Ganésa, the remover of
difficulties.
Vihara (Vihara), a convent of Bauddha ascetics. The word
also means taking exercise, or walking about for pleasure.
Vijaya-araman -An officer in the army of king Vatsa, in the
play of Ratnávalí.
Vikata―(Vikatá), the bow-legged; one of the Rákshasí guardians
of Síta when in captivity in Lanka; she proposed to devour Síta
for not yielding to Rávana's wishes.
Vikrita-The second of the Prajapatis, who was married to one
of the daughters of Daksha.
Vina (Add at Page 790.)—It is a fretted instrument of the
guitar kind, usually having seven wires or strings, and a large gourd
at each end of the finger board. The extent of the instrument is
two octaves. It is supposed to be the invention of Nárada, the son
of Brahmá, and has many varieties, enumerated according to the
number of strings, &c.
Vinata (Vinatá), the crooked one; one of the Rákshasí
guardians of Sita when a captive in Lanka. She represented Rávaṇa
as a consort to be proud of, and tried to persuade Síta to yield.
VIN
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3
Vinayaka (Vináyaka), one of the names of Ganesa or Vigneș-
vara, the god of obstacles; the deity is supposed capable of either
causing or removing difficulties or impediments.
Vindhya-The chain of mountains which divides Hindustan
from the Dekhan or South country. These mountains, usually
called Bindh, hold an important position both in the mythology
and geography of India. According to some authorities they are
called Bindhya, because they appear to obstruct the progress of
the sun. The course of the Nerbudda (Narmadá) river, indicates
the direction of the principal range; but the mountainous tract
spreads much more widely; it meets the Ganges in several
places towards the North; and the Godáveri is held to be its
Southern limit.
The vast extent of this mountainous tract, contrasted with the
small elevation of these hills, viewed from the plains of Hindustan,
has furnished grounds for a legend to which the mythological writ-
ings of the Hindus often allude. Vindhya having once prostrated
himself before his spiritual guide, Agastya, still remains in that
posture by command of the holy personage. This humiliation is
the punishment of his presumption in emulating the lofty height of
Himálaya and Meru.
The Vindhya mountains are divided into three parts, of which
the first, or eastern part, extends from the Bay of Bengal to the
source of the Narmada and Sone.
The western portion extends
from thence to the Gulf of Cambay. The third, or Southern, lies
on the south of the Narmada and Sone, and gives rise to the Tapti,
and the Vaitarani or Cattack river.
Vinukonda -The Hill of Hearonj. One of the ancient remains
in the Krishna District. Tradition says that here was the spot,
where, according to the localized legends, Ráma first heard of the
rape of his wife Síta by Rávana. On the hill, about 600 feet
high ;-a bare rock without vegetations, there is a temple of Śiva
under the designation of Rámalíngeshwaraswami. The ascent is a
very steep one by steps cut in the rock, and cut stones piled to
form steps. Close to the temple on the summit are two artificial
reservoirs of water rivetted with cut stone. These never run dry.
The larger one is known as Ramagundum, and is much resorted to
T
154
VIP-VIR
for bathing. The other which is much smaller, is known as
Sítagundum, and it would be considered desecrative to bathe in it,
as it is left for the goddesses private use.-A. C. BOSWELL, in
Indian Antiquary, June 1872.
Vipula-The modern name of the mountain termed in the Ma-
hábhárata Varáha, (q. v.)
Viradha-A Rákshasa of formidable size and strength,
'Vast as some mountain peak in size
With mighty voice and sunken eyes,
'Huge, hideous, tall, with monstrous face
'Most ghastly of his giant race,'
who dwelt in the forest of Daṇḍaka, and attacked Ráma and
Lakshmana when in exile with Síta. The giant could not be killed,
but after a terrible contest, being severely wounded, was buried alive
at his own request, saying
"Such is the law ordained of old
"For giants when their days are told;
"Their bodies laid on earth, they rise
"To homes eternal in the skies."
The Rakshasa had originally been a Gandharba named Tumburu, but
was metamorphosed by the curse of Kuvera.
Virupaksha-A renowed warrior who was sent by Rávana to
fight with Hanumán. He rushed on the gallant Ape with upraised
club and mallet, but the vigorous Hanumán tore up a lofty palm
tree with which he speedily felled his adversary to the ground
lifeless.-I. E., p. 232.
Virupaksha-One of the four elephants by whom the earth is
sustained, with its forests and mountains, its cities and villages. If
in momentary weariness the monstrous elephant stir his head, then
the world quakes and its inhabitants are alarmed. The lordly
Virupaksha is at the Northern quarter. At the Southern quarter
another colossal elephant, the magnanimous Mahapadma, stands.
In the West the robust Saumanas, and in the East the sublime
Himapándura. These are the four supports of the world.-I. E.
2. A name of Siva; the god with deformed (virupa) eyes, (akshi);
Śiva being usually represented with a third eye in the middle of
his forehead.
6
VIS
155
Visha-kanya-The poison maid. This is often mentioned in
the Hindu dramas, and appears to mean, not an effigy, but a female
whose nature was charged with venom, so that her embraces should
prove fatal.
Cháṇaka is said to have killed Nanda by one of these
fatal emissaries; and a Bengali writer, in giving a version of the
story, says that the damsel was so venomous that flies alighting on
her person instantly perished.
Visakadatta.-(Viṣákadatta), a prince, the son of Mahárája
Prithu, and author of the drama Mudrá-Rákshasa. Wilson calls him
the MASSINGER of the Hindus; and says that he was not a poet of
the sphere of Bhavabhúti or Kálidása. His imagination rises not to
their level, and there is scarcely a brilliant or beautiful thought in
"The Signet of the Minister.' As some equivalent for the want of
imagination, he has a vigorous perception of character, and a manly
strain of sentiment, that are inferior only to elevated conception and
delicate feeling.-WILSON, Works, XII, 254.
Visishta Adwaita-The Brahmans of Southern India are
divided into three great sects-those who believe there is but one
soul, in short that everything is God, (Adwaita, q. v.)-those who
believe there are two souls, God and man, (Dwaita)-and those who
take a medium course, and believe there is but one soul, which in
man and created things is somewhat different from the divine soul,
(Visishta Adwaita). To those who are not Brahmans these philoso-
phical distinctions are almost unknown, and men worship a being
to whom they give the puranic names of Vishnu and Śiva, Krishna
and Hanumán. While so many names are given and acknowledged
by every Hindu, as if each referred to a separate deity, each person
acknowledges but one as his own God, and ascribes to him all the
attributes of the godhead.
It will be seen however that while the philosophy of the Schools
is unknown to the crowd, the strong tendency of the popular mind
is towards monotheism of a character not unlike that of the Visishta
Adwaita School. Vishnu and Śiva according to books, members of
C
a triad of equal Gods, but in popular theology the worshipper of
either scorns the others. In social life and act the worshipper of
Vishnu acknowledges but one God. He speaks of Vishnu as if there
were no other God. So with the devotee of Śiva even in a greater
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VIS-VRI
degree. He transposes the name into the neuter Sivam ; and
expresses thus his belief that his deity is the one great essence,
without sex or corporeal shape.*
Visvavasu-(Visvávasu), in Buddhist mythology the king of
the Siddhas, and father of Malayavati, the heroine of the Nága-
nanda. 2. One of the chief of the Gandharvas, or singers and
musicians in the Court of Indra.
Vita-A character in the Hindu drama not very easily under-
stood. It is necessary that he should be accomplished in the
lighter arts, particularly poetry, music, and singing; and he
appears indiscriminately as the companion of a man or woman,
although in the latter case the female is the courtesan. He is
generally represented on familiar and easy, and yet dependent,
terms, with his associate, and evinces something of the Parasite of
the Greek comedy, but that he is never rendered contemptible. In
lexicons the person indicated by the Vița is a despicable being of
whose character no vestiges occur in the theatrical picture.
Vithi-(Víthi), a play something similar to the Bháņa; it is in
one act and may be performed by one actor, though the Dașa
Rúpaka admits of two. In either case it is a love-story, carried
on in comic dialogue, consisting of equivoque, evasion, enigma,
quibble, jest, repartee, wilful misconstruction and misapplication,
ironical praise, extravagant endearment, and jocose abuse. It is
not very different, perhaps, in character, from the Fabule Attellanæ
of the Tuscans.—WILSON.
Vrihadaswa-(Add at Page 734). (Vrihadaṣwa), a sage who
related to king Yudhishthira the story of Nala. This was done
for the purpose of consoling the Pándava princes in exile, after
Yudhishthira had lost all his possessions in a game of hazard.
Vrikodara-(Vrikodara), 'wolf-stomached;' a name of Bhíma,
the second of the Páṇḍavas; in allusion to his voracious appetite;
from vrika, (a wolf,) and udara, (belly.) In the Mahábhárata we
read, that at the daily meals of the five brothers half of the whole
food provided had to be given to Bhíma.-(ÁDI-PARVA, 7161.)
* GOVER. Folk Songs of Southern India.
VRI-VYA
.157
Vrishotsarga-( Vrisha, a bull, and utsarga forsaking, or offer-
ing). The Hindus are accustomed at marriages and other ceremo-
nials to let loose a bull, who thenceforward rambles about at will
without an owner. No person would presume to appropriate a
stray animal of this kind, and many think it a merit to feed him.
In large towns, where these bulls are most abundant, they are
generally in good case, and numerous enough to be very much in
the way, although they are rarely mischievous. They seem to
know their privileged character, and haunt the market places and
shops with an air of independence. At Benares they are prover-
bially abundant, and that city is famed for its ránrh, sanrh, and
sirhi, or widows, bulls, and landing places.-WILSON, Works,
XI, 20.
Vyayoga-(Vyáyoga), a dramatic representation of some mili-
tary transaction, in which no part of the interest is derived from
female participation; the sentiment of love is consequently excluded
from it, and it admits of no comic intermixture. It is restricted
to one act, one action, and a duration of one day, and the hero
should be a hero or a demi-god.-WILSON, Works, XI, p. xxviii.
Y
Yadavas-(Add at Page 743.) The Yádavas, Jádavas, Jados,
or Jats, are a race widely spread throughout India. The principal
branches were formerly settled in the west of Malwa, Rájputána,
and Guzerat. The Jharejas of Cutch pretend to be of Yádava
origin; so do the Jats of Bhurtpore; and even the Hindu Rájas of
Mysore claim to spring from this race.-F. JOHNSON.
Yadugiri-A celebrated place of pilgrimage in Mysore, now
called Mélkóté. Vaishnava brahmans still congregate there in
numbers. The Puráņas assign a great antiquity to the locality and
connect many legends with it.
Yajnadatta-A youth who was unintentionally slain by king
Dasaratha when hunting on the banks of the Sarayú, the sleepy
river. This affecting incident is well told in Miss Richardson's
Iliad of the East; but can only be briefly given here. Dasaratha
related the story himself to Kausalyá, to account for the afflictions
which befel him in his old age.
Thon art just, O Brahm! I heard an old man once on his death
bed—as
as I am now on mine-cry with his feeble arms extended yearn-
ingly; 'Come to me, my son!' and there was no answer; and the
fault was mine. Listen Kausalyá, it was long ago. I had not
learnt the fellowship of all living things; suffering had not taught
me mercy, nor sorrow, love. I was wont to seize my bow and
arrows, and start for the chase.
.Stealthily preparing
my bow from behind my ambush, I shot off an arrow in the
direction of the sound. There was a second's pause, and then,
O horror! the calm beauty of the even was rendered hideous by a
human shriek!
Trembling with anguish and
remorse, I sprang forth from my hiding place, and found a poor youth
stretched on the river's brink; bleeding. I wrung my hands and
cursed the hour of my birth. Tell me, stranger, faltered the dying
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YAJ YAM
159
boy, what cause of hatred have I given you? I who love all living
creatures. Willingly I have done wrong to none. I live here with
my aged father; he is blind and I wait on him. I came here with
my pitcher to seek water for him. Alas, when I am dead who will
care for the old blind man ? O cruel stranger, why have you been
thus pitiless.'
"Blinded with tears I sought to sustain him." Dasaratha then
explained that he mistook the sound, and thought he shot at an
elephant drinking. In deep distress he besought the youth to live-
not to die!..
The spirit of Yajnadatta appeared to
comfort the aged father in his grief. Dasaratha tended him lovingly
in his last hours
Yajnaha―(Yajnahá), a name of Śiva, from his having disturbed
the sacrifice of Daksha, his father-in-law, who had omitted to
invite him to the ceremony. Śiva sent Vírabhadra and a host of
attendants to Daksha's sacrifice, where they overturned and defiled
the altars, and beat and mutilated the sages and gods who had
been invited. The occurrence is a favourite subject of sculpture
in the cave temples of the South of India.-F. JOHNSON.
Yajnasena-A name of Rája Drupada.
Yakshinis-Female Yakshas; Kálidása, in the Megha Dúta,
describes the toilet of the Yakshinis through the six seasons of the
year by mentioning as the selected flowers those peculiar to each
period. Thus the Lotus blooms in Surat, or the sultry season, two
months of our autumn; the Kunda (jasmine) in Sişira or the Dewy
season; the Lodh (Symplocos racemosa) is in blossom in Hemanta or
winter; the Kuruvaka (crimson amaranth) in Vasanta, or spring;
the Śirísha (Mimosa) in the hot months, or Gríshma; and the Nípa
or Kadamba, at the setting in of the rains. While the sole occupa-
tion of the goddesses is said to be pleasure and dress, we cannot
help being pleased with the simplicity and propriety of taste which
gives to the graceful ornaments of nature so prominent a part in the
decoration of feminine beauty.-WILSON.
Yama-(Page 755 after mythology in line 2 Add.) Indeed he
combines the offices of Pluto and Rhadamanthus.
Yama-(Add at Page. 748.) Yama is also one of the Loka-
palas, or guardians of the world; his district is the South.
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YAT-YUP
Yatudhanas--A designation given in the Rig-Veda to a class
like the Dasyus and Rákshasas, all of whom are described as desti-
tute of or averse to religious ceremonies, practising different rites,
haters of prayer, inhuman, godless, ferocious-looking or with fierce
eyes; as flesh-eaters of human and of horse-flesh, as monstrous in
form, and possessed of magical or super-human powers.-MUIR, II,
418. Yet Vasishtha himself, the very type of the Aryan bahman,
when in feud with Visvamitra, is called not only an enemy, but. a
Yátudhána, and other names, which in common parlance, are only
bestowed on barbarian savages and evil spirits,-II, 389. In the
Rig-Veda we read the Yátudhánas who gloat on the bloody flesh
of men or horses, and steal the milk of the cow, O Agni, cut off
their heads with thy fiery sword.'—Ib. 391.
Yaugandharayana-(Yaugandharáyana), the chief minister of
king Vatsa.
Yavanas-(Add at Page 749). "The term Yavanas is in
modern times applied to Mahomedans of every description; but in
works prior to the Mahomedan era, some other people must be
intended. The interpretation of the word by Sir W. Jones is, Ionians
or Asiatic Greeks; and there are some considerations in its favour,
although the chief argument in its behalf is the difficulty of attach-
ing it to any other people.-WILSON.
Yavistha-The ever-young; a name of Agni.
Yugadya-(Yugádyá), full moon of Mághu (14th February).
Bathing and feasting, and the offering of sesamum seeds to the
manes, are enjoined on the full moon of Mágha, and it is also held
in additional honour as the anniversary of the commencement of the
Kali Yug, or present age of the world, the age of impurity.
Yupaksha (Yupáksha), one of Rávana's nobles; the first who
spoke to Kumbhakarna after they had succeeded in awaking the
dull-brained giant.
Yupakhya (Yupákhya), one of the five warriors whom Rávaṇa
sent against Hanumán; but the gigantic Ape tore up a lofty palm
tree and beat down his weapons and then himself, so that he was
soon in Yama's world.-I. E.