I . M; ; IIIPQI igfqfléaxg. ,wIun ,» J £6 4 "7 “3%? - .15’ 'Y I ~ , { I '- 5* "7 ’ swirl? {is M II; Ag, :- ,1,» V . I I - I umI ‘I. '4' v '33:“ 3;} I I ,: I, - L , . m I III .I , Y . 4 I . n m I!’ I-I‘I Ffk'gfi I M ‘a: v ‘I I I, - ,. . :I'O M I‘; 3'5".‘ ‘ I i, I ‘. ‘1 $‘ w I “- I ‘a ‘I Ia‘; Inn", ‘I .. . ~- Iv,» . Y - I ’ ""W'figjézfw up?’ " I '. a a‘ u" Y‘ ‘. ' ' , "3‘ I ‘Y .I I I. ' > .' 'IA' , I I ,_.,§ I, > ‘Ix-q HI" ‘I‘ w»; m I0é9§WwI01h7vh£IwUl§ : 1 ‘I ‘I avwr b; A,’ I, A. a V- "4145! ,4 w 3* , V \ v I ‘ I ,y. \ ‘k .ii‘» I! I . It“. I W _-r‘:;§ ‘His ‘ ' 1Q“? M»!- I. 1 I I I ‘ x v , .I ‘I ‘- I ' ' P 9“ I Y I- I ‘Y I‘, IIWHI ‘ "(fr-1.1,,» , Y f ‘I ‘a my. Y1 . ‘11m’:- fl'rff‘ I VI . ' ‘ - > .~ :5, . . I I_ I _ III “in; ' ‘ ' Y 5!“ "..- , “a- ”?§/523“ I #141“. 7" 4-‘ "* all!“ -Y: ' g i p ‘ ‘a " P‘, 4' " w}; ‘I,’ {fa-31;;- '5 1: Y I ~- . I I ' ' ,QJ- Ef'oI I I ' " ' gr» #Ziiifiééfiflf if ‘0 ',-u “ _ I . I‘ fgw'agfwwxangyv ? Yriiuléexai’yzfgjzy -I ,Y, . h flu‘, I ,or‘f‘ w», FY? \ ii?‘ I‘; Y A: f; . ‘3,. 3 $5 11:53:: p .IIga 4 w 8', III-n ‘ '3 13:3,; jazs'pm :Iwgygqywk‘m ‘. Y ’ My"; -.:.s1. Ir ,fil-vé» p» _ “g 1t It 191% fig“ ‘Y -< v‘: :gfi $’ :21 I 'i J A .fififagzdoz 1 "i ‘ {vi ‘~.\ ' v "I r II ‘ ' .y w; . 1-: ; II ‘ . w ,7 I ,, ‘ ‘A />Y,I.:.1II-é; I --. "'Wx‘fi’yifia *3? :zmwv w- " I - I II - . ' . ‘ 42113:’: , , ' ,5‘, ‘ ' I» r’ nfgfiiw‘I‘fi " xvi‘ a’ ‘. I > ’ I . - I { . f" "1 ‘1594*.’ . .‘ g -Y ‘I ~ ' ' » l'y" I‘ a‘ v. 473 III I I I II I I I I I fizzy; Agéiifgfafifiyaigiéiifib *"éfy I'f'5;%§51 III, . I . I W3???“- u‘iji-Zf'li'fléfi’ib'ififia'd ? £33’ I??? I ' I’ I Er I. '1 Jfr ‘ Y" " v ~ I a‘); "44' II“ Y. " ‘54"!’ u ‘I . , ‘Yaw/Hz» 4" ' i’ ‘I; .~ I 3Y.I@.¢.I;I;;§IB»-,;4-» I 43 I ‘wk->- ‘méfzw .A . a"! ‘I I night-{grin- H'Lm. t W “- _.._ - I "81'; 41 . “a Iv _‘II' T "*IfYw’Kifizfik-"Iax. .0“ . .- 0L ‘ H‘ v m A m w» -‘ "I ' ’-1" In' M ‘min-IQ .9 I - I "w" ‘151' YI II _ ’ ‘I: :4 I _ - I I ‘II II v I ‘u, ‘I _ "19' VI}: ‘I II I. ' "’ I ‘ swo'izud-v I: Q , ' ‘ > . ' - - ‘.3.:..'I'-““ '. ,- ‘I ‘ 1 " ,hw; I III". In‘ I ,0‘ I ' . ~ I ,1 I Y .‘ .. . .\ . I I > I . _ I; ‘I I ‘Fig :I: I‘ I~ I III I > .I v I ‘II I ‘if , i . v p, _ I nI ‘ w h v‘ d - w . Y J I Y 1'' ~ 1“ v v I I," ‘Y .3, -._I ‘ 'I ' ' ‘ I’ Y I; ; . I, » v - IIIIJ‘I’; ., ‘ I 3w»,- 4', IIIIII ‘In? fr i4, . . . V, , IPI a §~ "e I r‘ _ .L 44‘ v I‘_. ‘f ’ {9' a}? ‘j if “'fwa ‘if; *1‘? I, a '23’ ' ',,.. 14;’ I.‘ ' "inf-.33‘ ‘$1?’ ' V ‘ ,"I r, f‘ ‘ '.. .c .h '‘ ‘ I - I ‘ ¢ . w *I‘ ‘W ' x 1f; Y $1; ¢ v, .“ I r. Qaii'u‘v‘w- lay-J‘; "I 4. "5 II . . ,v , 3-- .. . (M, . -2, a . w‘ . Ii x . h‘! v‘ 1n. 1 MO‘ 5 ‘ I'ir-i 4» -Y1 . , , 1" {$113. Ii“. 3 'i' a’, s‘ *7" M w I I’IT’Y I“ I I I; .1 _ - I - . - a»; j ' I .'I III' {pa-‘w ~ I I. Y I _ ‘V; .l" J_ 1' "Imp -' _ '*I Jay}: , I ~ "@331 I ' I I _ Y _I I ‘ I I I III . ’ I’J’q3fg‘vI'Jfiy ¢~ 3- 1 }§, ~ a’)? ,5, Y, Y a ‘ " . ‘ ' I 1 . 5 . 1 ' v - I ' .flgfifii‘af'g, ‘1513:? ‘Iffzili ‘i’ ' '. 1,:5; J’IIQIIII' i I _ I I II I 2?}; ‘2:33!’ I Era,‘ I at!!!’ 7 i,- vp; ‘I.’ V.‘ I - , . _ "we; _A,¢x*1~..,,, 4L. _ _ I .J » ‘g. I’! 1y‘, I‘ J..-:} I I; J51- “. .I II I,’ ‘fly-f .__ I‘: I . . "IN ILIIV . “III .1 . I, ,rf, {hi-5%,; I_ f'** ' a?!‘ ‘ ‘.I v. :1 Ivl'r ' I "K "W? ; 1;“;51 - “a, -., a. a ‘Y I‘ ‘P Y Jug?!’ I a- 1?.‘ ‘I . . , .1 ~ '_ “' ' ‘M JJIQ,‘ » I "1“ Ma a ‘7' *‘ArH-w r I ~ , I “vi-i . ‘ . fa‘! > .4’ ‘I; ‘III I I "r »4I"-I¢Jj I: "Y w"; '1.” I s‘ - f ' Y' 4' YY;--Y= ‘ .5? .4 .x' 3'59’: " _ .I. I ‘I _ 2*‘? 15‘ ‘£- Y‘Iitff‘“ ' 13:1 P.‘ ' a “£1,533; V» l-I l w»; ‘a #1.’ ‘ a." o. '. x t , ‘ A‘ y K IfiYI' » ‘ I‘- _. ' 3v}; ‘ bi v a?” ' x ,» .II-~~I¢-~x-~- I. ‘M _ _ , v . ‘wgm‘i'm If I IY _ “575:, : .W .Y I I n-‘r p2‘ : H" -,\ “31"” r > . . . VIM-v" ‘ - ~ , WP??? ; I i ",l‘” Y '3 ‘I II" '15 n ‘ ‘Y’ ' H a > I I4 - _ ‘ I I-I" H .‘ ‘ ' 'I-' ' ‘3w; ’Qii ' 93%;;1 I. ' '-. . ‘ ' I {on {fix ‘ I v¢.*_,,_t:;,gq I,’ ,Irf iflv‘lIII V733,." .1 : . ‘III Y_ "1%. I . ‘ft-big ,_ ‘I -1'IJ“V;! ;‘ ‘LI, . In.‘ I I J-i .4.‘ - .I";Y."."‘- 1J3??? ‘' ' WWW). 7‘ _ YY’FI' ‘ w“ *1“; " ‘ :1’ ".Y " f ‘1 .4‘ £9}; ‘ I T"??? v’: .‘ u“. 'I" -I.' Y' 4- " .m Y. Iv " . _ aY ’ ‘ Y - t. ‘Y" ‘t’ r 2': F"; “4* I ''I, *f'"-:" 97?] “ Y‘ I“? 4’, J .3 I ~ 6 I .. I- I II I . , . . I QIEIJHIIIR‘I‘I, III: I '1 t £39?) A J J”; J , paw-q» I - > . . ‘j w "“"" ~ ' , : " I .\ an“ f‘ ,1 . I I I .52, +1 my‘ . n I It} ._ "r, 551:5; I‘ :9, III! 8 7f 1 ‘ , ' ' ' ' I i rr m I 7 g Y ‘5 ‘HY -& III , q, , i I; ., , _ II _ _ M 1. ~ I I, In 1 I I‘ ' = E H "J: ‘v “I” #351 f .f ' ‘ I n Y?- Q'Y v -- I - . 4. é“ -‘ I m- ' ‘Jim mg} H RI"? IwI.» ‘ ,. I.‘ ' "g— .1 1]’ w 1 r!- _ , n-wm _' ~' “VI, ., I I _\ I‘. ' Y I v I I “M- E’ ‘M’ 1 - :YY » Y Y . I YIIII>. . I‘ v. ,, II IE‘IYJIAnPAJ‘ _III . ,MYI‘ I r I >‘ 2' Q Y ‘.6! I in; r ‘524: a‘ 14' v" ' 'Y “I we‘ I I.“ rt: "-‘lr‘rrw! ,'v..~' - ‘ ‘ -' 9b 1' 791'.“ 71“ *I {I ' 7 “'1 J»? ”" J‘. -"!E“: ' V, .1 ‘, " "X ‘a , 'u¢> .4 ' "¢a~ ‘ I‘ ~ . Y ""lgt-q‘pd' _ 'I I h‘ YI,. a. ‘ I I , V; o w r v ‘ M ~ I .I - .534 .> , ...~_. ,, ,I ‘IM‘ 7 i’!- l‘‘! “:‘I ' ;ofi . it’; .1‘.I:£'rg~ .4 ' . _ 1-, 4 " ‘ ' a”? Y > if”? a, of W'ix‘azmlflguqs ,_ V‘ ,_ I I I v- \, p>'m:_ j YI>¢Q4~ __ p ""' I .W *4 yum; H v Y ‘ I I _ . ., .q.‘ LI}. 3 J; . A z, (“w/Hug‘ I I ' _ Y II } ‘,4 A I ., I I .46.; I ‘I ., ~* Y .II,‘ , _ 1" "Irfw ' ‘tar-1“ i. f I- ». . v M»: a»; » Y ‘ -,~""“'*“ I ‘ a Iirh- 4291.2 ~ , I I I I‘ I, i Iq. ‘In’ I._,,‘III'_I rum‘ .6}, I‘ Y, ' J‘ pf‘,- yn> 1k‘i‘t’1“ I .‘kQo-PI'pQ-u'; i’ v . ' a»! J! "wwffimnfi- "-Y- --* $1 I H a’ ' " » »n'1~ are}? - , _-,Y,1'-'1 ’ X‘ if; . ~J“ :-r ‘J ,; - W"; 3- v-QQ'Q-J I “mag-"3, , II I, , a} .8: ‘iv ' ‘a; 4 ‘swan-‘0'32; I v I -. I’, n_ .n a‘ m I J ‘ 1' .33.‘. ‘ v” " ‘I’ ‘O_, V v - I I -. » “- "“~ .~ . I. Y I . Y _ , ‘ I ‘ Imvz-- ‘ I .I ~ ' . ,y"-"$ ' - ‘ “,Vm, »' ..5.._";I- ‘ Y e V- I I mum. ' I;._ 'w‘IiIt. » -~ ~I “'Jr‘ ‘Ea-9* ‘Lu? Y , ‘v. v‘ ‘1.0.450, " _ - ‘ . .31"; ' n,‘ Y A I I ‘7 Int, .ILY . v ' xiii"; . . ' - - - ‘I ,i - : - Y Y ‘t'vr‘ " ‘ >0 ' x _ I I FII‘II5‘. IQ‘ "-I I . o“n_.‘ I I I .y; .L Y- ,- 1, . - ,A -.I. .+». I Y _ a Y‘_- I - I‘; - if I, r 5w ‘ I, ‘_ _ I ~_ - 41,5“ Y» Q, _, #Y'“ _.-. 0. -. ‘rm-Hr Y, 4 '16,!» I. 1'}, ‘*3 ‘ I‘ I; _, 4,‘ . u’, my» J?» .> I I!‘ . I- ‘ {9' 'w . ,_ .WI _.,... ~--.I Q-MHIMI ~ _ ,Y, _I II » " .1 Y.¢_ ‘Y’ Y ‘4 "1?‘ Y ‘~43,- --v<_ 'A‘I' .* “" ' k I I 4 In’w'a’fiwf-Y jnl‘ ‘ ... iv I m I I! 'Y'jl-J" {fly #1": l" I ‘WY "M w"':** 1 Is." 3m: ‘7; .. “run Y - ‘Y .I‘ - wgga 3-633’ ' I P3‘... ' I. ) ." ‘I . v’ .x'séfl’a: < ‘131 Y '34 ‘I’ 1 ‘"M’g ; <7 - , I ‘ ‘9-, fifty ' I ‘ "- gig?) Ii‘. ‘pg-En‘ ‘a a v, , ‘.y-“O ‘up: w "152% ‘ '- Y3; ‘5:! . ‘ dim-31$; "9L... 2“ 13¢» \ 1 '3'‘ 5“ ‘a?! I‘ "7'" 3:5? EM 1: “I; _ 5552'??? “a? m I- i . Iv—w m- 2' >“+~.;:nh_'v\q . *- M; -~- YI I - Y _- - _ ' V ‘ I » I v I v ' ' 1 0' _ - I ' ) - ‘I’ A _ : w n " m 0.3. I w ' ‘iii-i . l: a v ‘ 30:11‘ w I». ,7. -..w~§‘_5?’ J; .'vI q, “I, I I J." .4“ .L1-::“‘1¢:::?\-l.~‘4- 52,111. I "1, ‘ #3. - I A‘ 43; “.7 ~ I, @- I- V ~i~L I I I. ‘I’ I ‘3&1’ ~ ,. Y I IYw Y YI»~I ‘.efl ‘ “"P' ’ n . .‘ I ‘1 4 -' >1 ' .l- ‘ '- . »'- ‘HF-‘I- "Ix: v'Y'QZa" . ‘v ' “I. \ U - ‘"9352; ‘ 091$; ,. ,. - ‘ ‘ - g1: ‘ *1. v.) ‘ ‘1., 1',‘ " ‘ 4916'", qfix‘bflzxfq "1; 6,7355%} I‘ n ' Y I f?" .+* - ‘ v ,‘S {i ‘16* .15; f£$.a-a-»‘ ‘ I Y‘v'fr‘v‘J _ { “ .h > . r . 4'» a 1 I.’ . . I ., _ ...§;;* Q» I a‘... 1})‘. I ~ ' v . I I l A V ' Y ' - I Y Y I “32* bx ' ‘ ‘I v I - _ Y I . I _- I, I _ I _- I,.-r_:f>.,e€:;:: t. 5 “M, Y- ' I ' . I_ I \v; I .. ’ a II ‘IIIIMI 41"’ . ~I~I :III I ,.I- Id,‘ - ‘I I _ I W » ~ I I'V" ' '“g‘ I .. _ ‘I .Mb. max-w » > -~ ~ . I f _ I . - ... I _ Maw-Ma!“ mu" Y \ ' 'Y - f ' * ' . ‘ ' -. V. I _, Q‘HJpv-m v - I - 1-1}: 1 .4’; 5‘ aim»- “Ht 8 ; m‘ ~~£§izmw .M‘J" H- I ' . " ' -~Y ' ‘ Y "' +- m -’ 5 ‘. M II I " Mi“- “ . ‘ ‘I Y Y " - I ' "1 i' ' 5' ‘ ~ 9 "v": ‘ .51;.-* ‘- r I . ' a» _ I I -> - Y w’! . , ‘ Y 1. I I I I II III II II I I _ , _ I _ I . VI ‘VI- .-0- L A‘); . < I‘ W‘, ,- ‘ ~ 1 . 4 -- ‘ w . V Y " ‘ . _. flu,» .J, i. '1" It 11" "54» JIM-I ; ‘~- ‘.- Y - .I I Y If 1 -, I ' - ~ 1Y1.~w~.=.§:1-1~m-14:;~.., 'I - .v ‘ii, I I * w: v \ _v . I. I W I,‘ ‘I J’IIIIIII I‘ , . I ‘I I I; _-€II4.-‘§r:ézj:$a:w§fi¢’ - .‘ ,‘I nit-Iv‘ l ‘ 4\ J- - ‘~-1t'\:~ . “wk-‘v "II. I v’. I II g, II,I_I_ I II I I , . I‘, II I I ._ ___ I I ‘ I J y ' . iwvfi t’ '72?“ ' i‘" 'u' w WY I‘ ‘l . '4' <_IO%:‘£I'£-’lzlg I-v' -Y Y T fJvY‘ » . F” I Iv-J'I r 'wn‘ I I I I I ' - _"' "'3' ' ‘ - "I a" 1r *5‘ J " ' ’ I ‘917 ' "- mm ; ,5. VI I.~;I_ - -~ - ,II- ,. . II. , t; ~II ‘ . f.‘ we 3&3?’ ‘ 'I’kw; 7 u" ' " a“ "i ' ‘I‘ ‘ ' I‘ ‘ ‘I m .. . -‘'Z?fi‘“ighl’-"ZI:{ ' II a i‘ a 13% 'i-V" ‘ ‘-‘ J.‘ a wry, I I I = I ' - ‘I A v a Q‘F’MvI‘ :3?“ , I ‘ k i :r . ‘ .IY ‘ I ' Z‘” :‘xflfifi'i‘fi' ' f!" '. {y fr 1 4 , ., ‘ _ “gr. yin‘; I‘. 1,113.5‘ I “n r a?“ I»: I‘ ‘ "v; I 7 ‘2'9, A‘f:">." - ' \ b~~n b" v Y ‘\~ .113’ _ :7‘ I _ F ‘l’ , 7' Q. I ~ I I . . , , )1‘)- 4, - - I A I‘. . 1 , ,w n»- .1 y _ ... w, ., k I)» ~ I - I ‘I I ' k 4,4?!‘ Y ' ‘I ‘ ‘I . Y. ‘I. v . , ‘I,’ I. l- H I 4 w I ‘a I . ' ' ,- w. w‘ 4- ‘."L. ,I ' *1,‘ v , .4 II I ‘ II yv—amuI-Jq Y‘ 7 . ‘I ' a I w-I '1' "‘ 1%» I‘; “rem” "'- I: '“" ' I I > ‘K I ~~ 1 d "' ' M " “I ~ I‘ w . YY . ' l w : I~I~,_Y..;~".e >Y ' ' t’ Y . 4 ’ '43- “a 'i'a'fhh} pip 1671",»?! .~.~\ LI YY Y “:n-vq" "um: Y qfiwtn=*:'~‘*'i"‘ ‘, N. _ . - ‘ . _,_., I .,__ I g , _, I, _ . M r‘ Y aw?‘ *3, _,_ ‘ ‘("55 “'1: “ I‘ a.‘ P ' “i .21: ‘k > ‘ I ‘mt-MI! <¢ M ‘ ‘ ‘I Y ' * Y’ ' . ». - Wan-W I“ , Y~I- “rum ‘w _ “ma- ‘We’ awn“ “w ,IWI -..- ‘I .I J ‘_ w‘; W Y s-. w» ‘m . ,. _ a}? '; “a”, ‘11k ,. C "i “fig-g.“ 1n§€2+~ ' "u 'i'ig’ir cf‘finfiv" ’ “kt-=12.- JJ'. ‘3 . * m if}! a W... h‘. O’V’I‘ ‘ a in. ‘w ' " ‘h ..~ ~ " “1' I . ‘ s g’ Y >'-~,:*‘ S; _ ~ ¢_ Ya‘ I ‘I , v “M *.Y pq \ “ Y I- Y i “an; " ‘I: :1,“ '39,“; ,.I 1-‘ ~ “9-. Y W . ~ ‘I. ¢ _ I “.9... 3.,‘ I 7;, 4 a. # $1.2m‘ " “"‘iz'fiizuqt-w T‘. I“ - 1'» _ ‘33;’? ‘J '' _.w..~ QT - @I w‘ ' "“ "bf w , . II_ ‘ v . , I ‘I,’ , I . .IN I 1 , I :~ ‘a v , 4‘ I‘ a Y I Y " . I_ ... I‘ I _ ‘I _ I I 11;: “I I Y .aI. M - i . Pf‘ "Y. Piggy“ "3:. “3.5%: 4"’. , "afa'm' i’Is'ig'fi‘rgm 'v" n, €:5:;4I99'4- , .. w . I _ ‘I _. Y \t‘iygh . . 1 ‘h ' Q ‘KN-@Ezgafiwi. ‘ » - '1?‘ i-zéméifiqz v w‘ - II A, “VII I. _Q * Qwésll'afis Pg. :7 I WW: I %'a I v- ‘;sfin'irn’fizjgii Pf“ r ‘ I...” :(9 ‘I. ,; “'33,, ‘l Q l. ‘. ‘gkfiflibiup I ‘a V a “3 4 “Kan-i4,‘ - . w"~'2'5311$15» - F, , ' “W! ‘I "$5122? I? I ' ‘I ,I . _ ‘ Mr ‘131*?’ I ‘F’ " P‘ i ‘I Y v. ‘ I ~ ,Jg- ., II III III I I I2I.III.I \T' a l‘ I“ ‘ Y 0 ‘ I I)" I v I» . I'Q'i-f“ I I“ I swap it» I. .. ~~. Y Y I ,, I ‘ I . my I . M.‘ ‘I . _*g,. Y\ 1 i ‘a; a - I.‘ “Ia-41.; {gr fi‘Yé-IY " "~ I QIi- YIw. ‘ " ' . Y _ ¢ ‘ in“: I q-w; - ‘Y I w I- p , ‘ "- _ _ Y . - ‘ I ’ Y - 3”?“ "1. arsrw. “I 3 =4 *1 ,‘ "- ‘F v ‘MfiYI * L 1 ’ I _ “hi w w,‘ “.3 ~.._~ M \ I I I -~, q’ 1 i I _I I I I ‘GPvO’Q-‘9‘Q' > . I . » . _ 4 . .‘ I I "I ‘I I“ I‘ "w»“ ‘ht- I ‘ ~ a. It h I IY I Y‘ ~ I ‘ A ' I. I yaw!’ :1 Iv I , -Y .- t - >Y II I ~ , I'v-w I -Y ' . , I _ _ Y - I ' ray“: * ' . - . ""3 Y I Y‘ I v a, “PU-ii.’ Yb w , "iv I“ , ‘It, I I _ I I II . I I . I >1’ I'm?‘ “I I h“ ‘1;; Y ,. I , ~ I, .~ -: Yj ,I,.~Y_.1:{I.I.{a£.;>? .vI-II. .zar. fl—PrSCM-L‘Y ‘ .. ‘ I ' . v 2.3:; I 1 - , v I “Qigwgla- i I v I_ 1* III 1-,‘ I Y. , v1,- . k _I .I .h I .. \II I via" I I III-r? . “w I‘ II “09 w?» I _- =- » _ ‘ ‘I’: "l *1!‘ *3“ I. II I I‘; v I’ s . - _~ ‘I I» I ., I~ I , I‘ _. .I I,II\,Y’, ‘I ‘ an n r . ,_ Y 6 ' ' ‘ I 'v I “YY , q i; w -‘_ . I?‘ Y ' ‘war 1 'a.- Y- Y I I‘. "(p v I -.-v Y ' ‘ '_ 1:1 7i)“ ' - ~ Y I ; . III“, I ‘up. v _ \ > I . 'Y ' ' . 1.‘ - > a: .I\ I ‘ Y I“ x I I Ir‘ 3:: him.“ ‘0;,’ ‘I w I ' it? “ ~' A ,. I ‘ . U . I ‘M’ v u y" I ‘I-v‘ifi ;\;,13.';:‘, a“. xf‘} I a; \J‘ 6 J43‘ I¢,,.I G’IIIIJIJI I‘ I I; Y Y I , I Y9 I, . ’ e" - xvi?‘ IL?‘ I‘ u‘ >.. I Zliti'iiwwifi; ~ I I ‘ ‘ f ' ‘I , I " I I . I >' I "a! . 4.‘. ' 31"») " ‘i n _ '0 ‘.I“ . ' *3; - , . ‘ “' ~I . ‘I I“ : 19$ I I‘ ,. r! . ' I t (s I“ vI I \ I ‘ ~ ‘ ~ ' I - - . r ' Y a I '*~ ~ Y 7 . i I?“ I Y I‘ I i __ 1,.‘ ‘I 4}‘ J {Int I ‘ I- II _ \, ‘I ,I I ‘I ‘ I .‘8 ‘ q I’ ‘4-2532; ~».‘ 5} 1J$Fgg§§$ .I .I .1 .n- .¢ 3, 45> II I6“ ‘ ‘ - I via-I I I- .Y= ' ' ‘rm I . -.»'~I _. 4"‘ v S 7,.‘ ~ r '“ gkI‘I‘éks .I ‘III . 4 11' - 2W1’? ‘ “I 4‘ v4 i 74:! , - "Y“" ‘ mg -' -::?I;Z*¥~? , ’ ‘:AIM: - ' ' :héfl'm- Y ‘Q { ~ I .3 .~.,l ,9‘1; _‘ II,‘ J I -~ #1 ‘ I _- . v e izh‘x’hx . I 35:31’! a. ~. in w‘; 'a was ,\ ‘u‘.’ 4 ‘ “I” I‘ ~ .3‘? 4W- I- x m ‘- I - ‘ #1? '3 :I ,. ‘I ‘ r a‘? 1.1. o MA‘ Sp!" ‘ ‘In ,I I . q , 555:‘ t: t ‘5”’: Q’ff‘fl’wt'f‘li Y5“ 46%;? r» “wag? ' ‘2 “F45. ' 1 5- \;;~;i¥.!31- 4 'Fn‘txg L ‘Brag I Y 1' I‘..<-;;-“'>§.~.1_~;I“~ I I I ‘z'gr'xzfi- . a.“ I I ,v , Y H ' ‘ 3 .I..*“* Y- . ~ 4 - \ I 5'1 . > firs} I ...._ , - ~Q Y I‘ I» ‘I .' ,gI ‘ W‘? " V“.'*' .,II ‘ . ""Jf’ 4 " : ‘ K’ 3' v ‘ " ._ . A. A v ' ,YY - - ' ‘F Y*'* . h; _ ‘ ' 24 8“ \LA‘W.’ Q , v .igl‘qn ~_ ‘h’ . I J; .h, I‘ .I\II,|I.-IZ;)~-‘ ; 1 Y I Y =- = I m I ‘ “ =~Y ‘0621' Lu?‘ ‘ ~u- 3"" . a. ? -~:~~~- '3 ,I N‘; @w . L 1‘» 1% ‘W q; I- Y‘ “a ; v: v I .v ." 7" . 1 Iii? I I‘ W In. ~ I ‘~»-*1"’=I "Y MY II-YI ' I ,IY“.I2:§’"*?E Iwx" ; i ‘533% “my-2; a’, r ‘ I U M, . is n. ' ~ :mfikmm _ (9* 4:“ :IIhWvg‘\fir-a0fl ‘L *‘ *Nq'3x~¢ I1. 9 wnm x‘. . . .2212?“ ,, " * 1* YA; VE‘K‘ ‘T ARTEéJ 32.3% . 1! . ‘v a“ “4114!... TRANSACTIONS OF THE ATIONAL - ENGINE CONGRESS, 1915 SESSIONS HELD UNDER THE AUSPICES OF American Society of Civil Engineers American Institute of Mining Engineers The American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Institute of Electrical Engineers "1‘ ~ .. -- I ‘In ‘III‘II'!\ J SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, SEPTEMBER 2025, 1915 SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA T6 3/ ,Zé /?/s’ v.'*\ PRESS OF THE NEAL PUBLISHING COMPANY SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 1916 \"l [O 73 -I ‘Q 78 79 80 CONTENTS PAPERS RAILWAYS. By Wm. Barclay Parsons Discussion: By ARNOLD S'ruom . CHAS. S. CHURCHILL. F. LAVIS . . . . . . .. . WILLIAM J. VVILGL'S . THE STATUS OF THE RAILWAYS OI‘ NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. By I‘. Lavis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. - u - . . u I ITALIAN RAILWAYS. By Luigi Luiggi. . . . . THE STATUS 01' INDIAN RAILWAYS. By Victor Bayley . . . . . . . . .. THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILWAYS. By Charles Davis Jameson. . . Discussion: By C. '1‘. HsIA u-..- GENERAL PRESENTATION OI‘ THE PRESENT CONDITION OI‘ THE RAILWAY SYSTEM IN RUSSIA. By V. A. Nagrodski . . . . . . . . . . . . .. THE STATUS OI‘ RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN THE NETHER- LAND EAST-INDIES. By E. P. Wellenstein . . . . . . .. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS CONTROLLING AND GOVERNING THE BUILDING OI‘ NEW LINES. By John I‘. Stevens... - I - u Q l - Discussion: By F. LAVIS . . . . .. THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE. By William Hood . . . . . . . . . .. Discussion: By G. M. EATox.. H WILLIAM H001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . s - . . - c - . 0 . - ' I u Q ~ - u . l . . a I THE LOCATING OI‘ A NEW LINE. By David Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. a u a . - - - ' . o u . - . - n u Discussion: By WILLIAM H001) . . . . . . .. PAGE 48 48 ~18 49 185 216 iv CONTENTS 81 82 83 84 86 87 88 PAGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT OI‘ RAILWAYS. By William Griffith Sloan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242 Discussion: By W. J. RYAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253 WILLIAM H001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253 C. F. LoWETH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 254 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUS- TRALIA. By Maurice E. Kernot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255 TUNNELS. By Chas. S. Churchill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 271 Discussion: By WILLIAM H001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 302 W. A. OATTELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 302 J. G. SULLIVAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..302 and 303 CHAS. S. CHURCHILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..302 and 312 W. H. GOURTENAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 304 M. M. O’SHAUcHNEssY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307 TUNNELS RECENTLY CONSTRUCTED IN ITALY. By Luigi Luiggi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 314 THE RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND, 1905-1915. By R. Winkler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES. By J. E. Greiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 390 Discussion: By C. DERLETII. JR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 417 CHAS. B. WIW: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 418 WILLIAM HOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 418 C. F. LOVVE'I‘H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 419 SAMUEL T. WAGNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 420 TRACK AND ROADBED. By George H. Pegram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Discussion: By CHARLES WHITING BAKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 433 ARNOLD STUCKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 W. A. CAT'I‘ELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 433 WILLIAM H001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 433 N. A. ECKART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 435 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. By Charles Hansel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 439 Discussion: By H. .T. KENNEDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..449 and 450 L. M. PERRIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 449 PAUL J. Os'r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..449 and 450 H. H. SIMMONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 450 CONTENTS 90 91 93 94 RAILWAY TERMINALS. By B. I‘. Oresson, Jr . . . . .. Discussion: By J. SPENCER SMITH . . . . . . . . . . . .. CALVIN TOMKI\'S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . - . . - . - s - - - e - u ~ - . - ~ . ~ a n . . I e . - - e - - - - . - - ~ . l . ' - - RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT. By George R. Henderson . . . . . . . .. I ~ - - - . u ~ - . . I - - ~ v u - - - - - Discussion: By G. M. EATON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. HowARD STILLMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F. J. CoLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . - n - - - o . e ~ ~ ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER. By Arnold Stucki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Discussion: By C. T. PASSECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C. W. BAKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. H. BABCOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F. T. OAKLEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ARNOLD STUCKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o - e I e . - - c ~ e . a o a - - . - - Q I ~ THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OI‘ A RAILROAD. By I‘. L. Du Bosque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Discussion: By A. H. BABCOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN THE OPERATION OF RAILROADS. By William Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Discussion: By WILLIAM H001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN THE OPERATION OF RAILROADS. By E. H. McHenry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 487 488 488 491 510 510 511 514 568 568 569 569 569 592 Discussion: By H. J. KENNEDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. W. J. DAVIS, JR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G. M. EATON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. PAUL LEBENBAL'M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. H. Y. HALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. H. BABCOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. HOWARD STILLMAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E. H. MCI-IENRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 629 629 629 631 631 631 633 633 Paper N 0. 71 RAILWAYS. By WM. BARCLAY PARSONS, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Mem. Inst. C. E. Consulting Engineer New York, N. Y., U. S. A. Of all the innovations that distinguished the nineteenth cen- tury none has had so far reaching an effect, none so greatly bene- ficial to the whole human race, as the application of mechanical power to transportation, especially on land. Stupendous as have been the results, revolutionary as has been the character of such application, so gradually were the first steps taken that no date can be assigned to the beginning of railways. The earliest illustration of a railway of which the author is acquainted is one shown in a little book on mining engineering by Johan Haselberg, published in 1530. This is a tramway, in which the car is pushed by the miners themselves. Lorini, in his work entitled “Delle Fortificationi”, the first edition of which was printed in Venice in 1596, gives probably the first details of a railway, with the rails and flanged wheels of the cars, the cars themselves being hauled by a cable and Windlass. From these, or perhaps from some earlier suggestion. there slowly came into use small tramways, chiefly in connection with collieries, all of which were operated by animal power. \Vhether the inception of the employment of mechanical power to work railways should be attributed to the crude loco- motive of Trevithick in 1804; or to the rack and pinion device [Notez—In the preparation of this paper the author is indebted to various institutions, corporations and individuals for information and assistance, but principally to the Bureau of Railway Economics of Wash- ington, D. C., of which institution a large portion of the stafl' co-operated in the preparation of the statistics under the personal direction of Mr. Julius H. Parmelee.———Wm. Barclay Parsons] 2 RAILWAYS of Blenkinsop in 1811; or to John Stevens of Hoboken, New J er- sey, who, reasoning from the success achieved by Fulton and from experiments of his own with steam propelled boats, was the first to foresee the modern railway operated by locomotives at high speed for passengers as well as freight, which he described in 1812 in his memorable letter to the Canal Commissioners of New York, advocating such construction across the State rather than the canal then under contemplation; or to the first loco- motive of Stephenson placed on the Killingworth colliery line in 1814, or to the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825, the first real railway to be completed; or to the recognition of the achieved success of steam locomotion as demonstrated at the Rainhill experiments in 1829, one cannot say. All have justi- fiable claims to the honor. Since an average of these dates gives the year 1815, it perhaps can be said that the present year marks the completion of the first century of railways. During that century railways have grown from a most hum- ble beginning, the equivalent of an improved turnpike on which anyone could on payment of tolls run his own vehicles, denounced as dangerous by their opponents, laughed at as visionary by those disinterested, and timidly defended by their adherents, to become the greatest single industry of all times. The combined capital- ization of the railways of the world is approximately $50,000,- 000,000, or twice the estimated wealth of all kinds of the United Kingdom, France and the United States in 1815, while these same railways afiord direct employment for not less than 6,500,- 000 persons, exclusive of those engaged in mining coal and ores to be used by railways, and in the manufacture of rails, rolling stock, equipment, and other railway supplies in establishments other than those operated directly by railways themselves. What this additional number of persons is who thus indirectly earn a living through railways can not be estimated with any accuracy. The above totals are exclusive of local railways in cities and so called “interurban” railways, electrically operated, which lat- ter in recent years have had so extensive a growth, especially in the United States. This extraordinary development of railways in the com- paratively short space of 100 years from nothing to dimensions whose figures can be stated, but not grasped by the mind, is still TABLES I AND II. NEILES OP MAIN LINE RAILWAY EUROPE AND AMERICA. ‘Bulgaria included under European Turkey prior to 1910. IABLE_I TAB E I MILES or uAIn LINE or RAILWAY, REGARDLESS or NUMBER or TRAcKs, In uILEs 09 MAIN LINE 09 RAILWAY, REGARDLESS or NUMBER 09 TRACKS, IN 222922 AMERICA Countries $22512? 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 _ 1900 1910 countries ‘323%? 1830 1840 1850 1360 1370 1880 1890 1900 1910 ‘ Railways Railways United Kingdom 1825 95 858 6,621 10,455 15,557 17,955 20,075 21,855 25,589 United States 1829 25 2,818 9,021 50,655 55,487 87,852 165,597 195,546 240,459 France 1852 - 509 1,869 5,862 10,850 14,756 20,854 25,625 25,072 Gzizfiiegnd Lesser 1857 - 121 263 391 402 971 1,456 1,008 5,568 Belgium 1855 - 202 588 464 559 1,692 2,956 2,886 2,952 Canada 1840 - 16 71 2,087 2,497 6,891 15,256 17,657 24,751 Germany 1855 - 541 5,756 7,229 12,165 21,052 26,660 52,124 58,092 Mexico 1850 - - 7 20 217 696 6,090 9,055 15,260 Austria-Hungary 1858 - 89 981 2,825 5,958 11,456. 16,457 19,627 25,499 Peru 1851 - - ~ 55 255 1,151 1,056 1,056 1,584 Russia and Finland 1858 - 16 575 987 6,986 14,824 18,164 52,607 41,818 Chile 1852 - - - 121 455 1,119 1,926 2,850 5,526 Italy 1859 - 5 265 1,119 5,825 5,540 7,985 9,864 10,558 Brazil 1854 - - - 80 429 1,988 5,905 9,195 15,279 I‘Netherlands 6 Luxemburg 1859 - 11 109 208 882 1,445 1,655 2,015 2,250 Colombia 1855 - - - 48 64 75 256 400 510 Switzerland 1844 - - 17 681 848 1,592 1,926 2,502 2,840 central America 1855 - - - 47 75 151 622 708 1,599 nenmmrk 1847 - - 20 69 471 620 1,055 1,674 2,118 'Argeutine 1857 - - - 24 454 1,560 5,848 10,269 17,584 Spain 1848 - - 17 1,192 5,402 4,552 6,211 8,206 9,516 British Guiana 1864 - - - - 22 22 22 55 104 Sweden 1851 - - - 524 1,085 5,655 4,979 7,019 8,588 Paraguay 1855 - - _ - 5 45 149 157 157 Portugal 1854 - - - 85 444 710 1,200 1,546 1,520 Venezuela 1866 - - - - 24 70 497 654 654 Norway 1854 - - - 42 225 656 970 1,277 1,848 Eruguay 1869 - - - - 61 250 700 1,144 1,546 *Bulgarie 1860 - - - - - - - - 1,106 (olivla 1875 - - - - - 55 150 621 756 European Turkey 1860- - - - 41 181 866 1,097 1,952 967 IEcuador - - - - - - 57 186 186 555 Greece 1869 - - - - 7 7 477 604 982 Newfoundland - - - - - - - 111 641 666 Roumanla 1870 - - - - 152 862 1,580 1,925 1,979 ,Dutch Guiana - - - - - - - - - 37 servie 1884 - - - - - - 556 559 494 Total 25 2,955 9,562 55,508 58,447 102,855 201,772 249,562 525,915 Malta, Jersey, m. - - - - - 'I 3'! 68 68 68 Total 95 1,811 14,416 51,559 65,558 102,011 154,657 171,555 199,416 RAILWAYS 3 without a historical record. Perhaps the development has been so rapid that a proper recording of it has been impossible. This impossibility is fully appreciated by the author of this paper, in the undertaking to lay before this Congress not a history of rail- ways but a‘ summary in figures to show how railways have grown in the various countries of the world, with their equipment, what the earnings have been and are, the rates charged for service, the conditions of employment of the working staffs and the vary- ing methods of ownership and governmental control. The author is fully conscious of the shortcomings of the picture herein pre- sented, that many of the figures are approximate, that omissions are frequent and that some of the statistics are not comparable on account of the varying methods of reporting in different coun- tries. The author ventures to hope that this first attempt to set forth a measure of the railways of the world may lead to other efforts whereby statistics as complete and full as possible may be compiled. An examination of such statistics of railways as are avail- able indicates how very modern is the science of statistics as applied to transportation. There is, unfortunately, still lack- ing an agreement in the various countries of the world as to what constitutes a proper basis of railway statistics, and no country has been consistent in the method of collecting its own data. Figures relating to recent years can, in many countries, be obtained with- out difficulty, but figures earlier than twenty years ago are usually incomplete or are to be received with caution. To show the development of railways, such figures as are obtainable have been gathered at the end of each decade period beginning with the year 1830 and ending with the year 1910. In some cases the figures given are for the calendar year; in other cases, for the fisc$ year, which in the United States ends June 30th. Tables I to V give the miles of line, regardless of miles of tracks, that were laid at the end of each decade for the several countries of Europe, America, Asia, Africa and Australasia respectively, and the date when the first power operated rail- way was opened in each country. Table VI gives a recapitula- tion of the mileage according to continental divisions. In certain European countries, such as France, the rail- IIAJJLVVIYYTB wsw.um ¢sn.@n amm.@fi QHH.QH we» no I I I Hopes mum no“ I I I I I I I mama scam @n>.@ nmm.n I I I I I I I nmmfi “finances: was nflnmpflm an an ¢n I l | I l I a moflonm omoumaonom on em @H I I I I I I mmwfi cannon sms as“ we I. I I I I I wmmfl mcpepm seas: 338.3 mmo.fi cam as I I I I I QQQH cfimmum oapcfimq 3>H.~ an“ no > I I I I I msmfl .shsmmwmupwmowmumswmwmmwwo Hue.» Hoe ¢~H s I I I I I Qsmfi anflgo onfl.m awe.» mnfi.fi as I I I I I msmfi nachos‘ gauche wuaaafiona names ~mm.H HQn.H mew own no I I I I somfl mcaenH Aspen ssm saw HQH mad as I I I I DSQH qofisco onfl.n QH>.H saw Ham Sea sm I I I owmfi chasm was new“: mfim< mmo.~n >os.¢m mmo.oH Qon.m on @H I I I @@@H meficnH pmem Huflaflnm . mhmBHE-M oHmH comfl ommfl QQQH osmfi QQQH omwfi 043d onmfi mmamwmw wwaspqaoo ammo 2H .nmbdma MU mflmibh no I'll-I'll'ldll'llll‘ll'lllllll mmgwflm Mgmunqm .mo NEH zHg Ho mHAHE HHH Ends S LVAA'IIVH TABLE IV MILES OF MAIN LINE OF RAILWAY, REGARDLESS OF NUMBER OF TRACKS. IN ERIE Opening Countries Year of 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Railways Egypt 1856 - - - 275 656 952 961 1 ,589 1,455 Algeria and Tunis 1862 - - — - 321 857 1,929 2,641 3,134 Belgian Kongo Colony - - - - — - - - - 516 South African Union: Cape Colony - — - - - - - - - 3,772 Natal — — — - - - - - - 1,093 Central South African Rys. - - — - - - - - - 2,589 Rhodesia Railways A — - — — - - - - - 2,192 Colonies Germany German East Africa - - - - I 8 153 1,098 2,942 7,770 446 German Southwest Africa - - - - - - - - - 993 Togoland - - - - - - - - - 185 Knmerun - - - - - - - — - 66 Great Britain - - - - - - - - - 1,807 France - - - - - - - - - 1,360 Italy - - - - - - - - - 71 Portugal - - - - — - - - - 1,002 Total — - — 283 1,110 2,887 5,852 11,800 20,679 RAILWAYS m¢~.md Q¢>.¢H >QQ.HH @>m.¢ bmo.~ mm“ I I I Hwpoa mm mm I I I I I I I @@@H wade a Hawwvwwwwwum Hm¢.~ nmn.fl mam Mb I I I I I nbwfi wflfimhpmnq qpmpmwa go 2% 00¢ >3 n¢ I I I I 05." .ficmflmwa ~Ho.¢ How.“ wmfi.m nno mom I I I I mwmfl uqwfimcmmsa NHN.~ wed.“ mom.~ www.~ ww I I I I nmmfl @QQHQQN kw: ¢m§.n QH@.~ “mm.” 0mm man ON I I I mmwfi mafia; Spsom pom ~wo.~ Nwm.fi NQ@.H bwm QIH ¢w I I I ¢mQH wflflwhpmnq span” ¢on.m mH~.n >m@.~ @@H.H mbm $0 I I I ¢mm~ ¢HHO¢QH> 285 gm ofima oomfi ommfi OQQH o>wfi ommfi omwfi owmfi onwfi Wmfiwwww mmflnpnwoo 3% RH wMoa .mo 5mg ho mwmamqwmm AHSEHQM .ao WZHH 2H; ho wmAHS > Emqa RAILWAYS m~w.>~w Hfim.mme sow.n~n @¢s.-~. o¢m.¢~H omw.mo w>s.m~ wes.¢ @HH Hausa ms@.om QQQ.HH mnw.m swm.~ QHH.H mam .. i . oewfi aofinw< wem.mfl web.¢fl sow.HH esm.e s@o.H wmm ' l l emwfi aameflcapmnq msn.me osm.mn @m¢.mH mHH.oH we» we | i . mmmfi eflmq n~a.m~n Ncm.mem mss.fiom nmw.NoH s¢¢.wm mow.nn N@n.m new.“ mm smmfi eoaameq m~¢.mm~ mnw.H>H sno.¢nfi Hfio.mofl mnwqne mmm.Hw QH¢.¢H. HH@.H ma SNQH smokes 9S5“ Ham oflmfi oomfl ommfi ommfi oswfi owwfi omwfi oemfl onmfi so Hams paoeflpqoo wnwccmo smasssm mgoama so mmmsbz so wwmgnmawmm .w mqm<fi RAILVVAYS 1 1 ment in that year of a governmental system for the development- of that country ’s transportation facilities. To state simply totals of miles of railways gives no value of comparative density. Both area and population should be con- sidered. ‘When countries are thus compared their relative stand- ing is greatly altered. Selecting the more important of the coun- tries of the world, the miles of line per 100 square miles of ter- ritory and per 10,000 inhabitants for the year 1912 are shown in Table VII. When a comparison is made of miles of line as related to area, Belgium—when the secondary lines are included—is easily the leading country, there being twice and a half as many miles as are found in the United Kingdom, and a still larger ratio than in Germany. If the United States possessed the same propor- tion of miles of line to area there would be at present nearly 1,500,000 miles, while Russia in Europe would be served by more than 950,000 miles. In Europe, Norway has the smallest amount of line for its area, being only 1.6 miles per 100 square miles. On the basis of population, Argentina and Canada are the most lib- eral. Sweden takes the lead in Europe with 16.2 miles per 10,000 inhabitants, while the Balkan States are the lowest in the scale. In order to ascertain the extent of the service rendered by railways it is not necessary to burden this paper with details of railways in countries which constitute but a comparatively neg- ligible portion of the whole. By reference to Tables I to VI, it will be seen that the railway systems of Argentina, Austria-Hun- gary, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Ger- many, India, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Roumania, European Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzer- land, the United Kingdom and the United States constitute 85 percent of the world ’s mileage and a very much higher percent of the world ’s traffic. Statistics at the end of each decade period of the various countries in this list have been compiled, so far as they are avail- able, covering the length of line, length of additional main tracks, capital, rolling stock, operating revenue and expense, total num- ber of passengers and tons carried, number of passengers and tons carried per unit of distance, and the receipts for such unit, 12 RAILWAYS and the number and compensation of employes. These figures are shown in Tables VIII to XXX inclusive. In examining these statistics it will be seen how the various countries differ from each other in the manner in which the statistics are kept. It is a source of much regret that the United Kingdom is one of the least progressive, although in some of the British colonies, such as Canada, the opposite course has been followed. In the United Kingdom, with but one or two striking exceptions, no account is kept of the passenger- and ton- miles, so that it is impossible to compare the results of operation of British railways with those of other countries. The number of passengers reported as carried is also deceptive. On account of the system of season tickets in vogue in the United Kingdom the total number of passengers is exclusive of this very large vol- ume of travel. On the other hand, the local rapid transit lines, such as the underground and tubular railways in London, are regarded as main lines and their heavy passenger traffic goes to swell the total number of passengers carried, although the miles of railway of such lines as compared with the grand total is almost negligible. In the United States, France and Germany such lines are not considered as part of the country ’s railway mileage and the number of passengers carried is not included. Great as is the number of passengers carried on the various railways of the world, it is interesting to point out that during the year ended June 30, 1914, the number of passengers paying cash fares, exclusive of transfers, on the street railways of the City of New York amounted to 1,813,204,692, a number greater than the total number of passengers carried in any country of the world and substantially twice the number carried by all the steam railroads in the United States. Units in the above mentioned tables are those used in the various countries. In order to provide a ready means of com- parison, Table XXXI gives the relation of the several units of these various countries, with those of the corresponding units used in the United States. This same table can, without diffi- culty, be used to translate units of one country into those of any other country by combining the representative decimal factors. Thus, if a kilometer is .621 and a verst .663 of a mile, a kilo- meter is .621 divided by .663 verst or .937 verst, and in like RAILWAYS 13 manner a verst is .663 divided by .621 kilometer, or 1.068 kilometer. In order that the railways of the various countries can be readily compared, the statistics for the year 1910 have all been converted into American units and the totals have been divided by the miles of line in each country so as to get the figures re- duced to those per mile of line. In this way the average density of traffic can be obtained. These results are shown in Table XXXII. and to facilitate an inspection of this table the figures are in each case illustrated diagrammatically. In some countries where a silver standard was in use in 1910 an average rate of exchange for the year was determined from the most reliable figures at hand. It is regretted that for certain countries recent statistics were not procurable and for other countries covering only a por- tion of the system. On account of the disturbed political condi- tion of Mexico no Mexican figures worthy of presentation have been procured. For Brazil the year 1908 is the last year avail- able; in Egypt the figures cover the state railways only and omit the private lines. In Italy the figures for the private lines were not obtainable for the year 1910, and approximate figures derived from the statistics of 1907 have been used. In Spain the figures for 1909 are used in lieu of 1910, the latter not being available. An examination of this table shows the great extent of the railways in the United States whenever totals are stated, except in passengers carried and the total number of passenger train cars. In the first regard it takes third place to Germany and the United Kingdom, and in the latter, fourth place to the United Kingdom, Germany and France. This last statement, however, indicates the'danger of drawing conclusions from sta- tistics without a thorough understanding of the statistics them- selves. In the United States the seating capacity of the ordin- ary passenger car is very greatly in excess of the seating capacity of corresponding cars in the other countries named, so that in spite of fewer cars, the total capacity of passenger train cars in the United States is greatly in excess of that of any other coun- try. This same relative comparative capacity is still more marked in the case of freight cars and the mere numbers of freight cars used in different countries per mile of line gives no 14: RAILWAYS idea of the total capacity of such cars, those used in the United States being in some instances many times larger than those used in other countries. When, however, the figures are reduced to a basis of per mile of line the real value of density is determined and the uni- versal preponderance of the United States then ceases to exist. The most striking manner in which the railways of the United States exceed the railways of the other countries is in the volume of their freight trafiie. Even when the tons carried one mile are reduced to a basis of per mile of line the United States shows the greatest total, the second country being Germany, fig- ures for Great Britain being unobtainable. When, however, the tons carried one mile are compared, without the per mile reduc- tion, it will be seen that the ton-miles in the United States are 7 times greater than those of Germany, 57 times greater than the ton-miles of Argentina, 17 times greater than Austria-Hun- gary, 520 times greater than Brazil, 16 times greater than Canada, 895 times greater than Denmark, 17 times greater than France. 19 times greater than India, 117 times greater than Japan, 1,270 times greater than Norway, 12 times greater than Russia in Europe, 121 times greater than Spain, 140 times greater than Sweden, and 299 times greater than Switzerland. If the freight tonnage of the United States greatly exceeds, both in volume and density, that of other countries, the same is not true of the passenger travel. Not only is the total number of passengers less. but the number carried per mile of line is very much less, being lower than Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Roumania, Russia in Europe, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. On account of the great size of the United States, as might be ex- pected, the total number of passenger miles exceeds that of any of the other countries that record such figures, but when the total number of passenger miles is divided by the total number of miles of line, the United States takes position with Norway, Spain and Sweden, while Belgium becomes the leading country in the world, with a density more than twice as great as that of France and nearly twice that of Germany, while Japan is second to Belgium. RAILWAYS 15 The return for service rendered is shown in the receipts per passenger- and per ton-mile, and again it becomes unfor- tunate that the United Kingdom has never compiled statistics on this basis. The country with the lowest receipts per passenger mile is India, .éllllc, and the most expensive is the United States, 1.938c., with Canada second at 1.8660. These figures by them- selves, however, give a very unfair comparison. In the United States and Canada there is practically but a single class, except that a very small proportion of the traveling public pay an additional fare for Pullman service. In the other countries of the world there are class graduations, in some instances as many as four, and a great number of passengers are carried in these countries at extremely low rates of fare but with a correspond- ingly inadequate service. In some countries passengers are loaded in open freight cars and in many countries the lowest class are carried in cars roofed over but without seats. The third class, where such service is furnished, is usually about one-third of the first class fare, and the majority of the people take the lower class, which brings the average down. If charges could be obtained in other countries for service comparable to that offered in the United States and Canada, with comfortable seats, steam heat in winter, toilet and other accommodations and fast express service, those two countries would be found at the bottom and not at the top of the list, so far as charge for service rendered is concerned. When, however, the receipts from freight per ton mile are considered, India, Canada, Japan and the United States are close competitors for the lowest charge, their position being in the above order but the difierence being negligible. Upon this cost of service, Column 31, of Table XXXII, Sheet No. 6, which indicates the average yearly compen- sation of employees has considerable bearing. There it will be seen that for the countries where such figures are obtainable the average compensation of the United States is greatly in excess of that of any other country, being nearly twice that paid in Germany and more than twice that paid in Austria-Hungary, and six and a half times that paid in Japan. The preceding tables show the general development of rail- ways in respect to mileage, equipment and traffic. It is an ex- traordinary thing that at the end of 100 years of growth the 16 ‘ RAILWAYS general mechanical principles of the motive power used on rail- ways are the same as those developed by Stephenson in his or- iginal engines. The detail of compounding has been introduced, but otherwise the general features, except as to size, of the loco- motives used now and then are the same; that is, a high pressure steam engine, with tubular boiler and cylinders in pairs, ex- hausting into the smoke stack. In size, however, the change has been most radical. From Stephenson ’s “Rocket”, with its single pair of driving wheels and total weight of 4.25 tons, we have reached an engine with 24 driving wheels, three pairs of cylin- ders, and the weight of the engine being 426 tons, including the tender, whose weight is used for traction, power being applied to its wheels. In this great increase in size of rolling stock the United States has been easily the leading country. With the great dis- tances to be traversed, with the low rates of freight, and with the comparatively low density of traffic, as compared with Euro- pean countries, there has always been great pressure for extreme economy, which can be reached in part by using the minimum number of trains with the maximum capacity not only of each train, but of each unit in the train. In regard to locomotives, the first one used in 'the United States was the “Stourbridge Lion”, imported from England in 1829 and actually used for a short time on the line of the Dela- ware & Hudson Canal Company, but this stupendous machine, which stood on four driving wheels and weighed the great amount of 8 tons, was found too heavy for actual service and was speedily abandoned, and for the next two years the loco- motives used in the United States were machines of less weight and less power. The failure of the “Stourbridge Lion”, on account of its excessive size, did not, however, long deter either the railway operator from calling for increased power of his engines nor the ingenuity of the locomotive builder to produce engines of greater and greater weight. In 1832 the Baldwin Locomotive Works turned out their first machine, of a weight of 10,000 pounds, and from that time until the present the in- crease in the size of the locomotives has not ceased. Table XXXIII gives a list of the locomotives as each in turn established a new high record. This table shows the year in RAILWAYS 17 which the engines were turned out, the railway on which used, the shops in which built, the sizes of the cylinders and the driv- ing wheels, the service employed, and the total weight of the engine. The type of each engine is described according to the Whyte system, in which the first figure represents the number of wheels in the guiding truck, the second figure the number of driving wheels, and the last figure the number of wheels in the trailing truck. In certain cases it will be noticed that there is more than one set of figures denoting drivers. Such combina- tion indicates an articulated engine and the number of drivers in each section. In this table it will be seen that the growth of the engine, as indicated by weight, was substantially uniformly constant down to the year 1889, up to which time the heaviest freight engine was one weighing 154,000 pounds, with cylinders of 21 in. diameter by 36-in. stroke, and the heaviest passenger engine one weighing 127,000 pounds, with compound cylinders 20-39 in. by 24-in. stroke. Up to this time heavier locomotives were in use in Europe than in the United States. In fact, as early as 1863 there was placed upon the Northern Railway of France an en- gine weighing 135,000 pounds and of the type 0.6.6.0, when the heaviest American locomotive was a pusher engine weighing 100,000 pounds. In 1891 the Erie, with its 195,000 pound com- pound, ehallenged Europe for the supremacy in heavy engines, which position the United States has not since lost, and from that period, as will be seen by the table, the weights of its engines have grown at a most astonishing rate, both as to passenger and freight, reaching the present climax in 1914, when the Erie once more took the lead with an engine of a total weight of 853,050 pounds. It is interesting to note that the Pennsylvania pas- senger locomotive of 1911, with its weight of 317,000 pounds, was almost as large as the record freight locomotive of only seven years previous on the Baltimore & Ohio. The development of the freight car has been parallel with the development of the locomotive, beginning with the cars which were loaded with two tons, which were to be hauled by the “Stourbridge Lion”. In the details of their growth, how- ever, early statistics are not as available as in the case of locomotives. 18 RAILWAYS Prior to the year 1902 no complete classifications of Ameri- can equipment were kept. Beginning with that year the Inter- state Commerce Commission has required the railroads not only to report the total number of cars in service, but to report the number of cars of various capacities. Up to about the year 1880, the size of the American freight car, while generally larger than the European car, did not differ in any striking degree from its European counterpart. Al- though the double truck, 8-wheel freight car was in general use, a large part of the coal traffic of the country was still being carried in two-axle cars, known as “Jimmies”, corresponding to the British “Waggon”, with a capacity of 5, and of the larger cars 10, tons; and the standard two~truck freight car was a car with a capacity not exceeding 30,000 pounds. With the gradual replacement of iron by steel rails, and the general improvement of roadbed, the railway managers of the United States appreciated the fact that the largest car was the most economical, and in about the year 1882 a freight car of 40,000 pounds capacity was adopted as the standard car. The success of this car quickly led to cars of a greater capacity and during the decade 1890 to 1900 the demands for such cars were more and more pronounced. In about 1897 the Pittsburgh, Besse- mer & Lake Erie Railroad placed an order for a car of 100,000 pounds capacity. which had been frequently talked of but had never been put into successful operation. With the practical introduction of this car it was felt that for the moment at least the pendulum had swung too far, and for a great deal of traffic, even for coal traffic, the car was too large, and a car of the ca- pacity of 80,000 pounds came into use, quickly passing the 100,- 000 pound car in numbers. Table XXXIV shows the number of cars of various capaci- ties in use in the United States from the year 1902 to 1914, both inclusive, by which it will be seen how the cars of the lower capacity have been steadily dropping out and the increase has taken place wholly in the cars of the larger capacity, so that the average capacity of the freight car in existence has risen from 28 tons in 1902, to 39 tons in 1914, an increase of nearly 1 ton per year or 40 percent in 12 years. RAILIVAYS 19 In order to simplify an examination of these figures, Dia- gram 2 has been prepared, showing the numbers of cars of capacity of 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 80,000, and 100,000 pounds in use in the various years from 1902 to 1914. This diagram shows that the 40,000 pound cars, which 30 years ago were supposed to be the last word in car construction, have been steadily de- creasing so that in 1914 there were less than 49,000 in existence. The 50,000 pound car, which was never a very great success be- cause car designers appreciated almost immediately after its in- troduction that the 60,000 pound car was equally feasible and much better, has, like the 40,000 pound car, been steadily de- creasing, but, curiously enough, at nothing like so high a ratio, so that while there never was as great a number of them con- structed as of the smaller car there were more left in existence from 1908 to 1914. The curve shown by the number of 60,000 pound cars is particularly interesting. This car is shown to be steadily in- creasing in number from the time it was first introduced to the year 1908, by which time the great advantages of cars of still greater capacity were more fully appreciated, and from that year the 60,000 pound car has been decreasing in number slowly until 1911, and at an increasing ratio from that period to date. The curve shown by this car would correspond to the curves for the 40,000 and 50,000 pound cars, if those curves could be ex- tended back to the time of their first introduction, increasing to a certain point of maximum popularity and then decreasing as each in turn was surpassed by a car of greater capacity. The 80,000 and 100,000 pound cars have steadily increased from the time of their introduction, with the exceptions of the years 1910 and 1911 when the 100,000-pound car and the 80,000- pound car, respectively, temporarily decreased. From that year on both cars have increased, except that the diagram shows the 100,000 pound car is increasing at a higher ratio than the 80,000 pound car, and bids fair soon to surpass it, just as the 80,000 pound car, in 1914, passed the 60,000 pound car in total numbers. That the end has not been reached, certainly not for the average car and apparently not for the maximum size of the ordinary commercial car as difiering from a special car for heavy 20 RAILWAYS ordnance or similar concentrated load, it is interesting to note that the Norfolk & Western Railway Company has placed in regular service cars of a capacity of 180,000 pounds. Cars Number of Year Diagram 2. Although there is a general tendency throughout the world towards uniformity in railway details, and especially in the pro- motion of free intercommunication, there is in one important RAILVVAYS 2 1 detail, even in the year 1915, still failing of universal agree- ment. No one gauge or width of track has been adopted to the exclusion of all others, although the majority of railways use the accidental and inconvenient dimension of 4 feet 81/3 inches (1.435 meter). The earliest tramways in England had a gauge of 5 feet (1.524 meter), but the flanges of the wheels were on the outside. When it was realized that it would be more ad- vantageous to have the flanges on the inside, the gauge became 4 feet 8 inches, the flat rails being 2 inches wide. To this figure Stephenson added 1A; inch to give greater freedom, thus fasten- ing on the world the unfortunate dimension of 4 feet 81/2 inches, a figure without an exact decimal equivalent and that can not in calculation be readily divided or multiplied. While this gauge has predominated in Great Britain from the beginning, it was not without opposition. Railways in Ire- land adopted and have always maintained a gauge of 5 feet 3 inches, while Brunel, with his liking for great things, as shown in the steamer “Great Eastern”, constructed the Great \Vestern Railway with a gauge of 7 feet, the widest gauge ever laid, and which remained in service until 1892, when it yielded to the pressure of the demand for intercommunication with other lines and was converted to the then so-called “narrow” gauge, or what is now recognized as the standard. This contest between the adherents of the different track widths forms the chapter of the “Battle of the Gauges” in the development of British railways. If England can boast of the broadest gauge, it can also boast of the narrowest, that of 1 foot 111/2 inches, on the Festin- iog Railway in Wales, the smallest gauge ever used in a prac- tically operated railway. This line was authorized by an Act of Parliament in 1832, but was operated by horses until 1863, when steam locomotives were introduced. It is still in service. On the continent of Europe the English standards and de- tails were copied in the first lines to be constructed, so that the dimension of 4 feet 81/2 inches, whose approximate metric equiva- lent is 1.435 meter, which in computation is quite as inconveni- ent as the English figures became the standard; but as in Eng- land, this gauge has not become universal. Russia, whose railway system was begun without any connection, or perhaps any thought 22 RAILVVAYS of connection, with those of other countries, adopted a gauge of 5 feet (1.524 meter), which it has always maintained for military reasons. To this same gauge have the Russian railways in Asia been built, thus breaking continuity with the connecting Chinese lines, which are of 4 feet 8% inch gauge. Spain also adopted an odd gauge, in this case 5 feet 6 inches (1.676 meter) and main- tains it, as the Russians do theirs, with the idea of defense against easy invasion. Portugal has naturally followed its only neigh- bor. All other countries in Europe have adopted the standard gauge for their main lines, except as in all of them secondary or local lines have been constructed on narrower gauges. With these exceptions, the gauge of 4 feet 81/2 inches is the standard gauge of the main lines of continental Europe. In Asia the Indian railways, the largest Asiatic system, are divided chiefly between a “broad” gauge of 5 feet 6 inches and a narrow gauge of 1 meter. The Chinese lines, except in Yun- nan, where they connect with the French railways in Tongking of meter gauge, have been built to the 4 feet 8% inch gauge. The Siberian lines use the Russian gauge of 5 feet. In Africa the gauges are mostly 8 feet, meter, and 3 feet 6 inches. In South America there is great diversity, lines being built to gauges of 1 meter, 4 feet 81/2 inches, and 5 feet 6 inches. In Mexico, Central America and the West Indies the principal gauges are 3 feet, meter, and 4 feet 81/3 inches, with the larger gauge predominating except in Panama, where the gauge is 5 feet. Table XXXV has been prepared in which nine countries have been selected in Europe, one in South America, two in North America, three in Asia, and two in Australasia, as speci- men countries, showing the different gauges and the amount of each in use. In the United States the greatest number of different gauges of any country have been used, although of late there has been rapid concentration to the standard gauge of 4 feet 81/2 inches. The first railways, such as the Baltimore and Ohio and the Dela- ware and Hudson, copied the Stephenson standard, but in a large country where local and not national interests predominated, and where in the early days the importance of through running was not appreciated, other gauges came into use. In the South- ern States a gauge of 5 feet was used quite generally, and in RAILVVAYS 23 New York and Pennsylvania, the Erie Railroad, the first long line of importance to be completed, adopted a gauge of 6 feet, TABLE XXXVI UNITED STATES RAILWAYS capers 1840 1880 1889 1914 Miles Miles Miles 111188 Gauge Of Line Of Track 01‘ Line 0! Line 6' - 259 _ _ 6' and 4' 9" - 35 - _ 6' and 4' 8-1/2" - 2,808 - - 5' 6" 36 128 - - 5' 1/2" - 20 - - 5' , 428 12,282 22 - 4' 10-1/2" - 21 10 - 4' 10" 343 53 - - 4' 9-1/2" - - so - 4' 9-3/8" - 175 _ _ 4' 9-3/8" and 3' - 14 - - 4' 9_1/4" - 260 - _ 4' 9-1/4" and 4' 9" - 110 - - 4' 9" 9 12,334 28,939 52 4' 8-3/4" - 1,925 3,067 - 4' 8-5/8" - _ 121 - 4' 8-1/2" 2,830 71,403 114,148 243,804 4' 8-1/2" and 3' - 631 - 10 4' 8-1/4" - - 69 - 4' 8" - 6 935 - 4' 7-1/2" — \ - 1 3 4' 6" 14 _ - _ 4' 3" - 9 55 _ 4' 1" - 5 8 - 4' - - 33 - 3' 11-1/2" - - 7 _ 3' 11" - - 15 3' 10" - - 10 - 3' 9-1/2" - - - 21 3' 9" - - 12 - 3' 6-1/2" - - 8 - 3' 6" 9 307 325 49 3' 4" 27 8 4o - 3' 2" - 25 4 _ 37 l" _ _ 16 .. 3' 1/2" - 44 - - 3' 1/4" 4 - 92 - 3' - 5,191 9,485 3,266 2' 10" - - 2 _ 2' 9" - 1 16 - 2: 6n _ - 5 — 2' - 18 59 178 with the avowed purpose of keeping other railways from invad- ing its territory. Many of the Erie’s connecting lines were built to the same gauge and it was not until about 1890 that the last. 24 RAILWAYS portion of it was taken up. During the period from 1870 to 1880, especially in the mountain districts of the West, then being opened to settlement, there was a craze for a narrow gauge, and many were the enthusiasts who claimed that a gauge of 3 feet would soon drive all other gauges out of existence. The number and extent of the various gauges in use at various times in the United States are shown in Table XXXVI. The great diversity of gauges, which continued to increase even until 1889, and the subsequent rapid decrease is strikingly shown. In 1914 the lines whose gauges are other than the standard are lines of minor importance or ones on which there is no through running. It is to be noted in using this table that the figures for 1880 are for miles of 1% whereas in the other years they are for miles of “22; Of the 628,000 miles of railway as shown in Table VI as in use in the world in 1910, approximately 440,200 miles are of the standard gauge (4 feet 81/3 inches), 88,000 miles are of wider gauge, and 99,800 miles are of narrower gauge, the percentage being as follows: Standard gauge - .................................... -. 70% Wide gauge ............................................ .. 14% Narrow gauge ............................................ -. 16% It is an unfortunate sequence of the mechanical develop- ment of the last century that mechanical operations can not be carried on without a tremendous toll in persons both killed and injured, and the operations of our railways are no exception to this rule. Nineteen countries compile statistics of persons killed and injured, and dividing them into passengers, employees, and persons other than passengers and employees, putting under the last class trespassers and other miscellaneous cases of persons who met with death or injury not as the direct result of trans- portation, so far as these figures are obtainable they are shown in summary in Table XXXVII, and in detail for 16 countries in Table XXXVIII, for the four last decade periods. When the numbers killed and injured for the several coun- tries separately are examined the United States stands out with totals that, without explanation, are appalling, and as the figures for the years subsequent to 1910 are readily available the details RAILWAYS 25 down to and including 1914 have been appended, by which it will be seen that in spite of all precautions and improvements the figures are steadily increasing. So far as the United States is concerned it will be noted that the increase in injured is increasing in a much higher ratio than @epapm eopanb acewqaw eopanb mmpepw eepaeb aoemeam ewpfins Qwpepm eopaqa soemqfim weeds» sweep” ewpanb Eeewqflm coeds: vsmanonpwkm usmanmnpfiam usdasmuuflkm umufinonpflkm qowosm qouokm flowwam Qwwmsm macaw cflmam nwcmm nfiomm awmmsm mfimmsm wflmwdm mflwmsm GHHHQESOM dwfidgom l l ucdfimmn Roz ' 1 : mucdfihwspoz mucdflnonpwz muqofiawnpmz mucdfihwnpoz gamma mama» u | - hfiepH hfiwpH sfiapH mHeqH aHenH aHeqH @HQQH Mcwaumu humehow hcdahoe Mcdsnoo wofldhh 0056mm bond-HM oofldhpm pahwm Pmhwm a a Mhweqon Mnmamom Mncadoa Mhwanon wumsmo mwdnwo aumcdo aumcdo Efiflmaom ssfiwfimm Edfimfimm Edwwawm hhmmqdmnwwupms< hhumqfimiaanpms¢ hummcdmlmflhpmsq muwmssmumflupmuq OH¢H ooafi omwfi ommfi .QHQGB 0.92m 02p CH UQQSHOQH Ed mpflomfioo< wqmphofimm moflhpflfioo sma.mmfi m@@.o~ www.mm QN>.NH smn.mmfl @n@.@ ~on.- @nn.H OHQH smw.fim ¢HH.@H noo.@H @¢@.m wmo.wo ame.n www.0a msa oomfl ¢nm.om n@@.nH Hn¢.@ msm.m mmm.mw ~m¢.¢ omm.m owe oamfi n~s.¢H @mH.@ m@@.N baa.“ omw.nfi was.“ wmfl.n 34¢ omwfi _e@H¢nnH @QHHHM ewhsnqH eofifiaw eohwneH eofififim eehafinH @QHHHM new» mflmpba wnonpo moomofimsm mnomqommam QmmbnzH Qz¢ QQAQHM mzowmwm m6 Mmdzfibm HHbNHN mAmdB injured to killed was the increase in killed. In 1880 the ratio of approximately 2 to 1. In 1914 the ratio was 19 to 1, with an in- creasing ratio for each intervening decade period. This does not mean that there has been so great an increase in persons injured, but rather an increase in the number of injuries reported. In the 26 RAILWAYS earlier years only serious injuries were reported. In later years, ‘on account of an appreciation of the advantage of accuracy in statistics, but more especially undoubtedly on account of greater stringency of liability law and increased possibility for claims for indemnities, injuries are now reported as such that in prior years would have been neglected, both by the companies and by the persons suffering them. To compare relative safety in different countries, reference must be made to something more than the mere totals. Usually, in the case of passengers the basis of comparison has been the total number of passengers carried, but this again is not fair to those countries where the passenger journey is long, and it would seem as if the proper basis on which to compare the safety to passengers carried is on the number of passenger miles trav- eled. A comparison between the various countries has, therefore, been worked out (1) on the ratio to the number of passengers carried, and (2) on the ratio to the number of passenger miles. Inasmuch as Italy, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom do not report passenger miles, no comparison with these coun- tries is possible under the last heading. On the basis of passengers carried, the countries, in 1910, stood in the order of safety as shown in Table XXXIX. When the countries are reduced to the basis of passenger miles they stand in the order shown in Table XL. Regarding passengers injured, the respective comparison to passengers carried and to passenger miles is shown in Table XLI and Table XLII. When comparing employees, the basis has been assumed of per 1,000 employed, figures for which are obtainable in all coun- tries except Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and in the United Kingdom. See Tables XLIII and XLIV. In respect to others than passengers or employees, the basis of length of line has been taken, although a proper basis would be the relative density per mile of line, if such figures could be obtained. On the basis of miles of line, without regard to density, the ‘countries stand in the order shown in Table XLV and Table 'XLVI. Of persons other than employees the greater number consists 'of trespassers. SAVAUIIVH Relative Standing of Various Countries in 1910 in Respect to Passengers Killed per 10 Million Passengers Carried. LO fIGDOifl—FO 59w \’) 13. 14. 15. 16. Country Belgium 0.56 Germany 0.64 Switzerland .......................... .. 0.64 Netherlands .......................... .. 0.65 Denmark .............................. -. 0.91 United Kingdom .................. .. 0.93 Austria-I-Iungary ................ .. 1.34 Japan .................................... .. 1.37 Sweden .................................. .. 1.37 Spain ...................................... -- 2.14 France .................................... .. 2.16 United States ...................... .. 3.33 Italy ...................................... _. 3.80 India .................................... .- 5.03 Russia .................................... .. 10.90 Canada .................................. .. 16.70 TABLE XXX IX. Passengers killed 88 SLVANIIVH Relative Standing of Various Countries in 1910 in Respect to Passengers Killed per 100 Million Passenger Miles. E'lrii‘wiol“ 10. 11. 12. 13. TABLE XL. Country Passengers killed Belgium 0.41 _ Denmark 0.41 _ Germany 0.45 _ Switzerland 0.48 _ Japan 0.70 _ Austria-Hungary .................. .. 0.71 _ Sweden 0.82 _ Spain 0.94 _ United States ........................ .- 1.00 _ France ..... -. 1.05 _ India 1.39 _ Russia 1.75 — Canada 2.43 _ RAILWAYS 29 ommmfi .................... .- 16:57. @325 .m: omgifi 55:50 .5 of: .................................... .- fig. .2 ow.mm iwmsfl .2 Sam ................ -- Eccufivh wwfisb .2 3mm 565. .2 8.2 .............................. .- 532.5 .2 3.: ...... -- @SEH .a maxi“ .............. -. kmgwnzfifififimszs .w 0%: 352% .N. mmza ...... -- Exam .s mmza ........................ -. 1:252:32 .m. wim ........................ -- wQESNfiBm .v omé. .. kFEFSU .m aim zowoiw .m 36 VEQEEQQ A 135?: mhowzemmdnfi \ASHEOO .ufifiso muowqommam 5:52 OH Hon UQHPEH muwmsmmwwm 3 poomwom 5 22 5 $22,260 3628? Mo .mfiwsfim PPESQM .HQN E @249 08 SAVAA'IIV'HI Relative Standing of Various Countries in 1910 in Respect to Passengers Injured per 100 Million Passenger Miles. _L\'.) sesefiwsls-w 10. 11. 12. 13. Country Denmark 0.41 Sweden 1.43 Germany 3.06 Spain 4.19 India 4.90 France 5.72 Switzerland .......................... .. 6.25 AustriaHungary ................ .. 7.06 Russia 8.94 Canada 10.94 Japan 11.50 Belgium 13.45 United States ...................... .. 38.50 TABLE XLI I. Passengers injure d SAVAA'IIVEI 18 LQfFKwIOI-A .62 \1 9. 10. 11. 12 Relative Standing of Various Countries in 1910 in Respect to Employees Killed per 1,000 Employed. TABLE XLIII. Country Killed Italy ........................................ .- 0 38 _ Austria-Hungary .................. ._ 0.62 _ Denmark ................................ -. 0.71 _ India ........................................ -- 0.73 _ Germany ................................ .. 0.78 — Russia .................................... ._ 0.78 — Switzerland ............................ .. 0.78 _ France .................................... .. 0.94 _ Belgium .................................. .- 1.04 — Japan ...................................... __ 1.48 — Canada ____________________________________ -. 1.73 United States _________________________ _ 2.03 _ 88 S AVAA'I IVH |I._I .O i—ll—l N!" =99°~19=9134>~9°F>F Relative Standing of Various Countries in 1910 in Respect to Employees Injured per 1,000 Employed. TABLE XLIV. Country Injured India 1.20 I Denmark 1.34 I France 1.86 I Germany 2.15 I Russia 4.37 - Austria-Hungary .................. .. 5.06 — ‘ Belgium 7.24 _ Canada 7.48 _ Italy 9.57 _ Japan 12.23 — Switzerland .......................... .. 32.54 _ United States ...................... -- 57.30 _ TABLE VIII A R G E N T I N E R E P U B L I C Item Units 1857 1865 1870 1880 1d90 1900 1910 Length of Line Kilometers 10 248 731 2,512 9,415 16,533 27,989 Capital Pesos 285,108 5,379,898 18,835,703 62,964,486 321,102,691 531,398,720 900,430,051 Locomotives Number - - - - - - 2,814 Passenger Train Cars Number — - - - - - 4,346 Freight and Other Cars Number - - - - - - 61,549 Total Operating Revenue Pesos 19,185 563,134 2,502,569 6,560,417 26,049,042 41,401,348 110,941,406 Total Operating Expense Pesos 12,448 438,961 1,356,252 3,072,185 17,585,406 23,732,754 65,929,627 Net Operating Revenue Pesos 6,737 124,173 1,146,317 3,488,232 8,463,636 17,668,594 45,011,779 Passengers Carried Number - 747,684 1,948,585 2,751,570 10,069,606 18,296,422 59,014,600 Pasers.Carried 1 kilometer Number - - - - — - 2,366,000,000 Tons Carried (Metric) Number - 71,571 274,501 772,717 5,420,782 12,659,831 33,606,626 Tons Carried 1 kilometer Metric Ton Km. - - - - - 6,570,000,000 Avg.Number of Employees Number - - - - - - 101,255 Compensation of Employees Pesos - - - - - - 47,910,000 EABLE_IZ A U S T R I A-H U N G A R Y 1880 1890 ‘1900 1910 T— State or State or All All Operated Private ‘ Operated Private Item Unit Railways Railways By State Railways Total By State Railways Total Length of Line Kilometer 18,415.7 26,469.4 23,376.6 8,229.6 31,606.2 32,173.4 5,667.3 37,840.? Length of Second Track Kilometer 1,742.2 2,879.4 1,802.6 2,721.7 5,426.3 5,001.6 1,512.9 6,514.5 Capital Kronen 6,071,148,478 7,651,357,122 5,684,508,142 3,867,329,070 9,551,837,212 9,979,266,248 2,585,535,643 12,564,801,891 Locomotfves Number 3,497 5,272 - - 8,280 - - 11,209 Passenger Train Care Number 9,565 13,897 - - 20,516 - - 27,424 Freight and Other Cars Number 79,642 118,531 - - 177,389 - - 233,523 Total Operating Revenue .Kronen 525,548,756 687,764,690 490,880,522 412,667,677 903,348,199 1,174,682,352 280,881,682 1,455,564,034 Total Operating Expense Kronen 493,666,480 548,981,820 - - - —- - - Net Operating Revenue Kronen 31,882,268 138,782,870 - - - - - - Taxes Kronen 21,810,396 33,184,664 - - - — - - Passengers Carried Number 40,452,395 97,811,991 129,941,799 92,568,509 222,510,308 292,540,152 102,080,379 394,620,531 Passre.0arried 1 Kilometer Number 1,964,246,185 3,703,814,869 4,519,630,023 2,994,499,038 7,514,129,061 9,627,439,210 2,298,874,672 11,926,313,882 Avg.Receipts per Passr.Km. Heller 4.52 3.50 \ - - - — - 3.09 Tons Carried Metric Tons 49,801,001 92,782,063 68,095,175 85,941,310 154,036,485 139,039,740 57,950,383 196,990,123 Tons Carried 1 Kilometer Metric Tone 4,976,101,999 9,886,326,762 8,585,283,909 6,905,674,246 15,490,958,155 18,047,379,334 3,806,938,721 21,854,318,115 Avg.Receipts per Ton Km. Heller per 6.32 4.82 - - 4.23 - q 4.59 Met.Ton Avg.Number of Employees Number 127,990 177,142 - — 295,446 h - 408,564 Compensation of Employees Kronen 124,756 ,330 180, 784, see - - 324.092 .566 - - 586,941 , 206 Note: For years 1880 and 1890 items in gulden and kreuzer have Been converted into kronen and heller, one gulden being two kronen and one kreuzer being two heller. TABLE VIII. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC . TABLE IX. AU STRIA-HUNG-ARY. TABLE X. BELGIUM. TABLE XL IBIMAZIIL TABLE I B E L 0 I U l 1835 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 State State State State State State State Private T t 1 State Private state Private Item Unit Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways o a Railways Railways Total Railways Railways T°tal Length of Line Kilometer l3-5* 324.7* 624.6* 747.2* _868.7* 2,724.0* 3,250.0 1,477.9 4,727.9 4,060.1 587.3 4,647.4 4,330.3 391.4 4,721.7 Length of Second Track Kilometer - _ - - - - 1,334.4 232.2 1,566.6 1,592.2 138.2 1,730.4 2,140.1 162.6 2.502.? Capital Francs 4.914.458 77.908.806 167.407.264 206.569.1380 279.402.065 1.044.586.8411 1.303.085.426 454230.60: 1,707,386,423 1,941,704,561 160,600,000 2,102,304,561 2,731,076,537 107,000,000 2,838,076,537 Locomotives Number - 122 170 252 371 1,281 1,977 545 2,522 2,744 293 3,037 4,213 245 4,458 Passenger Train Cars Number - 591 1,075 0,219 1,880‘ 3,936 4,726 1,289 . 6,015 7,031 644 7,675 10,393 491 10,884 Freight_and Other Cars Number - 746 3,668 6,942 11,497 34,596 43,683 13,304 56,827 64,222 6,481 70,703 84,681 7,764 92,445 Total Operating Revenue Francs 269,363 5,355,946 15,099,031 29,644,505 45,366,359 113,909,951 141,251,819 40,966,925 182,218,744 209,162,096 28,130,076 237,292,172 309,496,884 31,918,159 341,415,043 Total Operating Expense Francs 168,847 3,077,994 9,198,980 14,300,788 25,558,033 68,850,660 84,510,102 21,054,885 105,564,987 141,954,099 11,828,518 153,782,617 203,072,380 13,182,789 216,255,169 Net Operating Revenue Francs 100,516 2,277,952 5,900,051 15,343,717 19,808,326 45,059,291 56,741,717 19,912,040 76,653,757 67,207,997 16,301,558 83,509,555 106,424,504 18,735,370 125,159,874 Taxes Francs - - - - - - ~ - - - - _ _ _ _ Passengers Carried Number 421,439 2,199,319 4,188,614- 7,412,361 14,134,356 43,032,882 64,228,892 18,160,376 82,389,268 123,710,046 15,428,041 139,138,087 175,312,540 17,767,122 193,069,662 Passrs.Carried 1 kilometer Number - - — - — - - - 1.366.790.822 - - 2,688,246,288 - - 4,306,208,193 Avg.Receipts per Passr.km. Centimss - - - - - - - - 3.29 - - 3,55 _ _ 2,39 Tons Carried Metric Tons - 102,154 1,238,886 3,678,002 7,614,333 18,812,311 26,833,678_ 16,155,834 42,989,512. 41,062,742 14,045,176 55,107,918 58,086,805 18,089,072 76,175,877 Tons Carried l kilometer Metric Tons - - - - - - ~ - - - - 6 _ _ _ Avg.Receipts per ton km. Cts.per Met.Ton - - - - - - - - - — - _ - _ 3,81 Employees Number - - - - - - 41,319 10,735 52,054 62,134 5,535 67,669 69,168 4,718 73,886 2: Kilometers in operation. TABLE XI Rig—Ii 1900 1908 State , Private Item Unit Railways Railways Railways Total Length of Line Kilometer 9,241 - - 19,241 Locomotives Number 938 856 288 1,144 Passenger Train Cars Number 1,159 1,207 407 1,614 Freight and Other Cars Number 12,381 8,365 6,020 14,385 Total Operating Revenue Milreis 84,315,020 56,846,292 46,839,655 103,685,947 Total Operating Expense Milreis 65,615,905 50,595,695 31,611,488 82,207,183 Net Operating Revenue Milreis 18,699,115 6,250,597 15,228,167 21,478,764 Passengers Carried Number 20,541,448 26,340,932 4,822,966 31,163,898 Passrs.Carried 1 kilometer Number 594,569,608 592,598,918 144,494,912 737,093,830 _Avg;Receipts per Passr.Km. Reis 29 27 43 30 Tons Carried Metric Tons - 2,484,813 2,961,086 5,445,899 Tons Carried l Kilometer Metric Tons 458,626,560 440,521,270 277,652,601 718,173,871 Avg.Receipts per Ton Km. R818 141 89 142 109 Avg.Number of Employees Number 27,642 24,136 11,120 35,256 TABLE XII. GITNTiIMA. TABLE XIII. DANISH STATE RAILWA'YS. TABLE X11 0 A N A D A 1842 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Private Private ' Private Private State Private State Private State Private State Private * Item Unit Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Raihwgys Total Length of Line Miles 16.00 71.00 2,087.00 2,497.00 1,038 5,753 6,891 1,182 12,074 13,256 1,511 16,146 17,657 2,044 22,687 24,731 , Length of Second Track Miles - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - 25 1,518 1,543J Total Capital Dollars - - - - 41,858,527 328,957,283 370,815,810 57,347,826 729,099,985 786,447,813 64,185,079 934,418,559 998,603,638 118,018,751 1,601,060,750 l,719,069,§Oll 1 Stocks - Dollars - - - - - 189,956,177 189,956,177 - 338,177,386 338,177,386 - 410,326,095 410,326,095 - 687,557,387 687,557,387 ‘ Bonds Dollars - - - - - 80,661,316 80,661,316 - 269,728,826 269,728,826 - 381,181,827 381,181,827 - 722,740,300 722,740,300 Government 115-145.91.166 Railways Dollars - - _ - - 58,339,790 58,339,790 - 121,193,773 121,193,773 - 142,910,637 142,910,637 - 190,703,063 190.755.0617 Locomotives Number - - - - 129 1,028 I,157 214 1,577 1,771 249 2,033. 2,282 475 3,604 4,079 ‘ Total Passenger Train Cars Number - - - — 144 1,026 1,170 265 ,1,753 2,018 357 _ 2,461 2,818 536 3,784 4,320 Freight Cars Number - 3,308 20,771 24,079 6,584 43,474 50,058 7,812 59,706 67,518 13,373 _ 114,988 128,361 . ~.' . 173 956 217 Total erating Revenue Dollars 13,650 - 6,839,409 13,451,289 1 620 149 21,941,298 23,561,447 3,173,712 43,670,114 46,843,826 4,774.162 65,966,168 70.740.270 11,636,186 162,320,051 , . Total aerating Expense Dollars 10,744 - - - 1:770:060 15,070,645 16,840,705 3,827,062 29,086,288 32,913,350 4,665,228 43,034,570 47,699,798 10,464,535 109,940,907 120,405,440 - Net Operating Revenue Dollars 2.906 - - - 149,911“ 6,870,653 6,720,742 656,650” 14,583,826 13,930,476 108,934 22,931,538 23,040,472 1,171,653 52,379,124 sflggggzg Taxes Paid Dollars - - - _ - - - _ _ - - - _ - _ . ’ Passengers Carried Number 27,041 - 1,922,227 - 672,016 6,790,932 7,462,948 1,352,332 11,468,930 12,821,262 1,939,225 19,560,950 21,500,175 4,322,840 3%,571,235 35,893,575 Passengers Carried 1 Mile Number - - - - - - - - - - - - - 190,919 2,270,81?,582 2,466,72i,822 i Receipts per Passenger Mile Cents — - - - — — - - - ' ' ' ' l 80 ’ ' i Tons Carried (short tons) Number 7,716 - - - 599,132 9,339,726 9,938,858 1,420,423 19,367,046 20,787,469 2,213,455 33,732,728 35,946,183 4,847,178 _69,635,688 74,482,866 5 Tong'carried 1 Mi.(Short tons) Number - - - - - - ~ - r ' ' ' ' 1'175'386'371 14'336'741'223 ls'7lz'lzgfzgg f Receipts per Ton Mile CentB — — - - - ~ - ' r ' ' ' ' 0’618 0' ' Total Employees Number - - - - - - - — r ' ' ' " I Z 67 j§§'Z§§ Aggregate Compensation of Employee Dollars - - - - - - - - — ' ' ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘Deficit TABLE X111 D A N I S H S T A T E R A I L W A Y S Itsn Unit 1864 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Length of Line Kilometers 97 495 855 1,530 1,800 1,951 Length of Second Track Kilometers - - - - 158 174 Capital Kronor - — - - - 235,649,848 Locomotives Number - - 113 255 432 604 Passenger Train Cars Number - --v 328 968 1,399 1,815 Freight and Other Cars Number - - 1,524 3,862 5,522 8,681 Total Operating Revenue Kronor 251,626 1,913,956 5,135,424 14,798,222 26,075,537 44,054,873 Total Operating Expense Kronor 163,768 1,412,428 4,001,822 12,192,120 23,476,658 41,163,896 Net Operating Revenue Kronor 87,858 501,528 1,133,602 2,606,102 2,598,879 2,890,978 Passengers Carried Number - - 2,614,480 8,970,301 17,331,500 21,935,030 Passrs.Csrried l Kilometer Number - - 82,446,165 260,181,604 546,082,680 789,798,855 Receipts per Passr.-Km. Ore - - - .9 . . Tons Carried (Metric Tons) Number - - 949,558 1,537,868 3,328,104 4,885,888 Tons Carried l Kilometer Number 4 - 74,635,755 108,348,130 266,977,518 417,249,844 Receipts per Ton-Km. Ore - - ~ 6.0 4.5 5.0 Avg.Number of Employees Number - 1,074 2,312 6,272 9,962 12,716 In addition to the above ' the following kilometers _ 103 143 156 895 1.459 of railway are privately owned TU¥BIJB ICFV. EGYPTIAN STATE RAILWAYS. TABLE XV. IFILAIHIE. TABLR_XIY E G Y P T I A N S T A T E R A I L W A Y 3 Item Unit 1890 1900 1910 Length of Line Kilometer 1,547 ,2,257 2,540 Length of Second Track Kilometer 268 290 - Locomotives Number 249 585 - Passenger Train Cars Number _ 554 679 - Freight and Other Cars Rmmber 4,261 6,984 - Total Operating Revenue Egyptian Pounds 1,408,542 2,214,527 5,400,066 Total Operating Expense Egyptian Pounds 610,124 1,026,945 1,975,229 Net Operating Revenue Egyptian Pounds 798,418 1,187,582 1,426,857 Passengers Carried Number 4,696,286 12,822,069 25,727,045 Tons Carried Metric Tons *58,571,512 5,046,475 5,856,495 *Cantars TABLE XV 0 F R A N C E 1 1841 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 f. 1910 _ I All All All 411 All State Private State Private State Private Item Unit Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total éLength of Line Kilometers 575.00 5,010.00 9,459.00 17,440.00 25,729 2,550 51,019 55,549 2,785 55,261 58 040 a 900 5 {Length of Second Track Kilometers - - - 7,848.00 9,482 502 15,550 15,652 571 15,558 16:109 2:93‘ €i-7€3 $2.45? [Cost of Construction Francs - - - 7,795,125,880 10,185,021,864 705,727,942 15,557,650,529 14,245,558,271 -* -* -* 5,640,558,061 15,255 410 524 18 870 948 585 iLocomotives Number - - - 4,955 6,895 528 9,049 9,577 587 9,942 10,529 2 504 10 556 12 840‘ ‘Passenger Train Cars number - - - 16,651 21,905 2,727 52,054 54,781 5,080 40,577 45,457 11'705 58'542 50'247‘ EFreight Cars Number - - - 122,921 182,089 15,115 251,448 244,561 15,110 259,555 272,645 48,209 280,725 528'954 ‘Total Operating Revenue Francs 12,972,566 95,618,168 418,287,541 654,565,985 1,054,925,252 56,097,756 1,099,094,260 1,155,192,016 50,187,070 1,466,652,057 1,516,859,127 289,685 984 1 557 482 475 1 827 168 457 ,Total Operating Expense Francs 8,298,529 44,764,689 187,879,825 ; 515,055,779 515,555,020 24,972,447 558,055,727 585,006,174 56,152,407 788,025,258 824,155,665 255 587'196 '865'414'715 1'098'801'911 ‘Net Operating Revenue Francs 4,674,057 50,855,479 250,407,518 , 521,528,204 519,568,252 11,125,509 541,060,555 552,185,842 14,054,665 678,628,799 692,685,462 56'298'788 672'067'758 '728'566'546 }T0tal Taxes Francs 505,600 1,907,049 20,851,176 . 54,414,809 81,098,519 15,057,825 299,519,952 512,557,777 8,740,859 244,825,608 255,564,447 55:0501751 252,764,825 505:795:576 ‘Passengers Carried Number 6,578,666 18,741,415 56,528,615 102,597,859 165,105,605 8,686,986 252,451,720 241,118,706 12,722,147 450 470 675 445 192 822 127 245 801 58 4 ‘ Pseere.Carried 1 Kilometer Number 112,602,286 - 2,521,201,667 4,272,546,298 5,862,602,096 558,481,014 7,584,478,655 7,942,959,649 577,555,540 15,485,662,958 14,065:018:478 5 464 875 505 15 442,052,852 16 382'225'557 ‘Receipts per Passr. Km. Centimes 7.00 - 5.64 4.95 5.04 5.51 4.44 4.40 2.99 5.70 5.68 ' ' 5.16 ' ' 5.54 ' ' 8 46 I ,Tnns Carricd (Metric) Number 1,059,795 4,271,057 25,157,769 57,065,775 80,775,680 2,760,255 89,745,665 92,505,918 5,906,955 122,922,768 126 829 725 19 850 852 15 " 5 Tons Carried 1 Kilometer Number 58,768,850 - 5,119,946,899 5,056,960,270 10,550,209,759 506,767,457 11,452,516,651 11,759,084,088 459,447,480 16,117,740,748 16,557:188:228 2,511’980:608 19 672,388'890 21 9gg'ggg'gg8 Receipts per ton - Km. Centimes 12.00 - 6.92 6.14 5.9 5.57 5.44 5.45 5.26 4.68 4.69 ' 5.20 ' ' 1,17 ’ ' 1 27 .Total Employees Number - - .— 128,598 204,702 10,790 222,209 252,999 12,446 274,551 286,777 70,966 268 066 559 052 ‘Not Reported. TABLE XVI G£E]2LlAd§1I. BLE V TABLE XVII. 0 E R 2 A N Y IIHJLA' 1880 1890 1900 1910 Standard and Standard and Standard and Standard and Narrow Gauge Narrow Gauge Narrow Gauge Narrow Gauge Rai1ways,either Private Railways Railways,either Private Railways Rai1ways,either Private Railways Railways,either Private Railways Owned or Operat- (Standard and Owned or Operat- (Standard and Owned or Operat- (Standard and Owned 0r Operat- (Standard and Item Unit ed by the State Narrow Gauge) Totals ed by the State Harrow Gauge) Totals ed by the State Narrow Gauge) Totals ed by the State Narrow Gauge) Totals Length of Line Kilometer 26 218.09 7 682 21 33 900 30 38 54‘ 25 4 388 76 42 930 01 46 681 71 5 048 15 51 72 . 7 * ' v 2 '~ ~--= *' ~ - - . - . - , . , 9.86 56,755.01 4,682.91 61,437.92 Length of Second Traek Zilometer 8,115.13 1,813.75 9,928.88 11,880.16 829.74 12,709.90 17,263.85 706.05 17 969.90 22 783.27 101.09 22 884.36 Length 0f Third 75262 211622622 36.48 _ 56.46 66.66 - 66.66 160.78 6.72 ‘169.50 '547.07 '547.07 _Length of Fourth 1rack Kilometer 3.87 - 3.87 23.01 - 23.01 108.81 8 72 117 53 266 61 - 266 61 Length of Fifth Track Kilometer - _ - _ _ _ ‘ _ ' R'Os _ ;‘06 Capital Marks 7,399,175,663 1,491,157,667 6,690,555,550 9,811,034,930 699,323,427 10,510,358,357 12,251,527,221 616,807,791 12,646,155,012 17,084,735,977 433,608,336 17,518,344,313 Locomotives Number 9 000 1 906 10 90 13 471 931 14 402 18 382 n F . ' v ' 2 ~ . ,4 1,080 19,462 26,778 884 7,6 2 Passenger Train Cara Number 17-089 4.15 31.243 26.388 2.189 28.577 59,094 2 706 41 800 59 456 2,200 61 638 Freight and Other Cars Number 189,657 36,074 225,731 273,391 18,732 292,123 396,658 23:809 420:467 580:135 12,853 592 988 Total Operating Revenue Marks 725,010,672 161,964,360 886,975,032 1,235,050,068 72,366,366 1,307,416,434 1 956 903 668 83 740 349 2 040 644 017 2 991 767 580 55 721 119 5 059 '69 3-0 Total Operating Expense Marks 596.497.0179 90.607.656 487.104.755 755.546.5067 40,552,511 795,696,620 1122617741664 6216261622 1126216061066 210141222122.» 222114214222 2:052:363:759 Net Operating Revenue Marks 328,513,573 71,356,704 399,870,277 479,703,559 31,814,055 511,517,614 728,129,104 29,914,827 758,043,931 977,544,413 20,580,727 998,125,140 T8198 Marks 5.079.112 2.535.915 7.615.027 8.677.266 1.055.557 9.732.625 14,716,848 1,461,965 16,198,833 21,546,446 1,256,131 22,602,579 Passengers Carried Number 172,225,310 42,992,318 215,217,628 395,123,385 39,014,529 434,137,914 817,531,385 61,688,750 879,220,135 1,503,540,368 68,991,060 1,572,531,428 Passrs.0arried 1 Km. Number 5,242,649,599 1,238,221,678 6,480,871,277 10,606,755,351 679,262,902 11,286,018,253 19,444,723,437 805,467,614 20,250,191,051 34,867,954,211 809 829,971 35 677 784 182 Avg.Receipts per Passr.Km. Pfennig 5.46 3.58 5.47 5.12 . 5.15 2.74 2.98 2.75 2.55 ' 2.74 ' ' 2.36 Tons Carried Metric Tons 131,380,845 29,008,831 160,389,676 199,640,838 19,710,791 219,351,629 316,691,029 28,370,234 345,061,263 511,782,925 29,934,413 541,717,338 Tons Carried 1 km. Metric Tons 10,941,705,161 2,133,257,581 13,074,962,742 21,343,886,880 933,021,070 22,276,907,950 53,658,576,166 1,120,907,274 34,779,483,44O 51,490,585,052 444,950,130 51 935,535,182 Avg.Receipts per ton-Km. Pfznnig per 4.32 4.75 4.41 3.84 4.49 3.86 5.65 3.97 3.66 3.65 6.10 i 3.67 ' me ric ton . Avg.Number of employees Number 230,856 54,028 284,884 379,886 21,467 401,353 518,236 22,742 540,978 692,579 13,945 706 524 Compensation of employees Marks 236,382,982 51,530,313 287,913,295 446,106,022 23,351,762 469,457,784 570,100,012 27,595,780 697,695,792 1,122,667,534 18,610,509 1,141,278I043 TABLE XVII I N D I A 1862 1870 1878 1890 1900 1910 All All All All A11 A11 Item Unit Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Length of Line Miles 15 36 7,143 16,095 24,707 32,099 Length of Second Track Niles - - 803 - - - Capital Rupee L113,344,541 2,060,460,994 3,303,483,361 4,390,473,000 Locomotives ‘ Number - a 1,630 3,662 - 7,245 Passenger Train Cars Number - - 4,894 9,940 - 20,372 Freight Cars Number - - 29,263 69,185 - 149,628 Total Operating Revenue Rupee — - L 11,236,121 204,936,629 315,967,000 511,422,000 Total Operating Expense Rupee - - L 5,003,233 103,774,007 150,995,000 271,572,000 . Net Operating Expense ' Rupee - - L 6,232,888 101,162,622 164,972,000 239,850,000 Passengers Carried Number - - 34,143,512 110,650,472 174,824,483 371,576,000 Passrs.0arried 1 mile Number - - 920,751,905 4,676,868,296 7,008,713,000 13,432,477,000 Receipts per Passr.Mi. Pies - - Pence 0.337 2.5 2.5 2.45 Tons Carried (long ton) Number - - 8,309,943 ' 22,249,111 43,615,289 65,603,000 Tons Carried 1 mile Number - - 1,941,287,686 3,643,797,257 6,698,000,000 12,092,916,000 Receipts per ton mile Pies - - Pence 0.932 6.8 5.85 4.83 Employees Number - - 132,040. 238,217 350,177 543,493 TABLE XVIII. ITUKLSF. TABLE XIX. JAPAN. TABLE XVIII l_2_4_L_X 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 State Private State Private State Private State Private State *Private Item Unit Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Length of Line Kilometer 804 5,555 5,150 3,830 4,759 8,599 8,421 4,454 .12,855 - - 15.884 13.348 3.620 16.968 Capital Lire - - 1,785,000,000 - - 2,616,737,800 - ' - - - - 5,581,147,055 5,590,000,000 550,000,000 5,940,000,000 ‘ Locomotives Number - - - - - - - - - - _ 05 1 Passenger Train-Cars Number - - ~ - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ 3'59; lé'ggg 1 gig lg'ggg 3 P17618111: and Other Cars Number - - - - - - .. _ _ _ _ ,_ 54:365 90.759 ‘25.400 96'159 Total Operating Revenue Lire - — 99 343 358 - - 180 106 819 - - 255 687 108 318 366 324 535 220 821 33 000 000 568 22 I O 9 I y I " - 0 e" v , ’ o. I ' ' Total Operating Expense Lire - - 55,750,000 - - 122,252,852 - - 175,579,424 - - 239.516.399 445,759,551 25,000 000 459 759 551 Net Operating Revenue Lire - - 55,585,558 - - 57,845,957 - - 82,507,584 - - 78.849.925 91,481,190 7,000I000 98:481f190 Passengers Carried Number - 4 22,170,000 - - 52,491,827 - - 50,855,569 - - 59,595,420 52,407,500 28,000,000 110,407,500 Tons Carried Metric Tons - - 4,757,000 - - 9,329,073 - - 16,483,651 - — 17.995.551 33,943,640 4,500,000 38,443,640 Avg.Number of Employees Number - - - - - - - - - - — ~ 160 000 12 000 162 000 Compensation ofimployeas Lire - - - - - - - - - ' - - 245,000,000 15,700,000 258,700,000 ‘Approximate. TABLE III J A g A N 1873 1880 1890 1900 1910 State State State Private State Private State Private Item _ Unit Railways Railways Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways T0981 Length of Line Miles 18.00 73.22 550.49 586.86 1,136.34 832.72 2,806.00 3,638.72 4,623.61 606.06 5,129.66 Length of Seconi Track Miles - - - - - 158.15 92.39 250.54 629.33 - 629.33 Length of Third Track Miles - - - - - - - - 4.97 - 4.97 Length of'Fourth Track Miles - - - - - — - - 4.57 - 4.67 Capital Yen - - - - - 59,979,049 177,029,495 247,008,542 784,963,769 54,551,457 819.295.226 Locomotives Number - - - - 545 871 1,214 2,174 151 2.505 Passenger Train Cars Number - - - - - 1,022 3,129 4,151 5,433 716 5.144 Freight Cars Number - - - - 3,683 12,822 15,505 55,555 1,574 35.259 Total Operating Revenue Yen 174,930 1,243,531 3,771,630 2,453,007 6,224,637 13,719,006 24,850,648 38,669,654 82.236.436 4,180,227 86.416.663 Total Operati Expense Yen 113,464 512,674 1,663,417 1,026,804 2,689,221 6,596,677 12,234,947 18,831,624 42,060,989 2,142,241 44.205.230' Net Operating avenue Yen 61,466 730,867 2,108,213 1,427,203 3,535,416 7,122,329 12,616,701 19,738,030 40,175.447 2,037,986 42.215.433 Passengers Carried Number - - - - - 28,663,683 75,452,259 102,115,942 128,505,950 24,781,105 153,088,066 Passengers Carried 1 Mi. Number - - - - - 635,044,513 1,076,806,648 1,711,860,161 2,812,329,108 188,424,281 3,000,753,389 Receipts per Passr.Mi. Yen - - - - - 0.0146 0.0131 0.0137 0.0140 0.0152 0.01408 Tons Carried (Long tons) Number - - - - - 2,391,471 9,428,663 11,820,034 23,665,620 2,165,853 25,811,473 Tons Carried 1 mile Number - - - - - 177,318,088 422,152,648 699,470,736 1,911,197,440 30,866,076 1,942,053,616 Receipts per ton-mile _Yen - - . - - - 0.0210 0.0213 0.0212 0.0165 0.0257 0.01664 Employees . Number - - - - - 19,881 33,903 53,784 90,131 4,463 94,694 Compensation of employee Yen - - - - - 3,366,120 4,998,948 8,366,068 18,925,872. 740,688 19,666,660 TABLE Z; N E T H E R L A N D S 1875 1880 1890 1900 1910 State Private State Private State Private State Private All Item Unit Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railwayfl Total 8811mm Length of Line Kilometers see 465 1,552 1,199 1,124 2,325 1,565 1,097 2,662 1,718 1,526 3.244 3.6% Length of Second Track Kilometers - 281 281 127 354 481 - - - - 1.469 Capital Gulden 96,404,502 80,875,974 177,280,476 152,428,908 107,425,016 259,855,924 258,271,000 - - - — - ' Locomotives Number - - - - - _ _ - - ,_ - 1,162 Passenger Train Oars Number - - - - _ - - _ - _ - - 5,014 Freight and Other Cars Number - - - - _ - - _ - _ 20,850 Total Operating Revenue Gulden 5,089,816 8,545,889 15,655,705 9,575,545 12,804,055 22,177,600 15,749,657 9,826,528 25,575,965 _25,789,256 18,865,852 42,655,108 65,495,000 Total Operating Expense Gulden 5,406,490 5,205,155 10,611,625 5,062,592 6,125,968 11,186,560 11,806,417 7,299,967 19,106,584 '20,809,000 17,085,165 57,892,165 51,857,000 Net Operating Revenue Gulden 516,674_ 5,540,754 5,024,080 4,510,955 6,680,087 10,991,040 1,945,220 2,526,561 4,469,581 2,980,256 1,780,687 4,760,945 11,656,000 Passengers Carried Number 5,455,517 5,894,024 9,529,541 5,989,897 9,999,896 15,989,795 6,664,454 10,505,900 16,970,554 12,256,609 17,761,769 50,018,578 46,221,000 Receipts par Passr.Km. Gulden - - - - _ _ - - _ _ - .024 .022 Tons Carried (metric tom Number 879,015 907,116 1,786,129 2,256,600 2,200,785 4,457,585 4,578,798 2,577,206 6,756,004 7,275,688 4,585,561 11,659,049 16,051,000 Receipts per ton km. Gulden - - - - -, - - - - ‘ _ - .018 .021 15555 111 I B I’ 5 E A L A N D Item Unit 1885 1890 1900 1910 Length or Line Miles ‘12,558 1,809 2,104 2,717 Capital Pounds 10,478,998 15,899,955 16,705,887 28,515,476 Locomotives Number - - - 465 Passenger Train Cars Number - - - 1,140 Freight and Other Cars Number - - - 17,220 Total Operating Revenue Pounds 955,547 1,095,570 1,625,891 5,249,790 Total Operating Expense Pounds 592,821 682,787 1,052,558 2,169,474 Net Operating Revenue Pounds 560,526- 412,785 571,555 1,080,516 Passengers Carried Number 5,285,578 5,576,459 5,468,284 11,141,142 Tons Carried Long Tons 1,564,825 2,075,955 5,127,874 5,235,414 Avg.Number of Employees Number - ~ - 13.324 TABLE XX. NETHERLANDS. TABLE XXI. NEW ZEAIIAN D. TABLE XXII. NTIRNVAFY. TABLE XXIII. PORTUGAL. 5 TABLE XXII N 0 R W A Y 1855 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 All All All State Private State Private State Private State Erivate Item Unit Railways Railways Railways Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Length 01 Line Kilometer 68 68 559 989 68 1,057 1,494 68 1,562 1,879 176 2,057 2,506 470 2,976 Length of Second Track Kilometer - - _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - 554 150 484 Capital Kroner 8,726,000 9,068,000 -26,019,000 69,961,525 10,052,558 79,995,881 117,257,580 10,949,897 128,187,277 156,279,946 16,055,755 175,515,681 250,469,148 57,576,881 287,846,029 Locomotives lumber - - - 75 16 91 124 22 146 195 47 242 - - 362 Passe er Train Cars Rumber - - - 554 44 578 460 58 518 471 85 554 — - 855 Preish and Other Cars Number - - - 1,712 450 2,162 2,761 556 5,517 5,006 1,199 6,205 - -_ 7.782 Total Operating Revenue Kroner 480,000 678,000 1,868,000 5,216,791 1,086,942 4,505,755 7,550,050 1,697,057 9,017,107 12,420,912 2,765,012 15,185,924 19,615,945 5,846,212 25,462,155 Total Operating Expense. Kroner 521,000 521,000 1,219,000 2,682,585 607,014 5,289,597 5,117,925 806,775; 5,924,698 10,005,960 2,046,856 12,052,796 14,625,546 2,889,915 17,515,461 Net Operating Revenue Kroner 159,000 240,000 649,000 554,408 479,928 1,014,556 2,202,125 890,284 5,092,409 2,414,952 718,176 5,155,128 4,992,597 956,297 5,948,694 Passengers Carried lumber 128,000 152,000 551,000 1,595,606 252,477 1,648,085 5,755,590 589,598 *5,989,447 9,126,081 1,078,898 *9,899,555 11,705,185 1,846,662 *15,079,057 Passre.Carried 1 Kilometer Number - 4,782,000 17,294,000 42,753,241 7,891,108 50,644,549 95,395,429 11,464,468 106,857,897 207,125,829 27,546,800 234,472,629 294,655,627 40,763,191 555,598,818 Avg.Receipts per Passr.Km. Ore - 5.5 2.6 - 5.4 5.5 5.2 5.1 5.2 2.7 - 2.8 2.8 2.8 25 Tons Carried Number 85,000 144,000 550,000 501,445 505,957 605,582 1,057,509 495,910 *1,525,770 1,815,497 926,749 *2,507,219 4,198,976 1,260,515 *4,889,559 Tone Carried l Kilometer Metric Tone - 5,027,000 19,955,000 28,754,759 9,569,902 58,524,661 72,875,782 16,145,556 89,019,158 124,912,495 28,912,971 155,825,464 256,150,872 57,526,872 295,477,744 IZOD—Km. p81‘ "" 904 6.5 - 706 506 4.7 704 502 ' 4.5 - 4.6 5.6 6.4 .2 Avg-.Number 64 Employees Number - - - 1,568 526 1,694 - - - - ~ - - - 5.949 ‘As Reported. TABLE XXIII P 0 R T U G A L 1880 1890 1900 1910 State Private State ' Private State Private State Private Itam Unit Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Length of Line Kilometer 594 550 1,144 828 1,104 1,952 845 1,525 2,168 1,024 1,424 2,448 Total Operating Revenue Milreis *5,627,000 *11,011,000 *16,658,000 1,585,227 5,850,224 5,415,451 2,116,021 5,550,584 7,646,605 5,204,688 7,585,572 10,590,260 Total Operating Expense Milreie - - - 910,271 1,647,954 2,558,225 1,125,041 2,595,705 5,518,746 1,884,876 5,247,548 5,152,424 Net Operating Revenue Milreis - - - 674,956 2,182,270 2,857,226 990,980 5,156,879 4,127,859 1,519,812 4,158,024 5,457,856 Passengers Carried Number 971,055 1,155,101 2,124,154 1,241,204 5,975,977 5,215,181 1,760,195 9,149,166 10,909,561 2,911,104- 11,977,605 14,888,707 Tons Carried Metric Tons 255,285 578,151 651,416 415,685 1,812,125 2,225,806 694,859 1,870,570 2,565,429 1,185,487 5,659,526 - 4,844,815 *Francs TABLE XXIV R O U M A H I A Unit 1901 1910 Length of Line Kilometers 5,100 5,186 Capital Lei - 987,170,487 Total Operating Revenue Lei 50,158,165 84,450,822 Total Operating Expense Lei 55,645,927 55,251,141 Net Operating Revenue Lei 14,512,258 51,199,681 Passengers Carried Number 5,472,058 9,169,849 Tons Carried(Metric Tons) Number 5,987,641 6,966,277 AvgaReoeipts per ton-km. Lei per - .0447 ‘ .Metri o Ton-Km. F TABLE XXV R U S S I A 1890 1900 1910 State Private State Private State Private Item Unit Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Length of Line Versts 8,050.85 19,407.29 27,458.12 55,569 15,612 49,181 42,026.31 21,048.20 65,075.51 Length of Double or more tracks Versts 105.58 4,516.65 4,422.05 7,665 1,785 9,446 11,258.52 2,580.64 15,819.16 Capital Rubles 465,270,706 1,560,496,454 2,025,787,140 5,582,045,017 1,142,574,967 4,524,417,984 4,951,405,205 1,918,206,569 6,875,611,574 Locomotives Number 1,555 5,598 8,955 8,840 5,497 12,557 15.264 5,025 20,289 Passenger Train Cars Number 1,596 6,402, 7,998 11,956 4,515 16,451 20,400 6,547 25,747 Freight and Other Cars Number 55,150 112,461 145,611 199,698 91 048 290,746 527,991 127,186 455,177 Total Operating Revenue Rubles 51,544,495 252,986,143 284,530,658 410,552,464 172,299,256 582,651,700 664,517,268 315,429,225 977,946,495 Total Operating Expense Rubles 52,755,490 159,020,792 171,774,282 274,699,014 110,220,985 584,919,999 468,064,341 189,245,795 657,308,156 Net Operating Revenue Rubles 18,791,005 95,965,551 112,756,556 135,655,450 62,078,251 197,711,701 196,452,927 124,459,561 520,912,288 Passengers Carried Number 7,108,915 59,595,760 46,504,675 78,751,885 50,288,581 107,000,284 142,607,697 65,502,624 208,110,521 Passengers Carried l verst Number 790,152,000 5,909,502,000 4,899,854,000 8,065,546,200 2,902,998,800 10,968,544,800 14,450,528,200 5,144,591,900 19,594,718,100 Avg.Receipts per Passr.-verst Copecks . 1.08 1.05 .90 .88 .90 .84 .96 ,90 Foods Carried Number 714,911,925 5,464,500,419 4,179,412,544 6,708,655,455 2,700,109,215 9,408,764,668 10,154,750,595 4,579,875,547 14,554,605,742 Poods Carried 1 verst Number 172,028,925,000 682,006,669,000 854,055,594,000 856,651,848,210 542,261,567,790 1,178,895,416,000 1,276,410,886,500 561,154,228,000 l,857,565,114,000 Avg.Reoeipte per Pood - verst Copecks .025 ..024 .0245 .0204 .0215 .0208 .0215 .0222 .0217 Average number of employees Number 55,928 198,487 252,415 590,075 164,295 554,568 565,455 211,295 776,750 Compensation of employees Rubles 17,200,152 64,550,156 81,550,268 151,212,654 51,875,569 185,086,005 255,584,915 86,145,151 519,528,046 TABLE XXIV. ROUMAN IA. TABLE XXV. RUSSIA. TABLE XXVI. SIUKIN. TABLE XXVII. SWEDEN. TABLE XXVI §;Z14_11! Item Unit 1871 1880 1890 1900 1909 Length of Line Kilometer 5,487 7,330 10,002 13,214 14,607 Capital Pesetas - - - - 3,782,017,950 Locomotives Number - 1,245 - - 2,533 Passenger Train Cars Number - 3,569, - - 6,189 Freight and Other Cars Number - 20,268 - - 50,109 Total Operating Revenue Pesetas 90,691,276 139,218,544 193,282,769 261,300,000 339,604,858 Total Operating Expense Pesetas 39,089,085 61,313,291 86,808,453 122,000,000 166,811,599 Net Operating Revenue Pesetas 51,602,191 77,905,253 106,474,316 139,300,000 172,793,259 Passengers Carried Number 11,501,129 —14,812,851 25,809,006 32,000,000 51,408,194 Passrs.Carried 1 Km. Number - - , - - 1,889,691,320 Tons Carried Metric Tone 3,737,838 8,088,175 - - 31,456,774 Tons Carried 1 Km. Metric Tons - - - - 3,085,518,819 TABLE XXVII S W E D E N 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 State Private State Private State Private State Private State _ Private Item Unit Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Railways Railways Total Length of'Line Kilometer 1,117 627 1,744 1,956 3,926 5,882 2,613 5,405 8,018 3,850 7,453 11,303 4,418 9,411 13,829 Capital Kronor 91,144,959 33,228,447 124,373,406 191,389,676 227,598,207 418,987,883 255,055,498 262,492,784 517,548,282 358,409,000 367,518,000 725,927,000 522,862,294 544,988,087 1,067,850,381 Locomotivefl Number - — - - 376 476 852 .580 762 1,342 879 1,042 1,921 Passenger Train Cars Number - - - - - - 900 1,071 1,971 _1,082~ 1,552 2,594 1,528 2,105 3,631 Freight and other Cars Number - - - - - 9,501 11,588 20,889 ‘14,378 19,055 55,415 21,557 25,710 47,267 Total Operating Revenue Kronor 6,791,193 3,969,284 10,760,477 16,490,000 16,019,084 32,509,084 21,972,575 25,426,204 47,398,779 44,626,002 45,671,924 90,297,926 72,131,021 69,930,756 142,061,777 Total Operating Expense Kronor 3,610,677 1,817,527 5,428,204 9,985,205 7,973,781 17,956,986 15,272,572 15,027,585 28,299,755 35,974,804 28,682,631 62,657,435 56,231,490 48,845,585 102,877,066 Net Operating Revenue Kronor 3,180,516 2,151,757 5,552,275 6,506,795 8,045,303 14,552,098 6,700,203 12,598,821 19,099,024 10,851,198 16,989,293 27,640,491 15,899,531 25,285,191 ‘ 59,184,722 Passsngxrs Carried Number 1,593,141 891,030 2,484,171 3,204,830 3,813,934 7,018,764 4,702,688 7,991,102 12,693,790 10'948.822 19,881,941 30,830,763 20,500,440 37,776,210 58,276,650’ Passrs.Carried 1 Kilometer Number - - - - - - 206,532,807 176,568,679 383,101,486 454'450’825 368,256,617 822,687,440 846,083,400 728,429 700 1,574,513,100 Avg.Receints per Passenger-Km. Ore - - ' - - — - — - - - - 3.60 2.73 3.03 2.87 Tons Carried Metric Tons 712,505 1,570,511 2,083,016 1,828,241 4,060,771 5,889,012 5,188,089 7,419,636 10,607,725 5,719'441 14,925,457 21,842,898 15,157,820 25,852,810 36,990,630 Tons carried 1 kilometer Hetrie Tons — - - - - - 519.677.987 511.199.691 650.877.678 95,559,900 665,272,200 1,458,812,100 1,590,610,300 1,074,255,200 2,884,885,500 Avg.Receipts per ton-Km. Ore per - - - - - - - - - - ' - 3.91 . 4.23 3.59 Met.Ton ‘TABLE XXVIII s i I T z E R L A N n Item Unit 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Length of Line Kilometer 1,365.6 2,563.1 3,100.9 3,707.1 4,572.5 Length of Second Track Kilometer - - 480.6 731.6 1,020.7 Capital Francs 453,008,093 747,350,802 957,669,588 1,233,485,809 1,767,919,135 Locomotives Number 247 543 757 1,198 1,602 Passenger Train Cars Number 894 1,655 2,062 2,895 4,611 Freight and Other Cars Number 3,703 8,553 9,789 13,797 17,907 Total Operating Revenue Francs 32,963,499 60,020,371 92,795,189 142,099,023 222,437,673 Total Operating Expense Francs 16,585,951 31,497,203 51,066,254 83,572,800 140,570,421 Net Operating Revenue Francs 16,377,548 28,523,168 41,728,935 58,526,223 81,867,252 ,Passengers Carried Number 10,773,234 21,608,581 32,378,357 62,800,212 110,068,465 Passengers Carried 1 Km. Number 193,028,930 447,218,678 701,779,485 1,239,007,614 2,312,931,954 Avg.Receipts per Passr.Km. Centimes 4.99 5.27 5.27 . 4.83 4.15 Tons Carried Metric Tons 2,574,800 5,817,008 9,389,847 14,591,416 17,023,916 Tons Carried 1 Km. Metric Tons 105,547,114 295,571,317 560,211,070 805,909,276 1,248,826,595 Avg.Receipts per ton-Km. Cts.per Met.Ton 10.71 10.73 9.11 9.31 9.37 Avg.Number of Employees Number - 13,248 19,679 28,674 41,179 Compensation of Employees Francs - 14,408,552 22,366,026 38,549,442 69,462,774 TABLE XXIX U N I T E D K I N G D 0 M 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 All All All All A11 All All Item Unit Railways Railways Railways . Railways Railways Railways Railways Length of Line Miles 6,621 10,433 15,537 17,933 20,073 21,855 23,389 Length of Second Track Miles **5,466 **6,690 **8,200 **9,805 **10,989 **12,162 13,189 Length of Third Track Miles - - - - _ _ 1.517 Length of Fourth Track Miles - - - - _ _ 1.193 Length of Fifth or More Track Miles - - - - _ _ 554 Capital Paid Up Pounds 240,270,745 348,150,127 529,908,673 728,316,848 897,472,026 1,176,001,890 1,318,515,417 Stocks Pounds 184,763,677 258,664,707 387,974,234 546,558,217 664,959,156 865,458,329 964,337,470 Loans and Debenture Bonds Pounds 55,507,068 89,665,420 141,934,439 181,758,631 232,512,870 310,543,561 354,177,947 Locomotives Number — - 9,379 13,384 16,237 21,195 22,840 Passenger Train Cars Number - - 28,160 40,851 50,881 66,017 72,815 Freight Cars Number - - 261,834 391,615 540,578 709,200 766,729 Total Operating Revenue Pounds 13,204,669 27,766,622 45,078,143 65,491,625 79,948,702 104,801,858 123,925,565 Total Operating Expense Pounds - 13,187,368 21,715,525 33,601,124 43,188,556 64,743,520 76,569,676 Net Operating Revenue Pounds - 14,579,254 23,362,618 31,890,501 36,760,146 40,058,338 47,355,889 Taxes and Rates Pounds - - 926,806 - 2,251,087 3,757,153 5,102,000 ‘Passengers Carried Number 72,854,422 163,435,678 336,545,397 603,885,025 817,744,046 1,142,276,686 1,306,728,583 Tons Carried (long tons) Number - 89,857,719 - 235,305,629 303,119,427 424,929,513 514,428,806 *Excluding season ticketholders, etc. **Double or more track. TABLE XXVIII. SWITZERLAND. TABLE XXIX. UNITED KINGDOM. TABLE XXX 0 H 1 T E D S T A T E S Item Unit 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Length of Line Miles 23 2,818 9,021 30,635 53,487 87,832 163,597 193,346 240,439 Length of Second Track Miles - - - - 2,217 4,562 8,438 12,151 21,659 Length of Third Track Miles - - - - - - 761 1,095 2,206 Length of Fourth Track Miles - - - - - - 562 829 1,489 Capital Dollars - - - - 2,782,245,675 5,004,521,666 9,431,343,420 11,491,034,960 18,417,132,238 Locomotives Number - - - - 10,913 17,412 ‘30,140 37,663 58,947 Passenger Train Cars Number - - — - 10,768 16,805 26,820 34,713 47,095 Freight Cars Number - - - 239,783 455,450 1,142,847 1,416,125 2,243,236 Total Operating Revenue Dollars 39,466,358 ~ 390,712,300 580,450,594 1,051,877,632 1,487,044,814 2,750,667,435 Total Operating Expense Dollars - - - 260,379,100 352,800,121 692,093,971 961,428,511 1,822,630,433 Net Operating Revenue Dollars - - 130,333,200 227,650,473 359,783,661 525,616,303 928,037,002 Taxes Dollars - - - 13,283,819 31,943,020 48,332,273 103,795,701 Passengers Carried lumber - - - 67,198,000 269,583,340 492,430,865 576,865,230 971,683,199 Passrs.Carried 1 mile Number - - 2,101,300,976 5,740,112,502 11,847,785,617 16,039,007,217 32,338,496,329 Receipts per Passr.-mile Cents - - - - 2.987 2.510 2.167 _ 2.003 1.938 Tons Carried No.Short Tons - - - - 62,240,000 290,897,395 636,541,617 593,970,955 1,026,491,782 Tons Carried 1 mile R0.Short Tons - » - 5,295,831,217 32,348,846,693 76,207,047,298 141,599,157,270 255,016,910,451 Receipts per ton-mile Cents - - - - 2.447 1.287 0.941 0.729 0,755 Employees Number - - - - - 418,957 749,301 1,017,653 __1.559,420 'Total Compensation of Employees Dollars - - - - 195,350,013 433,970,343 577,264,841 1,143,725,306 Avg.Month1y Compensation of Employees Dollars - - - - M 38.86 48.30 47.40 57,50 TABLE XIII CONVERSION ILBLE Equivalent in Equivalent in Metric and Other Measures United States Measures Countrz Unit United States Dollars l kilometer ............. 0.621 mile. Argentina Gold peso 0.96477 1 metric ton ........... 1.102 short tons (2000 pounds Austria-Hungary Krone 0.20263 1 metric ton-kilometer .. 0.684 short ton-mile Belgium Franc 0.19295 1 long ton (2240 pounds). 1.12 short tons (2000 pounds Brazil Hilreis 0.32444 1 long ton-mile ......... 1.12 short ton-mile Canada Dollar 1.00000 1 Vent Oeeeeeeoeneeeeeeo mile. .7' Krone 1 pood .................. 0.01806 short ton Egypt Egyptian Pound 4.94307 1 e e e e o e e e e e e e o. Germany Mark 0.23821 Equivalent in 0.3840 in 1890 United States Measures Metric and Other Measures India Rupee 0.3270 in 1900 ‘-__-—_'__'_'___-'____' '-_-___'_-__-__-_-'__- 0.3245 in 1910 0.907 metric ton . 1 short ton (2000 pounds) 0.893 long ton Italy Lira 0.19295 55.371 poods Japan Yen 0.49846 .Netherlands Guilder 0.40196 1 mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1'61 kilmnete" now zoolooa Pound Sterling 4.86656 1-51 "rat Norway Krone 0.26799 Portugal Milreis 1.08046 1.46 metric ton-kilometers 1 short ton-mile ........ 0.893 long ton-mile Rqumania Lei 0.19295 83.61 pood-versts Russia Rouble 0.51456 Spain Peseta 0.19295 Sweden Krona 0.26799 Switzerland Iranc 0.19295 United Kingdom Pound Sterling 4.86656 United States Dollar 1.00000 TABLE XXX. UNITED STATES. TABLE XXXI. CONVERSION TABLE. TABLE XXXII. COMPARATIVE RAILWAY STATISTICS. TABLE mu Wm ' sheet 38,1 country Length 01’ Line Length 01' Second and More Tracks $253; Sgrsfigggdogmli'iggre capital capital PM. 5116 of Lin, Miles 1 Miles 2 Miles 3 Dollars 4 Dollars 5 1988118184 17,384.48 I _ - — 888,914,999 I 49,982 I Austria-Hungary 25,499.07 I 4,045.50 I ~17 I 2,550,854,784 I 108,545 I 38180.11]! 2,952.20 I. 1,450.00 I A9 II 547,748,772 I 188,804 _ Brazil (1908)_ 11,948.66 I - - - _ 0811888 24,751.00 I 1,545.00 I -06 I 1,719,089,501 I 69,511 _ Denmark 1,211.57 I 108.05 I .0'9 I 63,154,159 | 52,125 - Egypt (State Rye.) 1,453.1411 -'~ - _ _ 9m” 25,072.00 I 10,981.00 _ .44 I 3,642,093,038 I 145,285 III-I 08mm 38,091.51 _ 14,571.92'_ .58 _ ‘4,169,365,947 I 109,456 I India 52,099.00 I - - 1,424,708,489‘ I 44,385 I Italy 10,558.00 I - ' - 1,346,360,000 I 127,782 ‘I Japan ‘ 5,129.66 l 638.87 I - .12 I 408,009,025 I 79,559 In Hetherlallds 2,249.88 I _ 912.25 I _ ‘ _ 178w 28919.84 2,717.00 l‘ - - 158,780,851‘ I - 51,071 I Norway 1,848.10 I 500.58 I .18 - I 77,142,736 l 41,741 Il_ Portugal 5 1,520.21 l - - ~ - - 888189818 1,978.50 I - - 190,525,900 | 98,429 _ Russia (European) 41,817.74 _ 9,162.10 _ .22 _ 5,538,399,715 _ 84,512 — Spain (1909) 9,070.95 I - - ' 729,929,464 I 80,483 Sweden 8,587.81 I - - 286,183,902 I 55,524 I ,= 898888919114 2,839.52 I‘ 633.85 I .22 I ' 541,208_395 | 120,164 I— :0111288 K111511011! 25,589.00 I 18,482.00 I .70 I 5,416,555,277 _ 274,998 In United. 31781388 240,459.00 II 25,554.00 I .11 I 18,417,152,288 __ 78,598 _ .TO‘bal 530,550.00 % TABLE XXXII. COMPARATIVE RAILWAY STATISTICS. COQARATIV'E RAILWAY §TATI STIC§ 191 " ' Sheet No.2 Total Operating Revenue Total Operating Revenue Total Operating Expense Total Operating Expense Net Operating Revenue Net Operating Revenue Net Operating Revenue Per Mile of Line For Mile of Line Per Mile of Line Country Dollars 6 Dollars 7 Dollars g Dollars Dollars 10 Dollars 11 In Per Cent 01‘ Capital 118. Argentina 107,058,457 I 6,158 I 68,622,090 I 8,659 I 48,486,867 I 2,499 I 5.00% I Austria-Hungary 295,479,499 I 12,574 _ _ _ _ _ Belgium 65,898,108 l 22,472 41,737,247 l 14,234 I 24,155.856 l 8.258 _ 4.41% _ Brazil (1908) 33,594,247 I 2,811 I 26,685,127 I 2,229 I 6,959,120 I 582 I - Canada 173,956,217 I 7,088 I 120,405,440 I 4,868 I 58,550,777 I 2,165 I 8.11% I Denmark 11,806,718 I 9,744 I 11,081,925 | 9,105 I 774,788 | 689 I 1.28% I Egypt 16,806,526 | 11,565 I 9,758,671 I 6,712 I 7,052,855 I 4,853 I _ France 852,648,512 I 14,065 I 212,068,769 I 8,458 I 140,574,743 I 5,607 I 8.86% I Germany 726,016,846 I 19,059 I 488,462,563 I 12,823 237,553,783 I 6,286 I 5.70% I India 165,956,489 I 5,170 I 88,125,114 I 2,745 I 77,881,825 I 2,425 I 5.46% I Italy 109,666,618 I 10,406 I 90,659,748 | 8,603 I 19,006,870 I 1,808 I 1-41% _ Japan 43,035,498 I 8,389 I 22,018,209 I 4,291 I, _ 21,022,289 I 4,098 I 5.15% I Netherlands 25,524,186 I 11,344 I 20,846,514 I 9,265 I 4,677,672 I 2,079 I - New Zealand 15,815,108 I 5,821 I 10,557,745 1 3,885 I 5,257,858 I 1,956 I 8.78% I Norway 6,287,858 | 8,402 I 4,698,608 I 2,589 I 1,594,250! 863 I 2.07% I Portugal 11,437,481 I 7,528 I 5,548,018 I 3,646 I 5,894,468 I 3,867 I - Roumania 16,295,149 I 8,286 I 10,273,610 I 5,192 I 6,021,589 I 8,044 I 8.16% I Russia(European) 508,251,265 I 12,034 I 888,250,766 I 8,089 I 165,141,468 I 8,949 I 4.67% I Spain (1909) 65,548,788 I 7,225 I 82,194,689 I 8,549 I 88,849,099 I 3,676 I 4.57% I Sweden 88,072,556 I 4,488 I 27,571,051 I 8,210 I 10,501,505 I 1,228 I 8.67% I Switzerland 42,980,471 l 15,118 I 27,130,091 I 9,554 I 15,800,380 I 5,564 I 4.68% I United Kingdom 603,083,762 I 25,784 I 872,626,828 I 15,981 I 280,457,484 I 9,858 I 8.60% I United States 2,750,667,435 I 11,440 I 1,822,680,488 I 7,580 I 928,087,002 I 3,860 I 5.04% I ATVE LA '1‘ TC _ .- COMPARATIVE RAILWAY STATISTICS. TABLE XXXII. Sheet No.3 Passengers Carried Passengers Carried Per Mile of Line Passengers Carried One Mile Passengers Carried One Mile Per Mile of Line Average Distance 01‘ Passenger Travel Average Recs ipt 8 Per Passenger-Mile Country Number 12 Number 13 Passenger-Miles 14 Passenger-Miles 15 1188 15s Cents 16 Argentina 59,014,800 I 5,594 I 1,469,286,000- 84,517 I 24.9 I - Austria-Hungary 394,620,531 _ 16, 793 _ 7,406,240,921 _ 315 ,171 _ 18.8 _ 1. 009 _ Belgium 193,069,662 655,848 _ 2,674,155,288 - 911,996 _ 13.8 - .743 _ Brazil (1908) 31,163,898 I 2,608 I 457,735, 268 I 38,308 I 14.7 _ 1.565 _ Canada 35,894,575 I 1,451 I 2,466,729,644 - 99,742 - 68.8 _ 1.866 — Denmark 21,955,050 l 18,101 I 490,485,179 I 404,817 I 22.4 _ 1.080 _ Egypt 25,727,045 I 17,704 I - _ _ _ France 508,558,187 _ 20,285 — 10,482,294,329 _ 416,067 _ 20.6 - 1.075 _ Germany 1,572,531,428 III 41,285 I 22",120,228,195 I 580,712 I 14.1 I .904 I India 371,576,000 _ 11,576 _ ‘ 13,432,477, 000 _ 418 ,470 _ 36 .2 _ .414 — Italy 110,407,800 I 10,477 - v - - ' , Japan 153,088,066 - 29,844 _ 3,000,753,389 - 584,980 — 19.6 — .701 _ Netherlands 46 , 221 , 000 I 20 , 543 — - - - 1.425 _ New Zealand 11,141,142 | 4,100 I - - _ - Norway 13,079,037 | 7,077 - 208,282,666 I 112.700 - 15,9 -_ 1,207 _ Portugal 14,888,707 I 9,793 - - - .. .- Roumania 9,189,849 | 4,634 I - .. _ _ Russia (European) 208,110,321 _ , 4,975 I 12,991,298,100 _ 510,665 _ 62.4 — .700 _ Spain (1909) 51,408,194 I 5,667 I 1,175,498,510I ‘ 129,568 - 22,8 _ _ Sweden 58 ,276 ,650 I 6 ,785 - 977,772,635 I 113,858 - 16.8 _ 1.238 _ Switzerland 110,068,465 - 38,763 — 1,436 ,330,743 I 505,836 _ 13.0 _ 1.290 _ United Kingdom 1,306,728,583 _ 55,869 - - .. .. United States 971,683,199 _ 4,040 I 32,336,496,329 _ 134,497 - 33.3 — 1.938 _ TABLE XXXII. COMPARATIVE RAILWAY STATISTICS. COMPARATI VE RAILWAY STATISTICS 9 _ - L10 _ Sheet No.4 Tons Carried Tons Carried Per Mile of Line Tons Carried One Mile Tons Carried One Mile Average Haul 0! Freight Average Receipts Country Short Tons 17 Short “Bone 18 Short Ton Miles 19 gfigrfifinofiilflge 20 Miles 209, Per Shggztgommilezl Argentina 36,934,502 I 2,124 I 4,495,880,000 I 358.499 _ 131,5 - Austria-Hungary 217,066,116 9,267 I 14,946,666,691 I 636,124 _ 66.9 1.661 I Belgium 85,945,816 I 28,628 m - - A _ 1,073 - Brazil (1908) 6,001,680! 502 I 491,260,928l 41111 I 91,8 _ 5,169 _ Canada 711.482.8436 I 5.011 I 15.712.127.701 I 666,621 I 210.9 I— .769 I Denmark 5,584,249 | 4,444 - 285,598,893 I 335,561 — 53,0 _ 1,955 _ Egypt 4,249,666 | 2,924 I - _ _ - France 190,912,114 I 7.614 I 15.020.540.438 I 699,069 I 74.7 I 1.206 I Germany 696,972,607 I 16,672 I 35.484.435.058 I 961,667 I 69.4 I 1.276 I India 76,476,660 I 2,269 I 16,644,066,920 I 421,946 _ 194,2 __ ,729 - Italy 42,664,690 I 4,020 I - _ _ _ Japan 26,906,660 I 6,666 2.175.099.038l 424,024 I 76.2 I .740 I Netherlands 17,666,202 I 7,661 I - - _ 1.262 I New Zealand 6,660,224 I 2,166 I - _ _ 1 Norway 6,666,062 | 2,916 I 200,768.77’? I 106,619 I 67.1 I 1.642 Portugal 6,666,964 | 6,612 I - .. _ _ Romania 7,676,667 I 6,660 I - - _ 1.260 I Russia (European) 262,494,960 I 6,277 I 22.002.600.411 I 626,161 I 66.6 I .964 I Spain (1909) 64,666,666 I 6,621 I 2,110,494,672 | _ 262,666 I 60.6 I - Sweden 40,766,674 I 4,746 _ 1,822,766,664 | 212,260 44. 7 I 1.404 I Switzerland '18,760,555l 6,607 I 664,197,691 | 600,624 I 46.6 I 2.640’ I United Kingdom 676,160,266 I 24,664 _ - .. _ .. LUnited stataa 1,026,491,762 I 4,269 ' 255.016.910.451 I 1,060,660 I 246.6 I .766 I TABLE XXXII. COMPARATIVE RAILWAY STATISTICS. COMPARATIVE RAILWAY STATISTICS 1,91 - - Sheet No.5 Locomotive? Locomotives Passenger Train Care Passenger Train Cars Freight end- Other Cars Freight and Other Cars _ Per Mile of Line Per Mile of Line Per Mile of Line Country Number 22 Number 25 Number 24 Number 25 Number 26 Number 27 Argentina 2,814 i .18 I 4,545 I .25 l 51,549- 5.5- Austria-Hungary 11,209 - .48 _ 27,424_ 1.17 _ 255,525_ 10.0— Belgium 4,458 I 1.52 10,884- 5.72 _ 92,445- 51.5— Brazil (1908) 1,144 l .10 I 1,514| .15 I 14,585| 1,2- Canada 4,079 I .15 I 4,520. .17 | 128,551- 5.2- Denmark 504 | .50 _ 1,815 | 1.50 _ 8,6811 7.2— Egy'pt - - .. _ ‘ - France 12,840 - .51 _ 50,247 _ 2.00 _ 328,954 - 15.1 _ Germany 27.662 _ -73 — 61,658 _ 1-62 — 593.988 _ 15.6 _ India 7,245 I .25 I 20,572 _ .64 - 149,828 I 4.7 _ Italy 5,376 I .51 _ 13,503 - 1,19 - 96,159 I 9.1 _ Japan 2,505 I .45 _ 5,144. 1.20 _ 55,259. 6.9— Netherlands 1,162 I .52_ 5,014. 1.54 _ 20,850| _ 9,5— New 28818114 485 I .17 I 1,140| .42 - 17,220l 8.5 _ Norway 362 l .20 - 865 | .4’? - ‘7,782! 4,2 _ Portugal - — - ' ‘ Roumania - - " " ' Russia (European) 20,289 .48 - 26,747 _ .54 - 455,177 _ 10.9 _ Spain (1909) 2,555] .28 - 6,189 I .58 - 50,109 I 5,5 _ Sweden 1,921 I .22 - 5,551 I .42 - 47,287 I 5.5 _ Switzerland 1,502 I .57 _ 4,511 I 1.65 _ 17.90’?! 6.5 _ United Kingdom 22.840 I— ~98 — ‘72.815 _ 5-11 766.729 _ 52.8 _ I'Inited States 58,947 m .24 I 47,095 _ .20 l 2.243.256 _ 9.4 _ COMPARATIVE RAILWAY §TATI§EICS - 1910 - ' Sheet No.6 Average Humber of Employees Average Number of Employees Per Mile of Line C ompensation of Empl 0yees Average Yearly Compensation of Employees Country Number 28 Number 29 Dollars 50 Dollars 31 Argentina 101 ,255 - 5. 8 46 , 225, 000 I 456 I Austria-Hungary 406,664 _ 17.4II ' 119,149,066 I 292 _ Belgium 75,886 I 25.2 I_ - — Brazil (1908) - - _ _ Canada 126,766 I 5. 0 I 67,167 , 796 I 542 Denmark 12,716| 10.6 I - - Egypt - - _ - France 339 , 032 _ 15. 5 — - - Germany 706,524 _ 18.5 — 271,624,174 _ 584 _ India 545,495 I 16.9 — — - Italy 162,000 - 15.4 —— 49,929,100 I 308 — Japan 94,694 I 16.4 II 9,793,947! 106 I Netherlands - - — - Newzealand 12,224l 4.5 _ - - Norway 5,949 I 3.2 — - ' Portugal - _ _ l _ Roumania - _ _ _ Russia (European) 164,429 , 152 _ Spain (1909) Sweden Switzerland 41,179 I 16,406,616 I United Kingdom United States 1,669,420 _ 1,143,725,306 _ TABLE XXXIII.‘ COMPARATIVE RAILWAY STATISTICS. TABLE XXXIII. LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT—U. S. TABLE 111111 I“First compound locomotive **First articulated locomotive SHOWING DEVELOPMENT OF LOCOMOTIVES IN THE UNITED STATES ACCORDING TO SIZE 1852 - 1914 §Date Railroad Type Builder Cylinder Diam.Drivere .Service Weight-Lbs. -l832 Phila.Germantown 2.2.0 Baldwin 9-12"x 18" 54" Mixed 10,000 & Norristown 1856 Beaver Meadow 4.4.0 Eastwick and 12 x 18 44 Mixed 55,600 Harrison 1844 Phila.& Reading 0.6.0 Baldwin 15 x 18 46 Freight 40,000 _1846 Phila.& Reading 0.8.0 Baldwin 17-14 x 18 42 Freight 56,000 1849 Vermont Central 5.2.0 Baldwin 17-14 x 20 78 Passenger 50,000 .1849 Erie 0.8.0 Baldwin 18-14 x 25 48 Pusher 75,700 1856 Pennsylvania 4.6.0 Baldwin 19 x 22 48 Freight 70,000 1857 Baltimore & Ohio 4.4.0 Mason 16 z 22 60 Passenger 70,500 ‘1857 Phila.& Reading 0.12.0 Company's shops 20 z 26 45 Pusher(Tank) 100,000 l1865 Baltimore & Ohio 4.6.0 Company's shops 19 x 26 60 Passenger 90,700 .1866 Lehigh Valley 2.8.0 Baldwin 20 x 24 48 Freight 90,000 1875 Baltimore & Ohio _ 2.8.0 Danforth 20 x 24 50 Freight 105,200 1878 Atchison, Topeka 2.8.0 Baldwin 20 x 26 42 Freight 115,000 & Santa Fe 1882 Central Pacific 4.8.0 Company's shops 19 x 50 54 Freight 125,000 1888 Central Pacific 4.10.0 Company's shops 21 x 56 57 Freight 154,000 1889 Michigan Central 4.6.0 Schenectady 20-29 x 24 68 Passenger 127,000* 1891 .Erie 2.10.0 Baldwin 16-27 x 28 50 Freight 195,000 1899 Illinois Central 4.8.0 Brooks 25 x 50 57 Freight 252,200 1905 Atchison, Topeka 2.10.2 Baldwin 19-52 x 52 57 Freight 287,240 & Santa Fe . 1904 Baltimore 4 Ohio 0.5.5.0 Am.Locomotive 00. 20-52 x 52 55 Freight 554,500** 1907 Pennsylvania 4.6.2 Am.Locomotive Co. 24 x 26 80 Passenger 270.000 1909 Atchison, Topeka 2.8.8.2, Baldwin 26-58 x 54 65 Freight 450,000 & Santa Fe 1910 wAtchison, Topeka 2.10.10.2 Company's shops 28-58 x 52 62 Freight 500,000 & Santa Fe 1911 Pennsylvania 4.6.2 Am.Locomotive Co. 27 x 28 80 Passenger 517,000 1915 Virginian 2.8.8.2 Am.Locomotive Co. 28-44 x 52 55 Freight 542.500 1914 Erie 2.8.8.8.2 Baldwin 2 H.P.56 x 52 55 Freight 855.050 4 L.P.56 x 52 TABLE XXZIV QLAQfilEIQATIOH OF FREIGHT CARS, BY CAPACITY TABLE XXXIV. FREIGHT CAB S. I"Excludes 3 cars of 220,000- lb. class, aggregating 550 tons capacity. Does not include returns for the so-called small roads (having operating revenue be- low $100,000) and returns for switching and terminal compan- GS- *Excludes 275-cars in freight service for which complete returns were not secured. Does not include returns for the so-cslled small roads, (having operating revenue be- low $100,000) and returns for switching and terminal compan- 1es. *Does not include cars in the service of switching and terminal companies. Excludes 510 cars in freight service for which complete returns were not secured. *Dces not include cars in the service of switching and terminal companies. Excludes 180 cars in freight service for which complete returns were not secured. '*Does not include cars in the service of switching and terminal companies. Excludes 1,590 cars in the freight service for which complete returns were not secured. service of switching and terminal companies.- Excludes 2,268 cars in the freight service for which complete returns were not secured. *Does not_inolude cars in the *Includes 11,067 cars in the service of switching and terminal companies . Excludes 4,550 cars in the freight service for which complete returns were not secured. *Excludes 5,540 cars in the freight service for which complete returns were not secured. *Excludes 4,279 cars in the freight service for which complete returns were not secured. *Excludes 5,789 cars in the freight service fbr which complete returns were not secured. *Exclndes 5,855 cars in the freight service for which complete returns were not secured. *Excludes 6,167 cars in the freight service for which complete returns were not secured. 1914 1916 1912 1911 1910 1909 1906 1907 1906 1905 1904 1906 1902 Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Capacity Aver- Capacity Aver- Capacity Aver- Capacity Aver- Capacity Aver- Capacity Aver- capacity AVQI- capacity Aver" capa¢1ty Aver“ Capacity‘ Aver‘ OEPaOitI Aver- Capacity Aver- capa°ity Aver- Class in Lbs. Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age Number Tons age 10,000 646 4,612 _ 7 1,166 7,606 7 1,646 10,466 6 1,694 12,227 ' 6 2,421 14,699 6 6,669 19,716‘ 6 4,277 26,722 6 6,764 20,661 6 4,047 22,467 6 4,612 27,946 6 4,656 24,696 6 5,122 60,696 6 20,000 608 4,520 7 6,626 46,101 11 4,661 61,664 11 6,170 67,161 11 5,254 66,196 11 6,766 64,141 11 6,669 74,019 11 7,244 82,990 11 6,026 96,246 12 9,626 _111,601 12 10,241 121,469 12 16,966 162,076 2 15,615 164,266 12- ,60,000 2,233 gg,g%o 11 4,200 66,464 15 6,651 66,664 16 4,646 66,666 15 4,696 74,116 15 5,865 66,926 16 6,697 101,616 16 10,162 162,767 15. 19,606 296,461 16 27,609 412,492 15 66,607 506,420 16 41,406 624,461 16 46,666 699,464 16 . , 4 16 , - 40,000 _ 56,074 1,161,742 20 76,216 1,464,641 20 67,920 1,769,042 20 106,741 2,166,652 20 126,500 2,661,476 20 160,499 6,016,619 20 204,666 4,224,946 21 244,166 6,016,249 21 264,616 6,627,241 20 610,476 6,645,666 20 616,769 6,296,909 20 627,642 6,567,169 20 60,000 48,722 975,402 20 66,464 2,067,646 26 96,162 2,660,961 25 106,666 2,646,296 26 125,228 6,166,976 26 160,009 6,760,966 26 176,716 4,644,152 26 176,627 4,469,666 26 195,944 4,907,667 26 206,960 6,179,666 25 226,467 5,591,184 26 266,266 6,664,652 25 246,684 6,169,527 26 60,000 vgg.ggg ?%.Zgi.ggg 38 766,166 26,026,229 60 802,622‘ 24,122,146 60 626,656 24,769,116 60 626,166 24,661,426 60 660,612 24,960,466 60 662,669 26,017,417 60 602,167 24,112,180 60 766,647 26,094,297 60 766,704 22,169,679 60 707,966 21,270,011 60 696,696 20,660,912 60 664,626 19,029,246 50 70,000 42 957 l 804_52 46,406 1,626,264 66 69,669 1,676,969 65 69,666 1,669,066 66 69,610 1,676,466 66 66,926 1,666,626 66 69,666 1,401,197 66 64,662 - 1,214,026 66 60,169 1,066,666 66 26,261 920,646 66 27,076 952,040 66 26,266 665,441 66 22,496 767,676 66 80,000 726.777 99.i?3.752 23 691,076 27,694,420 40 642,764 26,766,960 40 614,766 24,666,606 40 664,676 26,446,664 40 ‘522,446 20,940,691 40 616,261 20,610,656 40 462,070 16,122,126 40 662,666 14,520,169 40 294,462 11,602,696 40 260,764 10,464,010 40 226,641 9,066,204 40 166,179 6,665,216 40 90,000 9~709 ~ .457.080 45 7,672 640,915 46 6,770 607,620 45 6,688 606,662 45 6,646 266,616 46 7,691 657,767 46 6,217 266,612 46 5,054 227,465 45 4,175 167,961 45 2,606 106,666 45 2,240 00,606 46 261 , 45 610 14,206 46 100,000 637 741 31 916 9,4 50 666,626 26,465,491 60 609,624 26,467,794 50 475,871 26,794,047 60 670,001 16,600,646 60 676,966 16,649,696 60 660,156 16,041,126 50' 266,241 14,277,026 60 196,911 9,602,766 50 162,729 6,666,456 60 107,267 6,661,656 50 96,917 4,696,790 50 46,664 2,441,700 50 110'000 66'006 6'119'752 56 44.544 2,475,558 55 55.525 1.875.987 56 29.059 1,625,150 56 12.929 14.875 55 , 4 210,620 55 2,817 166,266 55 1,476 61,610 55 676 67,126 66 444 24,420 66 460 26, 56 462 , 65 669 , 56 120,000 .716 ' 42:965 60 670 40,206 60 429 26,746 60 158 - 9,466 60 64 6,246 60 64 ‘3,245 60 54 6,246 60 60 6,606 60 70 4,206 60 56 6,666 60 62 6,722 60 46 2,700 60 46 2,580 60 150.000 320 20 84k 65 615 20,516 66 606 19,707 65 - - - 9 566 66 - _ - 5 325 65 _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ _ _ - _ _ 140,000 5,435 240:450 70 474 66,160 70 1 70 70 266 20,020 70 - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ - - _ _ _ _ - _ _ 150,000 177 15.275 75 66 4,660 76 17 1,275 75 10 750 76 4 600 76 15 1,126 75 11 626 76 12 900 75 9 676 76 6 460 75 2 150 76 2 150 ‘75 2 150 76 180.000 750 67,500 90 1 90 90 1 90 90 4 660 90 - - - - - - _ - _ - - - - _ _ _ - - _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 200,000 10 1.000 100 10 1,000 100 9 900 100 - - - 6 600 100 1 100 100 201 ' 20,100 100 201 20,100 100 201 20,100 100 200 20,000 100 _ - 4 - - - - - - 260,000 1 142 142 1 142 142 1 142 142 1 142 142 1 142 142 1_ 142 142 1 142 142 1 142 142 _ - _ - _ _ - - - _ - _ _ - _ “2,325,644* 90,976,766 69 2,276,269* 66,976,146 66 2,216,269* 62,966,416 67 2,196,661*- 61,077,026 67 2,166,561* 76,676,766 66 §2,o71,666*. 76,167,546 66 2,096,264* 76,066j622 66 1,966,017* 67,066,624 64 666,666* 59,059,602 62 1,727,620* 66,255,066 61 1,666,641* 60,759,166 60 1,660,615* 46,660,261 29 1,505,992* 42,292,977 28 *Excludes 40,109 cars in the freight service for which complete returns were not secured. TABLE XXIV VARIOUS GAUGES IN USE IN CERTAIN SELECTED COUNTRIES ETBQIT Length of Line Country Year Miles 4'-8-l/2" (1.455n) 18,882.48 5'-0-5/15"(1.552n) e 4'-8-1/2"(1.455m) 157.55 4'-8-1/2" (1.455m) e 2'-6" (.76m) 1,450.91 1:0m (5'-5_5/8") 106.87 2 _5" .76m 584.85 Austria-Hungary 1910 .75“! (2|_5_17/32n) 8.70 .70m (2'-5-9/15") 10.56 Length given here 5,609.7 km. less than tabulated for 1910. 4'-811/2" (1.455m) *2,895.55 5'-5" {1.067m) ) 9504.49 1.0 I- _ II p . Belgium 1908 ____?__§__?_?[? ______________________ __ 2'269 35 *509.4 km. less than tabulated for 1900 °Presumably tramways. 4'-8-1/2? (1.455m) 25,805.85 I1 France 1910 Z:9_?_£?_:?:?Z§_Z ____________________ __ 1'322'34 General railways only. 4'-8-1/2" (1.455n) 58,827.27 1.0 m (5'-5-5/8") 821.49 Germany 1910 1.0 m (5'-5-5/8") & 4'-8-1/2"(1.455m) 1.24 .785m (2'-8-29/52") 157.21 .75m (2'-5-17/52") 570.55 4'-8-1{2" (1.455n) *9,117.80 *Corrected to check with tabulation. 4'-8-l/2" (1.455n) *975.84 4'-8-l/2" (1.455m) e 5'-5" (1.067m) 101.91 5'-5" (1.087m) 692.86 Norway 1910 1.0 m (5'-5-5/8") 14.29 .75m (2'-5-17/52") 52.75 *C0rrected t0 0heck with tabulation 4'-8-1/2" (1.455m) 5,555.59 5'-7" €1.095m; 50.45 5'-8" 1.067m 514.45 Sweden 191° 2'-11" (.891m) 1,546.66 2'-7-1/2" (.802m1 49.71 .60m (1'-11-5/8") 95.70 4'-8-l/2" (1.455m) *2,125.95 1.0 m((5'-5-5/8")) 872.98 .80m 2'-7-51 52" 55.04 Switzerland 1910 .75“! (2|_5_17;32n) 34.80 *Corrected to check with tabulation. I 5'-3" 2,867.00 4'-8-1/2" *19,829.00 4'—6" _. 4'-0" 21.00 5'-0" 541.00 '_ " 2 .00 United Kingdom 1910 g|_2_1/2" $.00 27_4n 5.00 27_5n 24.00 1'-11-1/2" 63-00 *Corrected to check with tabulation. OTHER COUNTRIES 5'-8".. 12,580.00 Argentine Republic 1912 4'-8-l/2" 1,845.00 1.0 m (5'-5-5/8") 5,597.00 5'-5" 4,544.00 4'-8—l/2" 4,107.00 Australia 1913 5'-6" 10,885.00 2'-8" 122.00 2'.0" 251.00 |_ _ n . Canada 1910 %|_gw1/2 24'gg§_gg 5'-5" ( l ) 15,701.00 . 1.0 m 5'-5-5 8" 15,550.00 Indla 1910 2I_6" 2'-0" 452.00 5I-6" l Japan 1910 27_6n 5'023‘38 New Zealand 1910 5'-6" 2,717.00 H.>wH.M E4. QPQQMM. 45 xxxvl 2555059 KILLED AND 1050520 IR 5133259 000515125 Passen 501's Bum 017005 Others - Killed 15305304’ 511154 Injured Killed Inlurol Length Passengers Passenger Rumber 0'! P81‘ Per P91‘ P91‘ P97 P01‘ P61‘ P" 0: Line Carried 111.5 Employees TOTAL 10 Million 100 Million 10 Million 100 Million 1000 1000 1000 Miles 1000 x115; Country Year 1000 Miles 10 Millions 100 Millions Thousands Killed Injured Total Carried Passmger Miles Total Carried ‘Passenger 151155 Total Empl oyed. Total 3mm eyed Total 0; 1,1" Total of Line 1550 11.4 4.05 12.2 127.9 152 421. 5’ .74 .25 52 7.55 2.52 55 .55 520 2.50 55 5.5 59 5.0 Lultrla- 1590 15.4 9.75 25.0 177.1 245 995 14 1.45 .51 155 15.72 7.95 155 .75 711 4,02 91 5,5 99 6,0 Hungary 1900 19.5 22.25 45.5 295.4 409 1,595 24 1.05 .52 195 5.59 4.25 192 .55 939 3,18 195 9,5 259 15.2 1910 25.5 59.45 74.1 405.5 547 5,055 55 1.54 .71 524 15.25 7.05 252 .52 2,067 5,05 542 14,5 445 19,9 1550 1.7 4.5 - - 145 455 5 1.40 -.' 74 17.20 4 105- - 53g _ 34 20,0 40 25.5 1590 2.9 5.24 5 52.0 125 992 7 .55‘ .52 50 9.71 9.41 72 1.55 645 16,25 47 16,2 57 23,1 ‘ Belsium 1900 2.9 15.91 15.7 57.7 105 1,755 10 .71 .59 491 55.10 29.40 55 .75 1,185 17,50 42 14,5 52 21,4 1910 2.9 19.50 25.7 75.9 155 97 11 .55 .41 559 15.50 15.45 77 1.04 53 7,24 48 16,5 91 27.9 1550 5.9 .75 -_ - 57 101 10 15.54 - 4 5.55 - 27 - 75 _ 50 7.5 21 5.0 C 1590 15.5 1.25 - - 215 555 11 5.59 - 52 40.50 - 83 -- 552 - 124 9.5 101 7.6 55545 1900 17,7 2.15 - - 525 1,517 7 5.25 - 151 51.00 125 - 941 - 195 11.0 245 15.5 1910 24.7 5.59 24.7 125.5 524 1,441 50 15.70 2.45 270 75.20 10.94 214 1.75 926. 7_48 250 10,1 245 10,0 1550 .5 .25 .5 2.5 5 5 1 5.54 2.0 1 5.54 2.00 4 1.74 5 2,17 1‘ 2,0 0 - 1590 1.0 .90 1.5 5.5 5 57 o 0 0 1 1.11 .52 2 .52 52 5.05 5 5.0 4 .0 Denmark 1900 1.1 1.75 5.4 10.0 22 109 0 0 0 12 5.55 5.55 11 1.10 94 9,40 11 10,0 5 2.7 1910 1.2 2.19 4.9 12.7 50 24 2 .91 .41 2 .91 .41 9 .71 17 1,54 19 15,8 5 .2 1550 14.7 15.51 55.5 204.7 425 1,590 55 2.12 .95 -577 22.55 10.55 259 1.51 936 4,57 122 8,3 77 5,; 1590 20.5 24.11 49.5 255.0 405 1,020 45 1.55 .92 224 9.25 4.54 194 .55 685 2,93 164 7,6 115 5,4- Fran°° 1900 25.5 44.52 57.5 255. 575 1,577 94 2.12 1.07 575 5.45 4.25 514 1.09 1.007 5,51 270 11.4 195 5.5 1910 25.1 50.55 104.5 559.0 755 1,522 110 2.15 1.05 500 11.50 5.72 520 .94 65 1,85 523 12,5_ 291 11.5 1550 21.0 21.52 40.0 254.9 455 2,214 25 1.21 .55 155 5.41 5.45 250 .57- 1.897 6,67 179 8,5 179 9,5 1590 25.5 45.41 70.0 401.4 750 2,455 45 1.05 .55 244 5.52 5.45 455 1.15 2,060 5,13 221 9,5 151 5.5 G°rmany 1900 52.1 57.92 125.7 541.0 994 2,447 121 1.55 .95 .500 5.52 4.77 554 1.04 1,560 2,88 309 9,5 257 5.5 1910 55.1 157.25 221.2 705.5 955 2,555 100 .54 .45 575 4.50 5.05 550, .75 1,448 2,15 386 7,5 251 5.5 1550 7.2 5.41 9.2 152.0 554 559 51' 9.55 5.57 55 11.14 4.15 155 1.02 240 1.52 195 27.5 51 11.2 1590 15.1 11.05 45.5 255.2 554 1,024 72 5.51 1.54 500 27.12 5.40 155 .59 515 2.55 297 15.4 109 5. India 1900 24.7 17.45 70.1 550.2 1,101 1,105 97 5.55 1.55 555 19.05 4.75 257 .75 477 1.55 747 50.5 295 12.0 1910 52.1 57.15 154.5 545.5 1,700 1,554 157 5.05 1.59 559 17.74 4.90 595 .75 555 1.20 1,115 54.7 552 11.0 1550 5.5 5.25 - - 179 555 9 2.77 - 52 15.00 55 - 552 - 104 19.5 74 15.9 Ital 1590 5.0 5.05 - - 142 551 7 1.55 - 141 27.75 65 - 402 - 70 5.7 105 15.5 7 1900 9,9 5,97 -' .. 144 1,142 33 5.55 - 536 54.60 63 - 729 - 48 4.9 87 8.8 1910 10.5 11.04 - 152.0 272 2,510 42 5.50 - 750 70.50 62 .55 1 550 9.57 155 15.9 250 25.5 1550 .1 - - - _ _ J 1590 1.1 - - - - - ‘P°n 1900 5.5 10.21 17.1 55.5 555 1,052 55 5.25 1.95 529 52.20 19.25 95 1.82 475 5.55 405 112.5 255 70.8 1910 5.1 15.51 50.0 94.5 517 2,002 21 1.57 .70 545 22.50 11.50 140 1.45 1,205 12.25 555 59.5 452 55.5 1550 1.4 1.50 - - 29 55 5 1.57 - 1 .52 - 15 - 54 - 5 5.7 5 2-1 _ 1590 1,7 1,70 _ _ 41 58 6 3.53 - 10 5.88 - l4 - 23 - 21 12.5 5 2.9 Iotherlnnda 1900 2,0 3,00 _ _ 55 81 4 1.55 - 15 5.00 - 27 ~ 51 - 24 12.0 15 7.5 1910 2,2 4,62 - - 53 119 5 .65 - 44 9.62 - 26 ~ 58 - 24 11. 0 17 7: 7 1850 14,1 5,57 - _ 455 979 25 5.52 - 55 20.15 - 255 - 775 — 175 12.5 155 9.4 R 1 1590 15.1 4.55 51.1 252.4 545 1,445 25 5.02 .90’ 105 22.15 5.51 209 .55 455 1.92 409 22.5 554 47.2 “88 a 1900 52.5 10.70 72.7 554.5 2,055 5,204 97 9-06 1-55 609 56.92 8-37 489 -88 1,915 5.45 1,500 45.0 5,577 174.1 1910 41.5 20.51 129.9 775.7 5,555 14,521 227 10.90 1.75 1.151 55.80 8'94 605 .78 5,595 4.57 2,505 57.1 9,955 255.5 1550 4.5 1.45 - - 52 521 2 1.55 - 55 24.51 - 57 - 520 - 45 9.5 55 14.1 1890 5,2 2,58 - 151 357 9 3.49 - 72 27.91 - 31 - 215 - 91 14.’! 80 12.9 Spain 1900 9,2 3,20 _ - 169 485 15 4.05 - 57 20.95 - 52 - 512 - 124 15.1 105 12.9 1910 9 1 5.14 11.7 - 515 2,522 11 2.14 .94 49 9.55 4.19 '65 - 2,294 - 242 25.5 279 50.5 1550 5.7 .70 - - 15 10 0 - - - - - 7 - 7 - 5 1.6 3 -8 s‘ 1590 5.0 1.27 2.4 - 55 ’71 l .75 .42 5 2.55 1.25 15 - 55 - 19 5.5 6 1.0 °d°n 1900 7.0 5.05 5.1 - 101 257 5 1.95 1.17 11 5.57 2.15 57 - 225 - 55 5.5 51 4.4 1910 9,5 5,95 9,5 - 96 201 8 1.57 .82 14 2.40 1.43 25 - 156 - 53 6.2 21 2-4 1550 1.5 2.15 2.5 15.2 41 75 7 5.24 2.50 15 7.41 5.71 15 1.21 45 5.41 15 11.2 17 '10.1 gIit 1590 1.9 5.24 4.4 19.7 49 555 7 2.15 1.59 22 5.79 5.00 20 1.01 550 15.75 22 11.5 51 16.5 ‘orlflnfi 1900 2,5 6,28 7,7 25,7 55 791 7 1.11 .91 52 9.55 5.05 25 .50_ 599 24.55 25 10.9 50 15.0 1910 5.5 11.00 14.4 41.2 71 1,475 7 .54 .45 90 5.15 5.25 52 .75 1,541 52.54 52 5.4 44 11.6 1880 17,9 50,38 .. .. 1.131 5,591 147 2.35 - 1,817 30.20 - 557 - 4,480 - 477 26.6 394 22.0 0515.4 1590 20.0 51.77 - - 1,155 11,555 121 1.45 - 1.720 21-05 - 5°9 - 9.580 - 505 25.2 468 23-4 a 1900 21.5 114.25 - - 1,510 19,547 142 1.24 - 5.068 21.50 - i 616 - 15.655 - 552 25-3 824 57.3 1910 23,4 130,57 .. .. 1,121 50,110‘ 121 .93 - 4,080 31.15 - 420 - 25,137 - 580 24. 8 895 38.5- 1,690 97,8 36,95 57,4 418,9 3.541 5.574 143 5. 30 2. 49 544 20.14 9.47 925 2. 3,617 8.64 1,475 16.8 1,513 17.2 051554 1590 155.5 49.24 115.5 749.5 5,555 29,027 285 5.80 2-41 2.425 49-30 20-48 2-451 5-27 22.396 29-91 3.598 21.9 4.806 25-6 States 1900 195.5 57.55 150.4 1,017.5 7,555 50,520 249 4-31 1-55 4.128 71-60 25-75 2.550 2-50 59,545 55.55 5,055 25.2 5,549 55.9 1910 240.4 97.17 525.4 1,559.4 9,552 _119,507 524 5.55 1.00 12.451 128-20 58.50 5.552 2.05 95,571 57.50 5,975 24.9 .11,555 47.4 United 1911 10,595 150,159 556 17.433 3-602 126.039 6.458 10.687 5755.5 1912 10,555 159,555 318 16.586 3.655 142.442 6.652 10.710 1911-1914 1915 10,954 200,505 405 16.539 3'715 171.417 6.845 12.552 15515517. 1914 10,502 192,552 265 15.121 5.259 155.212 6 728 12.329 TABLE xxxvIII. reasons KILLED AND INJURED. SKVAX'IIVH 89 Relative Standing of Various Countries in 1910 in Respect to Others Than Passengers 0r Employees Killed per 1,000 TIQCIILPLSIO‘NH 10. 11. 13. 14. 15. 16. TABLE XLV. Miles of Line. Country Killed Sweden 6.2 _ Germany 7.6 n Switzerland 8.4 - Canada 10.1 _ Netherlands 11.0 _ France 12.8 — Austria-Hungary .................... -- 14.5 _ Denmark 15.8 — Italy ........................................ -. 15.9 _ Belgium .................................. -- 1.6.5 _ United Kingdom .................. .. 24.8 _ United States ........................ .- 24.9 _ Spain ...... .- 26.6 _ India ........ .- 34.7 _ Russia . 67.1 m Japan ...................................... .- (19.8 ' 778 SLVAA'IIVH TABLE XLVI. Relative Standing of Various Countries in 1910 in Respect to Others Than Passengers or Employees Injured per 1,000 rlsasiresess 9° 10. 11. 13. 14. 15. 16. Country Sweden 2.4 Denmark ................................ .- 4.2 Germany ................................ .. (5.8 Netherlands .......................... .. 7.7 Canada -. 10.0 India ...................................... .- ll 0 France ................................... 11.6 Switzerland .......................... -. 11.6 Austria-Hungary .................. .. 18.9 Italy ............................... ...... -- 26.6 Belgium ................................ -. 27.9 Spain .................................... -- 30.6 United Kingdom ................ .- 38.3 United States ...................... -. 47.4 Japan .................................... -. 88.6 Russia ..................................... - 238.5 Miles of Line. Injured RAILVVAYS 35 In the matter of ownership, while there is still great di- versity in practice, there is undoubtedly a steady tendency to- wards government ownership, or at least more rigorous govern- ment control. \Vhen railways were first projected in England and the United States they were regarded much as turnpike en- terprises—purely private concerns with no thought of participa- tion by the government, either national or local, either as part owners, contributors or controlling agents. This policy, except as to some form of government control, has been adhered to in the United Kingdom and in no other country. The railways in the United Kingdom still are strictly pri- vate enterprises, organized under special powers conferred by Acts of Parliament, but without public aid or subsidy. General Acts of Parliament have been passed from time to time since the “Cheap Trains Act” of 1844, regulating more and more closely the operation of the railways in regard to rates, powers to amalgamate, prevention of discrimination, pooling of earnings, and subjecting them to inspection by the Board of Trade. The facts are, however, that railway companies have greater liberty of action in the United Kingdom than in any other country, their chief powers being established once and for all in the incor- porating act, and that the United Kingdom stands as the only country that has encouraged its railway system to be developed and maintained without government assistance. In the United States participation by the public authorities has followed different lines. \Vhen railways were first projected the country was very sparsely settled, distances were great and traffic was small. and two things became speedily obvious: First, that private capital needed some assistance, and, second, that the benefit to the land owners and towns along the lines was as great or greater than to the promoters of railway enterprises, and that, therefore, some portion of the cost and corresponding risk should be assumed by those who, without other effort, received enormous benefits. There therefore sprang up a system by which not only the local municipalities but in many cases the States themselves contributed in one form or another to the construction of rail- ways, culminating in what afterwards turned out to be the very extensive assistance given by the Federal Government itself in the way of grants of land to the railways in the \Vest; land that 3 6 RAILWAYS without railway communication was practically worthless, but which with it has since developed into great value. During the rapid increase in railway construction follow- ing the Civil War this participation of various municipalities in pledging their credit to the support of railway enterprises which, unfortunately, in some instances were chimerical schemes, one state after another was led to pass acts prohibiting either the state or any portion thereof from pledging its credit to assist railway construction. \Vith but few exceptions, and those exceptions are so trifling as to be negligible, there is no form of government ownership of railways in the United States, the companies all remaining as private enterprises. On the Isthmus of Panama the United States Government now owns the Panama Railroad, through stock ownership, and in the Territory of Alaska the United States Government has recently embarked, for the first time, in the construction of a government railway. As the railways have increased in size and power in the United States, affecting more than any other industry the gen- eral activities of the people, it was realized that some form of control was necessary. Rhode Island had a so-called railroad commission as early as 1844, although probably the first real commission was established in New Hampshire in that same year. Connecticut followed in 1853, New York and Vermont in 1855, Maine in 1858, and Massachusetts in 1869, which last developed into a model for state control, to be copied by other states. In the period of 1870 to 1880 the so-called “Granger Agita- tion” in the Middle \Vest led to a popular demand for extend~ ing not only the principle of state control, but to further in creasing its powers wherever it had already been established, a demand that led, in 1887, to a passage by Congress of the In- terstate Commerce Commission Act. By various amendments the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission and the powers of the various state commissions, which latter are now found in all states of the Union, except Delaware and Utah have been greatly broadened and greatly strengthened. In general, the Interstate Commerce Commission has juris- diction over the interstate operations of steam and electric rail- ways, express and sleeping car companies, water lines operated RAILWAYS 37 as a part of or in connection with railway transportation, tele- graph, tclephone, cable and wireless companies. The Commis- sion has power to decide the justice and reasonableness of rates, whether brought to its attention or investigated on its own mo tion. Proposed changes in schedules may be suspended by the Commission pending investigation. The Commission is em- powered to institute a uniform system of accounting for common carriers and to secure such other information as may be neces- sary to the carrying out of the provisions of the act. The Com- mission may assess damages in cases of reparation, and in the case of refusal of a carrier to comply with its orders may take action against such carrier in the Federal courts. The various state commissions have powers regulating the railways within the limits of their own states, and have at times assumed powers that have brought them in conflict with those of the Interstate Commerce Commission. The powers of the state commissions vary greatly in the several states, extending from determining in the first instance whether any given railway should be constructed or not, with control over the issuance of securities and determination of intra-statc rates, and to the minor details of actual operation, such as inspection of equip— ment and the regulation of the number of men to be employed in various capacities. The titles and powers of state commissions with jurisdiction over railways are as follows: Year established 1844 Rhode Island Present title: Public Utilities Commission. Jurisdiction over all public utilities; has power to regulate rates and service, etc. 1844 New Hampshire Present title: Public Service Commission. Jurisdiction over all railroads, etc., with power to fix rates or to reconstruct roads, etc. 1853 Connecticut Present title: Public Utilities Commission. Jurisdiction over all common carriers, etc, with power to regulate rates and service. 1855 New York Present title: Public Service Commission. Two bodies, one 38 . RAILWAYS Year established for first district and one for second district. Both bodies have extensive jurisdiction over all common carriers. 1855 Vermont Present title: Public Service Commission. General super- vision over all railroads. 1858 Maine Present title: Public Utilities Commission. Authority to inquire into the management of the business of all public utilities; to regulate rates and charges; to prevent the giving of rebates; to investigate accidents; find the physi— cal valuation of properties; to authorize and approve of issue of stocks, bonds, notes or other evidences of indebt- edness; to authorize the sale, lease, assignment, mortgage, or consolidation of utilities; may order physical connection and joint use of facilities and equipment of utilities; may fix rates; and may order use by one utility of the equip- ment of another. 1867 Ohio Present title: Public Service Commission. Commission has power and jurisdiction to supervise and regulate public utilities and railroads, etc.; may supervise and fix rates; and control of the issuance of securities. 1869 Massachusetts Present title: Public Utilities Commission. Jurisdiction over all common carriers. 1871 Illinois Present title: Public Utilities Commission. (Railroad and Warehouse Commission of Illinois abolished.) Jurisdiction over rates, service and schedules, and to supervise the issue of all stocks, bonds, and securities. 1871 Minnesota Present title: Railroad and ‘Varehouse Commission. Juris- diction over railroads and express companies doing business as common carriers and public warehouses. Commission has power to fix rates. 1873 Michigan Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over all common carriers, with power to fix rates and to regulate stock and bond issues. 1874 Wisconsin Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction to super- vise and regulate every public utility in the state; power to require that all public utility charges be reasonable and just, and to this end to fix and determine rates and regulations. RAILWAYS 39 Year established 1875 Missouri Present title: Public Service Commission. Jurisdiction extends to all “public utility corporations and persons” which operate railroads or other forms of common carriers, etc. Commission has power to regulate rates and service. 1876 California Present title: Public Utilities Commission under name of “Railroad Commission”. Commission is given power to regulate and control all the public utilities of the state. 1877 Virginia Present title: State Corporation Commission. Control over all public service corporations, including fixing of rates and charges, etc. 1878 South Carolina Present title: Railroad Commission. General supervision of all railroads and railways, express companies and other com- mon carriers; shall examine and keep themselves informed as to their condition and the manner in which the}r are operated, with reference to the security and accommodation of the public and the compliance with the laws of the state; and shall make freight and passenger tariffs. 1878 Iowa. Present title: Board of Railroad Commissioners. Board has general supervision of all railroads in the state operated by steam, express companies, car companies, sleeping car companies, freight and freight line companies, and any common carrier engaged in the transportation of passenger or freight by railroads. Has power to supervise rates and fares generally and has been specifically given power to fix rates for express companies. 1879 Georgia Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over all common carriers, express companies, dock and wharfage companies, terminal companies, etc.; may require common carriers and public service corporations to establish and maintain such public service and facilities as may be reason- able and just, and such publication by common carriers, in newspapers of towns through which their lines extend, of their schedules as may be reasonable and which the public demands. 1880 Kentucky Present title: Railroad Commission. Has power to fix freight or passenger rates; and has jurisdiction over com- mon carriers generally. 40 RAILWAYS Year established 1881 1883 1883 1884 1885 1885 1885 1885 1887 Alabama Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over rail- roads, express companies, car companies, sleeping car com- panies, freight and freight lines, steamboat or steam packet companies and terminal companies. Kansas Present title: Public Utilities Commission. over all common carriers. Tennessee Present title: Railroad Commission. General supervision and control over all railway companies in the state; empowered to supervise and fix the rates, charges and regu- lations of railroad freight and passenger tariffs; to correct abuses; to prevent unjust discriminations and extortions in the rates of freight and passenger tariffs in difierent rail- roads in the state. Mississippi Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over rail- roads, express companies, etc. Commission has power to fix rates, “make reasonable orders for supervision and regu- lation”. North Dakota Present title: Commissioners of Railroads. Commissioners have general power over common carriers, may fix rates, etc. Colorado Present title: Railroad Commission. common carriers, including express freight car lines and pipe lines, etc. Nebraska Present title: State Railway Commission. General con- trol over railroads, express companies, car companies, sleep- ing car companies, freight and freight line companies, etc., and has power to “regulate the rates and services and make physical valuation; control over the issue of stocks, bonds, etc”. South Dakota Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over all common carriers, including warehouses and grain elevators, and has power to fix rates. Florida Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over rates and service of all railroads, all bridges and ferries, used or operated in connection with any railroad operated Wholly or in part in the state; all passenger terminal com- panies or union depot companies, etc. Jurisdiction Jurisdiction over all companies, private RAILWAYS 4 1 Year established 1887 Oregon Present title: Railroad Commission. Commission has power and jurisdiction to supervise and regulate all public utilities; to prescribe reasonable rates and regulations, etc. 1891 Arizona Present title: Corporation Commission. Jurisdiction over all corporations other than municipal, engaged in carrying persons or property for hire, etc. The Commission may prescribe rates. 1891 North Carolina Present title: Corporation Commission. Commission has general control over railroads and other common carriers, etc.; has power to make rates; to prevent discriminations; to prevent rebates. 1891 Texas Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over all steam railroad and express companies, and has power to fix rates. 1898 Louisiana Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over rail- roads, express companies, steamboat and other water craft, sleeping car companies and corporations, etc. Commission has power to regulate rates. 1899 Arkansas Present title: Railroad Commission. Jurisdiction over per- sons or corporations engaged in the transportation of pas- sengers or property. Commission may fix rates. 1905 Indiana Present title: Public Utilities Commission. Commission has the right to regulate rates, supervise the bond issue of cor- porations and the sale and transfer of property; also the merger and consolidation of corporations. 1905 Washington Present title: Public Service Commission. Jurisdiction over railroad and express companies, and other common carriers. 1907 Montana Present title: Public Service Commission. Has full power of supervision, regulation and control of public utilities. 1907 Nevada Present title: Public Service Commission. Jurisdiction over all common carriers and may fix standards for service, regulate rates, etc. 1907 Pennsylvania Present title: Public Service Commission. Jurisdiction gen- erally over all railroads and common carriers. 42 RAILWAYS Year established 1908 Oklahoma Present title: Corporation Commission. Jurisdiction over railroads and other common carriers. 1910 Maryland Present title: Public Service Commission. Jurisdiction over all railroads of every kind. 1910 New Mexico Present title: Corporation Commission. Commission has general powers over all railroads. 1911 New Jersey Present title: Board of Public Utilities Commissioners. Gen- eral supervision and regulation of all public utilities, with power to fix rates; require schedules of rates to be filed; fix just and reasonable standards, classifications, regulations, practices, etc. 1913 District of Columbia The Public Utilities Commissioners are the commissioners of the District of Columbia. Jurisdiction over every public utility. 1913 Idaho Present title: Public Utilities Commission. Jurisdiction over all common carriers, etc., with power to regulate and fix rates and service. 1913 \Vest Virginia Present title: Public Service Commission. Jurisdiction over all common carriers, with power to supervise rates and service, etc. Although the railways of the United States are privately owned, they are, nevertheless, large contributors, by means of taxation, to the general government and the individual states, and the tendency has been almost uniform in increasing this burden. Table XLVII shows the extent to which the railways of the United States have been, since the year 1898. contributors to the support of the government in which there is shown the amount paid each year in taxation, the amount paid to the proprietors of the company in way of dividends, and the ratio the amount received by the general public bears to that received by the owners of the property, that is, the stockholders, although on the latter have fallen all the risks and responsibilities involved in the operation. The amount charged to taxes is exclusive of per- RAILVVAYS 43 sonal taxes paid by the holders on bonds or other obligations of railways and exclusive of the sur-tax of the income tax. Since 1898 the smallest ratio of taxes to dividends was in the year 1904, when a sum equal to one-third of the amount paid out in divi- dends was paid out in taxes. This ratio has increased year by year until the year 1914, when in spite of an increase in dividends the amount paid in taxes now exceeds one-half of that paid out to the stockholders. TABLE XLVII. Comparison of Taxes and Dividends Paid on United States Railroads. Year Taxes Dividends Per Cent 1898 ....................... -. - 43,828,224 83,995,384 52.18 1899 ......................... -. 46,337,632 94,273,796 49.15 1900 ......................... .. _ 48,332,273 118,624,409 40.74 1901 .......................... .. 50,944,372 131,626,672 38.70 1902 ......................... -- 54,465,437 157,215,380 34.64 1903 ...... .- - ........ -- 57,849,569 166,176,586 34.81 1904.. - . - . ......... .- . 61,696,354 183,754,236 33.58 1905. - - -- - . . 63,474,679 188,175,151 33.73 1906. . ............... .. 74,785,615 213,555,081 35.02 1907. -. - ..... .- 80,312,375 227,394,962 35.32 1908 - . ................ - - . 84,555,146 227,597,070 37.15 1909 ..................... .. 90,529,014 236,620,890 38.26 1910 -- ....... -- .. -. 103,795,701 293,836,863 35.32 1911 - -. ....... -- 108,309,512 291,497,164 37.16 1912 - .. ................. -. 120,091,534 299,361,208 40.12 1913 - ........... -- 127,331,960 260,864,853 48.81 1914 139,591,520 265,748,161 52.53 On the continent of Europe the relations between the States and the railways are very much more intimate than in the United Kingdom and the United States. From the first, conti- nental European countries, to which the question of national defense is always paramount, perceived that railways would be a great factor in military problems, and that lines should be con- structed to meet not only commercial but strategic demands. In France, where continental railways had their inception, the Government at an early date assumed direction of affairs, and has assisted construction by loaning money, guaranteeing inter- est, and in some instances by actual purchase. Although today the Government owns but about one-fifth of the total mileage, it 44 RAILWAYS nevertheless maintains a very strict regulation of the privately operated lines, nearly all of which are in some manner indebted to the State, and which under existing agreements and conces- sions will become the property of the State between 1950 and 1960 without additional payment, unless purchased at earlier dates. In Germany, Prussia has had the right of acquisition since 1838, a right that was actively exercised after the Franco-Ger- man war, and today owns and operates all the main lines. This same policy is followed in the other states of the German Empire. The few lines in Germany that are privately operated are con- trolled absolutely as to tarifis and details of operation by the Government. Other countries, Russia, Switzerland and Belgium have adopted government ownership and operation, except that in Belgium local railways, known as “Chemins de fer Vicinaux”, are operated by private companies under special concessions but for the most part are owned by local municipalities. In Austria- Hungary, Balkan States, Denmark, Italy, Portugal, Norway and Sweden, both government and private ownership and operation exist side by side, but the private corporations are under official regulation. In the Netherlands the lines are owned partly by the government and partly by private companies, but are all under private operation, with traffic rates subject to approval by the minister of railways. In Greece and Spain all railways are under private ownership and operation, but in the latter country have received Government subventions, in return for which they auto- matically will become government property after a term of years. In Turkey all lines are the property of the State but are operated by private companies. Outside of the United States, Russia and Germany, the country with the greatest railway mileage is India, where since 187 0 the principle of government ownership has prevailed. In 1910 more than 90% of the lines were Indian government or native state owned, of which one-third was operated directly by the governments. Nearly all of the balance has received gov- ernment aid. In Asia (other than India), Africa, Central and South America, and in Australasia, government and private ownership “- " “'F' 1 YEAR 1880 Miles of Line TABLE XLVLI I Showink Division of Ownership Between figzergment and Private Corporations YEAR 1890 TABLE XLVHI. OWNERSHIP. YEAR 1900 YEAR 1910 Miles of Line 111166 of Line; Mile 8 Of Line Country Government Private Per Cent 0f Iotal Miles Owned Government Private Per cent of Total Miles owned Government Private Per Cent of Total H1188 Owned Government Private Per Cent 0! Total Miles Owned 4 .ed Owned Total by the Government Owned Owned Total by the Government Owned Owned Total by the Ggverflment owned O'nea T°t81 by fine Government 1, Argentina - - 1,560 - - 5,848 _ - - 10,269 - 2,467 14,881 17,548 14.2 _ m -_ Australasia - - 3,188 - - 9,793 - - - 12,642 - 15,512 1,215 16,525 92.7 1 1 Austria-Hungary - 1 11,456 - - - 16,457 - 14,516 5,111 19,627 74.0 a 19,979 5,520 25,499 85.0 1 L 1 t Belgium - 5 1.692- - 2,018 918 2,956 68.7 a 2,521 565 2,886 87.4 a 2,689 245 2,952 91.6 l g ' - Q r - - ‘- - a II I O , Brazil - 1,988 - - 6,903 - - - 9,196 - 5,440 7,859 15,279 41.0 1 l 1 Canada 1,058 5 755 r 6 891 15.1 _ 1,182 12,074 15 256 8.9 _ *1 1,511 16,146 17,657 8.6 - a 2,044 22.58? 24.751 8.5 _ 1 ;*chine 7 0 7 100.0 124 0 124 100.0 401 0 401 100.0 5.421 0 .421 100-0 : Denmark 551 89 620 85.7 950 105 1,055 90.2 . 1,118 556 1,674 66.8 - 1.212 906 2.118 5%? ——1 Egypt 952 0 952 100.0 961 0 961 100.0 1,589 0 1,589 100.0 1.455 O 1. 100-0 France - - 14,756 ~ 1,571 19,265 20,854 7.5 _ 1 1,728 21,895 25,625 7.5 - i 5.527 19.545 25.072 22-0 —- m Germany 16,281 4, 771 21 ,052 77.5 25,954 2, 726 26,660 89.8 . 28 ,981 5,145 52,124 " 90.1 . 55. 245 2,847 58,092 92.2 . j Greece 0 7 7 1 a ' 477 477 0 . -fi 0 504 604 0 a 4 0 982 982 1 m , India 9,506 0 9,506 100.0 16,095 0 16,095 100.0 24 707 0 24,707 100.0 52,099 0 52,099 100.0 ; Italy 2,578 2,962 5,540 44.5 , 5,229 2,754 7,985 65.5 . - - 9,864 - 8,289 2,249 10,558 78.7 1 5 Japan - - 75 - 550 586 1,156 48.4 . 855 2,806 5,659 22.9 _————1 4,624 506 5,150 90.2 , . Netherlands 695 748 1,445 48.2 r 718 955 1,655 45.4 a 728 1,287 2,015 56.1 1 - - 2.250 - ‘ New Zealand 1,288 - 1,288 100.0 1,809 0 1,809 100.0 2,104 0 2,104 100.0 2,717 0 2.717 100.0 Norway 614 42 656 95.6 . 928 42 970 95. 7 1 l ,167 110 1,277 91.4 . 1,556 292 1 ,848 84. 2 1 Por tugal 569 541 71 0 52 . 0 514 686 1 ,200 42 . 8 4 525 825 , 58 .8 . 656 884 1 ,520 41 .8 m Roumania - - 862 - - - 1,580 — - - 1,925 - — — 1.979 - Russia - - 14, 824 - 5, 524 12,840 18,164 29.5 a 22,256 10,551 52,607 68 .5 1 27; 86 2 15 ,956' 41 ,818 66.6 . Servia - - - - - - 536' - - - 559 - 356 134 494 72.1 44 Spain 0 4,552 4,552 0 1 a 0 6,211 6,211 0 1. a 0 8,206 8,206 o . . 0 9,516 9,516 a 41 South Africa Union - - - - - - - - - - - _ 9,646 0 9,646 100.0 sweden 1,214 2,459 5,655 55.2 . 1,625 5,556 4,979 52.6 1 2,590 4,629 7,019 54.1 1 2,745 5.845 8.588 52-0 1 Switzerland 1,445 1,445 100.0 1,655 0 1,655 100.0 2,015 0 2,015 100. 2.250 0 2.250 100-0 *Turkey (Europe) 866 0 866 100.0 1,097 0 1,097 100.0 1,952 0 1,952 100.0 967 0 967 100.0 United Kingdom 0 17,955 17,955 0 a J 0 20,075 20,075 ‘ 0 . 4 0 21,855 21,855 0 . a 0 25,589 25,589 0 1 #. United States ' 0 87,852 87,852 0 m % 0 165,597 165,597 0 m . 0 195,546 195,546 0 a . 0 240,459 240,459 0 l 4. Total _—_—_—: _—_——fi 1 Q *Government owned but pr ivately operated. RAILWAYS 45 and operation both exist, but where many lines held under con- cessions will later fall into state ownership. Table XLVIII shows the percentage of railway mileage pri- vately and government owned in 30 countries at the end of the various decades, results that are also shown diagrammatically. In the year 1910, of the total railway mileage of the world 223,778 miles were government owned, 403,844 miles were pri- vately owned. In the railways classed in this statement and the above table, wherever the title of railways is vested in the government, even if they are operated by private corporations, whether by lease or concession, the mileage is considered as government owned. APPENDIX. Assistance has been rendered by the following and is hereby grate- fully acknowledged: American Locomotive Company Baldwin Locomotive Works Comptroller of Canadian Railways Congressional Library Interstate Commerce Commission Library of the Pan-American Union New York Public Library. Statistics have been compiled in part from the following: Archiv fiir Eisenbahnwesen. Austria—Statistik der in den im Reichsrathe vertretenen Konig reichen und Landern im Betriebe gestandenen Locomotiv-Eisen bahnen. Austria-Hungary—Eisenbahnen der Osterreichisch Ungarischen Mon- archie. Australia—Commonwealth Statistics of Transports and Communi~ cation. Belgium—Board of Trade Continental Railway Investigation. Brazil—Annuaire du Brésil Economique. Canada—Railway Statistics of the Dominion of Canada. Canada—Annual Report of the Minister of Railways and Canals. Colvin—Railroad Pocket Book. De Danske Statsbaner. English Railways, Reports and Papers. France—Statistique des Chemins de Fer Francais. 46 RAILWAYS France—Rapports par M. le Ministre des Chemins de Fer. Germany—Statistik der im Betriebe befindlichen Eisenbahnen Deutschlands. Great Britain ’s Statistical Abstract for the Principal and other For- eign Countries. Halsey—The Railways of South and Central America. India—Administration Report on Indian State Railways. International Bureau of American Republics, Bulletin of. Italy—Ferrovie dello Stato, Statistica dell’ Esercizio. Japan—Annual Reports of the Imperial Railway Bureau. Lavis—The Gauge of Railways, with particular reference to those of Southern South America. ‘ Moody ’s Manual. New Zealand Railways Statement. Norges Oificielle Statistik. De Ofi'entlige Jernbaner. Osterreichische Eisenbahnstatistik. Poor ’s Manual. Railway Equipment Register. Schweizerische Eisenbahn~Statistik. Southwestern Book, The Spain—Annuario de Ferrocarriles. Sveriges Statistik—L Statens J ernvagstrofik. United Kingdom—Railway Returns of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland to the Board of Trade. United States Census. United States—Interstate Commerce Commission Reports. United States—Miscellaneous Documents of the House of Repre- sentatives. RAILWAYS 47 ADDENDUM. Since the above paper was presented to the International Engineering Congress the author has received through the courtesy of Sr. Santiago Mendez, of Mexico City, the following statistics of railways in Mexico. Distances are stated in miles, Weights in tons of 2,000 pounds, and currency in gold dollars (United States), two Mexican pesos being taken as equivalent to one dollar. MEXICO. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Miles of line. 258 671 6,039 11,346 15,172 Miles of sidings . - 3 10 106 302 630 Total capital-- . $6,103,900 18,000,000 75,432,000 121,105,000 314,500,000 Locomotives 15 103 632 783 1,190 Passenger train cars 20 360 935 1,450 1,819 Freight cars - . 100 300 7,652 13,021 42,150 Total operating revenue $ 800,000 2,242,500 10,459,500 25,399,000 42,835,000 Total operating expense $ 660,000 1,693,500 7,081,500 16,725,000 28,551,000 Net operating revenue $ 140,000 549,000 3,378,000 8,674,000 14,284,000 Total number of passengers 800,000 l,268,038 , 4,679,298 10,004,267 L“ 12,295,546 Passengers carried 1 mile 14,914,000 24,013,000 244,762,000 497,335,000 550,113,000 Receipts per passenger mile $ 0.0201 0.0167 0.0136 0.0158 0.0173 . ‘5} g5’ , Tons carried 89,151 296,068 2,919,163 6,579,123 13,047,217 Tons carried one mile 3,770,000 17,302,000 306,440,000 967,073,000 2,207,135,000 Receipts per ton-mile 3% 0.1326 0.1064 0.0271 0.0181 0.0173 Aver. number of employees- 28,500 37,890 Compensation of employees $ 9,000,000 13,050,000 Accidents Killed Passengers 6 3 17 Employees 42 40 83 Others ................. .. 73 70 100 Injured Passengers -- . 22 42 7 9 Employees 122 200 389 Others ...... -- 107 113 160 48 DISCUSSION: RAILWAYS Stucki. Mr. Churchill. Lavis. DISCUSSION Mr. Arnold Stucki,* Mem. Am. Soc. M. 13., stated that some railroads were not equipped for a 50-ton capacity car in 1897, when the first 50-ton capacity car was ordered, but the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad was, and others followed very soon thereafter. At no time since their adoption had the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad regarded the 50-ton capacity cars as too heavy. Mr. Chas. S. Ghurchill,** M. Am. Soc. C. E., said that the 60~ton maxi- mum capacity car is in very common use, and has been for years. On the Norfolk & Western Railway there are in use 100-ton maximum capac- ity cars, equipped with six-wheel trucks. The axle load is thus approxi- mately the same for the 100-ton car as for the 60-ton car, which has a four-wheel truck; that is, about 43,000 pounds per axle, including the weight of the car. Mr. E‘. Lavisj M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter), stated that the construc- tion of the Panama Canal was made possible only by reason of the effi- cient organization of transportation which permitted the removal of the vast amount of material from the cut through the backbone of the con- tinent. It is entirely fitting, therefore, that this Congress should review both the development of the railway as the supreme agent of land trans- portation, its present status, and the state of the art of its construction. The paper before us permits of little discussion; one can only express admiration for the patience, perseverance and skill necessary to obtain, digest and so clearly set forth such a vast and so complete a mass of statistics covering the whole railway field of the world since the begin- ning of the railway era. Those who have attempted, even though in only a modest way, to compile railway statistics of any kind in more than one country will realize the discouraging task of any attempt to make such and so many comparisons as have been made by the author of this paper, and the thanks of the Congress and of all those in any way interested in railroads is due him for the vast amount of work performed and the excellent manner of its presentation. One cannot help feeling in reading this paper, and especially so if one has any personal experience in obtaining comparative statistics of this nature, that no matter what the shortcomings of the Interstate Com- merce Commission may have been, this country is indebted to it for a system of accounting and reports as applied to railways which is un- equaled in the world from a practical statistical standpoint. It would seem to be not inappropriate for this Congress to take some steps looking to concerted action among the nations of the world for a unified system of reporting statistics of railways. It may seem to be a difficult task, * Consulting Engineer, Pittsburgh, Pa. if" Asst. to President, Norfolk & Western Ry., Roanoke, Va. '5' Consulting Engineer, New York, N. Y. DISCUSSION: RAILWAYS 49 but it is not beyond the realms of possibility if persisted in, and this paper will form a most excellent working basis for this purpose. It seems almost invidious to criticize in even the smallest degree such a paper as this, but one cannot fail to note the absence of any reference to the results of electrification of certain sections of steam railways. This it is true does not lend itself to statistical comparison as yet, and the extravagant predictions of fifteen years ago have not been fulfilled, but electric traction within certain limited fields, which, however, are being surely if slowly extended, has been an important factor in certain develop- ments of the present century and its possibilities are so great that no one can foresee the effect they may have on the future of transportation. The writer believes, however, that in a review of the railway field to date this development is of enough importance to warrant notice in this general review as well as in the appropriate special section devoted to this subject. Mr. William J. Wilgus,* M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter), said that the past of the railways of the world, as mirrored in the statistics so pains- takingly gathered by Mr. Parsons, displays an enormous growth in mile- age and in volume and density of traffic, coupled with a pronounced lower- ing of cost of service to the communities which they serve. While this is true for nearly all of the countries for which figures are given, the most remarkable results are shown for the United States, where the mileage between 1870 and 1910 increased nearly five times; capital invested and operating revenues, seven times; passengers carried one mile, over fifteen times; and tons carried one mile, forty-eight fold. As the volume of traffic has grown so much more rapidly than mile- age, it is evident that density too has mounted, and this conclusion is supported by the fact that passenger-miles per mile during this period have increased between three and four times, and ton-miles per mile, ten fold. During these four decades there has been a decrease in passenger fares from 3 cents to less than 2 cents per mile, and in the ton-mile rate from 2% cents to 34 cent, a drop of some 70 percent. With a knowledge of these fruits of railroad development in the United States, the question naturally arises as to what the future holds forth for this great agency of civilization. It is not to be expected that traffic will cease to rise in volume even if the past rate of growth hence- forth is not fully maintained, and therefore it is certain that large sums will be constantly required for additional and improved facilities, such as multiple tracking, larger and more efficient terminals, safety appliances, betterments in alignment, gradients, track and roadbed, elimination of grade crossings, metal passenger cars, more powerful locomotives, and the substitution of electricity for steam motive power in great centers of population and on limiting gradients. Hitherto private capital has been freely obtainable for this quasi- public service, but the trend of the times seems to indicate that a marked * Consulting Engineer, New York, N. Y. Mr. Lavis. Mr. Wilgus. 50 DISCUSSION: RAILWAYS Mr. Wilgus. change is pending, and that steel highways like their humble prototype, the post road and turnpike, are to pass to governmental ownership. . In Europe this movement, already quite well advanced in several countries, appears likely to be hastened by the war, which promises to revolutionize many hoary customs of the past. In the United States the increased press of governmental regulation, without the sobering accompaniment of financial responsibility, apparently cannot fail to dry up the sources of private investment and force the nationalization of railways in order that they may be extended and im— proved to meet the needs of the public. In fact the laborious and ex- pensive physical valuation of railroads now under way by the Interstate Commerce Commission, although ostensibly in the interest of rate regula- tion, would seem to point toward the more practicable purpose of estab- lishing a basis for their ultimate acquisition by the government. The fear is often expressed that, judging from unhappy results in other countries, the government ownership of the railroads of the United States will result in dangerous political control and in the dry~rot and inefficiency that are always present where initiative, so essential to suc- cess in private enterprise, is lacking. The recent disclosures of scandalous breaches of trust in the management of certain prominent railroads have lent force to the arguments of those who reply that the evils that flow from government ownership can be no worse than those that are so patent under private control. Thus facing the alternatives of continued irresponsible governmental regulation of hectored and financially embarrassed privately owned rail- ways, or their ownership outright by the government, it would seem in- evitable that the latter eventually will come to pass; and that this being so, every eflort should be made to guide the movement so that justice may be done to those who in good faith have invested their money in the devel- opment of the country, and so that a plan may be formulated that will at least minimize, if not remove, the well-known evils of governmental ownership. If the matter is allowed to drift, in the fond illusion that in some way the status quo avnte will be restored, the outcome is liable to be the gradual impoverishment of the railways through unfair regulation, accom- panied by disaster both to their owners, the investing public, and to the public at large whose well-being is intimately bound up in the prosperity of its systems of transportation. Likewise the drifting policy may result in the belated assumption by the nation of a gigantic task for which it will be totally unprepared. Summed up, it would appear that the existing antagonism between public regulatory bodies and the private management of railways in the United States is resulting in a deadlock that threatens entirely to stop the flow of capital into needed facilities for a constantly expanding volume of traffic, and that the component of forces is heading toward government ownership, to which the country as yet has not opened its eyes. Paper No. 72 THE STATUS OF THE RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. By F. LAVIS, M. Am. Soc. 0. E. Consulting Engineer New York, N. Y., U. S. A. INTRODUCTION. This paper is, from its very nature, largely a compilation of information from many sources, to name all of which would be impossible in the limited space available. Assistance has been freely rendered by the ambassadors and ministers of the foreign countries in Washington and our own representatives abroad. Many railways through their executives and others have furnished direct information, and much has been compiled from official government reports, etc. It has not been possible to obtain all that was desired in some cases, especially as the war has in many cases caused a reduction of stafis, both on railroads and in other places, which has precluded the possibility of compiling much detailed in- formation. The general observations in regard to the United States of North America, Argentine, Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Guatamala and Salvador, while based on general sources of in- formation, have been verified also by the writer’s personal knowledge. Unless otherwise stated. all amounts of money are quoted in dollars, practically equivalent to United States gold. General Considerations. The past decade, covering the opening years of the twen- tieth century, will probably be looked upon in the future as, in many respects, a period of transition for the railways of both North and South America. This would probably have been the case in any event, but the great European War, which 52 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA started at the end of the year 1914, will not unlikely serve to further emphasize a change of considerable importance in the relative status of the principal countries of Europe to those of North and South America, in so far as it may tend to destroy to some extent the great preponderance of surplus capital in Europe as compared with the rest of the world, and bring the United States of North America forward as one of the world centers of finance. In order to get a proper perspective of the status of the railways of North and South America at the present time, it is necessary to call to mind the fact that in this comparatively new western world, the development of the railways and their extensions into undeveloped territory has been unlike and quite the opposite of the development in Europe, inasmuch as they have been the necessary forerunners of any other form of development, and not the development of existing lines of communication between already established centers of com- merce. The rapid development of the railways of the United States has been dependent to a large extent on foreign capital, though the almost unlimited natural resources of every kind, both of food products and manufactures, have made such dependence more a matter of convenience than compulsion, except in the matter of time. To a smaller extent, this is also true of Canada, but for many reasons, the development of the vast areas of Central and South America has been, and will likely continue to be, nearly entirely dependent on foreign capital, which in the past has been almost wholly European. During the nineteenth century, the development of the then virgin resources of North America was naturally a more attractive field for European investors than was South America in which, with but few exceptions, stable governments were not established until towards its close, and in which climatic and other conditions were not so favorable. North America and especially the United States is entirely in the temperate zone. It is adapted to the living requirements of the people of practically the whole of Europe, so the great tides of emi- gration and capital from Europe during the past century flowed toward the northern part of the Western Hemisphere, and at RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 53 the opening of the twentieth century, that is to say at the be- ginning of the decade now under review, the development period was practically closed in North America so far as the opening up of new territory was concerned, and it was entering on the intensive development of the resources, the exploitation of which had already been started. Also during the nineteenth century, the great source of wealth of North America, and the factor which has principally influenced the lines of its development, has been the surplus production of food products, both pastoral and agricultural, which were exported to Europe, serving as payment of the interest on the borrowed capital and for the luxuries or other goods, which it was necessary or desirable to import. During the latter part of this period, however, as the manu- facturing industries were being rapidly developed, the relative proportion of the population engaged in manufactures and com- mercial life to those engaged in the production of food like- wise increased, so that more and more of its food products were consumed at home, with a consequent tendency towards a diminished volume available for export. Up to the present, the increased area under cultivation has nearly kept up with the demand, but the tendency is toward a decrease in the sup- ply of food products available for export, and an increase of the manufacturing and commercial element of the population. There have been, indeed, actual imports of such products as corn (maize) and beef, and there are many indications of a tendency towards an increase of imports along these lines. The manufacturing interests of North America have, up to the present, been kept busy supplying the needs of their own country, but their capacity has increased now to the point where they must look for outside markets in order to keep their plants fully occupied, and this also is to some extent forced on the country by the necessity of increasing the volume of exports to offset the imports, and to repay its obligation both of capital and interest to its European creditors. The growing demand in Europe, in fact all over the world, for food products, and by food products is here meant gen- erally the staples, cereals and meat, has turned all eyes to those areas where they may be produced in abundance, which besides 54 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA North America are principally Asiatic Russia, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and southern South America. This paper is only concerned with the efiect of this economic de- velopment on the last mentioned area. Of course, local developments at many points throughout both North and South America will be governed by local con- ditions, but it is believed that the above indicates generally the main trend of events, which have governed the general develop- ment up to the present and which will have the greatest influence in the immediate future. It seems not unlikely that the United States of North America must take a greater and ever increas- ing interest in the development of South America, and will take a not inconsiderable part in lending financial aid to this end (this even in spite of its own foreign indebtedness), and also, that by reason of this and of the necessity of developing its markets for manufactured products, North American engi- neers and railway managers will have some voice in the de- velopment of its transportation systems on the large scale and with the same economic success which has been so marked in the United States, where the conditions in the past have been much the same as those existing today in South America. Table No. 1 i“ shows the length of operated lines of all the countries of North and South America, distributed as to gauge, and showing the lengths in proportion to area and population of each country, and given in the order in which the more de- tailed descriptions follow. In the paper, the lengths are given in miles for North America and Mexico, and in kilometers for all the other countries, though for this table the mileage has been converted, for the sake of uniformity, to kilometers for all countries. (It may be convenient to remember that the kilometer is approximately equal to 0.62 mile.) This table has been compared with various similar tables, and while it seems almost impossible to obtain accuracy in this matter, the gen- eral results are substantially the same, or where they differ, it has seemed that the figures given in this table were more nearly correct. It has seemed advisable to give the number of square miles and number of inhabitants per unit of railway rather than vice versa, as has been usual, as tending to show * All statistical tables are given at the end of paper. RAILVVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA vl (A the area and population tributary to the unit length of railway in operation. NORTH AMERICA. Canada. The notes in regard to the railways of Canada are based largely on articles by J. L. Payne in the Railway Age Gazette of Jan. 24, 1913, and Feb. 6, 1914, and on the official statistics for the year ending June 30, 1913. Many of the comparative. statistics cannot be given for the period previous to 1907, as at that time a new system of accounting, similar to that pre- scribed by the Interstate Commerce Commission in the United States, was put into effect. In passing, it may be mentioned that the methods of operation of the Canadian railways, as well as those of Mexico, are practically the same as those of the United States, and traffic and rolling stock are freely inter- changed. The railways are mostly operated by private companies, but the Intercolonial, 1500 miles, two other lines aggregating 400 miles (all standard gauge), and the Prince Edwards Island Railway, 270 miles, of 3’ 6” gauge, are owned and operated by the Government. Canada claims the distinction of possessing the largest single railway system in the world; namely, the Canadian Pacific with 11,600 miles of main line, 15,700 miles of track. and a total capitalization of almost five hundred million dol- lars. of which only 20 million is bonded indebtedness (July 30, 1913). Perhaps. however. the most striking feature. in connection with Canadian Railways during the past decade. has been their very considerable expansion, and the very active part taken by the Government in promoting this, both by actual construction for its own account and by aid in the shape of cash bonuses and land grants to private companies. Lat- terly, guarantees, in many cases of both principal and interest. have been the more popular form of aid. The total amount of the subsidies granted up to June 30, 1913, was as follows: Dominion Provinces Municipalities Total Cash ........... .- $163,251,469 $ 36,500,015 $18,078,673 $217,830,157 Lands (Acres) 31,864,074 11,697,375 43,561.44!) Guarantees -- 95,486,590 179,473,781 274,900,371 56 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA These lands were selling at from $12 to $15 per acre in 1912, and the price has been steadily increasing. The mileage of new lines under construction, or not yet officially placed in operation on June 30, 1913, was: Surveyed .............. -- 6,558 Under Contract ............... .- 8,591 Completed .............. -. 3,498 Total .................. .-18,647 The most important of the new developments of the past decade has been the National Transcontinental line or the Grand Trunk Pacific, which was started in 1906, and which is now practically completed. It extends from Moncton, N. B., on the Atlantic to Prince Rupert on the Pacific, and is about 3550 miles in length. The eastern half was built directly by the Government, the western half by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, for the Government, and the whole, as well as the old existing lines of the Grand Trunk Railway Company in eastern Canada, is to be worked by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company. This line has gradients of 0.4%, and even across the Continental Divide, which is passed at the compara- tively low elevation of 3718 ft., this is only exceeded on one short stretch of 20 miles, of 1%, operated as a Pusher Gradient. A third transcontinental line, The Canadian Northern, has also been developed. The main part of this system at present lies to the northwest of Winnipeg, with an outlet to Lake Superior at Port Arthur; it is being extended westerly, via the headwaters of the Peace River, and through the Fraser River Valley to Vancouver, and has under construction a line to the north of the Great Lakes to connect with lines already owned in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, which will give it eventually a through line from ocean to ocean. The most remarkable development has been in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta as far north as Latitude 54, which only a few years ago were thought of as part of the barren Arctic wastes, but which now are known to contain fertile, agri- cultural land adapted to the cultivation of wheat and the hardy cereals, and which are served by many lines of railway. RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 57 A noticeable fact, in connection with operation, is the in- creased use of fuel oil, less than 2 million gallons having been used in 1912 and over 30 million gallons in 1913. Over 22 million cross-ties were used in 1913 at an average cost of 48 cts. each, as compared with 37 cts. in 1907 and about 28 cts. in 1900. This naturally has increased the number of treated ties. The Canadian Pacific, which, owing to the large land grants, has been in a very strong position financially, has carried out and is planning very extensive improvements of its lines, and is said to be considering the utilization of some of the water power for the operation of its mountain lines by electric traction. It has also undertaken extensive irrigation projects for the development of some of its lands near Calgary, Alberta. The general condition of the railways is shown by statisti- cal tables 2 and 3. United States of North America. It has already been noted that, so far as the railways of the United States are concerned, there are virtually no new areas to open up, or new trunk lines to build. The future de- velopment, therefore, will be principally in the extension and improvement of existing systems. The necessity of building lines in the early days as cheaply as possible, in order to de- velop new areas, has been followed by the necessity of improv- ing them to take care of the ever increasing volume of busi- ness. By the close of the nineteenth century, the movement for the improvement of existing lines, by reducing gradients and straightening the alignment, improvements in road bed and equipment, installation of block signal systems, and the con- sequent possibilities of increase of train loads by the use of heavier locomotives, etc., was well under way, and has con- tinued with little abatement up to within the past few years, when the general financial depression of the Whole world, coupled with the somewhat onerous regulation by both national and state commissions, has forced a halt. There have been some notable applications of electric traction to the operation of portions of steam railroads, but the great expectations for general electrification, indulged in at the beginning of the twentieth century and encouraged by the great success of electric traction for urban and interurban 58 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA lines, have not been realized. Indeed the great strides which have been made in the development of increased power and in economy in the operation of steam locomotives make this now seem to be farther away than ever. There has, however, un- doubtedly been on the whole, great progress along this line, the details of which must be left for the paper dealing with this sub- ject, it being only necessary to point out here that, up to the present, the substitution has, with a very few exceptions (the section of the Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound across the Bitter Root Mountains being perhaps the most important), been made only in cases where the use of steam was impossible or dif- ficult owing to other reasons than its economy as a medium for the application of power directly to the movement of trains, such as in the operation of great terminals or long tunnels or other special cases. The continued development in increased capacity of locomotives and cars, increased train loads and consequent economies in operation, in which the United States has been the leader, are to be noted, though details are left for the appropriate section dealing with these subjects, as is also the development of all steel cars for both freight and passenger service. Perhaps the most vital feature to the well-being of the rail- roads as a whole since the latter part of the last century has been the development of regulation by both state and national commissions. The almost entire absence of any effective regu- lation. up to nearly the end of the nineteenth century, had been one of the most marked points of difierence between the rail- ways of the United States and those of practically the whole of the rest of the world. This, as might be expected, undoubt- edly led to abuses of privilege on the part of the railroads, and the consequent reaction when the State and Federal Govern- ments attempted to regain their authority and assert their regulatory rights. There was, however, no trained body of men in existence, nor any available, outside of the ranks of the employees of the railroads, to take up the numerous and greatly involved technical problems, which had and still have to be solved in order to carry out intelligently, and for the best interests of the country, the necessary and really desirable regulation; consequently not only were the heads of these com- RAILVVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 59 missions, in many cases, appointed from the ranks of the politicians, or were lawyers with little or no practical business experience, and least of all railroad experience, but also, in many cases, the employees and so-called technical advisers lacked the requisite broad training and experience. The result at first, in response to the clamor for regulation, was more nearly like oppression, due to a desire to acquire political prestige as well as apparently to punish the railroads for their past misdeeds which most surely had existed, rather than a desire to provide for efficiency in the future. Laws of all kinds were passed, ordering certain things in some states which were proscribed or prohibited in others, or which were proscribed by the State and ordered to be carried out by the Federal Government or vice versa. The railroads were forced to accede to frequent demands by their employees for increased wages, and have had to face increases in the prices of much of the material (especially in the important item of cross-ties) which they have had to purchase. In spite of all these increases in the cost of labor and materials required for operation, they have not only been denied permission to increase their tariffs or rates, but in many cases these have been lowered by order of the regulatory commissions. The deficit has been to a large extent met by improved methods and in- creased efficiency in operation, but the margin of profit has been steadily decreased, until the railroads were forced at last to make a concerted appeal for higher rates. This was denied except in certain minor instances by the Federal regulatory body (the Interstate Commerce Commission) in the early part of 1914, but the exigent conditions, brought about by the war, forced a reconsideration in the latter part of the year. which resulted in a general increase of about 5% in freight rates and some increase in passenger rates. One quite important development, which has been the direct result of the assumption of control by the Interstate Commerce Commission of the affairs of the railroad, has been the decision to make a “valuation” of their properties. This work was commenced towards the end of the year 1913, and is now beginning to get fairly well under way. It seems to be the intention to keep this valuation up to date, once it is ob- 60 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA tained, and to use it as at least a partial basis, if not wholly, for the determination of any questions which may arise in re- gard to the issue of new capital or securities and as to the reasonableness of rates. There are some signs at the end of the year 1914, that, owing to the realization that the cost of making this valuation will be quite a little greater than was anticipated, and of the fact that the possibility of its applica- tion to the solution of rate problems is so vague, there has grown up a feeling of doubt as to its practical utility. It has been suggested that it might be used as a basis for the actual acquisition of the property of the railroads and their operation by the Government, but it seems probable now that public sentiment is on the whole opposed to this. During the decade under review, there has been carried on a most exten- sive campaign of publicity, both by the railroads and their critics, through the medium of the many thousands of news- papers and magazines, which circulate everywhere so exten- sively ; and to the writer the result seems to be a general awak- ening of public sentiment against any idea of government ownership, in favor of efficient federal regulation and rates high enough to insure efficient service and to provide a suii‘ici- ent return so that new capital will be attracted for the con- tinued development of facilities for handling traffic, together with a recognition of the fact that the prosperity of the coun- try is very intimately related to the prosperity of the railways. The actual situation of the railways of the United States, however, at the end of the year 1914, is that they have many millions of dollars worth of obligations coming due, which they are finding it difficult to refinance, owing not only to the fact that their greatly decreased earnings do not make the investments at- tractive, and that the war has caused a contraction of all credits, but also owing to the feeling of uncertainty as to the future atti- tude of the legislative and regulatory bodies. For several years past also, the railways have found it in- creasingly difficult to raise sufficient new capital to carry out urgently needed improvements and enlargements of their ca- pacity for handling traffic. During -the period of depression, which has existed for some four or five years past, the lack of capacity has not been felt, but when the inevitable reaction RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 61 comes, and the railroads are called upon to handle the in- creased volume of business which prosperous times will bring, the ensuing congestion will prove a source of expense, which will offset any advantages that the increased business might otherwise be expected to bring. Another economic factor which may develop as a result of the war will be in the partial clos- ing at least of the European markets as sources of capital for these necessary developments, and consequently the necessity of dependence, to a much greater extent, on home resources; and as has already been noted, it may be necessary, or at least very desirable, for the United States to help in the develop- ment of the resources of South America. So far as the railways are concerned, the financial problem is one of not a little importance. It is possible that the con- tinuance of the war may result in the extra stimulation of American manufacturing industries, and to meet such demand will require the investment of capital. To transport the prod- ucts, the railroads must have facilities, the provision of which will in turn require still more capital. The solution of this problem will require the most skillful handling and the co- operation of all concerned, bankers, merchants, and capitalists, as well as railroad managers; but it is believed that it can be solved under careful, consistent and wise regulation of the Federal Government untempered by socialistic or too radical tendencies. The general situation, so far as regulation is con- cerned, is well summed up in the report of the President of the Pennsylvania Railroad to the stockholders in his annual re- port for the year ending June 30, 1914. He says, “The loss of control by the railroads of working conditions, the regulation of wages, and the transportation rates, as a result of Federal legislation, has become a practical fact. It is difficult to escape the conclusion that some way must be found whereby the seri- ous but divided responsibilityTgovernmental regulation of rates, wages and other railway matters shall either be concen- trated under one administrative branch of the Government, or the results of legislative acts, orders of commissions and awards of arbitration boards shall be recognized by rate regulatory commissions, so that regulation of rates, wages and other mat- 62 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA ters may continue, without working a manifest injustice to the railroads and to those who have invested in their securities”. Table N o. 4 shows the general growth of the railways of the United States for the decade 1902-1912, the latter being the last year for which official statistics are available. It is to be noted, however, that while the general growth of the railways has continued during the two years since that time, it has been in a much lessened degree, and the net returns have been very greatly reduced, leading to the situation outlined above. The gradual improvement in the~net returns, as shown in the table by the increase in dividends, has not been continued, and while the average rate of wages had increased to $2.49 in 1913, the average freight rate per ton mile had been reduced to 0.727 cts., the trend for the four years 1911-14 being shown by the following table, the data being given per mile of line. Year. 1914 1913 1912 1911 Total operating revenues -- $13,267 $13,730 $12,605 $12,580 Net “ “ .- -. . 3,709 4,216 3,888 3,955 Operating income* ................. -- 3,094 3,669 3,360 3,476 During the year 1914, the increase in the mileage of new lines built was only 1532 miles, the smallest amount since 1895, and the first year when the new mileage in Canada was greater than in the United States. For comparison it may be noted that the greatest mileage of new lines in the United States was 6026 miles in 1902. The number of locomotives built in 1914 was 2235, as com- pared with 5332 in 1913, and the number of freight and pass- enger cars 108,232 in 1914, as compared with 210,980 in 1913. Alaska. The comparatively rapid development of Alaska during the past fifteen years, due to the discovery of gold in the Yukon Valley, etc., has resulted in the construction of some 466 miles of railway, about 300 miles of which are standard gauge, the rest narrow gauge. The first line (the White Pass and Yukon) has 20 miles in Alaska and about 82 in Canada; it was built in 1898-1900. The most important line is the Copper River and *Taxes deducted, other income added. RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 63 Northwestern from Cordova to Kennicott, a standard gauge line of very substantial construction, 195 miles in length. Other lines are: Alaska Northern-Seward to Turnagain Arm - . - - . 72 miles Tanana Valley Railway (narrow gauge).... . . - 46 ‘ ‘ Seward Peninsular Railway “ “ . . — Council City and Solomon River Railway -. - - - - 33 “ The question of the proper development of the vast min- eral resources of Alaska, coal of good quality and copper, as Well as the precious metals, led to various investigations by the Government of the United States, and finally, as the result of the report of a commission appointed by President Taft in 1912, an act of Congress was passed, which authorized the President to proceed with the construction of 1000 miles of railways at a cost estimated not to exceed $35,000,000; $1,000,- 000 was actually appropriated, and during the summer of 1913, preliminary studies of some of the proposed routes were made. It now seems probable that surveys will be continued in 1914 and construction started at an early date. Newfoundland. The railways .of this colony of Great Britain are 3’ 6” gauge. The first line was built in 1880, and construction has progressed since then up to the present total of 724 miles. The lines are owned by the colonial government and leased to and operated by a private corporation. Mexico. The total length of lines in operation, up to June, 1914, was approximately 12,000 miles, of which about 1200 miles were narrow gauge and the rest 4’ 8%". The narrow gauge lines are generally feeders and short lines to mining districts in the mountains. but one of the trunk lines from the United States to Mexico City, the Mexican National, was built originally nar- row gauge and afterwards changed to 4’ 81/2". The oldest line in Mexico dates from 1854, but the principal development has been since 1880, and was practically coincident with the ad- ministration of President Diaz. It was largely influenced by North American interests and capital. The most important development during the past decade was undoubtedly the acquisition, in 1908, of the control of 64 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA approximately two-thirds of the mileage by the Federal Gov- ernment. It is stated that the idea of this merger originated with the group of North American capitalists who then con- trolled the Southern Pacific-Union Pacific Systems, but that fear of control of the extensive transportation systems of the country by foreign interests led the Mexican Government itself to adopt and carry out the idea. The method adopted was practically that of the formation of a holding company (The National Railways of Mexico), the common stock of which was “water” or “bonus stock”, but which carried the voting con- trol. This scheme gave the government virtual control with- out the investment of capital, but there were provisions in the agreement which appear to secure the interests of the stock- holders in the constituent companies, whose money still re- mained as the invested capital. The revolutions of the past three years have of course stopped all progress and new construction; much damage has been done to the lines, traffic has been frequently suspended, and the future is uncertain. The following information and data are taken almost en- tirely from Poor ’s Manual for 1914. The National Railways of Mexico operate some 8000 miles (387 miles of which are narrow gauge). The lines of this sys- tem extend from the border of the United States on the north, to Guatemala on the south, with branches to Tampico, Vera Cruz and all important cities. This system is a consolidation of a number of lines built by private enterprises, which were taken over in 1908, and at various times since, by an arrange- ment for exchange of securities, which gave the Federal Gov- ernment virtual control (with some limitations) of the opera- tion of the lines. The operating statistics of part of the system for the years ending June 30, 1909 and 1913, are as follows: Year 1909 1913 Length 5,227 6,089 Passengers, 1 km. .................... .- 579,000,424 747,511,071 Tons, 1 km. 1,979,734,017 2,006,856,051 Gross earnings (Mex.) _____________ _- $48,805,522 $57,370,282 Expenses ‘ ‘ .............. __ $29,166,893 $36,243,947 Net ‘ ‘ .............. ._ $19,638,629 $21,126,335 RAILVVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 65 Dividends amounting to 4% per annum were paid on the first preferred stock up to February, 1913, but none since. No dividends have been paid on the second preferred or common stock, of which two latter there are about 200 million pesos outstanding (1 peso = 45 cts. gold). The most important of the lines comprising this system are the following: Mexican Central National of Mexico Mexican International Interoceanic Vera Cruz and Isthmus Mexican Southern Pan-American The most important of the other lines are the following: The Mexican Railway Company, built 1865 to 1870 from Vera Cruz to Mexico City, is one of the oldest lines. It operates altogether 374 miles. It had a total annual revenue of about $8,000,000 (Mex) and operates for about 50%. The Tehuantepec Railway, crossing the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec, was rebuilt by the Mexican Government about 10 or 12 years ago, and extensive port works constructed at its terminals, with the idea of developing a short connecting route between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The Southern Pacific Company has built nearly 1000 miles southerly from Nogales, Ariz., through Guaymas, down along the western coast. The United Railways of Yucatan operate some 500 miles in the State of Yucatan, from Merida. Operations for the year ending December 31, 1911, showed the following results: Passengers carried .......................... - - . 1,056,189 Tons freight . ................................ .. 381,719 Gross earnings. .- .- . - - .. ...-$3,003,940 Expenses ............................................. -- $1,758,035 THE PAN-AMERICAN RAILROAD. A discussion of the status of the general railroad situation in North and South America would hardly be complete without reference to the project for a continuous line of railway uniting all the countries of the two continents, which was one of the 66 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA results of the Pan-American Congress held at Washington in 1889-90. Surveys (detailed reconnaissance) were made during the years 1891 to 1893, and maps and profiles of the route selected for a line from Southern Mexico to Chile and the Argentine were published in 1898 with the final report of the Commission, which had been appointed to carry out the work. The cost of the surveys and report was borne by the countries represented at the Congress, in proportion to the numbers of their respective populations. At the Third International American Congress held at Rio de J aneiro in 1906, a permanent Pan-American Railway Com- mittee was appointed, which made a formal progress report to the Fourth Congress, held at Buenos Aires in 1910, which re port, in summing up the general situation at that time, showed that between Washington, D. C., and Buenos Aires in the Ar- gentine there were Constructed .................................... .- 6,012.9 miles To be constructed.-- .- - - . 4,198.6 “ Total ................................. ..10,211.5 ‘ ‘ The report concluded with the following paragraph: “The indications now are that the time is drawing near when men of large affairs, capable of financing such a project, will under- take the building to completion of the Pan-American Railway. Within four years, it is promised that the oceans will be joined at Panama. If the present favorable indications have not been misjudged, an all-rail route should join Panama with Mexico and Washington in 1915, and with Buenos Aires, Santiago and Rio de J aneiro, a few years later”. In spite of the optimism of this report and the tone of the resolutions of the various congresses it seems somewhat unfor- tunate that continuous effort should be made to show that the actual construction of such a line, as a through transportation route, is a practical commercial possibility or even desirable at present. It is eminently desirable, of course, that the interested countries be kept in mind of the fact, that so far as may be feasible in the natural development of their transportation systems, such lines should follow routes and adopt standards of construction, which will eventually allow them to be made RAILVVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 67 part of this through line of communication. It is, however, the firm belief of the writer that the advocacy of the commercial practicability of this route, as a line of through transportation, will not only discredit the promoters as practical business men, but that it will be, in many cases, a detriment rather than a benefit to the countries through which it may pass, inasmuch as money spent on this project will, by that much, delay the construction of the very many other lines of transportation, far more urgently needed. (See also notes in regard to the Chilean Government railways.) It may be pointed out, in regard to the statement quoted above, showing that approximately 60% of the total distance between Washington and Buenos Aires has already been built, that 40% of the total is in the United States and Mexico, and the other 20% is nearly all in Peru, Bolivia and the Argentine, this latter 20%, however, being made 11p almost entirely of lines which hardly pay operating expenses. The 4000 mile stretch, comprising the other 40% yet to be built between Guatemala and Peru, lies for almost its entire length through the most difficult country and along lines, which, at least for the present, hold out no hope of commercial development on a scale which warrants much of the necessary expenditures, or even offers reasonable prospects of furnishing sufficient business to permit the earning of operating expenses. That eventually, of course, the railway lines of all the various countries will be so extended and connected up, that there will be a continuous line of railroad from Alaska to Cape Horn, no one can doubt, but that this will only be by the natural process of development, seems equally sure. As a practical, main, through transportation route from the United States to South America, the project is entirely vis- ionary so far as may be judged with our present knowledge of methods of transportation or in view of any future possibilities which it now appears reasonable to expect. Even if such a line as has been contemplated were in existence today, transporta- tion of both passengers and freight between North and South America at least, and also between many or most of the indi- vidual countries, could be carried on much more comfortably, cheaply and expeditiously by water. 68 RAILWAYS or NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA In the north, the railway lines of Canada, the United States and Mexico are united and permit continuous through transportation without break of bulk, from northern Canada to the boundary between Mexico and Guatemala on the south. The lines of this latter country, though of difierent gauge, have been extended to meet those of Mexico, and there is reasonable assurance that within the next five or six years, there will be a through communication from Guatemala, through Salvador and Honduras to Nicaragua. In the south, the lines of the Argentine and Chile extend to their northern boundaries. The lines of the latter connect with the railways of Bolivia, and only a short gap remains to connect those of the former. The railways of Bolivia connect on the north (by steamer route across Lake Titicaca) with those of southern Peru. Buenos Aires has through rail connec- tion with Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, and the railways of Uruguay connect with those of Brazil, permitting through transportation from Montevideo to Rio de J aneiro. Within a reasonable length of time, probably easily within the next ten years, the lines in both Paraguay and Brazil will connect with the existing lines in Bolivia. It seems unlikely, however, that any of these routes (with some few exceptions), excepting those presenting the lines of least resistance fom the interior to the coast, can become through transportation routes in the sense that the main trans- continental lines of the United States and Canada are. Gauge. The above conclusions are based wholly on economic con- siderations, and are entirely apart from the fact of the differ- ences in gauge. Canada, Mexico and the United States, like Europe, long ago adopted 4’ 8%” as the standard. Central and South America, with some notable exceptions, seem to have been carried away by the fallacies of the narrow gauge. This, perhaps, would not have been so bad, in spite of the fact that anything less than 4’ 81/2” is inadequate for the transportation system of a continent, except that the narrow gauge varies not only with each frontier, but often within the borders of a single country (Chile has lines of eight different gauges), the most common widths being 2’ 6”, 3’ 0”, 1 m. (3’ 33/8”) and RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 69 3’ 6", so that through transportation, even where the rails reach the various borders, can only be a sentimental vision, unless some concerted action can be taken to overcome this difficulty. This phase of the question seems to have been entirely over- looked by the advocates of the Pan-American Railway as a through route. For the present, this question of gauge is most serious, as it affects the development of southern South America in the vast plain which stretches practically from Patagonia to the Amazon and from the Andes to the Atlantic. The Argentine is struggling with three gauges; Uruguay and Paraguay have the standard, 4’ 81/3”; and Brazil has mostly 1 meter, a gauge wholly inadequate for the development of its vast territory, with bulk freight to be hauled long distances at low rates. This subject has, however, been treated of in castenso by the writer,”“ and is, therefore, only mentioned as a matter of vital interest, in connection with the present operation and future develop- ment of the railways of this section. CENTRAL AMERICA. Guatemala. The railway lines of Guatemala (except the Verapaz Rail- way, 40 km.) are now all consolidated under the management of the “International Railways of Central America”, which also controls certain other lines and concessions in Salvador and Honduras. The system comprises essentially an east and west line across the country from Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic, via the capital, Guatemala City (elevation 4910 ft.) to the Port of San J osé on the Pacific, with a line running northerly from near San J osé along the Pacific coast to the border of Mexico. The consolidation was completed in 1911, the original constit- uent lines being as follows: Length Date of Miles Construction Guatemala Northern 194.9 1892-1907 Guatemala Central 138.6 1878-1903 Occidental - .... -- 51.1 1884-1899 Pan-American Extension ...................... .. 40.0 1910-1914 Ocos - .... -. 23.0 1896-1899 447.6 * Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXXVIII (1915). 7O RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA There are approximately 48 miles of sidings and yard tracks in addition to the above. Practically all these lines have received substantial sub- sidies in cash or lands or both. For the Guatemala Northern, the Government guarantees the deficit, if any, between the net earnings and 5% interest on $4,500,000. The gauge is 3’ 0". The gradients on both the Guatemala Northern and Guatemala Central are 3.6% on approximately one-third of their lengths, and there is considerable curvature on the mountain sections, with maximum curves of 19 degrees (300 ft. radius). The equipment of the combined lines is as follows: Locomotives .... -- 7 1 Baggage and Mail cars ............................... -. 21 Passenger cars -- 93 Freight “ - ...................................... -- 1,354 . Service “ - - - 48 The comparison of the financial returns from these lines, over any extended period, is difficult owing to the many changes in management and various methods of accounting, fluctuation in the value of currency, etc. There has been, however, a very decided increase in earnings during the past few years, due to quite a large extent to the development of the Motagua Valley for the cultivation of bananas and to the efficiency of the manage- ment. The following table is in United States Gold: 1906 1913 Earnings Expenses Earnings Expenses Guatemala Central ........... .. $821,927 $501,351 $806,977 $388,645 1908 Guatemala Northern ........ .. 317,903 291,135 1,469,478 674,221 1912 Occidental .......................... -. 161,316 96,797 178,382 94,506 1912 Ocos 133,818 48,995 149,972 62,058 Total 1913 $2,604,809 $1,219,430 This, it will-be noted, gives the very low operating ratio of 46.8% for 1913. The totals for 1914 will probably be lower, owing to the effect of the war in decreasing the value of the coffee crop, the main source of revenue of the country. The RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 71 value of the above lines, with equipment, is carried on the books at $46,592,400. The Pan-American Extension to the Mexican border was completed at the end of February, 1914. Traffic statistics for the Guatemala Northern and Guate~ mala Central for 1913 are as follows: Northern Central Number of passengers .............. .- . ...... .- 184,437 540,747 Passenger miles per mile - - - - 30,036 80,248 Revenue per pass. mile cts. gold ............. -. 2.2 2.9 Tons of freight ................................... -- 171,281 184,587 Ton miles per mile ............................... -. 70,313 54,723 Revenue per ton mile cts. gold .................. -. 7.56 5.91 The maximum tariff rates of the Guatemala Northern are as follows: - - - - - - - - - . . _ _ , _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ 6 ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ u 4 K t ( ( g‘ ‘ ‘ Freight ton (2,000 lb.)_________ _ _ __ 20 u H .. ., New Developments—The completion of the so-called Pan- American Extension, permits through rail connection between the railways of Guatemala and the United States through Mexico, except for the break of gauge. A concession has been granted to the Guatemala Northern for a line from Zacapa to Salvador, which it is proposed to extend eventually, via the City of San Salvador, to La Union at its southern boundary on the Gulf of Fonseca. The southern end of this line has been built for about 70 miles from La Union northerly to Usulutan, and construction is being continued. Surveys have been made of the northern part from Zacapa in Guatemala, to Santa Ana in Salvador. This theoretically links up the railway systems of Salvador and Guatemala with Mexico, the United States and Canada, but so far as this may be considered a through route, the idea is not to be considered practical at present; the natural outlet for both of the countries when these lines are completed being via Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic coast of Guatemala. Salvador. There are three lines in operation in Salvador having a total length of about 260 km., all 3’ 0” gauge. 72 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA The Salvador Railway, operated by British interests, runs from Salvador City to the Port of Acajutla (105 km.), with a branch from Sitio del Nifio to Santa Ana (38 km.). It has grades of 3.8%, and curves of 20 degrees. Construction was started in 1880, and about twenty miles were built up from the coast by 1890. The line was finally completed to Santa Ana in 1896 and to San Salvador City, the capital, soon after. The Salvador Railway is capitalized at $7,000,000. The gross revenue for the five years, 1904-5 to 1909-10, varied from about $450,000 to $530,000 per annum, and the operating ratio from 50% to 55%. The above does not include a subsidy of about $115,000 per annum, payable by the Government up to the year 1917. The gross revenue for 1913 amounted to $782,000 (probably including the subsidy). About 75% of the revenue is from freight, the largest single item of which is coffee. The company operates a line of steamers from Acajutla to Salina Cruz the Pacific terminus of the Tehuantepec Railway. Rolling Stock— 12 Locomotives 23 Passenger Cars 172 Freight Cars The maximum tarifis allowed by the concession are: Passenger 1st class ........................... -- 4 cts. gold per mile “ 211d “ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ __ 2 H l; (I (I Freight ton (2,000 1b,) ________________________ __ 13 II II II II Coffee.-- _____ __ 122 II II II II The Santa. Tecla Railroad (under local control) has had gross earnings, varying from $75,000 silver in 1897 to about $30,000 in 1907, and operates at about 50% (silver 40% in 1911). Its length is 13 km. Gauge 3’ 0”. Rolling Stock— 3 Locomotives 6 Passenger Cars 3 Freight Cars A concession was granted in May, 1914, for the extension of this line to the port of La Libertad, the Government guar- anteeing 5% interest and 1% amortization on bonds, issued at par to cover the cost of construction and for a total not ex- ceeding $1,500,000 gold. There is also a tentative provision RAILVVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 73 for a branch from the lower end of this line to Zacatecoluca. When necessary, a part of the customs dues is to be set aside to provide for these payments. The International Railways of Central America, a United States corporation, controls the concession for a line from La Union (a good harbor on the Gulf of Fonseca), via Salvador City, to the border of Guatemala, where it is to connect with the line to Zacapa (see Guatemala). The construction of the lower part of this line from La Union to San Miguel was started by the Government in 1900, and, after being nearly completed, was abandoned. This portion was reconstructed and completed in 1911-12, and the line is being extended north- erly at the rate of about 20 km. a year. It reached Usulutan (km. 105) toward the end of 1913 and work is being continued towards the Lempa River. Rolling Stock— 6 Locomotives 8 Passenger Coaches 38 Freight Cars This concession carries a subsidy of $7000 gold per km. payable (on the completion of each 10 km.) in bonds at 90 with 5% interest and 2% amortization (guaranteed from cus- toms). Rates allowed are substantially the same as Salvador Railway. The Supreme Court of the United States is named as final arbitrator of disputes. The investment in this line to Dec. 31, 1913, is given as . .. .. ............................. ..$1,300,341 Less subvention .. .. .. .. . 534,314 Net ....................................................................... ...$ 766,027 Honduras. All the existing lines are on the Atlantic side. The National Railway is owned and operated by the Gov- ernment. Its length is 90 km., gauge 3’ 6". It runs from Puerto Cortez to Pimienta. The external debt of the Republic was incurred for the construction of this line. 74 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA Earnings 1913— Gross 600,000 soles Expenses 450,000 ‘ ‘ Net -. .- 150,000 “ Tariffs—- Passenger 1st class 5 cts. silver per km. ( l l‘ 3 l l i 6 C ( ( l Freight per ton 1 to 4 cts.“ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ Carload lots half the above. Rolling Stock— 10 Locomotives 21 to 49 tons 10 Cars 20 tons capacity Tela. Railroad. The United Fruit Company has surveys for a line from Pimienta, via the valley of the River Ulua, to Tela. Construction has been started on this line (Oct, 1914). Gauge 3’ 6". Rolling Stock— 7 Locomotives 112 Flat Cars, 30 tons The Ferrocarril Vaccaro is a line built and operated by a fruit company inland from La Ceiba. In 1912-13, there were 114 km. of main line and branches, of which 23 km. had been built during the past year. Gauge 3’ 6”. Rolling Stock— 7 Locomotives 6 Passenger Coaches 205 Freight Cars The Cuyamel Fruit Company has 57 km. of 4’ 8%” gauge built (1911-14) and 40 km. 30” gauge tramways, all for de- velopment of its plantations near Puerto Cortez. Rolling Stock— 6 Locomotives, 8 to 36 tons 110 Freight Cars, 25 tons There are also the following: Colorado Railroad (United Fruit Company) 27 km. from La Ceiba. Honduras Rubber Company, 5 km., at Nueva Armenia. Tropical Timber Company, 8 km., to build ten more. RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 75 Pan-American Line. The International Railways of Cen- tral America has a concession for this line, to run from a con- nection with that company’s lines in Salvador along the Pa- cific Coast to the border of Nicaragua, and for a line from the Pacific Coast to Tegucigalpa, the capital. Surveys of this line are being made. Trujillo Railroad is 37 km. in length, under construction, track laid; 4’ 81/2” gauge, 4 locomotives, 50 cars, not opened for traffic Sept, 1914. British Honduras. The Stann Creek Railway has 40 km. of line, owned and operated by the Government (Crown Agents for the Colonies ——Great Britain), 3’ 0” gauge. Rolling Stock— 4 Locomotives 48 Freight Cars Nicaragua. The principal railway is the Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua. It is 278 km. in length, 3’ 6" gauge. It runs from the harbor of Corinto on the Pacific Coast to Managua, the capital, and to Granada on Lake Nicaragua. Most of it was built prior to 1900. It was owned and operated by the Government up to the end of June, 1913, when 51% of the stock was bought by New York bankers, who are now directing the operation. The fol- lowing statistics, for the year ending June 30, 1914, are approxi- mate only: Gross earnings .................................. --$561,458 Expenses ............................................. -- 307,737 Net .. - - - . 253,722 Passengers ....................................... -. 812,500 Passengers km. per km. line 101,900 Revenue per pass. km. ......................... .. 0.6 cts. Freight tons ............................................. -. 98,600 Ton km. per km. line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . -. 83,500 Revenue per ton km. - . .- - .. 1.6 cts. Costa Rica. The Northern Railway Company of Costa Rica operates all the lines, part of which (about 340 km.) are leased from the Costa Rica Railway Company, a British corporation, and about 76 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 100 km. from the Government. Railway construction was started in 1871, and the Costa Rica Railway was built from Puerto Limon to the capital, San J osé. Recent developments have been largely in connection with the cultivation of bananas near Port Limon by the United Fruit Company, with which interests the Northern Railway Company is identified. The railway systems now form a continuous line of communication between Puerto Limon on the Atlantic, by two routes to San J osé and thence to Punta Arenas on the Pacific. The gauge is 3’ 6". The operating results for 1910 were as follows: (official) Miles operated 357 Gross earnings, gold ............ ..$2,396,307 : $6,712 per mile, gold Operating expenses, gold ...... -- 1,714,162 = 4,801 “ “ “ Net earnings, gold ................ .- 682,145 = 1,911 “ “ “ Operating ratio .................... .. 71.5% Tons one mile .................... .-14,406,174 Rates per mile— Per count, bunch bananas $ .00446 Per ton freight $ .13293 Per passenger $ .03260 Panama. Statistics Panama Railroad, Year Ending June 30, 1913, from Annual Report. Items— 1912 1913 Average length operated km. .......................... .. 82 100 Gross operating revenue ..---$4,541,488.90 $4,599,163.13 Operating expenses 2,655,121.51 2,770,310.45 Net operating revenue 1,886,367.39 1,828,852.68 Percent expenses to revenue 58.46 60.24 Gross revenue per mile 89,416.99 74,203.99 Operating expenses per mile 52,276.46 44,696.84 Net revenue per mile 37,140.53 29,507.15 Tons per loaded car 22.26 23.63 Tons per train 295.23 353.21 Tons of company freight 54,157 77,637 Tons of revenue and company freight carried one mile 73,435,639 83,085,155 Average mile each ton revenue freight was carried 39.41 41.37 Revenue per ton per mile 3.99 3.48 Tons of revenue freight carried one mile per mile of road 1,409,679 1,301,088 Passengers carried 2,757,671 2,916,657 6 6 I t 1 mile 32,073,043 34,845,129 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 77 Items— 1912 1913 Average distance each passenger carried.-. . -. 11.63 11.95 Revenue per passenger per mile .. .- - - -. 2.30 2.37 Passengers 1 mile per mile of road . . . .. 631,483 562,199 Rolling stock—1913 61 Locomotives 57 Passenger Cars 1,039 Freight Cars Note: The majority of the stock of the Panama Railway Company is now owned by the Government of the United States, control having been bought, incidental to the construction of the Panama Canal. The above figures apply only to the railroad, and do not cover revenue, etc., from the steamship lines, etc., which the railroad company operates. The indications are that the statistics for the year ending June 30, 1914, will show little change from those for 1913 quoted above. It had been proposed to use some of the money received from the United States on account of the construction of the canal to build a narrow gauge line from Panama (Empire sta- tion on the Panama Railroad) to David, more or less along the line proposed for the Pan-American Railroad. This scheme, however, was abandoned in favor of building several short lines, aggregating in all about 200 miles, inland from the Pacific Coast. Construction was started during 1914 on the Chiriqui line. WEST INDIES. Cuba. Railway construction in Cuba received a decided impetus during and subsequent to the period of intervention by the United States (1899-1902), as is shown by the following table giving the lengths of line in operation. 1898 .............................. .. 1,787 km. 1901 1,788 “ 1904 2,333 “ 1907 2,986 “ 1909 3,197 “ 1913 3,798 “ The above gives the length of main line and branches, and in addition, there are numerous sidings and private branches into the sugar estates, which in 1909 amounted to an additional 78 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 500 km. None of the figures given include the industrial tracks and private lines of the sugar estates. The standard gauge is 4’ 81/2”. The following table shows the distribution of the lines of different gauge in 1913. 5' 0" 11' 8%" 3' o" 2' e" 2' 31/2" Km. ...... -. 73 3,410 118 111 so The ownership is largely British, as is indicated by the following partial tabulation (1913). No lines are owned or operated by the Government. British - 1,955 km. United States ................. -. 1,082 “ Cuban 340 “ This, it will be noted, leaves about 400 km. unaccounted for. There are twenty-one different lines shown in the tabula- tion for the year ending June 30, 1913. Some data of the standard gauge lines over 100 km. in length for that year are noted below. Length Cost Gross Expenses Km. Income United of Havana ................. .- 1,138 $49,103,837 $7,905,636 $4,301,461 Cuba Railroad Co. -- - . .- 950 37,257,132 4,632,040 2,399,584 Cuban Central* ............... .. - 565 18,880,024 2,995,374 1,707,111 Western of Havana* ............ .. 238 8,470,010 1,363,135 804,100 Guantanamo and Western .... -- 130 6,482,419 440,774 383,140 Havana Central* ................... .- 110 16,419,605? 856,011 535,492 Amounts given are gold values. The United of Havana was formed by the consolidation of three lines in 1907 and the construction of about 100 km. of new line since then. The Cuba Railroad is mostly a new line built by American and Canadian interests, through the center of the island, from Havana to Santiago. The Cuban Central was formed by the consolidation of three lines in 1901, and some extensions made during the last three or four years. A railroad law and regulations, based largely on United States practice and law, was put into effect during the occupa- tion by the United States in 1902. ~ *These three lines have been purchased by the owners of the United Railways of Havana, but they still continue (and will continue indef- initely) to be operated under the old company organization. RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 79 A law was passed in 1908 requiring the equipment of all rolling stock with automatic couplers (M.C.B. type) and air brakes. All the new lines and new rolling stock were already so equipped, and in 1909, only a small proportion of freight cars remained unchanged, all of which were to be equipped in eight years from that date. The averages given below are for all the lines, though some of the shorter ones carry no passengers and some, no freight. They, however, are so small as not to materially affect the general results. 1904 1913 Total receipts .. - - $7,798,876 $20,354,171 Total expenses ................................ -. 4,724,625 11,519,673 Operating ratio .............................. -. 60.6% 56.6% Net revenue 3,074,251 8,834,498 Km. of line .- - 2,333 3,798 Net revenue per km. -- $1,318 $2,326 Estimated total cost ......................... .- 155,186,712 “ “ “ per km. ......... .. 40,860 Average return on investment . .. - - 5.7% Bonded indebtedness ........................ -- 82,121,900 Number of locomotives .................... -. 274 476 “ “ passenger cars ............. .- - 532 535 “ “ freight cars ............... .. . 6,762 13,366 1904 1909 Number of passengers 1 km. per km. line . 51,441 69,056 Average distance per passenger km. - . - 24.8 27.6 Average receipts per passenger per km. cts. 1.77 2.03 Freight tons 1 km. per km. of line .......... .. 105,347 102,015 Average distance per ton .. 45.9 39.4 Average receipts per ten per km. cts. ........ .. 2.06 2.21 Train Loading. The available statistics do not permit com- parison of all the lines, but the data for some of the most im- portant (about 80% of the mileage) show a general tendency towards increased economy in operation by increases in both the train and the car loadings. Tons of Cargo Av. Tons of Cargo per Train per Loaded Car 1904 1909 1904 1909 Western of Havana ................ .. 62.8 110.9 6.2 9.1 United 75.0 93.7 7.0 9.8 Cuba Central 79.3 78.6 14.8 11.3 Cuba Railway .......................... .. 58.0 86.0 8.4 11.3 Cuba Eastern 15.8 25.0 4.8 6.6 80 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA Jamaica. The first railway, 12 miles in length, was built in 1844, and in 1885, there were 64 miles in operation. Total length, 1914, is 198 miles; 4’ 81/2” gauge; owned and operated by the Gov- ernment. It has grades of 3.3%, and curves of 330 ft. radius. Earnings 1910—11 (on 1841A; miles). Gross about ............................... .. $785,500 (American gold) Expenses about $505,190 “ Total cost (1841/2 miles) ab0ut.---$12,500,000 gold Short branch extensions are being built from time to time. Porto Rico. The principal railroad is a meter gauge line, which runs from Carolina (branch to San Juan) along the north, west and south coasts, around the island to Ponce. It was built under a concession granted by the Spanish Government in 1886, and is now operated by the American Railroad Company of Porto Rico, a North American corporation. The length of the main line is 203 km., and there are numerous branches. There are also a number of other lines, as shown by the following table, showing all lines, all meter gauge (1914). American Railroad Company, main line and branches.-. 330 km. Fajardo Development Company ........................................ -. 40 “ Vega Alta Railroad . - 11 “ Humacao Railroad ........ .- 11 “ Bianchi Railroad .... .. 11 “ Caguas Tramway Company 29 “ Bayamon Railroad (Western) 5 “ 437 ‘ ‘ Locomotives Passenger Freight Cars Cars American R. R. Co 51 52 1,300 P. R. Lt. & Power Co. ...................... .. 2 35 10 { C I ( i 4 l 6 ______________________ u 6 Western Railway 3 7 25 72 100 1535 Hayti. The Central Railroad of Hayti, in addition to the wharf and electric light plant at Port au Prince, operates the lines RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 81 of the Compagnie des Chemins de Fer de la Plaine du Cul de Sac, having a total length of 103 km., 30” gauge, in and around the city of Port au Prince. This includes the tramways of that city, operated by steam locomotives. The lines were built be- tween 1901 and 1910. Rolling stock—18 Locomotives, 8 to 38 tons 31 Passenger Cars 60 Freight Cars Earnings 1906 to 1910 from $30,000 to $50,000 per annum. 1911- .................................. .. 82,376 1912 . .................................. -.126,340 1913. .............................. -- 75,355 Operating expenses are usually more than receipts. The government, by the terms of the concession, guarantees operat- ing expenses and a subsidy of $41,280 per annum. The latter has been paid, but the deficit in operating expenses has not. The National Railway of Hayti, operating under a conces- sion granted in 1910 for building 640 km. of main line and branches between Port au Prince and Cape Hatien, gauge 3’ 6", has built about 280 km., of which, 108 were placed in opera- tion in 1913, but suspended early in 1914, owing to a disagree- ment with the Government. The Government guarantees 6% interest on bonds issued for construction purposes, to the ex- tent of $20,000 per km. Bonds to the amount of $3,500,000 were issued, of which $2,500,000 were sold in Paris, the rest remaining in the hands of the North American bankers, who undertook the construction. The Government refused pay- ment of the last installment of interest, and the payment, fall- ing due August 1, 1914, was defaulted. Numerous changes in the Government prevent active de- velopment of an otherwise rich region which should, and, with favorable conditions, would furnish ample revenue to both these roads and further extensions. Santo Domingo. Dominican Central ...... .. 97 km. 2' 6" gauge (Owned and operated by Govt.) Macoris Railway ........ .. 11 “ 3' 6" “ Samana-Santiago Ry. ..129 “ 3’ 6" “ (British) 82 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA Project for line from Brahoma to Neybo and to frontier of Hayti, construction on which was reported to have been started early in 1914. Samana-Santiago Ry. to Dec. 31, 1912 Gross receipts ..................... -.$37 7,500 Expenses 146,957 Net $230,543 Barbados. Forty-two km., 2’ 6” gauge, built in 1882; reconstructed since then. Total cost about $1,175,000. Gross receipts $45,000, which includes a subsidy of $10,000. Working expenses $40,000. Trinidad. The railways are controlled by the Government; their length is 191 km., of 4’ 81/2” gauge. Gross receipts, 1911-12, were about $6500 per mile, with operating expenses about 62%. SOUTH AMERICA. Dutch Guiana (Surinam). The only line is operated by the Government. It is 173 km. long, and of meter gauge. Rolling stock—10 Locomotives 19 Carriages 48 Wagons British Guiana. There are three railways controlled by British interests, as follows: Georgetown to Rosignol 97 km. 4' 81/2" gauge Vreed-on-hoop to Greenwich Park ...... .- 24 “ 3’ 6" “ Wismar to Rockstone 29 “ meter “ Rolling stock on first two lines— 14 Locomotives 42 Passengers Cars 269 Freight Cars The gross receipts of the first two lines (75 miles) are about $3000 per mile, with operating expenses about $2500. RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 83 Venezuela. The following information is condensed from a report pre- pared by the Ministry of Public IVorks, especially for this paper, and is, therefore, official. The development of the railways of Venezuela has been practically at a standstill during the past 20 years. Most of the existing lines were built between the years 1881 and 1893, under government guarantees of 7 % interest, with little super- vision over the expenditures, and practically no limits to the capital accounts. At the end of this period, there was the natural reaction against the somewhat loose methods, which had developed, and very stringent laws were enacted, which practically caused the suspension of all new work. In 1912, however, a new law was passed with the object of encouraging new construction, under fairly reasonable pro- visions for the protection of both the government and the investor. A general scheme of development was worked out, and it is hoped that as soon as general financial conditions im- prove, some work will be started along these predetermined lines. The new law permits the government to grant cash sub- sidies, but in no event to guarantee interest. It is also the policy to make grants of land and to encourage colonization. Cash deposits, as guarantees of good faith, are required from concessionaires and with all applications for concessions. Ma- terials of construction may be imported free of duties. It is of interest to note the difiierence in the attitude to- wards guarantees between Venezuela and Canada. In the latter, confidence in the immediate development, and in the future, due to the long existence of a stable form of govern- ment and a fair assurance of continuous immigration, makes guarantees attractive to people whose present resources of ready money capital are limited, in comparison with the great needs of a rapidly growing country. In Venezuela, under the guarantee system, the country was almost forced into bank- ruptcy, by reason of the fact that the developments were far less than the expectations. Venezuela seems to have definitely committed itself to the narrow gauge system. Many of the existing lines have fre- 84 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA quent gradients of between 3% and 4%, and curves of from 40 m. to 50 m. radius. The new regulations, however, provide that on the lines of normal gauge (3’ 6") the maximum gradi- ents shall not exceed 3.0%, and that the minimum radius of curves shall be 60 m. For the secondary lines of 2.0 ft. gauge, gradients of 3.5% and curves of not less than 30 m. radius are permitted. The total length of lines in 1913 was as follows: Gauge Operated Under Total Meters Ft. In. Construction 0.61 2 0 181.65 54.95 236.60 km. 0.92 3 0 254.78 3.67 258.45 ‘ ‘ 1.00 3 3% 174.50 5.50 180.00 ‘ ‘ 1.07 3 6 336.16 23.00 359.16 ‘ ‘ 947.09 87.12 1,034.21 “ The above includes railways of all kinds and certain lines. operated as electric tramways and some small mining lines. The following statistics apply only to the regularly operated steam railroads, of which there are 869 km, and are for the year 1913. Bolivars Total capital 196,748,125 Number of passengers ........................ -. 642,404 Receipts from passengers .................. .. 2,457,562 Tons of freight 283,000 Receipts from freight ........................ .. 10,808,697 Total receipts 13,266,259 Total expenditures 7,069,344 Profit 6,196,915 Ratio 53.3% Return on capital 3.15% (The Bolivar is worth $0.193.) ' Rolling Stock— Locomotives .................. .. 91 Average Weight 31.9 Tons Passenger Coaches ........ ..126 “ “ 8.5 “ Freight Cars .................. -.848 ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 5.5 ‘ ‘ RAILVVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 85 Ownership. Km. Venezuelan government . 109.78 “ private .- .. .- -. 195.86 British .......................... .. -. 335.59 German .............................. -- 178.90 French ................................. - . 54.40 874.53 Rates (Bolivars) . Passenger—1st class per km. ( ( 22nd- ( l t i ( ( Freight per ton per km. .. Colombia. Bolivars 9,261,625 15,000,000 89,486,500 79,000,000 4,000,000 196,748,125 - 0.19 to 0.34 - 0.10 to 0.22 0.50 to 1.50 The Magdalena River is the main transportation route be- tween the coast and the interior. Bogota, the capital, is nearly 500 miles inland from the Carribean Sea, and at an elevation of 8500 feet; the railways thus far built are generally supple- mentary to the main fluvial routes. The following table shows the length of line to have been doubled between 1898 and 1913, but the larger part of this in- crease was in the first few years of this period. Statistics Colombian Railways, 1913. Controlling Length Km. Name of Railroad— Interest 1898 Antioquia Department 59 Amaga .... - - Local Barranquilla (Bolivar) .- - British 28 Cartagena (Colombia Ry. & Nav. Co.) ................... -. British 105 Cucuta .............................. -. Government ~ 55 La Dorada (Honda) .............. -- British 33 Cirardot (Colombia Nat.) .... -. British 39 Buenaventura (Pacifico) ....... -- North America 36 Puerto Wilches (N. Cent.)-.--- British Norte .... .- 48 La Sabana (Facatativa) ...... -- Government 40 Santa Marta British 39 Del Sur ’ Government 10 Tachira 16 Tolima -- 7 Total ............ ..515 Gross 1913 Gold 169 $517,696 30 97,971 28 310,046 105 215,407 55 211,105 115 445,220 132 500,174 137 24,704 20 62 261,329 40 283,500 98 509,717 33 74,899 16 12,722 7 1,065 Revenue Gauge 3! 0!! 3! 6!! 3' 0" 3’ 0" 3' 0" 3' 0" 1 m. 1 m. 1 m. 3’ 0” 86 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA Colombia is very rich in natural resources both agricul- tural and mineral (including coal and oil), but the develop- ment of railway transportation has been slow because of the difficulty of the terrain, the trying climate in many parts of the lower altitudes, and the general political unrest of the last fifteen years. The effect of this latter is shown by the follow- ing table, showing the increase in the rate of exchange, especi- ally during the first decade of the present century. Approximate Average Value of $100.00 Gold. 1870 ............ .- 105 1880 ............. .. 110 1890 ............ .- - 192 1898---.-- -- . . 276 1900-- - . - 610 1901 ............... .- 1,670 1902 ............. . . - 4,310 (approx) 1903 --------------- -- 10,240 “ i Highest 16 500 1913 ................ -.10,ooo “ S ’ The Cartagena-Magdalena Railroad was built in 1892-4 by a North American company, and afterwards sold to British in- terests, but Colombians have now a considerable interest in the property. It runs from Calamar on the Magdalena River to the protected deep water harbor at Cartagena. The Puerto Wilches project was an ambitious one, being intended not only to tap the rich coffee district of which Bucaramanga is the center, but also to provide a through route to Bogota. It was recently stated that the project had been abandoned after building a short length (20 km.) through very difficult country. The Cucuta Line, on the border of Venezuela, provides an outlet from a coffee producing district to a river and thence to the Gulf of Maracaibo. The Dorado and Girardot lines connect Bogota with the navigable waters of the Magdalena River. The Antioquia Railroad is to connect Medellin with Puerto Barrios on the river. It is being built from both ends. The gap remaining involves a long tunnel or heavy work on a developed line. Considerable German capital has been invested in this line. The Santa Marta line has been developed by the banana industry. The Barranquilla line runs from the city of that RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 87 name to the port of Sabanilla, an open roadstead with a pier. All the lines built have been subsidized. There are many projects for new lines, nearly all of which carry subsidies, but there has been little activity in recent years, owing to the unstable financial conditions. The prin- cipal projects under consideration are: Medellin to the Gulf of Darien. Subsidy $25,000 per mile and lands. Rio Hacha to Barrancas 100 km. 1 m. gauge. Land subsidy. Extension to Pacific line from Cali to Popayan 64 km. Puerto Wilches. Barranquilla Interurban Tramway. Ecuador. The Guayaquil 8t Quito (F. C. del Sur) runs from Guaya- quil on the coast to Quito, the capital. Its gauge is 3’ 6", and length 464 km. This line was started in the early 70’s, and built to Chimbo. Its construction was again taken up in 1898, and the line completed to Quito in 1908. It has curves of 30 degrees (radius 193 ft), with grades equivalent to 5.5% on tangents, operated by adhesion. This line is operated by an American company, but the Government has representatives on the Board of Directors. A Government report for 1914 shows the following results. of the operation of this line for the last two years. 1912 1913 Receipts .. -- .. 2,401,792 2,017,106 Expenditures .............. -. 2,292,303 2,364,110 Net ........................ .. +109,489 —-347,004 (Above figures sucres. Sucre : $0.487 gold.) A line, 300 km. in length from Ambato to Curaray at the headwaters of the Amazon, has been projected by the Govern- ment, and construction was started under the direction of North American engineers in November, 1912, but shortly after- wards was stopped and has not been resumed. Preliminary surveys have been made for 125 km. Grades 21/2%. Gauge 3’ 6". About 10 km. of track have been laid. A concession has been granted to a French company for a line in the northern province. 88 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA Peru. The principal railways of Peru were built by the Govern- ment, and were taken over in 1890 by the Peruvian Corpora- tion (British), as part of an arrangement for the cancellation of the external debt, which had been incurred largely for the construction of these lines. The original contract to turn over the railways to the foreign bondholders was made in 1879, at which time the debt was about $200,000,000 gold, but at the time they were taken over by the Peruvian Corporation, it had, by reason of accumulated defaulted interest, increased to some- thing over $250,000,000. The contract, as finally modified, provided that in exchange for the entire cancellation of the foreign debt, the bondholders should receive The lease of the railroads until 1973 (originally 66 years from 1879), 2,000,000 tons of guano (originally 3,000,000), 30 yearly payments of $400,000 per annum from 1893 (origin- ally 33 payments of the same amount), right of free navigation on Lake Titicaca, certain payments from Chile which amounted to about $6,000,000. The Peruvian Corporation agreed to extend the lines to Cuzco and Huancayo. The following are the lines now operated by the Peruvian Corporation : Length Date of Gauge Km. Construction Peruvian Central (Oroya) ................. .. 4' 81/2" 399 18701910 “ Southern (Mollendo) .......... .. “ 861 1870-1910 Pacasmayo ‘ ‘ 94 1876 Payta-Piura ‘ ‘ 97 1884 Pisco-Ica ‘ ‘ 74 1869 Lima-Ancon ‘ ‘ 38 1869 Trujillo 3' 0" 120 1896 Chimbote (1 m.) 3' 3%" 57 1872 Ilo-Moquegua 4’ 8%" 100 1873-1910 __ Total 1,840 km. RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 89 The maximum tariffs allowed on the Central and Southern Railways are as follows: 1st class passenger . -- - .. - . 6 cts. gold per km. 2nd “ “ 3 t c 7 7 cc 7; Freight per ton _ _ __ _ _ __ _- __ 18 H c r 7 z :7 The operating revenues of the Central and Southern, for 1913, were: Gross Net Peruvian Central .- -. -. . . ..$2,539,045 $938,890 “ Southern - 1,783,370 664,833 The traffic on these same two roads was as follows in 1908: Passengers Freight lst Class 2nd Class Tons Callao to Oroya -- -. . 475,418 810,848 319,018,813 Mollendo to Arequipa - 184,591 290,304 78,105,109 Arequipa to Puno ........ .. -- 9,136 14,645 13,058,867 The total receipts from all the lines operated by the Peru- vian Corporation have been as follows, the yearly increase having been fairly uniform (gold). Gross Revenue Expenses Net 1896-7 ......... .. - .... .- $1,615,240 $1,165,658 $ 449,582 1906-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -- 4,290,830 3,150,177 1,140,653 The Peruvian Central (Oroya) Railway, from Callao and Lima over the Andes (elevation 15,583 ft.), was built to Chicla in 1877, completed to Oroya in 1892, and has been extended to Huancayo since 1908. Anticona on a branch is at an elevation of 15,865 ft. The Peruvian Southern from Mollendo to Lake Titicaca, with a branch to Cuzco, reaches 14,665 ft. These lines have 4% grades and curves of 100 m. radius, 4’ 8%” gauge, and are constructed in a very substantial manner. From Puno on Lake Titicaca, there is steamer connection to Guaqui in Bolivia, operated by the Peruvian Corporation, which also op- erates the railway line from Guaqui to Alto de La Paz. The extension to Cuzco was completed only a few years ago. 90 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA The Ilo-Moquegua line was built in 1873, destroyed during the Chilean war, and rebuilt by the Government about 1908. An arrangement was recently made for its operation by the Peruvian Corporation. The face value of the bonds, issued to cover the cost of building the lines turned over to the Peruvian Corporation in 1890, was approximately $215,000,000, gold, or over $140,000 per km. It has been estimated that the Oroya Railroad actually cost $200,000 per mile ($133,000 per km.) to build. A message of the President to the Peruvian Congress in September, 1913, stated that the total receipts by the Peruvian Corporation from 1890 up to the end of 1912 had been as follows (taking £1 = $5) : Contract with Chile $ 5,954,740 Guano proceeds -- 14,305,480 Proceeds of Rys. and steamers ............ .. 21,607,950 Annual payments 2,233,330 $44,101,500 This is less than 1% per annum on the face value of the bonds, but the original $200,000,000 were valued in 1879 at approximately only 40% of their face value, and by the end of 1889, at the time of the contract with the Peruvian Corpora- tion, at only $15,000,000, which is probably approximately the relative value at which a large proportion of them were ob- tained. The annual payments are now secured by the customs receipts of Callao and are regularly met. By 1910 a new foreign debt had been contracted as follows: Peruvian Corporation ........................ .-$10,800,000 Wharves and docks 400,000 Loan of 1905 2,500,000 “ “ 1906 .. 2,000,000 $15,700,000 Recent loans have been placed at approximately 6%. The annual revenue of the Government is from fifteen to seventeen million dollars gold. RAILWAYS or NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 91 There are a number of other roads aggregating 1074 km. as shown by the following table: Gauge, 4’ 81/2" Length Date of Controlling (Km) Construction Interest Oroya a Cerro de Pasco ............ .. 132 1904 North American “ a Gollarisquisca .................. .. 43 1905 ‘ ‘ “ Eten a Ferrenofe y Chiclayo ......... .. 82 1871 Local Lima Electric Rys. ................. -- - 138 1858-1907 “ Peruvian Northwestern (Ancon-Huacho-Sayan) ....... -. 211 1906-1912 British 606 Gauge, 1 Meter Bayovar a Reventazon. - - .- 48 1904 British Supe a San Nicolas ........... .- .- . 6 1899 Local Rio Pativilca a Paramonge ......... .. 7 1903 “ Playa Chica a Salinas ................ .. 10 1876 ‘ ‘ Chancay a Palpa - ......... -- - -. 25 1877 “ Tambo Mora a Chincha Alta .... -- _ 12 1898 “ Ensenada a Pampa Blanca _ 20 1906 “ Santa Barbara a El Vigia - - .- - . 60 —— “ 188 Gauge, 3 ft. Pimental a Chiclayo . - -. 24 1873 Local Huanchaco a Tres Palos.. .. - .. 67 1898 Italian Chicama a Pampas - . . 45 1898 Local Cerro Azul a Canete . . .. . . .. 12 1870 British 148 Gauge, 2' 6" Piura a Catacaos . .................... .. 11 1889 Local Gauge, 2' 0" Eten a Cayalti - ........................ -. 36 1904 Local Supe Barranca a Pativilca ........... -. 81 1903 ‘ ‘ Casapalca a El Carmen .................. -. 4 1901 “ 132 Total 1074 km. The Cerro de Pasco Railway runs from Oroya to the famous Cerro de Pasco mines, and is owned and operated by the mining company of the same name, a North American corporation, which also operates the line to Gollarisquisca. 92 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA The Peruvian Northwestern is a group of lines to the north and west of Ancon, from which latter place they are connected with Lima by the Lima and Ancon Railway, operated by the Peruvian Corporation. They have been built mostly within the past few years. The Lima. Electric Railway consists of a group of lines be- tween Lima, and its port Callao, Magdalena, Chorrillos and other points. Some of them have been converted from opera- tion by steam, and the lines are partly on the old private rights of way, and others through the streets or highways. The other lines are mostly short lines from some inland center of production to the coast, and a few of them should probably be more properly classed as industrial and mining. The general increase in total length of lines in operation is shown by the following: The total length of the lines now in operation as of December 31, 1913, is 2914 km. In 1908 (as given in the History of Peruvian Railways—Ministerio de Fomento) .................. .. 2215 “ 1898 Report of Intercontinental Ry. Commission ...... -. 1472 “ The total cost of 2133 km., in 1908, was stated to be £31,081,616 or equal to about $75,000 per km. The following shows the general increase in the traffic of the railroads (all lines) : 1888-1897 1898-1907 Passengers ......................... -- 22,155,802 59,700,588 Freight tons 4,153,910,152 7,683,182,281 There are several projects for extensions down the east- ern slope of the Andes to the headwaters of the Amazon. From Cuzco, an extension is being built to Santa Ana, and surveys have been made from Urcos on the Cuzco line towards the Madre de Dios and the Beni Rivers. From the Cerro de Pasco Railway to the Ucayli, this latter the so-called McCune Con- cession, which, it is stated, carries a subsidy of about two mil- lion dollars, and a new trans-Andean line from Payta on the Pacific to the Marafion River, which it is said will cross the Andes at an elevation of less than 7000 feet. In the message of the President to Congress in 1913, the following list of new projects was stated by him to be under consideration. The RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 93 estimated cost is given in Peruvian pounds, roughly equal to $5.00 gold. Projected Railways Cost Paita to the Marafion ........................... .- - - £P 4,548,000 Railway to the Ucayli.-- _ _ - . -. - .. . . - -. . 2,000,000 Branch to the Coast _______________ -. . -- . . . . . . . . -. . 475,000 Chilete to Magdalena- ......... -. - . . . . . -. - . .. -. .- -. 150,000 Chimbote to Recuay-..- _ . .- . -- .. - . 642,000 Vitor to Mages ................................. .. .. . . -. .. 81,828 Cuzco to Santa Ana .................... -- - - .- - -- -. 506,000 Oroya to Puerto Wertheman . . -. -. . . - ...... -- 3,388,200 Electric traction of same ............. -. - - -- .- 864,800 Huancayo to Ayacucho ...................... .- .. .. . 1,325,000 Branch to Huancavelica ............. .- - .- - 202,800 Tirapata to the Madre de Dios.... - -- . . . - - 2,500,000 Queruvilca Railway ................... -- .. .- . - 440,000 Sayan to Oyon and Checras .. - ........ .. - -- .- .- 400,000 Hatunhuasi to Pachacayo ............... .- . - - - - - 150,000 £P17,673,628 Bolivia. The length of operated lines and lines under construction is shown by the following table (1914) : In Under Operation Construction Guaqui-Alto de La Paz __ 90 km. Arica-La Paz (Bolivian section)..-. - 233 “ Antofogasta (Chile) & Bolivia Ry. Co.— Main line Chilean Border to Oruro 484 “ Viacha-La Paz 30 km. Bolivia Railway Co.— Viacha-Oruro ..................................... -. 200 ‘ ‘ Rio Mulato—Potosi . .... -. 177 ‘ ‘ Oruro-Cochabamba 105 “ 98 km. Uyuni-Tupiza 90 ‘ ‘ 87 ‘ ‘ 1,379 ‘ ‘ 215 ‘ ‘ Note—The two last are under provisional operation only; that is, they have not been accepted formally by the Government. All these lines are meter gauge except the Antofogasta, which is now being changed to meter. Previously to 1903, there were only two lines in existence, 94 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA the Guaqui-La Paz and the Antofogasta to Oruro. The new lines have been built as the result of treaty arrangements with Brazil and Chile. The latter country, besides undertaking the construction of the Arica-La Paz Railway, agreed to pay the interest (not over 5%) which Bolivia might guarantee on the capital invested in the construction of certain interior lines, provided this did not exceed $500,000 in any one year, or $8,- 000,000 in the aggregate. Brazil paid Bolivia $10,000,000 in cash, besides agreeing to build the Madeira & Mamoré Railway. Guaqui-Alto de La Paz, 90 km., is operated by the Peruvian Corporation; it connects by steamer across Lake Titicaca with the line to Arequipa and Mollendo. Its net earnings are about $2000 per km. Antofogasta (Chile) 86 Bolivia Railway Company, Ltd., 484 km. of main line in Bolivia, 2’ 6” gauge, which is now being changed to meter, runs from the Port of Antofogasta in Chile to Oruro. This line has very much lighter grades (probably not exceeding 2%) than any of the other lines climbing the western slope of the Andes. The earnings of the Antofogasta lines are given under the heading of Chilean roads. It may be noted, however, that the Government of Bolivia has never been required to make any payments on account of its guarantee of 5% interest on the capital invested in this enterprise, which has been a very profitable one. This company is a British corporation, and leases and op- erates the lines of the Bolivia Railway Company. The latter is a North American company, which built the main line from Viacha to Oruro in 1908-10. The branches from Rio Mulato, Oruro and Uyuni have been built since that time, under the direction of the Antofogasta Company, for account of the B0- livia Railway Company. The Uyuni-Tupiza line is projected to eventually connect with the Argentine Government meter gauge lines at La Quiaca. Through communication, without change of cars, will then be possible between La Paz and Buenos Aires. (The section from Tupiza to La Quiaca, about 80 km. is not included in the con- cession to the Bolivia Railway Company, as the Argentine Gov- ernment originally undertook to build this section.) It has been steted that the total cost of the Bolivia Rail- RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 95 way from Viacha to Oruro, 200 km., was only $4,000,000 or $20,000 per km. It is to be noted, however, that although this line lies at an elevation of 12,000 feet, it follows the line of the elevated plateau parallel to the mountain ranges, and, there- fore, is no criterion of the cost of other lines, especially those running east and west. The 300 km. of the Antofogasta in B0- livia is said to have cost only $3,750,000 or about $12,500 per km. The original contract for the construction of the Bolivia Railway (Viacha to Oruro) contemplated the construction of a system of lines to cost a total amount of $27,000,000. $12,- 000,000 of this was to be contributed by the Government of Bolivia and the balance by the concessionaires. The lines from Viacha to Oruro, and the branches above mentioned, have been built under this contract, the further interest in which is now in the hands of the Antofogasta and Bolivia as lesser of the Bolivia Railway. The Government guarantees 5% interest on a certain amount of bonds per mile of line built, and the de- ficiency on this account, for the lines of the Bolivia Railway in 1911, was about $350,000, and in 1912 about $550,000. The Madeira-Mamoré Railway is in Brazil, and was built by that country 1909-1913 to afford an outlet from northeastern Bolivia, by furnishing means of transportation around the falls and rapids of the Madeira River, to the navigable waters of the Amazon. A further extension of 100 km., past the rapids of the Beni River, is also contemplated. The Arica-La Paz, 1 meter gauge, 233 km. in Bolivia, was built by the Chilean Government 1911-1913, to afford an addi- tional outlet from La Paz to the Pacific Coast. This line has 39 km. of Abt system rack with 6% gradients on the Chilean section, and normal gradients of 3%. (See also Chile.) There are several projects for lines from the high central plateau of Bolivia, 12,000 ft above sea level, eastward towards the headwaters of the Amazon and Parana Rivers, and un- doubtedly the future will see a great development of the rich agricultural section of Bolivia on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and rail connection easterly, via Corumba, through Matto Grosso to Rio Janeiro, and southerly through Paraguay and Argentina to the Parana River and Buenos Aires. It is pro- posed to extend the Rio Mulato-Potosi branch to Sucre and 96 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA from thence to Yacuiba or some other point on the Argentine frontier. Preliminary surveys or reconnaissances have been made for both of these lines, under concessions granted to an American corporation subsidiary to the Brazil Railway Com- pany, the terms of which were similar to those granted to the Bolivia Railway Company. Chile. The total length of the railways of Chile, at the end of the year 1911, is given as 6357 km., which was about equally di- vided‘ between private and Government ownership. There are eight different gauges, ranging from 2’ 0” to 5’ 6”, the division being approximately as follows: Narrow gauge - ......... -. 3,282 km. (about 50% is less than 3 ft.) 4’ 81A," __________________ .. 925 “ 5' 6" _ -- . 2,150 “ 6,357 “ Of the privately owned lines, it is stated that 1400 km. were (in 1913) controlled by British capital, the total invest- ment being $120,000,000. There has been considerable activity in the development of the transportation system during the past ten years, and from 1901 to 1911 inclusive, it is stated that about $70,000,000 gold was spent in the construction of new railway lines, mostly by the Government, over half of this amount in the last three of these years; and that during the year 1910 there were 2512 km. under construction by the Government, which it was estimated would cost about $60,000,000 gold. The main feature of the Chilean Railway system is the line running parallel to the coast, from Puerto Montt in the south to Arica in the north, traversing practically the whole length of the country, a distance of approximately 3400 km. The lower part of this line, south of Valparaiso and Santiago, is mostly of 5’ 6” gauge, the construction of which was started in 1852, the first section being opened to traffic in 1855 from Valparaiso to Salto. The greater part of the southerly system was built previous to 1890, most of these lines forming the “Red Central del Estado”, being owned and operated by the Government. RAILIVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 97 North of Valparaiso, there were a number of isolated sys- tems, some owned by the Government, but mostly by private enterprises. In 1909-10 the construction of the so-called Longi- tudinal Railway was started by the Government, this being a meter gauge line, parallel to the coast, and filling the gaps between the existing lines from Valparaiso north to Arica. This has now been practically completed. It may be noted, how- ever, that part of the existing lines north of Valparaiso are 4’ 8%”, so that through communication without change is not possible. The following table shows the operating results of some of the principal lines for the year 1910: (Values in Gold) Length Receipts Expenses Operating Km. Per km. of Line Ratio Arica to Tacna .. - -. -. . 62 4,827 2,910 60.3% Junin .- .- . ............. .. - 89 7,237 5,224 72.1 Caleta Buena - - -- - 105 14,885 - -. . . Iquique a Pisagua .- . -- - - .. .- 578 17,271 7,492 48.9 Antofogasta a Bolivia - .- - .- 821 14,332 7,711 53.8 Caleta Coloso. - - .- - - - 184 7,889 5,254 66.6 Taltal . . - - . - ........ .. 298 12,134 7,502 61.8 Caldera - - .- . . -. .- 231 2,662 2,095 78.7 Carrizal . . . . - ........ -. . 163 1,135 959 84.2 Transandino - .- . . - . - ...... .. 70 13,225 10,499 79.4 Llano de Maipo . . - -. .. .. - ...... -. 22 7,610 4,489 59.0 Curanilahue .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103 14,123 7,125 50.4 Red Central del Estado ............ -. 2,073 14,331 16,680 116.0 The following table shows the development of the traffic on the Government lines south of Valparaiso (Red Central del Estado) : 1900 1911 Length of line in operation, km. .... .- 1,469 2,220 Gross receipts - ........................... ..$14,165,972 $51,942,642 Expenditures ................................. .. 14,906,503 63,673,278 Number of passengers ........ .. - - - 6,565,254 11,200,984 Tons of freight ............................ .- 2,129,172 4,872,657 This system consists principally of a main stem, running parallel to the coast and at a comparatively short distance from it, with certain transverse lines running to ports or harbors. To some extent, it follows the more or less well defined central 98 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA valley of southern Chile, but necessarily crosses all the drain- age from, and the outlying spurs of the Cordillera. The coun- try is generally fertile, supporting a fairly numerous popula- tion, providing a good passenger traffic which naturally prefers the direct, definite service of the railroad to the more or less uncertainty and discomfort of the sea, but the freight tonnage is comparatively small. These difficulties, added to those usually incident to government ownership and operation, ac- count for the usual annual deficit. A study of this system is of some interest, as indicating the probable future results of operation of the Longitudinal line north of Valparaiso, which traverses more difficult and at the same time less fertile and populous sections, and is also an indication of what may be expected from the greater part of the projected Pan-American line. It is stated that the Longi- tudinal Railway showed an operating loss of $600,000 for the second half of 1913. It is to be noted, however, that these lines, while perhaps not warranted commercially, serve a useful and necessary purpose politically in holding or binding together the constituent states of the Federation. The tarifls on the Chilean State Railways are shown by the following tables in Chilean currency $1.00 (one peso) being equal to 36 cts. gold. Passenger Tariffs—Sliding Scale. 1st Class 2nd Class 3rd Class 1 km. .- .. - . - - .$ 0.06 $ 0.04 $ 0.02 50 “ . . . . 2.70 1.80 0.90 500 “ . -- - - - - 22.50 15.00 7.50 1500 ‘ ‘ .. . - -- . - -. 40.50 27.00 13.50 Freight Tarifis—Sliding Scale. Varies from 12 cts. to 2 cts. per ton per km. for 1st km. for carload lots. For less than carload lots the tarifl is approxi- mately as follows per metric quintal (200 lb.) : 1st Class 7th Class 1 km. ............................ -.$ 0.01 $ 0.01 100 “ .............................. .. 1.14 0.19 1000 “ 6.00 1.00 To this is added for, Each ticket 10 cts. Loading per 220 lb. .............. .. 5 “ Unloading per 220 lb. ......... .. 5 “ RAILIVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 99 The report of the Minister of Public Works shows the fol- lowing results of the working of all the Government lines for the year 1912: Length in Operation. Red Central - -- - - - -- -. 2,286.4 km. Copiapé y Chafiaral . .- -. - .. 482.4 “ Huasco - - . -- - .. .- _- - - 49.5 “ Coquimbo . . .. . -. . -- - - - . 344.9 “ Los Vilos . . . - . .- - -- . . 95.0 “ 3,258.2 “ Chilean Currency Total receipts .. . - . $65,349,941 “ expenses - - - - - . 75,511,340 Estimated cost of line - . - - 428,837,703 Cash and material on hand. - - - - - 48,706,510 Accumulated losses on operation - . .. 87,344,227 Of the other lines, the most important (with the two ex- ceptions noted below) are generally groups. which have been developed from the numerous ports. reaching inland to import- ant nitrate deposits or mining districts. The Antofogasta (Chile) and Bolivia Railway should. in a sense, be included in the above mentioned grouping. as much of its business is the haulage of nitrate to the port of Antofo- gasta; but its character is also international as it reaches into Bolivia, having provided for a long time, one of the only two outlets to the Pacific Coast and exterior world from that coun— try, and has handled the products of the most extensively worked of the Bolivian mines. This railway is unique among the railways climbing the South American .cordillera. inasmuch as it reaches an elevation of 12,000 ft. with an average rate of gradient of a little over 1%, a maximum of about 2% . and little if any development or lost distance. It has been one of the most profitable lines in South America. (See also Bolivia.) The following figures are from the Annual Report of the Company (British) for the year ending June 30, 1914. at which time the total length operated was 1284 km. (in both Bolivia and Chile and for the railroad only and taking £1 —— $5). 100 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 1904 1913 Gross receipts ............................... .- $3,122,365 $9,058,870 Working expenses ......................... .. 1,566,745 5,196,895 Net receipts ....................... .-$1,555,620 $3,861,975 Number of passengers .................... -- 149,870 609,713 Tons of nitrate .......................... -. 38,294 848,577 “ “ other freight. ................. .- 478,801 1,018,205 The Transandino. This forms the connecting link on the Chilean side between the Chilean railways and those of the Argentine. It is part of the through railway line from Buenos Aires, Argentine to Valparaiso, and the only transcontinental line in South America. It is meter gauge from Los Andes in Chile to Mendoza in the Argentine, a distance of 250 km., and connects at both ends with the 5’ 6” gauge lines of both the Argentine and Chile. It was completed in 1910. The summit tunnel is 10,500 ft. above the sea level. The adhesion gradients are 2% on the Argentine side and 21/2% on the Chilean side, with rack gradients of 8%. There has been considerable trouble from snow and earth slides during the winter months, especially on the Chilean side. Other Transandine lines. There will probably be completed before many years a connection between the lines of the Buenos Aires Great Southern, Neuquen extension and the lines in south- ern Chile near Victoria, both of which are of the same gauge (5’ 6"). Other connections in the north have been proposed, but there seems little likelihood of their construction in the im- mediate future. There has been some talk of changing the present transandine to 5’ 6” gauge, but this is hardly probable for at least some time to come. The Arica-La. Paz Railway was built between 1909 and 1913 by the Chilean Government, in compliance with the terms of a treaty with Bolivia. It is 439 km. in length, of which 206 km. are in Chile. It has 3% adhesion gradients and a rack section of 40 km. of 6%. It is operated throughout its length by the Chilean Government. RAILW’AYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 101 Argentine. The Argentine has the most important railway develop- ment of any of the South American countries, as will be seen by the statistical tables which follow. The principal develop- ment has been of the territory immediately tributary to the capital, Buenos Aires, and secondarily of that, tributary to the cities of Bahia Blanca and Rosario. The past twenty-five years have been a period of transition from an almost entirely pas- toral country to an agricultural one, the former industry being now pushed farther afield, and followed rapidly by increasing development of territory devoted to the production of cereals, etc. As in the United States, this development has followed the railways and has been along very similar lines, aided largely by European emigration. Most of the railway development, in the section above referred to, has been by British interests, comprising most of the lines of 5’ 6" gauge. There are three gauges, 5’ 6", 4’ 8%”, and meter, the length of each in kilo- meters being as follows on December 31, 1912: Operated Provisional* Total 5' 6" - .- .- - . 19,164 km. 740 km. 19,904 km. 4' 8%)” -. ...... 2,518 “ 131 “ 2,649 “ Meter - - .. -. 9,283 “ 1,018 “ 10,301 “ 32,8547 “ The railways are owned mostly by foreign corporations. There is one local company, and the rest are owned and op- erated by the Government, the distribution being as follows: Length Capital invested British . - . 22,908 km. $ 875,000,000 French . - . . - .. . 3,770 ‘ ‘ 112,000,000 Argentine Private ................... .. 269 “ 9,000,000 Argentine Government .............. -. 5,907 “ 122,000,000 32,854 “ $1,118,000,000 *Provisional. Operated, but not formally recognized by the Govern- ment. 7 The length for 1913 is given as 33,478 km. (probably not including provisionally operated lines). 102 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA The details of each line are shown in Table 7 for the year 1912. The lines operated by the Government have been built to expedite and aid in the development of the outlying provinces, and to link them and their capitals together and with the Fed- eral district. As these lines prove remunerative, it has been, and probably will continue to be the policy of the government to sell or lease them to private enterprises, and use the money for further development elsewhere. The Federal Government exercises quite close control over the construction and operation of all the lines, this control and regulation being based to quite a considerable extent on French practice, although the principal development has been by Brit- ish capital, and under the direction of British engineers and operating officials, which, of course, has had its influence. Much of the equipment of the Government lines has, however, been obtained from the United States, and the operating officials seem to be inclined to favor United States practice. The op- eration of the Government lines is by an organization separate from that which has general control of the railways as a whole. There is also provincial control of lines which lie entirely within the boundaries of any one province, though lines once passing a provincial boundary must conform in every respect to the Federal regulations. In the section south of Santa Fe, Cordoba and San Juan, as far as Bahia Blanca, future development will generally be by extension of existing systems. Towards the north, there will be new trunk lines built, through the so-called Chaco up into Bolivia. Much of this country will undoubtedly be compara- tively rapidly developed for agricultural and pastoral purposes. The provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, previously isolated, were linked up with Buenos Aires on the south in 1908, and Paraguay on the north in 1913, by means of car-ferries across the Parana River, so that through trains are now operated be- tween Buenos Aires and Asuncion. The extension of the rail- way system to the southwest from Bahia Blanca is not pro- ceeding as rapidly, perhaps, as in other parts of the republic, but equally surely, and the completion of a second transcon- tinental line (5’ 6” gauge) from Bahia Blanca, via Neuquen, RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 103 to connect with the broad gauge lines of southern Chile, is probably a matter of only a comparatively short time. The development of the southern section of the Argentine towards Patagonia. which was formerly considered to be, like most of the Canadian Northwest, a barren waste, is likely to afford a close parallel to the development of the latter. The only transcontinental line in South America at pres- ent runs from Buenos Aires, via Mendoza, to Valparaiso, Chile. The trans-Andean section, which is the part crossing the Andes, is 1 m. gauge. and connects with 5’ 6” gauge lines at both sides, so that two changes of trains are necessary in order to make the complete trip. The service has generally been interrupted by snow and slides during the winter months, but this difficulty will probably be overcome in the future. With the closing of the short gap in Bolivia between La Quiaca and Tupiza, through rail communication will be possible between Buenos Aires and Antofogasta in Chile or Mollendo in Peru. In view of the somewhat prevalent idea that the railways of South America are usually built and operated on a much lower standard than those of Europe and the United States, it seems desirable to point out the fact that both in construction, equipment and service, the main lines in the Argentine com— pare favorably with any elsewhere, though in the, as yet, un- developed sections of the country, the policy adopted in the United States of building comparatively cheap lines, and after- wards improving them, has been generally followed. The adoption of the 5’ 6" gauge for the principal lines of the Argentine has brought about the usual result, the adoption of the narrow gauge for cheaper lines, which is particularly unfortunate in a country where the cost of the construction of the roadbed is usually quite low. The standard gauge (4’ 81/2”) is practically confined to the provinces of Entre Rios and Cor- rientes. There is no fuel (except wood in some sections of the north) produced in the Argentine, so that all the coal used has to be brought from Europe or the United States. A small amount of fuel oil is produced in the extreme south. Wages are fairly high, and the men are affiliated with labor unions, which have a not inconsiderable voice in politics. The struc- tures of the main lines are usually of masonry and steel, as tim- 104 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA her is scarce and expensive; 100 lb. rails, hardwood ties, and stone ballast are used-on the principal lines. The equipment is generally of the American type, rather than European. Train control is by the Via Libre (Clear Line) system, with semaphore signals at way stations, operated by the agents. In the vicinity of the larger terminals, the block system is used. The English staff system is used on some lines of heavy traffic. There are about 1000 km. of double track. The general progress of railway construction as shown in Table 5 has been quite steady and rapid since 1880, except for the setback for the two or three years following the panic of 1890. The Balkan War of 1912 resulted in a general slowing up in the Argentine as elsewhere, and, of course, the present European War has brought everything almost to a standstill, the earnings for the year ending June 30, 1914, being some $15,000,000 behind the previous year, and practically all new construction has been suspended. The statistics shown in Tables 8, 9 and 10 are from the official Government report ‘covering the year ending December 31, 1909, and Table 6 shows the progress from 1909 to 1913, which was about normal up to that time, but has decreased since then for the causes stated above. Uruguay. The most important system in Uruguay is that of the Cen- tral Railway of Uruguay, running northerly from Montevideo and spreading out fan shape to practically all sections of the Republic. All the railways are 4’ 81/2” gauge. They have been built and are operated almost entirely by British interests, closely allied with those which control the principal railways of the Argentine. In recent years, the Government has endeavored to inter- est capital in another network of lines to cover the country in the spaces not now occupied by the lines of the Central. It is proposed to guarantee the interest on bonds to the amount of about $25,000 per km. (to be issued at about 90), and provisional negotiations have been concluded, which however, await the ratification of Congress. It is also proposed that some of these lines shall be built by, or wholly for account of, the Gov- ernment. RAILWVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 105 The Central Railway of Uruguay, with its extensions and branches, has a length of about 1570 km. Its earnings for 1912- 13 were approximately Gross . -- ..... .. $6,216,960 Net _ ._ . 3,134,295 The construction of this system was started in 1866, and about two years ago connection was made at Rivera—Santa Ana with the lines of the Brazil Railway Company (meter gauge), which permits through connection, with two changes of gauge between Montevideo and Rio de J aneiro. The Midland, Northern and Northwestern, are short lines in the northwestern section of the Republic, respectively 470, 114 and 182 km. in length. They have gross receipts of about $1,200,000, and operating expenses about $800,000. The Uruguay East Coast Railway is a short line, 126 km., running easterly from Montevideo (Olmos) to San Carlos. \Vorking results, 1911-12, Gross . .......... -. - -..$176,607 Expenses - . 143,443 Net -- ............. -. -. .$ 33,164 This line works under Government guarantee and it is pro- posed to extend it to Rocha. Rocha-Palomas, 30 km., built 1913-14 from Rocha to the Port of Palomas. It is proposed to extend this line easterly to the Brazilian border at Artigas. There is a project for a line from Montevideo to Colonia, a point on the coast directly opposite and only about 25 miles from Buenos Aires, with which it is proposed to establish direct connection by high speed ferries, shortening the time between the two capitals to 4 or 5 hours, and permitting, eventually, through rail connection, without break of gauge from Buenos Aires to Rio. Paraguay. The Paraguay Central Railway is the only line in Paraguay and runs from Asuncion, the capital, to Encarnacion on the Parana River, where it connects by car ferry with the lines of 106 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA the North East Argentine Railway and so through to Buenos Aires. Its length is 374 km., gauge 4’ 81/2”. A branch line has been started from Villa Rica, running easterly toward the mouth of the Iguazu River, which it is in- tended will eventually form part of a through line to Sao Paulo and Rio in Brazil. The northerly section of the Paraguay Central, from Asun- cion to Villa Rica, was built some 60 or 70 years ago and was of 5’ 6” gauge. It was changed to 4’ 81/2” and extended to the Argentine border (Encarnacion) about four or five years ago, the Argentine Government granting a subsidy for this purpose and to cover the cost of new rolling stock. (The gauge of the Argentine lines with which it connects in Corrientes and Entre Rios is 4’ 81/2”) The road was partly destroyed and traffic suspended during the revolution in the early part of 1912. Through communication with Buenos Aires was established at the end of the year 1913. The revenues for the year ending June 30, 1913, are given as follows: Gross .. - -- - -- - - . . - -.$732,557 Expenses .................... -. $402,871 Net . - . - - $329,686 Ton miles per mile of line-- 59,678 Pass. miles per mile of line 46,172 Brazil. Brazil has an important system of railways, but it has been found difficult to obtain reliable and complete data in regard to its present status. \ The first railway line was built in 1854, but there was no very rapid progress until after the establishment of the Republic in 1889, which resulted in the autonomy of the various states and greater liberality in the laws governing the granting of concessions. The following table shows the progress of construction: 1854 - - . -. -. -- . . . 14 km. 1890. - - - . .. .. . . _ 9,648 “ 1900 .............. . - . 14,648 “ 1906......-. - - - . . 17,340 “ 1913 ......................... . 22,287 “ RAIL\VAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 107 Many lines were built under guarantees of interest, but the burden of this finally became so great that many of the lines were purchased by the Governments, both State and Federal, and leased to operating companies. The distribution between Government and private ownership at the end of 1913 was stated to be as follows: 435 In Under Kilometers Operation Construction Surveyed Federal lines worked by the Union .... -- - 3,344 435 Federal lines leased and controlled by Union .- - .................................... .. 7,462 2,083 Lines built under concessions granted by Union with guarantees of interest - - 3,147 256 Lines built under concessions granted by Union without guarantees of interest. 1,934 189 Lines belonging to or conceded by sepa- rate States of the Union -. - . - 6,400 865 22,287 3,828 5,678 Most of the lines are meter gauge, the exceptions being the following: Central of Brazil...-. . .. 1,032 Sao Paulo (part) ..... -. . .. 139 Paulista (part) -. . . . - - 281 Recife-Caxanga -. .. . 25 Recife-Olinda . -. .- 12 Sao Paulo 85 Minas.--.. . - 138 Mogyana (part) ............... .- 78 Paulista (part) ................. .- 51 km. ( 6 i‘ (( (K ‘6 (( “ELYNQH‘UEUIUIUI O. 6‘ The following statistics will give some further idea of the extent and traffic of the railways for the period 1897-1905, though it is to be noted that this only covers about 65% of the total length operated. 1897 Length operated km. .................... -. 8,581 Gross receipts gold .................... ..$22,862,700 Expenditures “ .................... .. 23,629,170 Net “ .................... -- 5,233,530 Number of passengers Tons of freight. 1901 9,287 89,925,980 28,862,025 9,568,905 468,203,518 588,084,087 1905 11,113 29,851,392 22,224,270 7,687,122 621,135,840 619,204,687 108 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA The following statement shows the total receipts and ex- penses (gold) of all the lines for the year 1910, divided between those owned by the Government and owned privately. Lines Owned by Lines Owned by Government Private Corporations Total receipts .................. -.$21,174,239 $15,995,118 “ expenses ................ .. 20,709,694 11,322,766 Net earnings .................. .-$ 464,545 $ 4,672,352 The railways of Brazil were, on the whole, fairly prosper- ous up to about the year 1912. At that time, the decline in the value of cofiee, which the project for valorization was not able to sustain, and a similar but more acute decline in the value of crude rubber, due to the competition of plantation rubber, pro- duced a depression which the Balkan War, and finally the great European War, developed into a financial crisis. For the pres- ent, therefore, railway affairs are at a low ebb, and the develop- ment of the agricultural states of the south, and the extension of lines westerly across the valley of the Parana towards Bo- livia, which was proceeding with some vigor, has been tem- porarily suspended. Future developments will be in the development of the states to the south of Sao Paulo by branches and extensions of existing lines, with eventually a connection with Paraguay, via the valley of the Iguazu. North and west of Sao Paulo and Rio, transcontinental lines will eventually be pushed across the River Parana, and across the states of Matto Grosso and Goyaz. Much of this country is open pasture at elevations of 2000 to 5000 ft. above sea level, with an agreeable climate, and not tropical jungle as is quite generally supposed. The line across the lower end of the state of Matto Grosso, from Itapura in Sao Paulo towards Corumba, is getting well along towards comple- tion, and it seems probable that this will eventually be extended to Sucre, and so connect with the railway system of Bolivia. All the groups north and east of Rio will, of course, gradually ex- tend their systems from the coast back into the country as such developments are warranted, and it is planned to extend the government lines northerly to Para on the Amazon. The Brazil Railway Company, a North American corpora- RAIL\VAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 109 tion, which also has large interests in the Mogyana and Paulista companies, has operated since 1908 all the lines in the southern part of Brazil. south of Sao Paulo; the total length of the lines thus controlled being as follows (June 30, 1913) : Brazil Railway Company . . . .. .- - 5,282 km. Paulista . __ __ . - . . - 1,160 “ Mogyana _ - -. . -. - . - 1,728 “ 8,170 “ The lines controlled by the Brazil Railway Company were originally operated independently by several different com- panies. After the consolidation, new lines were built to link up the various component parts, and at the southern end, con- nection has been made with the lines of Uruguay (4’ 8%” gauge), thus permitting through rail connection from Monte- video to Rio (though with two changes of gauge). The earn- ings of the Brazil Railway Company have been approximately as follows: Gross Net 1908 .................... ..$ 7,844,345 $3,361,990 1909.-.-...-. .. 9,177,110 4,547,815 1910 ....................... .. 10,192,455 4,481,145 1911.....- - 11,672,760 5,140,850 1912 ........................ 13,057,690 5,573,795 1913 ...................... 14,479,919 5,279,385 (Values in gold.) The Paulista and Mogyana systems are owned principally by the Government. The first was built almost entirely with Brazilian capital, and the latter under both State and Federal guarantees. They are both prosperous as shown by the follow- ing statements of earnings: The Paulista. Length Gross Operating Operated Receipts Ratio km. Gold 1908 .......................... -- $ 7,082,650 46 % 1909 ............................ .. 8,472,450 46 “ 1910 ............................ -. 7,210,000 45 “ 1911 ................... -- 1150 8,942,400 42 “ 1912 .................... .. 1150 10,319,146 46.4“ 1913 .................... .- 1160 11,348,500 52.4 “ 110 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA The Mogyana. Length Gross Operating Operated Receipts Ratio km. Gold 1908 . .. .- - - $ 5,750,850 53.8 % 1909 ......................... .- 6,401,250 52.0 ‘ ‘ 1910 - ...................... .- 5,693,750 61.2 “ 1911 ................ .. 1513 6,935,700 57.2“ 1912 ................ .. 1604 8,130,380 54.4“ 1913 ............... .. 1728 8,694,380 61.9“ The Madeira-Mamoré Railroad was built for the Brazilian Government by the Brazil Railway Company, which also op- erates it under lease. Its length is 364 km., and it was opened for operation in September, 1912. The traffic receipts for 1913 were about $1,700,000. The line was built by Brazil in compliance with the terms of a treaty with Bolivia, its purpose being to provide transpor- tation from the navigable waters of the River Mamoré in B0- livia, around the falls and rapids, to the navigable waters of the Madeira. The treaty also provides for the construction of a branch 100 km. in length from the westerly end of the Ma- deira and Mamoré Railway along the River Beni. The Central Railway of Brazil (originally the Dom Pedro II Railway) is one of the most important systems. It branches out fan like from Rio, one main line running to Sao Paulo. It is owned and operated by the Government. Its length at the end of 1913 was 1968 km., partly 5’ 3" gauge, partly meter, partly mixed. In 1905 its length was 1617 km., and the gross receipts about $9,500,000 gold, with expenses of almost the same amount. The Leopoldina system is a network of lines lying to the north and east of Rio. It is owned and operated by a British corporation. Its length in 1913 was 2820 km., and the results of operation were as follows: Gross receipts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - .- -.-.$3,171 per km_ Expenses 2,040 M II N813 receipts . __ 1,131 n u The Sao Paulo Railway is one of the most profitable lines in Brazil. It is owned by British interests, and is a short line RAILVVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 111 with 139 km. of 5’ 3” gauge and a feeder of about 80 km., meter gauge. It has 10 km. of inclines with 8% gradients operated by cables. Its total receipts in 1905 were about $7,000.000, with expenditures of just about 50% of that. The results of opera- tion for the first six months of 1913 were as follows: Gross receipts -. . .. - . - - .- -- $4,972,105 Expenses .- . - . . - .. - 3,989,385 Net receipts . .. .. - . - .. 982,720 The Great Western Railway of Brazil operates a group of lines running inland from Pernambuco (Recife) and also north- erly and southerly, parallel to the coast. The total length op- erated in 1913 was 1625 km. The lines are owned by the Gov- ernment and operated by British interests, closely allied with those controlling the larger railway systems of the Argentine. For the year ending December 31, 1912, with a length of 1620 km., the results of operation were as follows: Gross receipts .. .. - . - - _ ---$3,424,925 Expenses - . - .. .- -- 2,279,690 Net receipts -. .... .--. _. -- 1,145,235 ZII VOI'HEIWV HILIIOS CINV HIL'HON IHO SAVAA'IIV'H APPENDIX. TABLE NO. 1. Country Length of Railways—Kilometers Sq. Miles Population Gauge Area per per Narrow 4' 8%" Broad Total Sq. Miles Population Km. of Line Km. of Line North America Canada ______________ __ 50,342 3,745,574 6,000,000 74 119 United States .... 11’200 446’872 407,730 2,973,890 98,000,000 7.3 240 Alaska .................. -. 268 482 750 586,400 75,000 782 100 Newfoundland .... -- 1,162 1,162 40,200 250,000 34 215 Mexico* ................ -. 1,931 17,381 19,312* 767,005 13,607,260 40 704 Central America. Guatemala .......... -. 762 762 48,250 1,842,134 63 2,417 Salvador .............. -- 248 248 7,225 1,116,253 29 4,501 Honduras ............ -- 304 94 398 46,500 500,136 117 1,275 ‘ ‘ (Brit.) .. 40 40 7,562 41,000 189 1,025 Nicaragua ............ .- 278 278 49,200 550,000 177 1,978 Costa Rica ............ .. 687 687 18,500 331,340 27 482 Panama ................ -. 100 100 32,000 361,000 320 3,610 West Indies Cuba .................... -. 315 3,410 73 3,798 41,634 2,048,980 11 539 Jamaica .............. .. 320 320 4,207 806,690 13 2,521 Porto Rico .......... -. 437 437 3,345 1,118,012 7.6 2,327 Hayti .................... -. 383 383 28,000 1,500,000 73 3,916 San Domingo ...... .- 237 237 18,045 500,000 7.6 2,110 Barbados .............. .. 42 42 166 200,000 4 5,000 Trinidad .............. .- 191 191 1,754 55,000 9 288 81:]: VOIHEINV HLHOS (1N37 HLLHON eIO SAVAL’IIVH South America Dutch Guiana ...... .. 173 173 57,900 84,103 34 486 British Guiana .... .. 53 97 150 301,923 2,013 Venezuela ............ -- 947 947 600,000 2,663,671 634 2,813 Colombia .............. -. 1,065 1,065 481,980 4,279,674 453 4.019 Ecuador .............. .. 464 464 60,000 1,500,000 130 Peru .................... .- 656 2,269 2,925 676,638 3,547,829 231 1,213 Bolivia .................. .- 1,379 1,379 700,000 1,816,271 508 1,317 Chile .................... .- 5,026 862 829 6,717 307,774 1,381,317 46 206 Argentine ............ -- 10,301 2,649 19,904 32,854 1,083,596 5,410,028 33 165 Uruguay .............. -. 2,462 2,462 72,210 1,042,668 29 424 Paraguay ............ .. 374 374 97,700 631,347 261 1,688 Brazil .................. -- 20,823 12 1,452 22,287 3,270,000 17,318,556 147 777 59,181 477,475 22,358 559,014 Note—Narrow Gauge 2’ 0" to 3' 6” Broad “ 5' 3” and 5’ 6” With very few exceptions the above data are as nearly as possible correct for the year ending Dec. 31, 1913, or June 30, 1914. The exceptions are thought to be not important. * Mexico. According to the President ’s message of April, 1909, there were 14,857 miles in operation, of which 11,851 miles were operated by the Government. The figures given above were taken from Poor ’s Manual for 1914, in which there may be some omissions—but these latter may be only industrial lines. Passenger hIfles of raihvay .................................. 1 Number of passengers ...................... .. Passengers carried one mile ............ -. Passengers one mile per mile of line Passengers per mile of line ............ .- Average passenger journey (miles)- Avg. number of passengers per train Passenger train mileage .................... .. Mixed train mileage Earnings from ticket sales ................ .- Earnings from passenger service .... -. Average receipts per passenger ...... -- Avg. recpts. per pass. per mi. (cts.) 1907 22,452 32,137,319 2,049,549,313 90,921 1,431 64 56 30,220,461 5,971,414 $39,134,437 $45,730,652 $1.219 1.911 TABLE NO. 2. Canadian Railways—Statistics. 1903 22,966 34,044,992 2,031,960,364 90,654 1,432 61 54 31,950,349 6,210,307 $39,992,503 $46,354,153 $1.174 1.920 1909 24,104 32,633,309 2,033,001,225 34,342 1,355 62 51 32,295,730 7,061,580 $39,073,433 $45,232,326 $1.195 1.921 1910 24,731 35,394,575 2,466,729,664 99,742 1,451 69 59 35,022,541 6,441,440 $46,013,330 $52,956,219 $1.232 1.366 1911 25,400 37,097,713 2,605,963,924 102,597 1,460 70 60 36,985,911 6,277,463 $50,566,394 $53,317,993 $1.360 1.944 1912 26,727 41,124,713 2,910,251,636 103,333 1,539 71 62 40,440,393 6,473,882 $56,543,664 $65,043,137 $1.375 1.943 1913 29,336 46,230,765 3,265,656,030 111,353 1,576 71 62 45,652,365 7,044,194 $64,441,430 $74,431,994 $1.394 1.973 Freight Tons hauled 63,866,135 63,071,167 66,842,258 74,482,866 79,884,282 89,444,331 106,992,710 Tons hauled one mile ........................ -. 11,687,711,830 12,961,512,519 13,160,567,550 15,712,127,701 16,048,478,295 19,558,190,527 23,032,951,596 Tons hauled one mi. per mi. of line 518,486 564,378 545,991 635,321 631,829 731,776 785,820 Average haul, miles 183 206 197 211 200 218 216 Freight train mileage ........................ .- 88,928,890 40,476,870 40,304,906 50,184,108 52,498,866 60,126,023 67,320,090 Mixed train mileage .......................... .- 5,971,414 6,210,807 7,061,580 6,441,440 6,277,468 6,473,882 7,044,194 Revenue from freight ........................ .- $94,995,087 $93,746,655 $95,714,783 $116,229,894 $124,743,015 $148,030,269 $174,684,640 Average tons per train 260 278 278 311 305 325 342 Average cars per train 16.92 16.04 16.37 18.15 18.03 18.19 18.00 Average tons per car .......................... -- 15.37 17.33 16.98 17.13 16.91 17.87 19.01 Avg. recpts. per ten per mile (cts.) .815 .723 .727 .739 .777 .757 .758 Earnings, Etc. Passenger train mile $ 1.263 $ 1.228 $ 1.150 $ 1.277 $ 1.348 $ 1.390 $ 1.412 Freight “ “ $ 2.069 $ 2.008 $ 2.041 $ 2.316 $ 2.376 $ 2.494 $ 2.595 Per mile of line $6,535 $6,397 $6,018 $7,034 $7,430 $8,209 $8,750 Expenses “ “ $4,620 $4,673 $4,340 $4,869 $5,159 $5,639 $6,204 Net earning “ .... -. $1,915 $1,724 $1,678 $2,165 $2,271 $2,570 $2,546 Earnings per train mile $ 1.95 $ 1.87 $ 1.82 $ 2.04 $ 2.10 $ 2.17 $ 2.26 Expenses “ “ “ $ 1.38 $ 1.36 $ 1.31 $ 1.41 $ 1.46 $ 1.49 $ 1.60 911 VOI'HIINV HILflOS (INV HI'L'HON JO SAVAA'IIVH TABLE NO. 3. Canadian Railways—Statistics. All in Millions Mileage I _ No. of Tons Year Main (2:53:11 Sugszfililesf Passengers 2,000 lb. Linei Carried Freight 1876 ..................... -. 5,218 $ 257 $ 28 i 5.54 6.33 1880 ...................... .. 7,194 271 59 6.46 9.94 1890 ...................... -. 13,151 605 131 12.82 20.79 1900 ...................... -. 17,657 784 155 21.50 35.95 1910 ...................... .. 24,731 1,410 201 35.89 74.48 1913 ...................... .. *29,304 1,531 218 46.23 106.99 . eratin Ratio Earmngs (Elxpensesg % $ 19.4 $ 15.8 81.8 23.6 16.8 71.0 46.8 32.9 70.2 70.7 47.7 67.4 174.0 120.4 69.2 256.7 182.0 70.9 1 First line built in 1836; the 1,000 mile mark reached in 1855. * Additional track in main line and sidings in 1913, 8,919 miles. "{In addition to land grants and guarantees. See pg. 55. LII VOIHEIWV HiLflOS (INV HLHON eIO SAVAYIIVH Division of Traffic—1913. Tons Products of Agriculture ............ -. 17,196,802 “ “ Animals .................. .. 3,173,562 “ “ Mines ...................... .. 40,230,542 “ “ Forests .................... -- 16,609,100 Manufactures 19,694,240 Merchandise .................................. .- 4,365,852 Miscellaneous ................................ -- 4,161,154 % 16.31 3.01 38.16 15.75 18.68 4.14 3.95 The principal increases during the past 7 years are in Mines and Manufactures and decrease in Forest Products. Division of Operating Expenses—1913 ‘Nay and Structures ..................... $35,933,322 Equipment 37,289,718 Traffic 6,143,201 Transportation 96,688,264 General 5,957,184 (70 19.74 20.48 3.37 53.12 3.29 Per Mile of Line - 1907 1913 Maintenance of Way ................................. $930 $1,225 “ “ Equipment .................. .. 965 1,271 Equipment 1907 1913 Locomotives ........................................ .- 3,504 5,119 Passenger Cars ..... -. 3,642 5,696 Freight “ ..... .. 107,407 182,221 Service “ 15,526 Av. capacity of Freight Cars, tons-.- 27 32 8II VOI'HEIWV HIIIIIOS CINV HILHON JO SAVAA'IIV’H TABLE NO. 4. Comparative Statistics of the Railways of the United States.* To June 30th 1902 1912 Miles of line 200,155 249,852 “ “ main line track 215,974 279,219 “ “ all track 274,195 371,238 Total capital securities” $12,134,182,964 $19,752,536,264 Dividends—Per cent of stock paying dividends 55.4% 64.7% Average rate on above 5.55% 7.17% “ “ “ all stock 3.08% 4.64% Total operating revenues $ 1,726,380,267 $ 2,842,695,382 “ “ expenses $ 1,116,248,747 $ 1,972,415,776 Net ‘ ‘ revenue $ 610,131,520 $ 870,279,606 Operating ratio 64.6 69.3 Number of employees 1,189,315 1,716,380 Average daily compensation of employees 1.92 2.42 Number of locomotives . 41,225 62,262 “ “ passenger cars 36,987 51,490 “ “ freight cars 1,546,101 2,215,549 Average tractive force per locomotive, lbs. 20,485 28,634 Average capacity of freight cars, tons 28 37 Passengers carried one mile 19,689,937,620 33,132,354,783 ‘ ‘ miles per mile of line 99,314 136,699 “ average journey miles 30 33 “ average receipts per passenger mile, cts. .......... -. 1.986 1.987 Freight, total tons 581,832,441 998,282,525 “ tons one mile (millions) , 157,289 264,081 “ “ miles per mile of line 793,351 1,078,580 ‘ ‘ average haul, miles 239 257 “ ‘ ‘ receipts per ton mile, cts. .757 .744 * Bureau of Railway Economics. ** About 60% of this is Funded Debt. RAILVVAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 119 Argentine Railways. TABLE NO. 5. Lengths Year Km. Capital 1860. .............. .- . ..... -. -. . -. 39 741,000 1870. -. - - - 732 18,835,000 1880 - ............ -. 2,516 62,964,000 1890 ...... -. -- 9,432 321,264,000 1900 - .- - . 16,563 530,820,000 1910 ......... -- . - 27,713 1,099,700,353 1913. - 33,478 1,358,849,967 TABLE NO. 6. 1909 Length of line in operation . 25,457 Capitalization . 1,018,609,000 Gross receipts 103,198,000 Expenses - ..... -- 61,197,000 Net earnings - . - .. . . - - - . . 42,001,000 Total passengers . . 51,065,000 “ tons freight -- ........ .- 31,200,000 Dollars, Gold Gross Earnings 98,320 2,502,000 6,560,000 26,049,000 41,401,000 111,448,555 140,802,754 1913 88,478 1,358,850,000 140,803,000 88,078,000 52,724,000 82,630,000 42,917,000 OZI VOI'H'IHWV HILflOS CINV HIL'HON IEIO SAVAA’IIV'H TABLE NO. 7. Argentine Railways. Length Km. Broad Gauge Southern 5,608 Western 2,669 Pacific 5,342 Central Argentine 4,751 Rosario Puerto Belgrano .................. .. 794 Total 19,164 Medium Gauge Entre Rios 1,175 Northeast Argentine ........................ -- 1,074 Central of Buenos Aires .................. .. 269 Total 2,518 Narrow Gauge Government lines 4,018 Central Cordoba 1,935 Santa Fe 1,709 Province of Buenos Aires .............. .. 1,367 Transandine 185 Central del Chubut 86 Tranvia a Vapor de Rafaela ........ .. 83 Total 9,283 Earnings, Gold Capitalization Gross $220,503,600 $27,127,561 101,959,200 12,225,441 216,086,900 24,405,713 197,276,600 26,360,600 30,957,100 553,575 $766,783,400 $90,672,295 $30,391,700 $2,379,390 29,538,100 1,609,335 8,942,800 977,091 $68,872,600 $4,965,816 $121,872,900 $6,292,069 70,525,000 8,220,351 42,131,700 5,787,433 39,399,300 2,497,010 8,902,800 676,605 1,255,200 177,326 467,100 44,891 $284,554,000 $23,695,658 Net $11,311,439 5,474,275 9,185,113 11,481,579 903,958 $38,356,364 3 908,096 622,090 305,389 $1,835,575 $359,428 2,253,352 2,085,278 527,847 125,299 83,989 12,976 $5,454,217 2.98 2.10 3.41 2.68 IZI VOIHGIWV HLQOS (INV HIHONI cIO SAVAL’IIVH TABLE NO. 8. Argentine Railways—Rolling Stock, December 31, 1909. Broad Gauge Southern Western Pacific Central Argentine Medium Gauge Entre Rios Northeast Argentine Central of Buenos Aires ...................... .. Narrow Gauge Government lines Central Cordoba Santa Fe-. Province of Buenos Aires .................... -- Transandino Locomotives 1% Average Weight with No. Tender 546 81.3 292 82.6 646 92.6 544 77.3 51 68.3 49 48.1 32 36.6 241 59.1 . 164 61.6 121 48.8 71 68.0 23 43.9 Pass. Cars, No. of 578 263 338 514 47 53 20 180 161 126 94 Freight Cars 4L f a Total No. of Capacity No. Cars in Tons of per per Cars Km. Line Km. Line 12,330 27.9 583.8 6,806 31.9 889.8 10,748 28.8 661.5 14,899 38.1 752.2 983 10.0 249.6 693 8.4 106.9 719 27.7 201.3 3,814 11.4 255.9 3,808 29.0 434.5 4,021 23.0 332.2 1,611 26.8 670.5 184 10.5 101.4 331 VOI'HHWV HIIIDOS CINV HILHON JO SAVAUIIV’H TABLE‘ NO. 9. Argentine Railways—Traffic Statistics, 1909. Passengers Freight F A D f L \ Average Receipts No. per Length per Pass. Tons Ton Km. Average Receipts Km. of Journey, Km. per Km. per Km. Haul, per Ton of Line Km. Cts. of Line of Line Km. Km., Cts. Broad Gauge Southern 131,270 33 1.23 ' 1,539 271,485 176 2.03 Western 113,431 35 1.22 1,579 331,435 210 2.34 Pacific 69,810 39 1.33 1,270 259,461 206 2.70 Central Argentine ................ .. 140,075 39 1.23 1,772 366,421 207 2.26 Medium Gauge Entre Rios 26,507 88 1.62 637 101,971 160 2.15 Northeast Argentine .......... -. 17,140 102 2.12 324 75,808 234 3.03 Central of Buenos Aires .... -- 183,963 170 0.40 1,176 199,948 170 1.81 Narrow Gauge Government lines ................ .. 14,304 44 1.82 510 74,814 138 1.75 Central Cordoba .................. -. 56,690 70 1.17 2,545 404,506 163 1.48 Santa Fe 20,109 46 2.07 1,068 243,492 228 2.45 Province of Buenos Aires... 27,228 49 1.31 1,263 231,153 183 1.62 Transandine ........................ .. 24,449 14 5.08 187 28,262 151 4.47 —_ ____ Average of 311 lines .... .. 32,494 39 1.23 1,279 249,622 195 2.24 RAILWAYS OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA .wwoq * 43.2.. 34.2. $2 344 2a.; 23 8.2.44 21.. 2am. 434. 83.44.8822: :8 48 3.585. 2?. 24.11. “3 SH . Sn; 2%.. 21m Q1. 5.. 2. NE; ........................ .. 35553.5. Ea. $3 34 a: :5 was." Sea 8: 30.“ :2 sea -825. 38am .5 3285 33 $13 52 Pa 53 5?. 23... em 23 we 24 .............................. 8a 53m 53 31.1.... a? mam $3 24 43.4 .48 4.55.. 2 m3 .................. -2850 8.850 4.2 83 mm 4.2 22 RN Rm; .3 m3 .2 2.1. ............. 532: 55555845 emssw B9882 2:3 :3 4: Be. :a 34 :3” 8. 44.2“ 8 .5 --...8.fi.. 35am .8 8:55 42 1:. a: 2 gm 25 am; .3 44a 2 new ......... 28:54.3 555.82 2a .88 a: a: 24 Ea 8.2; 2 E4; 3. 24.. ........................... .822 22a emssw 8332 Fed 34.4 34 was $3 4% 80.2 m: 80.4 a: .55 .............. ..easaewi. $850 3.5 444.4 4:“ 34 33 03 4.4.4.4 E 42.4 3; Ca 855 54.4.. 43.4 as... 08 .24; a3 2?. E: 42.4 3m 33 533? $4.44 wig $2 $3 344$ 23 45.3 as; 5.2.2 81... 85.2.. 58555 $56 63.5 wwawwmdm Zack 22335 QEEB wwwwommmwwwwk H308 .mfiwwowwam High Wnwaawm .Hmmzmmwah F {l L F i3 \ wemcwmxfi wpfieeefl 65A .3 .Gpofiofivm .8." dog amoasfiwsmmxfl use wpfieuofilmhekfiam ofipsowfiw .2 .OZ Hflmzxw Paper No. 73 ITALIAN RAILWAYS. RESULTS OF TEN YEARS OF STATE MANAGEMENT. By Prof. LUIGI LUIGGI, D. Sc., M. Am. Soc. C. E. President, Italian Society of Civil Engineers, Former Member of the Italian State Railway Board Rome, Italy GENERAL INFORMATION. The railways of Italy (Fig. 1) can be divided into two systems: Principal Lines, owned and worked by the State, and measuring a total of about 13,500 kilometers (8,400 miles) ; and Secondary Lines, owned and worked by many independ- ent private companies, measuring about 6,000 kilometers (3,700 miles). The latter act as feeders for the principal lines and are of great benefit to the public, as they reach places in the mountains where, the traffic being very small, an ordinary line could not run at a profit. Except on some mountain lines which are of narrow gauge, Italian railways are of the “normal gauge”, of 1.445 meters (4 ft. 81/; in.), adopted all over Europe, except only in Spain and Russia. Italy being a country generally hilly, and in some parts quite mountainous, railways are costly to construct—as tun~ nels, viaducts and important bridges are very numerous: they are also very costly to work, owing to heavy gradients—up to 1 in 40 and in a few cases even 1 in 28-—and to the fact that all the coal is imported, mainly from England and in smaller quantities from Germany and America. Thus the average working expenses in 1913 on the State Lines were 36,650 francs per kilometer ($11,200 per mile). l‘ “-‘I .—: ;, ‘it. v ‘ '.._ 1.... 82% _- 4‘ “Mg. ,5 0 “5' '3- \‘-P~ #4 I: "f". I rd . D ‘ ‘ _ 7 .- . . 1 ‘ m I _ _ . ~. Domodossola ' r’ " m ' ;- Tronto ...- ' Udmg' .. i - 3 Romagnano ~ ';- ‘ma Sanzhia '1‘1 1 B \u _ ,4‘. .93.’) \.' ~"Bu$t ‘ A" ‘- cm” "6071-. ‘ ' C o n u u Twn Map Showing Italian State Railway. ITALIAN RAILWAYS 125 On the other hand, the revenue is rather low. as in Italy there are no great mines nor forests. and the goods traffic con- sists principally of agricultural products, which, in general, cannot afford a high tariff. The passenger rates also are very moderate. Thus, in 1913-14 (see Appendix) the revenue on the State Railways was 44,950 francs per kilometer ($13,750 per mile). which makes the “coefficient of exploitation” (operating ratio) 81.5% of the revenue. Traflic Conditions. To understand this “coefficient” and compare it with other lines. it is necessary to know under what condition Italian State Railways are worked and the class of traffic they carry. First of all, tariffs are rather low—the law requires that for the first—class tickets the rate shall not exceed 2 cents per kilometer (about 3 cents per mile) ; for second-class, 1%, cents; and for the third—class, 1 cent. On a few lines there is even a fourth-class. at the rate of 1%: cent per kilometer. And these rather trying conditions are aggravated by another law, which requires that on all lines. regardless of the extent of the traffic. three couples of trains, at the least, must be run daily. Thus. on several lines many trains run almost empty, especially in winter. By this arrangement the public is certainly well served and the traffic is encouraged very actively; but, on the other hand. the financial situation of Italian railways belonging to the State—and more or less the same can be said of private companies—cannot be very flourishing. The result of the high coefficient of exploitation and high cost of the lines is that the traffic barely pays an interest of 1.6% (see Appendix) on the in- vested capital, and for some private lines there is a deficit; so that the State is obliged to pay annual subsidies of from $1000 to $3000 per mile of line. In such cases, however, after 50 to 70 years the lines become State property. Italian Railway Policy. Although from a purely financial point of view this policy may not seem satisfactory, the results from the standpoint of the general national interests are very important. Many regions of Italy, especially in the South, were still 126 ITALIAN RAILWAYS very backward up to some years ago; agriculture was very rudimental and the population poor and ignorant. The construction of State railways was a national duty, in order to bring moral and material progress into those regions, regardless of high cost of the lines. which were very difficult to build owing to mountains, ravines and malarial zones. Thanks to this provident policy, the State railways, with their “differential tariffs”, have cemented the political unity of Italy and have given an enormous impetus to commerce. By making the communication easy between the northern and southern provinces, and by charging very low rates, the ex- change of the agricultural and industrial products of the re- spective regions has developed rapidly, and the progress has increased more rapidly still, since the principal railways came entirely under State control. There has been, undoubtedly, a marked improvement in trade all over Italy and a better un- derstanding and good feeling between the people of the different regions of the Peninsula. Thus, although from a financial point of view the results of State management are very modest and the coefficient of working expenses is high, the Nation does not complain, as it considers the railway expenditures in the same light as those necessary for the Army or the Navy. In Italy, at least, all three administrations are equally indispensable for the very existence of the Nation, regardless of purely financial considerations. Owing to this policy, regions that for centuries have been subject to a systematic abandonment—if not actual spoliation, while they remained under semi-foreign rulers—are now begin- ning to develop considerably. Agriculture is improving steadily everywhere, but especially in the South, and new industries are being started, especially in the North. The railways, with their low rates, are a great help in exchanging the products of the different provinces. Private and State Management. The most marked improvements, however, have taken place since the advent of the State Railway Board, in 1905. Before that time, the railways, although for the greater part belonging to the State, were worked by three private ITALIAN RAI IAVAYS 127 companies. the “Mediterranean”, the “Adriatic” and the “Sicilian” R. R. Cos. The interests of these companies were different from those of the State. Each company worked its system with the object of getting the largest revenue with the smallest expenditure; therefore, tariffs were kept at the highest rate allowed by law, trains were slow and barely sufficient for the local needs, the rolling stock was old and not kept in good repair, and the personnel was under-paid and dissatisfied. Thus, both the public and the personnel had continual grievances against the railway companies. Strikes and systematic hindrance to the service—or “ostruzionismo”, that is, literal application of by- rules, by which there was great delay in the running of trains ——were becoming alarmingly frequent. Parliament protested; several Ministers had to resign; and in 1905, when the con- tracts with the private companies expired, they were not renewed. The State took over the control of all its own railways, and of a few other private lines necessary for the public interests. This was a daring act and was especially risky from a financial point of view. Happily the Government was very lucky in securing the services of a most competent specialist in railway administration, in the person of Comm. Riccardo Bianchi, formerly General Manager of the Sicilian Railways, who was given sufficient liberty of action to meet the many and serious difficulties which had to be overcome. The State administration, under the guidance of its able president, was brought rapidly to a very satisfactory point. The lines were put in good working order by renewing the permanent way, doubling many trunk lines and sidings, and improving the stations and workshops. Then the rolling stock was renewed and augmented, more and faster trains were run on the main lines, and third-class carriages were attached to all trains. The tariffs, also, were rearranged, in order to facilitate the transportation of agricultural products for long distances, and a “differential tariff” for passengers also was started, by which the rates per mile diminish rapidly with the increase of the length of journey. Pig. 2. Genoa-Milan Line. Lattice-Girder Bridge for Railway and Ordinary Road over Eleven spans of 333 Feet Each. the River Po at Mezzanacorti. 8'6'I SAVAA'IIV'H NVI'IVILI ITALIAN RA ILWAYS 129 All these reforms gave immense satisfaction to the public, which being encouraged to travel and having better and cheaper means for the transportation of goods. was able to start new industries and extend the centers of business. The National wealth and the railway revenue increase compensated amply for the increasing expenditure, which. notwithstanding all drawbacks, is well below the revenue. Fig. 3. Milan-Bergamo Line. Steel Arch Bridge over the River Adda. at Paderno. Span 360 Feet. The conditions of the “personnel” were also greatly im- proved, so that strikes became more rare and easily arranged, and peace, as far as possible, was restored between employes and employers and the service greatly benefited. Thus now, after ten years of State railway management, the improvements for the public have been so marked, that no one would wish to return to the old regime of private control. 130 ITALIAN RAILWAYS TECHNICAL CONDITIONS. From a technical point of view, Italian railways are of great interest for the large number of bridges, viaducts and tunnels, which are a consequence of the hilly character of the country, and for the traction, either by electric or by steam locomotives. Fig. 4. Lecco-Sondrio Line. Granite Arch Bridge over the River Adda at Morbegno. Span 236 Feet. Permanent Way. (3.) Bridges. For very large span bridges, steel girders or metallic arches are a necessity, and among these the most notable are the steel girders of the several bridges across the Po (Fig. 2). and the great steel arch bridge of Paderno across the Adda (Fig. 3). with a 360-foot span (110 meters). However, except in these special cases, Italian engineers prefer, whenever possible. technically and economically. to use masonry bridges, which although more costly to construct do not require much upkeep, and practically last forever. The ITALIAN RAILWAYS 131 Fig. 5. Bologna-Brindiai Line. Concrete Arch Bridge over Piume Rosso. Spa-n 100 Feet. Fig. 6. Roma-Salmons; Line. Viaduct at Ponte Nuovo. 132 ITALIAN RAILWAYS most notable masonry bridge is that of Morbegno (Fig. 4), over the River Adda, with a span of 236 feet (72 m.), built of solid granite, with steel rotules at crown and haunches. There is also a very handsome bridge of three arches made of cement concrete on the Bologna-Brindisi line at Fiume Rosso (Fig. 5), with spans of 100 feet. Ferro-concrete bridges are in favour only for small spans, as some fears are entertained for spans above 50 feet (15 meters), owing to the possibility that vibrations may diminish adherence between concrete and iron. However, on some sec- ondary lines, ferro-concrete arches of 100 feet span are now in construction. (b) Viaducts. The deep valleys often spanned by the rail- ways across the Apennines required the construction of many high viaducts, some, very important; among which those of Poretta, on the Pistoia-Bologna line, deserve special mention. The most important of all, however, is that of Campomorone, on the Genoa-Ronco line, with a height of 210 feet (65 m.) ; and next to it is the viaduct of Ponte Nuovo about 200 feet high including foundations, of the Rome-Sulmona-Isernia line and the Cuneo-Ventimiglia line now in construction. (0) Tunnels. It is in the matter of tunnels, however, that Italian railways offer the greatest interest. Italy is truly the country of tunnels, and Italian tunnel-borers are famous all over the world. Thousands of them were employed in boring the New York underground railways. Everywhere in Italy we find tunnels, built for a variety of purposes and at widely separated periods, from the Etruscan to the most modern times. There are tunnels for drainage pur- poses, aqueducts, railways and road traffic. In the Etruscan period hundreds of miles of drainage tunnels were dug. The most notable tunnel of Roman times is that for the outlet of the Fucino Lake, some three miles in length, built under Claudius. The most important railway tunnels are those through the Alps which connect the Italian railways with those of France or Switzerland. The Mont Cenis Tunnel, the Saint Gothard Tun- nel and the Simplon Tunnel are well known, the latter, nearly 12 miles long (19 kilometers), being up to now the longest in the world. ITALIAN RAILWAYS 133 Across the Apennines there are also very important tun- nels, both for their great length—for example, the Ronco Tun- nel, between Genoa and Ronco, nearly 6 miles long (9 kilo- meters), and for the great difficulty of excavating through ex- ceedingly bad and watery marl. Among the latter may be mentioned the tunnels on the Foggia line, where the lateral pressure of the clay was so great that the revetment was crushed three times, till at last it was made 10 feet (3 meters) thick. The Gattico Tunnel, on the Domodossola line, was also excavated through very bad and watery ground, and it was necessary to use compressed-air caissons to overcome the in~ rush of mud in some exceedingly diificult sections. But on this subject the special report on “Tunnels Recently Built in Italy”, presented also to the Congress, may be consulted. So it is not necessary to enter into further details here. However, the rapid advance in driving some tunnels is worth mentioning. On the new Rome-Naples lines an advance of 25 to 30 feet per day was made at each heading, and in the Murgie Tunnel, cut through fissured limestone, the extraordinary advance of 33 feet per day was often reached. Locomotives. The other interesting feature of Italian railways. besides bridges and tunnels, is the problem of traction, especially with electric locomotives. As already stated, the lines are, in general, through rather hilly and, in many places, even mountainous country—requir- ing gradients of 1 in 40, and in some short sections of 1 in 33, and even 1 in 28—the hauling of trains, therefore, offers great diffi- culties, both technically and financially. When the new State administration took over the lines from the private companies in 1905, besides finding the roll- ing stock, and especially the locomotives, in a very dilapidated condition—as they were of rather old types and in bad repair -—-it was confronted by a sudden and rapid increase of trafiic, which increase continued steadily, till in 1913 it was quite 70% higher. Thus the problem of traction was aggravated not only by the material difficulties of the profile of the line, but by the fact that the antiquated and well-worn locomotives were not able to respond to the needs of this sudden increase in traffic. 134 ITALIAN RAILWAYS The Director General. Signor Bianchi—who, fortunately, besides being a clever railway manager, was also a specialist in locomotive matters—rose to the occasion and rapidly over- came also this difficulty by adopting new types of steam loco- motives for the traffic on ordinary lines. and electric locomo- tives on very steep inclines. Thus he solved also the problem of the great cost of coal, for hydro-electric power in Italy, thanks to the abundance of waterfalls, is quite cheap. Steam Locomotives. Of the steam locomotives, it will be sufficient to give a rapid and concise description. They may be divided into the following principal groups: (a) Locomotive for Very Heavy Gradients. Type 050, Group No. 470, built by “Societa Anonima Officine Mecca- niche”, of Milan, in 1911. The locomotive has ten coupled driving wheels, with four compound cylinders, and presents these characteristics: Boiler: Grate surface .- .- sq. feet ........... .- 37.75 Heating surface . . - .-.- - sq. feet 130 Plain tubes (1.85") ............. -- - number - 273 Total heating surface of the tubes..- sq. feet ...... .- . - 2,160 Total heating surface .................. -. . sq. feet 2,540 Working pressure .- - - -. - - - - lbs. per sq. inch.. 228 Diam. high pressure cylinders - . -. inches - - - -. 14.75 Diam. low pressure cylinders - - - inches - -. -. 24 Stroke . -- .--- - - - - - - - . inches - -. 25.6 Diam. of driving wheels - - inches - - - 53 Weight of locomotive in service - - lbs. . - - - . 165,000 (b) Locomotive for Fast Express Trains. Type 2-3-1, Group No. 690, constructed by Ernesto Breda, of Milan, in 1911. It is a superheated steam locomotive, with 6 coupled wheels, forward bogie and “Bissel” back trailer. It was built to increase the speed of the express trains on main lines. The weight of the driving axles was brought from 15 to 17 tons, with a possibility of bringing it up to 18 tons by chang- ing the weight on the two trucks. The boiler and machinery ITALIAN RAILWAYS 135 Pig. 7. Locomotive for Very Heavy Gradients. Group No. 470. Fig. 8. Locomotive for Heavy and Fast Express Trains. Group No. 690. Fig. 9. Locomotive for Mixed Passenger and Past Goods Train. Group No. 740. 136 ITALIAN RAILWAYS are larger than in the preceding types. This locomotive is of the simple expansion type with four cylinders working on the same driving axle, and has a Schmidt superheater. Principal Data. Boiler: Heating surface (non-tubular) ....... -. sq. feet - .......... -- 172 Grate surface ................................ .. - sq. feet. - ......... .. 37.75 Evaporating tubes (2.05") ................ -. number ............. .- 155 Evaporating tubes (5.23") ............. -- number . .......... -. 27 Heating surface of tubes ............... .- sq. feet ............ -. 2,100 Heating of superheater ..................... .. sq. feet - -- 900 Total .............. -. sq. feet ............ -- 3,000 Working pressure ............................ -- lbs. per sq. in. -. 171 4 cylinders—diam. . .......................... .. inches ................ -. 17.8 stroke ............................. .- inches ......... -- 26.8 Diam. of driving wheels ........................ .. inches .. - ..... .. 80 Weight of locomotive in service - - -- . lbs. ............... -. 193,000 Adherent weight .................................... -- lbs. ................ -. 113,000 Weight of tender in service .................. .. lbs. ................... .- 110,000 (c) Locomotive for Mixed Passenger and Fast Goods Trains. Type 1-4-0, Group No. 740 (Fig. 9), built by Gio. Ansaldo & Co. of Sanpierdarena, presents these characteristics: Boiler: Heating surface (non-tubular) .- sq. feet- .- - .. 130 Grate surface - -. sq. feet. .- 30 Boiler tubes (2.0") - ................. .- number ..... -. 135 Boiler tubes (5.1") ........................ -- number ........... .- 21 Heating surface of tubes ................. -. sq. feet ......... .- 1,540 Heating surface of superheater ........ -- sq. feet . .- 466 Total heating surface ...................... -. sq. feet ............ .. 2,100 Working pressure lbs. per sq. in. .- 170 Diam. of cylinders inches ................ .. 21.2 Stroke inches ................ -- 27 .6 Diam. of drivers .... .. inches ................ -. 53.5 Weight of locomotive in service .............. .. lbs. ................... -. 147,000 Active adherent weight lbs. .................... .. 125,000 Weight of tender in service ...................... .. lbs. .................... -. 68,500 ITALIAN RAIL‘VAYS 137 Electric Locomotives. The distinctive feature of Italian electric locomotives is their operation by the tri-phase system. It was adopted for the first time on the “Valtellina Line”, between Lecco and Sondrio. and since extended to the Genoa-Ronco, Savona-Ceva, and BussolenoeModane lines—a development of 280 km. (174) A Fig. 10. Electric Locomotive Employed on Mountain Lines. Tri-phase, 2000-HP. Motors. Group No. 500. miles). where there are gradients up to 1 in 40, and very long tunnels, where smoke is a serious drawback. For instance, in the Ronco Tunnel, 9 kilometers long (about 6 miles), and the Mont Cenis Tunnel, 13 kilometers long (about 8 miles), the smoke difficulty was so serious that, not- withstanding artificial ventilation on the “Saccardo” system, cases of asphyxia among the drivers and stokers were not rare, and once a very bad railway accident was caused by asphyxia. 138 ITALIAN RAILWAYS With the electric locomotives, all these difficulties were overcome. Water power being so cheap, it was possible to haul trains up these inclines at double the speed hitherto acquired, thus doubling the potentiality of the line and solving the prob- lem of congestion of traffic, which was becoming very pressing. This alone was a very great accomplishment, as it avoided the immediate need of new lines, which would have required heavy expenditure. It may be said that electric traction on the tri-phase sys- tem, as adopted on the four lines mentioned, has been such a success that not only is it spreading in Italy, but has been copied since by the Swiss State Railways for their Simplon and L6tschberg lines, both with heavy inclines, although not so steep as on the Savona-Ceva and Mont Cenis lines. For these reasons—the rapid increase of the traffic on mountainous lines and high cost of coals, compared with the low cost of hydro-electric power—-this tri-phase system will be applied to all the lines crossing the Apennines, and especially to the group, Pistoia-Bologna, Terni-Aquila, Sulmona-Isernia, in Central Italy, and other lines in Calabria, all belonging to the State railways. On private lines, electric traction on the mono-phase and tri-phase systems has also been applied, but not on such a large scale as to the Genoa-Ronco and Bussoleno-Modane lines, which are now the most important of Italy, and models of their kind. The best electric locomotives in use belong to the Group No. 501, Type 050 (Fig. 10), working on the tri-phase sys- tem and were built by the Italian \Vestinghouse Co., of Vado Ligure, since 1908. At present there are in service 152 of these locomotives, and 40 more are in construction. They work at 3000-volts tension with 15 periods. They have five coupled driving axles and weigh, complete, 60 tons. Their maximum length is 31 feet, and they are provided with two 1000 hp. motors. To make it easier to pass sharp curves, the two extreme axles have an 8-inch lateral movement, and the middle wheel is without rim. The motors can be united in parallel or in series and give two speeds, viz., 16 and 31 miles an hour (25 and 50 km. per hour). The apparatus to put the motors in parallel or in series, ITALIAN RAIIAVAYS 139 to work the starting rheostat, etc., has electro-pneumatic con- trol, and is made in such a way as to command several electric locomotives from the first one. These locomotives, coupled one at the head and another at the tail of a train weighing 400 tons (Fig. 11), can go on an incline of 1 in 40 at the normal speed of 50 km. (31 miles) per hour, and in case of having to stop for some closed signal, can start again and attain their normal speed of 50 km. in less than 3 minutes. If necessary, they can also attain a maximum speed of 70 km. (43 miles) per hour on this incline, but then if they have to stop they cannot re-gain the speed of 70 km. for a very long time, so there would be a delay in the arrival of the train and a disturbance of the traffic. For this reason, the normal speed of 50 km. was adopted on heavy inclines, which is high enough, considering that it is almost equal to the commercial speed on Italian lines having gradients of 1 in 100. When coming down, the motors act as generators of cur- rent. and thus about 50% of the energy is actually utilized for hauling up another train. By this arrangement, the braking of the down-going train is done by the electrical apparatus and not by the usual brakes, which are kept open, and the saving in tires and brake-blocks is quite notable. Thus, by the adoption of electrical traction, the drawbacks of lines with heavy gradients have been practically eliminated. Naturally, there is a greater expenditure of energy. but this being supplied by water power—which in Italy is abundant and very cheap—there is ample compensation in the advantage of being able to carry on mountain lines double the number of trains, and thus doubling the efficiency of the line. In reality, the result is as if heavy gradients and mountains did not exist. This will have a great influence on the laying out of new lines in mountainous districts. Instead of having to lengthen the line and encounter heavy cuttings and long tun- nels, in order to obtain easy gradients, by the adoption of elec- tric traction, as used on Italian lines, gradients of 1 in 40 are quite acceptable even on lines with heavy traffic, thus a great saving, both in the cost of construction and exploitation, will be realized by means of hydro-electric power. Fig. 11. Electric Locomotive Train on the Genoa-Renee Line. Two Locomotives Propel a 400‘T0n Train up a Grade of 1 in 28 at 31 Miles per Hour. 0?[ SAVM’IIVH NVI'IVILI ITALIAN RAILVVAYS 141 This valuable use of electric traction will have a far reach- ing social influence on the progress of many mountainous Prov- inces of Italy—especially in Calabria, still very backward owing to the scarcity of railways—where the difficulties of steam traction are insuperable and which electric traction, coupled with hydro-electric power, will overcome completely. Thus electric locomotives will prove an enormous blessing in hilly and mountainous regions, and will contribute greatly to their material progress. CONCLUSIONS. It is very difficult to say in general terms whether State management of railways is to be encouraged or not. But as far as it concerns Italian railways—and considering how mat- ters stood up to 1905—it would have been almost impossible to continue under private management; thus State administra- tion became automatically an absolute necessity. On the other hand, it must be said that in a country where Parliament is all powerful, State management is rather risky, especially from the financial point of view and in regard to the discipline of the personnel. It was feared at the beginning that Parliament (which in Italy meddles even with the stopping of express trains at un- important stations, or with transferring a “shunter” from one yard to another because he might belong to an opposing elec- toral party) would be a cause of great difficulties, if not of the utter failure of State management of railways. So the whole Nation was very anxious about the results of the new admin- istration. Happily, the Government was very wise in appointing Comm. Riccardo Bianchi as President of the Board of Direc- tors—a man of great experience and firmness, coupled with exquisite tact—who proved to be the right man in the right place. To this responsible position of President was added that of General Manager, and he was given a certain degree of in- dependence from political influence, as the Board of Directors, over which he presided, was free to do What it considered best 142 ITALIAN RAILWAYS in the interest of the service and of the public, provided, only, that the Minister of Public Works, who is responsible before Parliament, did not “veto”, the resolutions of the Board within 48 hours of being notified of their passage. Thanks to the ability and good intentions of many of the Ministers that were in power during the ten years of State control, and thanks to the great personal sympathy and high esteem that was felt for Comm. Bianchi by all the leading men of Italy, and also by the railway staff—~as was demonstrated when he completed his ten years of office—political influence was sufficiently checked to enable the new administration to overcome all difficulties, with the result that the railway ser- vice improved immensely; its rolling stock is now quite up to the standard of the best railways in Europe, tariffs are low and help to develop the natural resources of the country, and the Italian people would not change from the present state of affairs and go back to private control as it existed in 1905, before the State management was inaugurated. In conclusion, it may be said that under the conditions existing on Italian railway lines, and owing to the need of the Nation to bring up to date many of its outlying and still rather backward Provinces, State management—at least, during the first ten years—has been decidedly a great success. Let us hope it will continue to be so in the future. ITALIAN RAIIAVAYS 143 APPENDIX. In order to make clear to our American colleagues the finan- cial administration of Italian State Railways—which are as efficient and economical as any other—and to make the balance sheet for these railways comparable with that of the best Euro- pean railway administrations—such as those of France and Eng- land, managed by private companies, and those of Germany and Belgium, managed by the State, and usually taken as models— it is necessary to take into account the following circumstances, which are peculiar to the Italian State Railways and do not exist, or at least exist in a much smaller degree, on American railroads. Owing to these peculiar circumstances, some corrections ought to be made in the pure arithmetical results of the balance sheet, in order to make the different items more homogeneous with those of American railroads. In this way they will be com- parable; otherwise, they would be quite misleading. (1) The Revenue ought to be augmented by these items: (a) To compensate for the absence of State subsidy (granted to all private ship- ping companies) for the State steam navi- gation done by the State Railway Board, and for the service on the secondary Sicilian Railway lines - - .. . . . . . . . Lire 3,878,000 (b) To compensate for the services which the State gets free of cost (such as postal service and transportation in case of earthquakes or other calamities) or at rates far below working expenses, naval and mil- itary transports, inland emigration, Sicilian sulphur, etc., and which no private company would do without proper compensation (1) Lire 30,000,000 Correcting sum to be added to Revenue in order to make it comparable with that of French, German and English railways systems .............. .- Lire 33,878,000 (1) The different branches of the Government put to the charge of the State Railway Administration many services that are paid for in other Nations; for instance, the post office does not pay a cent for the 144 ITALIAN RAILWAYS (2) The Expenditure ought to be diminished by these items: (c) To expenditure accounted in 1913- 1914 which really belongs to 1914-15 ........... -. Lire 3,434,000 (d) To difference in cost of coals, owing to greater freight from England, in comparison to the cost of coals for French, German and English railways ..................... .. Lire 20,000,000 (e) To greater working expenses due to the heavy gradients that prevail on Italian lines compared to French, German and English railways Lire 58,000,000 Correcting sum to be taken off from Ex- penditure in order to make it compara-Fl; with that of French, German and English railways ......................................................... .- Lire 81,434,000 (3) The capital expenditure for the construction of Italian railways, in order to make it comparable with French, German and English lines, ought to be reduced by Lire 1,000,000,000, that is, from Lire 5,559,000,000, which was their actual cost, to Lire 4,559,000,000, as about 6000 kilometres of secondary and moun- tain lines, or those lines built in regions where traffic cannot de- carrying of mails, mail-vans and travelling sorting-vans; the Army and Navy send materials and personnel over the lines at tarifis so low that they do not cover actual working expenses; the Ministry of Interior, in cases of national calamities, such as earthquakes, floods, etc.——unfortu- nately not rare during the last few years—orders that persons, provisions and materials to help the people or to reconstruct the damaged towns and villages shall be carried free of charge; the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, to facilitate the migration of labourers from one region to another during certain periods of the year, to encourage cultivation, or to help the sulphur and other industries, orders that special rates below cost shall be granted, etc. Besides, all Members of Parliament and their families, all railway servants, their families and relatives, and a large proportion of Government employes and other persons are granted free passes on the State Railways; newspaper people and their families travel at a reduction of 75% on the usual fare, and many travel free, etc. All these circumstances ought to be taken into consideration when comparisons with other railways are made, as they form a considerable item of expenditure without corresponding revenue. ITALIAN RAILW'AYS 145 velop, should have been built with narrow gauge (0.95 metres, or 3 feet 1% inches) and reduced curves, instead of with the standard gauge (1.445 metres, 4 feet 81/2 inches) and curves of ample radius, and which caused more tunnels and viaducts and greater expenditure than otherwise would have been necessary. On these lines a revenue of less than 12,000 lire per kilometre ($2700 per mile) was foreseen; and still for different reasons—— not excluding political ones in times of elections—the standard gauge, with its extra initial cost and running expenses, was enforced and is now deeply regretted. When all these differences between Italian State lines and other European lines are taken into account and properly esti- mated, as above, and the resulting corrections are introduced into the balance sheet in order to “measure both revenue and expenditure with the same foot-rule as in all the other coun- tries”-—otherwise, we compare values not estimated by a uni- fgrqn standard—the results are as follows: Extract from the Accounts of the “Italian State Railways” for the Financial Year 1913-1914. (a) Lines in exploitation—Kilometres 13,600 : miles 8,500. (b) Balance Sheet, as published. Per Per Kilometre Mile Francs Francs Dollars Revenue (R) ............ .. . - 610,584,000 44,950 13,750 Expenditure (E).---- .- 497,756,000 36,650 11,200 Difierence (R—E) .............. .. 112,828,000 8,300 2,550 E Coeflicient of exploitation Y = 0.815 Cost of lines ..................... .- 5,559,000,000 490,000 125,300 Cost of rolling stock and supplies - ............... .- 1,542,000,000 113,000 34,800 Capital invested (C) ............. .. 7,101,000,000 522,500 160,100 R — E Interest on capital 0 = 0.0159 or say 1.60% 146 ITALIAN RAILWAYS (c) Balance Sheet as it should be corrected in order to make it com- parable with French, German and English railways. Revenue corrected (R c) ...... -. 644,662,000 47,400 14,500 Expenditure corrected (E c)-. 416,322,000 30,650 9,380 Difference (R c—E c) ............ -. 228,340,000 16,750 5,120 Cost of lines (corrected)--. . -- 4,559,000,000 336,000 102,500 Cost of rolling stock and supplies ..................... .- 1,542,000,000 113,500 34,800 Capital invested corrected (C c) ........................... .- 6,101,000,000 449,500 137,300 _ Rc—Ec Interest on corrected capital T = 0.0374 or 3.75% From this balance sheet—corrected with all fairness and justice so that it may be compared with other railways on the same basis,—appears the healthy structure and careful manage- ment of the Italian State Railway Board. And if in reality its net surplus—to be put into the National Exchequer—is not so high as in other more favoured or less democratically-governed nations, it is because those nations have already developed their natural resources; which Italy has yet to develop in many of its central and southern provinces, and especially in Sicily and Sardinia. In other words, railways in Italy are a powerful in- strument for aiding national progress and they are charged with many expenses that do not take place in France, Germany, and England. For this reason the results cannot be judged simply by mere arithmetical balance sheets, but must be examined from much higher social points of view. By so doing the Italian State Railways can compare favourably with any European system, either belonging to the State or to private companies. Paper No. 7 4 THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS. By VICTOR BAYLEY, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C. E. Ass’t Secretary, Railway Board, India Simla, India 1. At the end of the year 1913-14.7‘ the mileage of Indian railways open to traffic and under construction or sanctioned was as follows: Open Under construction or sanctioned 5' 6" gauge -. - - -- - 17,641 miles 932 miles 3' 3" (metre) gauge .- 14,389 miles 821 miles 2' 6" gauge .. - .- 2,174 miles 578 miles 2' 0” gauge - - - - - 454 miles 112 miles Total. - .. - 34,656 miles 2,443 miles The reasons for the adoption and perpetuation of a diversity of gauges cannot be dealt with in this paper at any length, as it is a subject worthy in itself of extended discussion It is not clear why the 5’-6” gauge was originally fixed upon as the standard gauge for India. The metre gauge came into use later, possibly because the promoters, in view of the difficulty of obtaining capital for Indian enterprises, may have found themselves confronted with the alternative of either having to build a railway of narrower and cheaper gauge than the stand- ard or of not building a railway at all. Once the metre gauge obtained a footing, it is easy to understand that branches and extensions were made on the same gauge. The result was that certain areas came to be considered the preserve of the metre gauge and it is consequently necessary nowadays to make new lines within these areas of the same gauge. The 2’-6” gauge pr lines are, almost entirely, feeders to main lines on the o’-6” or * Note. The financial year runs from April 1 to March 31. Thus the year 1913-14 means the year April 1, 1913, to March 31, 1914. 148 THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS metre gauge. India, being an agricultural country, is pecu- liarly suitable for the construction of cheap feeder lines, trav- ersing agricultural districts for the purpose of bringing their produce to the main line and, since these lines have been found to be attractive to capital subscribed in India, it is probable that their use will extend. The 2’-0” gauge is unimportant and has no future. It is unlikely that any comprehensive scheme of conversion from metre to 5’-6” gauge will be undertaken, in view of the improbability of obtaining either the capital sum required or a remunerative return upon it if obtained. STATE CONTROL. 2. All Indian railways, with a few exceptions, are more or less under the control of the Government. The nature of the control varies from absolute ownership to a mild supervision coupled with the power of purchase after due notice. The Government also has certain powers of control regarding max- imum and minimum rates, matters affecting the safety of work- ing, etc., which are common to most countries and need not be referred to here. The following list shows the varying man- ner in which railways are connected with the Government. The two items in Class 1 are the State Railways proper and have a preponderating importance. As will be seen below, where the financial results of working are given, their prepon- derance is even greater than the mileage figures tend to show. The meaning of each item will be explained below. Class 1. Railways Whose Accounts Pass Through Government Accounts. I. State Railways worked by the State . - 7,264 miles II. State Railways worked by Companies ........... .. 18,568 miles Class 2. Railways Whose Accounts do not Pass Through Government Accounts. III. District Board’s Lines- .... .. 166 miles IV. Branch Line Companies assisted by Govern- ment ........................................................ -- 1,420 miles V. Companies Lines guaranteed by Native States 721 miles VI. Companies Lines assisted by Government ..... -- 2,646 miles VII. Native State Lines--. ..... .- 3,643 miles VIII. Miscellaneous . .- .- . -. - .. . 228 miles Total .................................................... .- 34,656 miles THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAIL‘VAYS 149 Before proceeding to an explanation of each item in the above list, a brief consideration of the railways coming into Classes 1 and 2 will be made. The railways shown under Class 1 are the State Railways of India and their accounts form part of the finances of the Government of India. All capital sums required by them are provided by the Government, either by borrowing in England or India, or from surplus revenues of the Government, etc., as may be deemed expedient from time to time. In the case of railways shown in Class 2, the relation to the Government is not so close, but owing to the responsibility assumed by the Government for payment of guaranteed inter- est, etc., in many cases, it assumes a measure of control, which is, however, not so intimate as in the case of Class 1. The above items will now be dealt with .ser'iatim: I. State Railways Worked by the State: This requires little explanation. The railways are the absolute property of the Government; they are officered by Government officers; their revenues are part of the general revenues of the country, and all capital sums required are provided by the Government. II. State Railways Worked by Companies: These are rail- ways which are the property of the Government but which have, for one reason or another, been leased to private Com- panies for working. The first railways in India were actually constructed and worked by Companies, under unusually fa- vourable terms as to Government guarantee of interest on capi- tal at a rate of exchange, which proved to be so advantageous to the Companies and disadvantageous to the Government that the earliest opportunity was taken of the provisions of the con-- tract, under which these lines came into existence, to purchase them either by cash payment or by means of annuities termin- able after a number of years. Certain of these lines became State Railways, dealt with in item I above, and the others be- came those now under consideration. The Government has entered into contracts with the Companies, the broad features of which are ( 1) that the Company shall have a small working capital in the concern on which the Government guarantees interest at rates varying from 2 to 3%%; (2) that the Com- pany shall, in addition, receive a share of the surplus profits earned by their efforts, after meeting a payment for interest on 150 THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS the Government capital, such share being calculated either on a fixed proportion agreed upon or in proportion to the small capital contribution made by the Company; (3) that the Com- pany shall keep the railway in good order; (4) that the Gov- ernment shall have power to terminate the contract after due notice, and will then repay the Company ’s small capital at par. It will be seen that the position of the Government is that of the predominant partner in a business concern. The interest of the Government is to see that fresh capital put into the concern is well spent, that the line and rolling stock are kept in good order, and that a profit is earned by good management. The interest of the Company is mainly in making the most of the railway as a dividend-earning investment during its period of tenure. The policy of the Government is to conclude long term agreements with the Companies and to renew the agreements as they fall in, with possibly a revision of the terms if this is found expedient. The Companies, therefore, feel secure in their position so long as their management is wisely conducted and the arrangement works very well. The Companies’ adminis- tration of the Government’s property is loyally and efficiently carried out, and the result is a substantial addition to the reve- nues of the Country and, also the declaration of substantial div- idends for the Companies’ shareholders. III. District Board’s Lines: District Boards have been established in certain localities in India as a step towards giving the inhabitants a measure of control over their own do- mestic politics. It may be said that they bear the same relation to the country districts in which they are situated as a munici- pality does to its city. In a few cases they have shown praise- worthy ability and have accumulated surpluses which they have been permitted to invest in the construction of light feeder railways traversing their own administrative area. In such cases the assistance rendered by the Government is practically confined to giving the land required, free of cost, to the District Board and in using its good offices in the preliminary negotia- tions. The Government takes no share of the profits and only reserves the right to purchase the line in certain contingencies. As a rule, the railway is worked by the main line with which it connects for an agreed upon percentage of its gross earnings. This development of a form of State ownership (since a District THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAILIVAYS 151’ Board is a form of government) is interesting as an example of Indian enterprise and has, consequently, been noticed at greater length than the mileage so built would seem to justify. IV. Branch Line Companies Assisted by the Government. These Companies are a modern development of Indian indus- trial enterprise in railway construction undertaken under defi- nite Government encouragement. One of the objects of their creation has been to provide an outlet for the savings of the in- habitants of the country. Indians are shy of investing their sav- ings in industrial enterprises and require definite assurances of profit before they will come forward. The Government, there- fore, recently published an ordinance inviting proposals for the construction of branch lines to the existing systems from pro- moters, and engaged itself, after being satisfied as to the finan- cial prospects of the proposed branch and the reliability of the promoters, to render assistance by giving (1) free land and (2) a guarantee of 315% on the capital invested; or a rebate out of the net earnings of the main line, with which the branch con- nects, derived from interchange traffic, sufficient to make up, together with the net earnings of the branch, a sum equal to 5% on its capital. A combination of guarantee and rebate terms may be permitted. In return, the Government retains the right to share equally with the Branch Line Co. all profits above the 5% figure and to purchase the line after a term of years. The success of this agency for financing feeder railways is assured. Apart from 21 branches, aggregating 1420 miles, already in operation under these or similar terms, concessions have been granted to 6 more companies to operate an aggregate of 224 miles, and proposals are under examination involving the construction of 2357 miles of railway at a capital outlay of 40 million dollars. It is interesting that short feeder lines on the 2’-6” gauge have so far proved most attractive to promot- ers. The guarantee or rebate clause has very rarely involved the Government in any payment, but, on the contrary, the sur- plus profit clause has resulted in substantial additions to the Government revenues. V. Companies Lines Guaranteed by Native States: These Companies are the result of a peculiarity of British Administra- tion whereby certain parts of India are under the rule of native chiefs. In the case of certain progressive States, they have 152 THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS desired to shoulder the guarantees normally given by the Gov- ernment and to reap for themselves the benefits arising from railway construction within their borders. Such railways are practically independent of Government control, except in so far as the Government is responsible for the safety of the working of the railway and in the good administration of the railway as forming a part of the Administration of the Native State. VI. Companies Lines Assisted by the Government: These are lines built by Companies receiving miscellaneous forms of Government assistance other than those described in item IV above. They are liable to be bought up by the Government as their agreements fall in, in the same way as described under item II above. They are practically independent of Govern- ment control, except in so far as the Government is concerned in safe working and in eventual purchase. VII. Native State Lines: It was explained above under item V that certain parts of India are under the rule of native chiefs. Some of these native States are very prosperous, and under an enlightened ruler, surplus revenues may, by Govern- ment sanction, be invested in railway construction. In this way a considerable mileage of native-state-owned railway has been built. Some of these railways are worked by the native State, and others are worked by Companies in much the same way as the State railways under item II above. Others, again, are worked by the main system to which they are branches for a percentage of the gross earnings. These lines often enjoy a considerable degree of independence. The Government is inter- ested in the good management of the lines, as forming a part of the native State administration, and exercises control over maxi- mum and minimum rates to be charged, but, on the whole, it may be said that Government control sits very lightly on them. VIII. Miscellaneous: Lines under this head are those in French and Portuguese territory, etc., and need not be referred to further. FINANCIAL RESULTS. 3. Taking first the railways mentioned in Class 1 in the last paragraph, i.e., the State Railways of India, the financial results, in United States dollars, for the year 1913-14 are as follows: THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAILIYAYS 153 Capital outlay (booked cost) . . -$1,495,443,000 Gross revenue - . - -- - 188,196,000 Working expenses . . -. .. 100,374,000 Net revenue - ._ _ - .. .. .. 87,822,000 Percentage of working expenses on gross revenue 53% Percentage of net revenue on capital outlay .- 5.9% If the State Railways were a private business concern, the net revenue of 87.8 million dollars would be available for the dec— laration of a dividend, etc. It was actually applied as follows: Interest charges on capital borrowed for direct application to works and also for purchase of railways . .. .- $46,278,000 Annuities in purchase of railways - . 13,015,000 Payments in redemption of capital -- - 4,833,000 Total charges on net revenue $64,126,000 Net profit to Government from State Railways $23,696,000 Although the accounts of the railways mentioned in Class 2 in the last paragraph do not pass through Government ac- counts, their results of working are available for addition to the above figures in order to view the results of working the entire body of Indian Railways considered as a whole. The financial results for the year 1913-14 are as follows: Capital outlay (booked cost) . . $1,650,300,000 Gross revenue - . - - - -- . -. 211,951,000 Working expenses - . 109,768,000 Net revenue - - - . - - - 102,183,000 Percentage of working expenses on gross revenue 52% Percentage of net revenue on capital outlay . - 6.2% Comparison of these figures with those for the State Rail- ways alone, given above, show the preponderating importance of the State Railways; in fact, the State Railway Administra- tion controls railways on which the capital outlay is 90% of that of all Indian Railways and whose gross revenues are 89% of those of all Indian Railways. STATE RAILWAY ADMINISTRATION. 4. The State Railways are controlled by the Railway Board, consisting of a President and two Members. The State Rail- 154 THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS ways are divided up into eleven separate concerns, of which three are worked by the State and eight are worked by Com- panies in the manner described in paragraph 2, items I and II, respectively. Each of these railways is administered by an Agent (General Manager), who is responsible to the Railway Board for the efficient working of his railway. A system of delegation of powers places the Agents in an independent posi- tion, for all practical purposes. Broadly speaking, the object aimed at is that the Agents shall settle for themselves all details of management and the Railway Board shall possess control over major questions of policy and finance. The Railway Board with their staff form a distinct Railway Department of the Government of India, the portfolio of which is held by the Member of Council who has charge of the Commerce and In- dustry Department. The Government of India, again, is respon- sible to the British Government, in the person of the Secretary of State for India. Here again, a system of delegation of au- thority, from the Secretary of State to the Government of India and from the Government of India to the Railway Board, has resulted in a workable scheme wherein only ques- tions of the first importance need to be referred to higher authority. A slight complication is introduced by the fact that all the eight Companies which are engaged in working State property are constituted in England, and the Boards of Directors of these Companies naturally exercise authority over the Agents of their railways. Smoothness of working is assisted by the fact that an Official of the India Office is ap- pointed to sit on the Board of Directors of the Companies, and that by a delegation of their powers, the Directors are usually content to leave the management of their property in India to the Agent. subject to their retaining control of important matters. In regard to the future, little can be said. The State already owns 90% of the railway property in India, and if it chooses to exercise the power it possesses under the purchase clauses of its agreements with the remaining 10%, can become the owner of all railways in India, in time. Whether such powers will be exerted when the time comes, as each agreement falls in, will probably be determined by the circumstances of THE STATUS OF INDIAN RAILIVAYS 155 each case on its own merits. There is no reason to regret the policy of acquirement in the past, as the State Railways are returning handsome profits to the Government. The strong position they occupy will be augmented as the payment of terminable annuities for the purchase of railways ceases. The capital value of the State Railways is believed to be consider- ably in excess of the booked value, owing to the policy pursued of applying certain sums from revenue to works involving a degree of betterment. Paper No. 75 THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILWAYS. By CHARLES DAVIS JAMESON, M. A., Sc. D., M. Am. Soc. C. E. General Adviser, Chinese River Conservancy Peking, China Washington, D. C., U. S. A. A short account of railway history in China is necessary to an understanding of the present status of Chinese railways. The first definite plan for a railway in China was a peti- tion by the foreign merchants in Shanghai, mostly English and American, dated July 20, 1863, to the then Governor of the Province of Kiangsu, H. E. Li Hung Chang, asking for the sole right to build and operate a railway from Shanghai on the sea to Soochow, the capital of the Province, sixty miles due west. The petition was not granted, Li maintaining that railways to be beneficial to China must be owned and operated by Chinese. Not until many years later was China prepared for the recep- tion of foreign ideas. In 1864, Sir McDonald Stephenson, an eminent British engineer, arrived in China, on his own initia- tive, to impress the advantages of railways on China. He located on paper an ideal railway system for China as a new and undeveloped country. Knowing but little of China or its peoples, he did not realize that China was old, densely popu- lated, with well defined trade routes, and that no expert was necessary to locate main trunk lines. They were obvious to even a casual student of China ’s trade and geography. Sir McDonald Stephenson’s scheme was received with thanks and all courtesy by the Chinese Government, pigeonholed, and never disinterred. The next scheme was the Woosung Railway, from Shang- hai on the Huangpu River to Woosung at its mouth, a distance of twelve miles. To circumvent the Chinese objections, the 56 98 I00 702: 104 105 108 no it 114 ll ' “Q 1:0 122 l - M _/'/ I \ I/CS UK n , a ,4. / . \IG K] 16 z" I a /‘/ \ I. ‘ {V ,_-v-.' ' . _,a' ' (f) 40 \ ‘I’ Ch K “,4. henTe to I \ b I / léwelhwocherz 622g (‘1220231311 " ochoni /\03\ j W)” I RIVER @ . "6 .4 i. / \‘x/O 4‘ \' Tail’ CL 1 \‘q l / ' m 0 \‘ Q l EK\N / "W29. it -4 a / A \./~ \1 i To q ‘vie / ’ f ,/ \. \7 T , a. 4 / 7 .. . / -\ \. a t a/ (sea ‘ a“ ’ ..- \_ ‘,1 - ' ‘ z v .' W ARTHUR ( -\ ,/ ,) C H l g “0, Gulf ‘7 0 PAN) i 1 \ I ‘\ / / l “80911 g . 1Q CII] Ll , i i, 58 . \~\ / /- l, /' . ‘ WK 00 a A I 7 1 " ’ Uta.’ ' 4... l e \. ./ \ / 114mm 1 e. ‘tamer ‘I- "33.12147 ‘\/(/ ') \v I 7 )I\I __ 5] ,J % .JI 4; CnlfU - g a‘: i. 56 f ‘i ' yiwfu /\ *3 S a $6 GEF'M ‘el‘m‘en flea/g? i Qe/j," .1 2 8 z .410 a“ I. ‘ I oflchOU fu / 1 .\ ‘ 01 N_ U] ,6, . {4% M3. _’__‘__ ‘55 \. E lnqhonqf ,/ K 7 Y “b ‘u Kuonou ‘, i \\ fig _ U QéAq/V Chou a,‘ i i I‘ .3. ‘ _"_ \ /C \ _ I l . 7 Y i , i, 4 EN ‘51 e 418.,» 1 ~ I’ELL‘, 02/ 1 \ ,_, __ ‘a , a ' Hmc‘how ‘' 7 i 7 ,7 , . 9%,, ,mg 55.4 1...... . . ; ___ . ' \ ; .1» ‘' ié /" \ /'~ (I '/\ fir’ |"( (>9 T6 fig PU T k. \ \ . ~ . ~ 7 9 x 4: 7 . ‘1c ‘, 33 \~ _\.\ ( '/ \ \i , . JHOF’C uoq : \ /\ '\. L ‘l I \ ' ‘r I \ \_j J t —’ \l h) I‘. r \ <7 \ - 4 \-_- 7 41,1... ' g a :‘g ' - ' ‘v; ‘ l \ Hsian Yon " - \.' \ r ‘5 7 , \i a 9 K 4 4., yum-.1 l- a-“Chqnaumor yo ‘.6 (7*. \J \ Kwe‘cmufua {WEB/c ‘0069501 / I t ' ' GHAI 30 ~‘ ' a 4 Chentufi) " x f / A” f ‘7 U’ 9 ‘4 i 50 n b 2 ° G H \ \ Y" /’-' HANKOW~ .8 '6‘ ,1 .{ OYHOl . ' 4» ' w- ‘v "I ‘ ’ g I , < ' —( k , Aim/(9?‘ N6’ ‘r. i i I\‘ ‘1' + QC GUIU _ \ / v /$ : ‘ L 9'53 ‘ co ‘ o 4 ~ ~ I ' '- > , . . -- :7‘ I’.— 1 ,_ _,.] ftec/vc . ‘ A /' \_ ‘a, .. . . ,/ i k / ofilohrqfu I - hflmkln ‘ks/'- $> \ ‘v lUKIQIN]?~ /./ g ‘ blink; 9%" i i \ I o 4 \\ .-/ - ‘ e " " \ ’“ N 1 °‘ ' p a > 3 7 a.“ ‘\(‘Hf F’I/ i 1c 8: -\ - I n u e ' y I 4 o ) i.\ d I J \ \f I Q ‘I /o: & \ d \ " “we? Q59 0 ‘J m m l \. ‘ i \ ‘ ~ \--\ \\ l 1 \fm M o 4 , \_\/\_ o Nonchonqtgi X W. /‘>\ \W fix," l “R: ' ' l ‘\ \t \ ' / ‘ 1 \ _~ , ofu ‘a /4__{'_‘___.’_. —-—|\~.%W ‘I’, 1 / -' i. i l a» 7 ~\. ‘ KWL 1 “C AU\1 » N A N -’ ,1 ~ /7 \ .Y‘i" , I /, , 1, .1 I. .\ hWTmQ/‘fv K, . ' / aircrew, -\. ‘r '_ \ a a u I Y ' ‘v \ n . ,- f, 7 i L/,\ ,1 ,v ’\ 3y We‘; ‘ Pam H6“, c ucnc 0070 \\ l u, I a ?’ - I , .. . / -/ -e ‘ 64.0. 7 "q o "996. 98,16 /.\ I > I I ‘i.’ , ’ ( ° o o 0 ) i I‘ a. a "x I. ‘l l’ KUBI. fu ‘ ‘v 4- J I ‘ 1'+ Q ‘ ' . Q o I I _ zii's Y U I (J YUnnOnfiJ ‘7.2;! '0 4 Oo‘H I I L‘ \ K .2?’ /\ ./'\. ./ T .' 4 ,. 7' - _\J Tkunlonq '22“ 0° I l \ \_4 \ ) r“ /' , l" -\ I . '\ '7 ' / I d J / . \ K N I a -. o 1’ 7 .?'l”.”"’" ./ MAP OF CHINA 00 U02 [0 \ ° _o l. / Railways in operation ° '/ o ,/ / . Zr.‘ SHOWING THE , i, , s .R I . . /; \ JHONGAQNG 0' WW5 under construction locationa- T . G I \lf Chow I IV/gc /, c , PRESENT for which agreements have been signed , )E, _ e " +++++Ra|lwoys proposed ' " ‘no / ' K i ( *ff‘f‘’ \' SYSTEM BRTQ 1), . sting” Indlcmesme ncmonomy of me SyflGlOOTe o c '9", \ \ v 0 so IOlO 1:10 7:00 finishing the necessary capital for The Q. , 1 ~ ~' K . LEO English Miles - I ['2' I ) l I06 I06 00 ll 1 H4 “6 THE STATUS OF CHINESE RA1L1VAYS 157 right of way was purchased by Jardine Matheson and Company on which to build an ordinary road. The embankment was built, and in January, 1876, rails and rolling stock for a narrow- gauge, light railway arrived in Shanghai and on June 30, the road was opened for traffic for a distance of five miles. On July 1 everyone was invited to travel free for two days. All went well. The people were delighted and traffic was beyond expectation, but the Chinese authorities wanted no foreign railway. On August 3, a coolie, evidently bent on suicide, was run over and killed and the running of trains was stopped. Eventually the Chinese Government bought the railway, pay- ment to be made in three semi-annual payments. On December 1, 187 6, the road was opened again and operated the entire dis- tance to Woosung until the last payment was made. Then the Chinese took possession, demolished the road, shipped rails and rolling stock to Formosa, where they rusted away on the beach, and erected a small temple to the Queen of Heaven upon the site of the Shanghai Railway Station. During 1887 to 1893 there was constructed on the Island of Formosa, then a part of China, some sixty miles of metre-gauge railway, by the Chinese. The alignment and grades were such as to prohibit economical loads and speed, and the construction was of inferior quality. At this point the work was stopped by orders from Peking, and the railway gradually went to pieces until the taking over of Formosa by the Japanese in,1896. THE KAIPING RAILWAY. Li Hung Chang became Viceroy of Chihli about 1870; soon afterwards there was organized the China Merchant Steam Navigation Company, with a fleet of coast steamers, Chinese capital and under Chinese management. The officers of the steamers were British. Much coal was needed and only J apan- ese coal was available. China’s vast coal deposits were mined only by Chinese methods, with a small output, and none were available for the supply of ocean steamers. This led to the formation, in 1878, of the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company and to the opening and operating of the Kaiping coal fields by foreign methods with Chinese capital and manage- 158 THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILWAYS ment. This deposit lies near Tangshan, about half way between Shanhai Kwan and Taku at the mouth of the Pei River leading to Tientsin, the port of Peking. These two companies were organized and managed by Tong King Sing with the support of His Excellency Li Hung Chang, Viceroy. To Mr. Tong, how- ever, should be givcn full credit for originating and carrying to completion this advanced policy, which ultimately gave China a railway system. The Kaiping coal mines at Tongshan were twenty-nine miles from the nearest point of delivery on the sea, and railways were proposed, sanctioned by the Throne, and C. \V. Kinder, M. I. C. E., K. M. G., etc., was appointed engineer. The Imperial Sanction was revoked, and a canal to connect with the Pehtang River was decided upon. This canal could not reach the mines by seven miles, and a tramway with mule power was con- structed. Thanks to the insistence of Mr. Kinder, the gauge was 4’ 8%”, the standard gauge, thus saving China from the curse and expense of the metre gauge. The tramway and canal were finished in 1881. Still fighting for steam motive-power, Mr. Kinder began to build a locomotive from scraps, the boiler and cylinders from a portable winding engine, wheels bought as old iron, and the frame from channel iron borrowed from the mining company. The cost of construction was £75/0/0. By persistency and the influence of His Excellency Li, permis- sion was granted to finish the “monster”, and on June 9, 1881, the one hundredth anniversary of the birth of George Stephen- son, this locomotive was christened the “Rocket of China” and at once put to daily use; opposition ceased, and the next year two shunting engines were purchased. Thus was inaugurated China’s railway system. In 1887 the railway was completed from Tangshan, via Tongku, to Tientsin; in 1894, from Tangshan to Shanhai Kuan, and in 1897, from Tientsin to Peking. The Government of China had, by 1898, realized two points regarding the introduction of rail- ways: First, the absolute necessity of railways, and, second, the impossibility of procuring Chinese capital for the building of railways. The Chinese would not subscribe because of a lack of confidence in the Chinese Government, much of this feeling being due to experience. THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILVVAYS 159 The Chinese Government still stood fast that foreigners should own no railways in China and that the main trunk lines, at least, should belong to the central government. The result was “The Railway Concessions”. The concessions granted to Russia in Manchuria, to the Ger- mans in Shantung and to the French in southwestern China are on a different basis from the many concessions granted to syndicates proper; principally, because to the Russian, German, and French, the railway was not the end desired, but merely a means to the end, and that end colonization. The terms of the ordinary concession were more or less as follows. China granted to the syndicate as a contractor, the right to build a definite railway. The Chinese Government issued gold bonds at five per cent interest to cover the cost of construction and equipment, the par value of the bond being 100. The syndicate under—wrote the bonds at 90 and sold them to the public at as high a price as possible. The syndicate con- structed the line and was allowed 5% upon the actual cost. As fast as completed, the syndicate had a first mortgage on the railway and equipment. The syndicate was trustee for the bondholder and operated the finished line jointly with the Chi- nese, the foreign element, however, predominating. A small percentage of the net profits, after deduction of interest and sinking fund, went to the Chinese. The conditions under which the bonds could be redeemed were agreed upon, etc. In Peking, 1898 was the year of concession hunters. The whole world was represented. Some represented bona fide syn- dicates. Many represented hopes and were hunting for both concession and syndicate. Then was seen the difference between the methods of the continental and the Anglo-Saxon. They were all there with any amount of good money behind them. The English and Ameri- can would not sign until every detail of the agreement was sat— isfactory. The Belgian or French would sign almost any agree- ment that gave them the absolute right to the work and then fight out the details later. The continentals then, and ever since, have had the cream of the railway concessions, and they have done the work they agreed to do. The British, also, have done most excellent work in all the railways they have built. 160 THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILWAYS An American syndicate was granted a concession for the Han- kow-Canton Railway, did but little work, and later was bought out by the Chinese Government at a “remunerative” figure and the line is now being built by British money and British engineers. All the railways of China, with the exception of a few short lines usually for some special purpose, are government-owned and government-run. They are all under the Ministry of Com- munication (Chiao T’ung Pu) located in Peking. On all the railways having a foreign indebtedness, certain positions are filled by foreigners (chief engineer, resident engineers, chief accountant, traffic manager, chief of the mechanical depart- ment, etc.), with necessary foreign assistants. The nationality of these foreign employees, in every case, follows the nation- ality of the syndicate furnishing the capital, except in subordi- nate positions. From this, one can see the small opportunities there are in China for Americans in railway employment. American participation in the construction of Chinese railways has been, to say the least, unfortunate, and, of course, the non- participation of Americans in this work has militated strongly against the purchase of American rolling stock, locomotives, and railway material. In regard to the present status of railways in China, there are some six thousand two hundred miles in operation and be- tween eight and nine thousand miles under construction, loca- tion, or for which definite agreements between the Chinese Gov- ernment and foreign syndicates have been signed, for either financing and constructing, or for merely financing. Less than three hundred miles of this amount comes to America. The accompanying railway map of China shows the railways in op- eration, construction, and proposed. The names of the different nationalities along these lines, such as British, Belgian, French, etc., indicate the nationality of the syndicate furnishing the necessary capital. The freight rates in China are high,—what the traffic will bear and often a little more. In North China coal is $2.05 for three hundred miles. THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILVVAYS 161 PEKING-MUKDEN RAILWAY. Freight charges per picul (133 pounds) and per ton per mile. 1st class per picul % cent, per ton 5 cents per mile. 2d class per picul 1/3 cent, per ten 3% cents per mile. 3d class per picul 1/4 cent, per ten 13%, cents per mile. Dangerous per picul 5 to 7% cents. The following list shows the more important lines for which agreements have been made: Miles Kerin-Hunchun, joint Chinese-Japanese - -- - .. - 240 Kai Yuan-Hailungchen (Branch South Manchuria), Japanese 110 Kungchuling-Itungchow (Branch South Manchuria) , Japanese 50 Habin-Shushaie, Chinese - - - - - - - 150 Shansi Railway. Tatung-Taiyuan-Ping yao-Pochow-Tung Kwan-Chengtu (Szechuan), Belgian - - -- - 960 N. W. Trunk Line. Ili-Lanchow 1910; Sian fu 350; Tung Kwan 85; Honan fu 150; Kaifeng 140; Hsuchow 175; Thsing Kiang pu 120; Haichow 70; Belgian - - - - 3,000 Chengting-Tehchow, German - - - - - 110 Hsiang yang Shasi, German _ _ _- - 207 Hsiang yang Kuang sui, German - _ _ - 130 Kaomi-Yihsien, German - - - - - - - 200 Yenchow Tsaochow Kaifeng, German - - - - 230 Yunnan fu-Chungtu fu, La Banque Industrielle de Chine, French _ - - 450 Sin yang-Pukow, British-Chinese Corporation _ _ 300 Shasi-Hsing-yi, via Changteh-Yuenchow-Kwei yang, British-.. 800 La Banque Industrielle de Chine, French: Sino-French, 60,000,000 francs, Harbor at Pukow; 60,000,000 francs, Yangtze Bridge at IIankow; Railway, Yam-chow (near Pakhoi via Nanning, Pose, Hsing to Yunnan fu) - 000 The following notes from the latest available data show the cost of construction, operation, and revenues of some of the rail- ways in operation: CHINESE GOVERNMENT RAIL\VAYS. Peking-Mukden. Developed from the Kaiping tramway, constructed 1880-1 by C. W. Kinder, C. M. G., H. I. C. E., who also completed the Peking-Mukden line. 16 THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILI/VAYS Capital—Anglo-Chinese Cost of construction— Lines open for traffic ....................................... .. 47,246,706.47 Expenditure capital works from revenue . - ......... -- 8,938,970.27 Mileage—607 miles Gauge—4 feet, 8% inches Receipts for year 1912 Expenditure for year 1912- -- Number of Passengers—3,495,707 Tons of Freight—3,450,393 Passenger receipts - - - _ - --..-- - - -. Freight receipts - _- - - - ._ . .- -- - - - Ratio of expenditure to receipts, 28.90 per cent. - $49,971,57143 -.-$13,133,633.51 3,320,657.23 .-$ 5,257,591.39 6,350,353.37 Peking-Hankow. (Belgian-French) Construction began in 1898. Cost of construction Mileage—7 55 miles Gauge—4 feet, 8% inches Receipts for year 1912- Expenditures - _ Open to traffic in 1905. -$37,956,765.22 ..$13,557,713.00 5,246,300.00 Tientsin-Pukow—Northern Section. (German) Construction commenced July 1, 1908. O Capital—German _ - - - - - - - -- - . £5,040,00 Plus temporary loan - - - -- - -. 912,27 Mileage—453.15 miles. Gauge—4 feet, 8% inches Cost of construction—Approximate 2 35,000,000 Tientsin-Pukow—Southern Section. (English) Construction began February, 1909. Capital—British-Chinese Corporation Mileage—263 miles Gauge—4 feet, 8% inches - $ 2,347,723.00 THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAIIJVAYS 163 Peking-Kalgan. Construction began October, 1905. Capital Expenditure __ - .. - . $10,709,820.00 This capital was all derived from the surplus earning of the Peking-Mukden line. Engineer in Chief of construction, J eme Tien-yu. Present Engineer in Chief, K. Y. Kwong. This line was located, constructed and is now operated en- tirely by Chinese. Canton-Hankow. Construction was begun by an American syndicate, which did a very slight amount of work and abandoned the enterprise on receiving compensation from the Chinese of $6,700,000, gold, in January, 1904. This line is now being constructed under English and Chi- nese engineers and with British capital. Mileage, 700 miles. Shanghai-Nanking. Construction began in 1904. Mileage—2 03 miles Cost of construction. - . $26,755,270.00 Source of capital—British-Chinese Corporation Receipts for year 1912 _ _ _ $ 2,675,943.00 Expenditures - - - 1,704,794.00 Canton-Kowloon. Construction began (1) British Section, 1906 “ “ (2) Chinese Section, 1908 Source of capital—— Chinese Section—Government of Hongkong British Section—British-Chinese Corporation. Cost of construction—British section- .. . $l3,284,425.00 “ “ “ Chinese Section . - 12,594 2'7.00 Mileage—British Section 22 miles “ Chinese Section 891/; miles Open to traffic: British Section, October 1, 1910; Chinese Section, October, 1911. British Section, 5 tunnels—150 ft., 7,212 ft., 329 ft., 170 ft., 923 ft. All double track except No. 2; 50 bridges, all double track. 164 DISCUSSION: THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILWAYS Mr. Hsia. DISCUSSION Mr. C. T. Hsia* stated that Mr. Jameson’s paper gives a correct ac- count of the railways of China, but amplified on a few points. After the foundation of the Republic, 1912, the policy was adopted that the railroad lines joining large cities should be controlled by the Government. All of the railroads, along with the post, shipping, and telegraph, are under the control of the Ministry of Communications. Railroads and the post are being rapidly developed; shipping and the telegraph, but slowly. The demolition of the Woosung Railroad, mentioned by Mr. Jameson, was not a mistake, as there was a justification in that the contract was for building a highway, not a railroad. In regard to Americans furnishing rolling stock, etc., to railroads of China, Mr. Hsia submitted extracts from his book, entitled “Modern Transportation in China.” Railroads in China. With regard to the progress China has recently made in her various means of communication, the advancement in railroad construction is the most prominent feature. The reason for this is to be found in the im- mense size of her territory, her numerous products and the urgent need of bettering and speeding up her old-established transportation ways. The first proposal for establishing railroads in China was introduced in the year 1863. The construction of the Shanghai-Woosung Line, 20 kilometers in length, was achieved in 1876; and that of the Kiaping Mine Railway, 15 kilometers in length, in 1881. But the Manchu Government, as well as the people, did not apparently realize the importance and the necessity of the railroads until 1886, when the first part (from Tang-Shah to Tientsin) of the Peking-Mukden Line, was properly constructed and operated. The construction of the entire net of railroads operated today in China may be roughly divided into four periods: Years. First Period-.. - . .1886-1894 Second Period ............................. . - .1895-1905 Third Period -- .1906-1911 Fourth Period .... .- - .. . -1912-1915 During the first period, ending with the year when the China-Japan war took place (1894), China had only 444 kilometers of railroad line in operation. The second period, beginning at the end of the China-Japan war in 1895, lasted until the year 1905, which marked the termination of the *Assistant Chief of General Construction Division, Ministry of Communications, Peking, China. to P. P. I. E. Engineering Department, Special Commissioner of the Ministry DISCUSSION: THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILWAYS 16.3 Russo-Japanese war. Towards the end of this period China had altogether 2,842 kilometers of railroads, representing an addition of 2,398 kilometers to the amount belonging to the first period. Thus started the new era of rapid progress in railroad construction in China; for during this period of 11 years, an average of about 218 kilometers was added every year to the existing railroad lines. The third period, starting with the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese war in 1906, lasted until the downfall of the Manchu Dynasty in 1911. At the end of this third period, China possessed a total length of 4,661 kilome— ters, showing an increase of 1,819 kilometers within six years. This amounts to an average of 303 kilometers of new railroads constructed each year. The fourth period begins in 1912, at the birth of the Chinese Republic, and is continuing up to the present day. Although this covers only not quite three years, yet, the total amount of railroad lines in China has been raised to 5,475 kilometers (end of 1913). There are now under construc- tion or preparation about 8,200 kilometers of new lines. This number is divided approximately thus: (1,500) Fifteen hundred kms. for the Lung-Hai Line. (1,500) Fifteen hundred kms. for the Tatung-Chengtu Line. (1,000) One thousand kms. for the Szechuan-Hankow Line. (1,000) One thousand kms. for the Shasi-Singyi Line. (1,000) One thousand kms. for the Cheng-Yu Line. (900) Nine hundred kms. for the Canton-Hankow Line. (850) Eight hundred and fifty kms. for the Ning-Siang Line. (450) Four hundred and fifty kms. for the Pukow-Singyang Line. Therefore, within the next few years the Chinese Government will own and control a total of about 13,700 kms. of railroad lines. China has suffered in this last period from internal upheavals and dis- orders which interrupted most of the progressive reforms. However, the development of transportation was not only uninterrupted but was pushed forward and very much is being actually accomplished in spite of all inter- ference and difficulties produced by the political reformation since 1912. This was due in a large measure to the ability of the Minister of Commu- nications, Chu-Chi-Chien, and the present Vice-Minister, Yeh-Kung-Chao, who was then Director General of the Railroads in the Ministry of Com- munications; they have done the utmost in upkeeping the continued prog- ress of railroad construction in China. In 1913 the Ministry of Communications created a committee for the unification of railroad accounting. Dr. C. C. Wang, who is now Director of the Railway-Accounting Department, was appointed Chairman of this committee, and Mr. Adams, an expert American railroad man, was ap- pointed Advisor to the Committee. In 1914 a reorganization of the Min- istry of Communications was devised by the Minister, Liang Tung-Yen. Mr. Hsia. 166 DISCUSSION: THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILWAYS Mr. Hsia. The definite plan was carried out successfully the very same year with the net results of increase of the ability of the Ministry, in maintaining as well as financing all the railroads and the other communication systems. These facts show the great desire and the efforts undertaken by the Gov- ernment for the rapid development of modern transportation facilities in China. It is felt that upon these depend the successful accomplishment of many other important reforms. Information Regarding the Chinese Govermnent Railways. Rails of Metric Standard—Length, 9 m. to 9.75 m. kgs./m. to 42 kgs./m. Rails of English Measures—Length, 30 ft. 85 lbs/yd. The specifications call for a limit of carbon of from 0.35 to 0.45 per- cent in the steel rail. The tensile strength of the material should be from 65 to 80 kgs. per square mm., or from 40,000 to 50,000 lbs. per square inch. Most of the rails used are manufactured by the Hang-Yang Iron Works. Weight, 37 Weight, 60 lbs/yd. to Railroad Ties or Sleepers have a cross section of 14 cm. by 22 cm., or 6 in. by 9 in. Specifications call for well-seasoned and carefully creosoted ties. Cars and Locomotives are built according to the “Standard Diagrams and Specifications,” approved by the Ministry of Communications. Signals—A uniform system of safety block-signaling has been suc- cessfully put into use on all the railroads of China. The main lines and stations are fitted with automatic ladders, while minor lines use ladders handled by man-power. Maintenance—Each line of the Chinese Government Railways has one or more shops of its own for the manufacture and repairing of its cars and locomotives. These shops are, generally speaking, of small capacity. Among them the Tang-Sham Shops of the Peking-Mukden Line may be considered at present the largest. This shop has not only the ability of supplying cars and locomotives for its own line, but also to fill in car orders for other railways. Bridges—The largest and most famous railroad bridge of China is the Yellow River Bridge of the Peking-Hankow Line. This bridge is all made of steel, having altogether 102 spans and a total length of 3,010 meters. All its piers and abutments are made of steel columns, screwed deeply down into the bottom of the river. Our model, in the Palace of Transportation, represents a steel-truss span and a plate girder span of this bridge. The second largest railroad bridge is the Yellow River Bridge on the Tientsin-Pukow Line (on the lower side of the river). The foundations of this bridge are of stone and concrete masonry, including many concrete piles, while the body of the bridge consists of steel structures. The bridge DISCUSSION: THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILIVAYS 167 is 9 meters in width, containing two railroad tracks and two sidewalks. Its total length is 1,255 meters. It was started in 1909 and completed at the end of 1912. Very soon another large bridge is to be built over the Yangtze River as a connection between the Peking-Hankow Line and the Hankow-Canton Line. Gauges—All of the Chinese Railroads, except one, are following the normal gauge of 4 ft. 81/2 in. or 1.435 m. The Tcheng-Tai Line, 243 kilometers in length, is built according to the narrow gauge of one meter. However. through the means of extensible bogies, the cars running on this railway may be transferred into the Peking-Hankow Line, of standard gauge. The use of the extensible bogies has produced—so far— highly satisfactory results. GOVERNMENT‘ RAILW'AYS—LENGTH OF LINES AND AVERAGE COSTS PER KILOMETER. Government Railways in Operation 5470 km. Government Railways Under Construction 8200 km. Total - . ._ 13,670 km. f—Length in K1n.—\ Railways Main Line Branches Cost per Kin. Peking-Hankow Line _ - 1214 101 "$53,065 Peking-Mukden Line 839 151 50,102 Tientsin Pukow Line 1015 64 81.904 Shanghai-Hangchow Ningpo Line 387 57.600 ‘Shanghai Nanking Line 311 26 78,136 Tcheng Tai Line . 243 85.995 Peking~Kalgon Line 201 26 45,826 Kaifeng Honan Line 185 59.300 Kirin Changchun Line 128 46,317 Taokou-Tsinghua Line 150 46,323 Canton Kauloon Line 145 81,000 Kalgon Sui,\uan Line - _ 152 Chuchou Pinghsing Line 90 27 50,066 Canton Sanishui Line 52 i'l‘atung Chcngtu Line - 1.300 TLung Hai Line - 1.300 . 'i‘Szechuan Hankow Line 1000 .. “i'CantowHankow Line 900 'i'Shasi Sing_\i Line 1000 iChung Yu Line -. - -- - 1000 TNing-Siang Line _. 850 -. . . - TPukow Singyang Line - .. 450 * Chinese dollar: 500 U. S. money. i‘ Railways not 3et completed. Mr. Hsia. 168 DISCUSSION: THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILWAYS Mr. Hsia. GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS, YEAR 1913—TOTAL RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES. Receipts Expenses Peking-Hankow Line ............................ .-$17,440,000 $ 5,119,000 Peking-Mukden Line. . .................... 14,400,000 5,727,000 Tientsin-Pukow Line .................... .. . 5,840,000 8,265,000 Shanghai-Nanking Iiinp 3,027,000 1,877,000 Peking~Kalgon Line 2,632,000 1,110,000 Tcheng-Tai Line . ............................. .. - 2,133,000 1,796,000 Kaifeng-Honan Line. .......................... .- 984,000 464,000 Kirin-Changchun Line. ................... -- .- 674,000 652,000 Kalgon-Suiyuen Line .. . - 586,000 275,000 Taokou-Tsinghua Line ......................... -- 548,000 626,000 Shanghai-Fengching Line -- -. - . . -- 531,000 354,000 Chuchou-Pinghsing Line ..................... -- 520,000 340,000 Canton-Kawloon Line .......................... .. 393,000 371,000 Total . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . .. - $49,708,000 $26,986,000 GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS—SHOPS AND \VORKING STANDARDS. _ Number Yearly Daily Pay Per Day Rallway Shop Location of Working Working '-———*———~I Employes Days Hours Max. Chang-Sin-Tien 1030 300 9 4.00 Peking-Hankow ........... .. Liu-Kia-Mio 732 300 9 4.00 Tcheng-Chow 189 300 9 4.00 Tang-Shan 3850 300 9 3.60 . Koupano'tze 449 303 10 3.20 Pek -M kd ........... .. ‘7 mg n en Shan-Hai-Kwan 605 312 9 2.00 (Bridge Works) Tientsin 241 310 9 3.60 Tientsin~Pukow - Tsinan 681 310 10 3.00 Pukow 50 310 9 3.00 Shanghai_Na-nking Woo-Sung 284 307 10 2.80 Shanghai 841 307 10 3.20 Yang-Chuan 143 298 11 3.00 Tcheng-Tai ................... _. Shekiachwan 792 298 11 3.00 Tai-Yuan 148 298 11 3.00 Peking-Kalgon. . Nankow 550 312 9 3.00 Kaifeng-Honan - .. Pienlo 280 312 10 2.00 Taokow-Tsinghwa.. - -- - Tao-Ching 330 308 10 3.40 Canton-Kawloon - Kwang-Chiu 194 312 9 2.00 Kalgon-Suiyuan Chang Sui 178 312 9 3.00 Kirin-Changchun Chi-Chang 226 312 10 3.60 Chuchow-Pinghsing Chu-Ping 248 312 10 4.00 Min. 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.40 0.50 0.30 0.50 0.40 0.60 0.30 0.30 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.50 0.44 1.20 0.50 0.60 0.40 DISCUSSION: THE STATUS OF CHINESE RAILIVAYS 169 GOVERNMENT RAILIVAYS—AVERAGE SPEEDS. Mr. Speed in Hsia. Kms. per hour Shanghai Nanking Line - . 65.5 Canton-Kawloon Line - - - - - 56.5 Shanghai-Hangchow Line - - . 51.0 Peking Mukden Line - . . 50.5 Tientsin-Pukow Line. - _ . _- - - - -_ - . . - 49.0 Peking-Hankow Line.- - - -- - - 47.0 Kaifeng-Honan Line. - - - . -. 47.0 Tcheng-Tai Line . - __ -_ _ -- . . - . - . .- 40.0 TaokowTsinghwa Line . -. - -- . . - 39.5 Peking-Kalgon Line - .. - - . - 36.5 Kirin Changchun Line- _- . - _ _ _ .- .. - -. _- 33.0 Chuchow Pinghsing Line - - -- - . . .--. - 32.0 1 Kilometer equals 0. 62 Mile. GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS—FIRST CLASS PASSENGER TRAINS. Fare per Kilometer Tcheng-Tai Line . . - - -. . - . . -. $0.048 Kirin-Changchow Line . - -- -- -- - - 0.048 Peking-Kalgon Line - -. ..... .. _ -. . 0.043 Tientsin-Pukow Line. - . - -- - ........ .- . . . . . 0.038 Peking Mukden Line - - . . . - . . - .. . - 0.038 Peking Hankow Line - . . . .. .- - -. 0.036 Kaifeng-Honan Line - -. .- . - . -. -- . .. 0.036 Canton-Kawloon Line . . - . 0.028 Shanghai-Nanking Line .- - . . - . . - .- - 0.026 Shanghai Hangchow Ningpo Line - . -_ . . - 0.026 Taokow-Tsinghwa Line- .............. -- . -. - . 0.025 Chuchow-Pinghsing Line . . -- - -. - 0.016 I Kilometer equals 0.62 Mile. GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS—ROLLING STOCK INVENTORY. END OF YEAR 1913. Passenger Freight Total Railways Locomotives Tenders Cars Cars of Units Peking Hankow . - -- 126 84 242 2,602 3,054 Tientsin-Pukow . . _ .. 82 70 153 1,167 1,472 Peking-Mukden -_ 137 117 306 2,941 8,501 Shanghai-Nanking . -. 31 31 82 288 432 Shanghai-Hangchow 8 7 43 75 133 (Kiangsu Section) Shanghai-Hangchow . _- 19 13 50 283 365 (Cheekiang Section) Tcheng-Tai _ . . __ - 51 46 63 496 656 Peking-Kalgon .. - -_ 37 26 60 392 515 Kaifeng-Honan .. . . __ . 15 10 38 328 391 Kalgon-Suiyuan ......... .. 8 4 24 100 136 Taokow-Tsinghwa ...... _. 10 8 33 166 217 Canton-Kawloon ....... _. 9 7 31 47 94 Kirin-Changchun ........ -- 13 11 20 171 215 Chuchow-Pinghsing . -__. 12 10 16 183 221 __--_-— Totals ...................... _. 558 444 1,161 9,239 11,402 Paper No. 76 GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE PRESENT CONDI- TION OF THE RAILWAY SYSTEM IN RUSSIA. By V. A. NAGRODSKI Petrograd, Russia Towards the end of 1914 the railway system of the Russian Empire then in operation, comprising the East ‘China Railway (in Manchuria) presented, without counting the secondary connections, a total length of 71,939 versts (76,745 km. = 47,687 mi), of which 18,467 km. (11,475 mi.) or 24 per cent are double track. 7 5,337 km. (46,812 mi.) belong to the railways of gen- eral importance; the other 1408 km. (875 mi.) were purely of -local importance. Most of the Russian railways have a gauge of 1.524 m. (5 ft.) width, known as “normal”. There are only 4579 km. (2845 mi.) having a gauge for the track of 1.435 m. (4 ft. 8% in.) ; 577 km. (358.5 mi.) having a gauge of 1.067 m. (31/; ft.); and 1000 km. (621 mi.) having gauges of 0.913 m. (3 ft), 0.900 m. (2 ft. 111/2 in.), 0.800 In. (2 ft. 7% in.) and 0.750 m. (2 ft. 51%; in). The grades belonging to the Russian railroads are, barring a few exceptions in the mountainous countries, from 0.008- (0.8%) to 0.010 (1.0%). The radii of curvature most fre- quently used are those of 400 to 600 m. (1312.3 to 1968.5 ft.). The track consists of steel rails, type vignole, on wide ties (pine, oak). The rails weigh from 30 to 37 kg. per running meter (60 to 75 lbs. per yard). The principal statistical data concerning traffic and finan- cial results obtained by the most important lines in Russia from 1907 to 1912 are collected in the tables appended to this RUSSIAN RAILIVAYS 171 paperff In examining these tables, one can readily notice that almost all the lines increased their traffic and receipts in a rather rapid and regular manner, at the same time decreasing the operating expenses in a more or less systematic way. The annual increase of the traffic of Russian railroads can be set at from 6 to 7 percent, on an average. A summarized comparison of the results of the operation of the Russian railways for the years 1902 to 1912 brings out the following increases: 1 Length of lines operated .. .. . .. 17% 2 Number of travelers per km. . .. .- . -- 68% 3 Amount of merchandise per km. . -- - 53% 4 Total receipts -- . - - 80% 5 Receipts per km. ........... .. . - .. . . - . 54% 6 Total expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -- - - .. 53% 7 Expenses per km. - ................. .- -. 31% 8 Coefficient of operation . . -minus 15% (decrease) The events which are taking place just now in Russia, having delayed the publication of definite statistics for the year 1913, we shall have to be satisfied with the following prin- * The years 1904, 1905, 1906 have been omitted from the decennial statistical tables because they could not be considered as normal on ac- count of disturbances in the economic life of the country, caused by the Japanese war and the domestic events which followed it. Length operated, 68,850 km. (42,781 mi.) Gross receipts, 1,128,903,198 rs. ($581,385,147) Operating expenses, 670,594,037 rs. ($345,355,929) Coefficient of operation, 59.4. Density of the passenger traffic: Passenger-km. per km. of the lines, 405,000 (= pass.- miles per mile). Density of the freight traffic: Ton-kilometers per km., 961,578 (1,059,947 ton-mi. per mi.). Work of the locomotives: Kilometers per 1,000,000 ton-km. of freight, 6,650 km. (6037 mi. per 1,000,000 ton-mi.) Average net weight of a freight train, 288 tons (317.5 short tons). Number of locomotives, 19,820. Number of passenger cars, 29,099. Number of freight cars, 470,626. 172 RUSSIAN RAILWAYS cipal data relating to the year 1912, and which may be used to characterize, in a general way, the present condition of the Russian railways. The figures of 1913, as one may perceive from the prelim- inary information, are still higher, for the traffic continued to increase with the economic development of the country. To be able to meet this intense increase of traffic, a series of improve- ments and measures had been undertaken with the purpose in view of developing the capacity of the system. In the last years more than 100,000,000 of rubles ($51,500,000) have been spent for double-tracking, enlarging stations, strengthening the roadbed and decreasing the grades. At the same time, the loco- motives of older types are being replaced by powerful machines (Consolidation type), and the capacity of the cars has been raised up to 20 tons. The opening in the near future of a rather large number of lines new building, which will be men- tioned further on, will also assist in relieving somewhat the intense work of the system now operating. The average receipts of all the Russian railways per passen- ger- and ton-kilometer tend to decrease and are now figured almost as follows: At 0.8 copecksf per passenger-verst (0.75 cop. per passenger—km.=0.62 cents per passenger-mile); to 1.35 cop. per ton-km. (1.02 cents per ton-mile) of slow freight and to 2.85 cop. per ton-km. (2.145 cents per ton-mile) of lug— gage and fast freight. These average receipts resulted from the application of rather complicated tariffs, which are in Russia since 1889 under the strict control of the State, to which belongs exclusively the right to fix taxes collected by all the Russian railways. The Russian tariffs belong to the system called “historic” (with more than 4500 classifications of merchandise) and dif- ferential; the taxes are collected per POOCI‘i" and per full carload. The taxes for the first 200 versts (214 km. = 133 mi.) vary, ac- cording to the classification of the merchandise, from 1/8 to 1/45 copeck per pood-verst transported (7.16 to 1.27 copecks per ton-km. : 5.39 to 0.96 cents per ton mile), while for the dis- tances for 200 to 300 versts they decrease even to 1/150 and 100 copeks == 1 ruble I 0.515 dollars. 1' 1 metric ton=61.05 pood; 1 short ton-155.371 pood. RUSSIAN RAILVVAYS 173 even 1/200 (0.39 to 0.29 copeck per ton-km. : 0.29 to 0.22 cent per ton-mile). There are special tariffs for coal, minerals, naphtha, salt, sugar, etc., as well as decreased tarifis for eX- portation. The passenger tariff is calculated according to zones of from 25 to 70 verstsjx‘ with an initial tax of 1.5 cop. per verst (1.41 copeks per km. = 1.17 cents per mile) for the 111 class and an increase of 20, 25 and 40 cop. per zone. The third class ticket for a trip of 3010 versts (3221 km. = 1996 mi.) costs, as an illustration, 17.80 rubles ($9.18). The taxes of the second and first classes are determined by multiplying the tax of the third class by 1.5 and 2.5 respectively. There are additional amounts to be paid for express trains and for reserved seats. The general tendency of the Russian state has been di- rected, until now, toward a systematic decrease in the tariffs. It is probable that, however, in the very nearest future they will have to resort to an increase of the principal taxes. For the moment, all transportations by rail are still bur- dened with a rather heavy war tax. Towards the end of 1914 there were in Russia some 16,800 km. (10,489 mi.) of lines under construction, of which 3800 km. (2361 mi.) are already being operated in a temporary manner. The last years can therefore be considered in a general way as the beginning of a new period of a great extension of the rail- way system in Russia. It is to be feared that the European war will retard, more or less, this development so necessary for the empire. Two thirds of the Russian railways belong to the State. Towards the end of 1914 the total length of the system in opera- tion was 76,975 km. (47,830 mi), of which 51,615 km. (32,072 mi.) were the property of the State and only 25,360 km. (15,758 mi.) belonged to private companies. This predominance of the government lines is due to the policy of buying out companies, which the Russian government carried out from 1881 to 1901, and to the construction by the government during that same period of a few main lines (the Trans-Siberian, Trans-Caspian, Tashkent). In 1890 the govern- * l verst : 1.067 km. 174 RUSSIAN RAILWAYS ment system represented only 29 percent of the entire railway system, and in 1900 the government was in possession of 70 percent of the system. This proportion has been maintained almost the same until now, but it will decrease in the future, for, since 1908, the Russian government has granted a large number of lines to new companies (25 companies with a total capital of about 600,000,000 rubles ($309,000,000), while during the period 1881 to 1901, it hardly authorized any formation of new companies, granting new franchises only to existing companies. Thus were formed the seven great companies: “Moscou- Kazan”, “Moscou-Kiev-Voronege”, “Caucasus”, “Riazan- Ouralsk”, “South East”, "Moscou-Vindava-Rybinsk", and “Warsaw-Vienna”. This last company was bought back by the State in 1912; this purchase has been the only one since 1902. It can be seen that the question of the nationalization of the railroads has been discussed many times in Russia and that there were long intervals during which the State regime prevailed. At the present time, it seems that the creation of a series of new companies, on one hand, and the financial preoccupations which will fall upon the government after the European war, on the other hand, announce for Russia the beginning of an era rather prolonged, during which will prevail the regime of private companies under State control. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 Official statistical publications published by the Ministry of Ways and Communication. 2 The Hand Book of Tarifis (Ministry of Finances). SXVAA'IIVH NVISSIIH APPENIHX. Principal Statistics Concerning the Main Railway Systems of Russia. _ _ I ' _ "Eu-"T"—"In""in---""n"Tunuinu'ul'uu'U"n'lnnu'F'uui NAME 01-‘ RAILWAY YEARS ' ' ' I I ' 1 meme: 1 TOTAL or IPASSENGERS'TOTH- 0*’ TOTAL ‘TOTAL or ‘AVERAGE ‘on s l I mm ENWERAT'ON m0 INDICATION OF LENGTH : :géégifigrgasj pitwflmsfiésgéggw rsousmoslmclcm ,mmcm :Rcgciws igiggiiie'gc I 221368 I1 OF THE“? W I | : (THOUSAND). )(M‘LLIONS) :gfipg; {TON KM. |TRAINLOAD|THOUSANDS I(THOUSANDR' EXP T0 ' m Lmgs 1 , , | -' 1(MILLIONS)1 (TONS) 10F RU8LES)'0F RUBLES ‘GR REC i ‘m | I CARRIED : 1 ' i ‘ 4 1 ___________________________________ __ 6---“, , ,- 4 1 A.STATERAILWAYS i i l l I I I I i n I | 1/ A L E x A u o E R ' I I I LINE Moscow : MST mm BRANCHES 1907 1097 9068 8996 E 390 I 8094 ‘ 677 180 17.881 13.743 ' 79.3 l I . :33: g 1097 9008 4491 E 541 5 3553 782 156 16.700 : I3.I69 78,9 I , I910 i 1097 9086 4402 E 505 E 3439 890 I86 17.729 12.835 72,4 : 1097 9069 4900 E 554 : 3351 I 888 190 20.226 13.068 64.6 I . I 1311 s 1097 9190 5592 E 583 5 3345 I 846 200 19.322 12.154 62.9 12 : I102 9709 6I98 E 643 E 3608 927 200 : 21.076 I3 .140 : 62 ,3 I913 ' H50 5 9569 7078 5 751 : 3973 1089 273 I 23 735 14.296 60.2 I . l i 2/ BASKOONCHAK : I I I use PORT or vuomm . BASKOONCHAK I907 73 i 89 12 i 0'5 i 396 21 256 508 335 66 0 WITH BRANCHES 1908 7 I ' ' ' I 3 107 18 : O ,7 : 470 25 I 233 t 581 ‘ 386 : 66 ,5 I909 , 73 108 19 5 0,8 5 428 22 ' 209 i 512 ' 861 i 70 4 I I I . 1910 78 119 I9 ; 0,8 ; 522 26 2.20 i 626 386 i 61 7 I I I . 1911 73 125 20 ; 0,8 ; 646 27 280 i 661 869 i 66 9 I | I . D I 1912 73 121 22 ; 0.9 g 618 ; 26 2.26 i 681 869 68.6 I I I I , 1918 '73 126 21 5 0,9 669 ; 29 217 E 708 424 69,9 I I I l : i i i ' I 8) WARSAW-VIENNA 11907 I i I ; 1 i E l ' 1 1 1 ' uucs WARSAW .. GRANITSA (308), SKERNEVITSI 5 I908 ' ' I I i ' i i : ALEXANDROV (161), wmsaw .. muss - 1 { ' 1 I ' i 1 ' | (257) mm eamcucs : 1909 1 s E E "an-“=44 P R 1 v f r e R 1,1 L w A v '; N. B. 1 | i I I a I I : I910 : i i i I i I i l I t 1 | : : : : : l l : 1911 E i i i i l i i E 1912 5 783 E 9.I30 11.668 : 6I8 E 10.888 5 1.672 1 889 584.876 19.078 '- 55 s . . . : : ' ' ' E 1918 : 800 , 9.864 18.877 : 666 : 11.068 ; 1.819 482 237.048 19.817 68,6 : E i 5 5 : E i : 7/ c A 7 H a a | N a g 1907 g 2962 3 24.176 4.870 g 467 1 22.892 i 4 689 i 266 :54 671 i '8 890 70 8 ' I I I ‘ 1 | ‘ ‘ ' Limo nusmovnan = oormsmvn (907)- ' r " I ~ I I I cantmo . ecaonwsx (209), oeeausevo 4 i 1908 2906 1 24'II2 5‘755 ' 608 i 24'375 i ‘L906 5 263 ! 52-427 138-2'74 i ‘73.0 svenzvo 156 , oeeursevo = mutaaovo I .' r ' ' ' ‘ (188). Démdsm : KOOPHNSK (23H. VER: , 1909 8008 E 28.179 6.539 701 ; 26.180 ; 6.888 E 298 :58.061 86.888 5 60,9 Hovrscvo . DOLGHINTSEVO (120). ROSTOV = ' ' ' ' I I I I N‘K'mv“ (2w). DOLGINTSEVO : VOLNOHHA : I910 3003 : 21.268 6.990 : 793 , 25.333 : 5.447 ; 343 :60.734 34.174 I 55,4 428 , K R v NNAYA = CHERNOUHINO (120) I I n ,- _ I : 1 a, , _ , \(VITH)NUM2ROUS ammcass mo JUNCTIONS. I I9“ 2993 } 24'013 7'04‘? g 827 ; 27'892 i 5:84) i 363 :65-576 34.041 51.9 E 1912 2994 22.968 10.394 : 979 : 80.601 5 6.998 E 807 568.786 84 786 60 6 i 191 3002 ' . I i i i ' I I : 3 : 25>I49 I2.I0'7 E 1040 : 84.607 : 6.882 , 384 i 78.498 39.240 50.0 I I ' l I P k‘ ' l I 1 i i 1- l 9LT SAVAA'IIV'H NVISSDH ' ’ “ ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' “ ' ' - ’ ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' “ ' ' I - ' ' ' ' "_7'_""'T"'_"'l'"___ 1 I "7 _“"!""”"l'-"'__'1"_"'"r""'":"""'1 N , u E o,- R A l L w I 7 YEARS :AVERAGE ' 70m 0F :PIsscnccns' TOTAL OF item. {TOTAL OF AVERAGE iGROSS PPERATING I RATIO ,‘ "45315239 3235.54 352.55%... 23352535537378?”1435.73‘ $322336 1555345538 355335304 23°75“ WITH EHUNERATION AND INDICATION OF LENGTH :0 : (THOUSAND) I (MILLIONSflFgESGHT E-(MlLl-Ken‘s) (TONS) :0; RUBLES) EOF Rum-Es), GR REC : OF THEIR mm LINES I l I , Icmmeo I : I l 5 l l I l l | i Q - . f l ---------------------- " 5 : 5 5 5 i 5/ T R A II c A U c I s l A N 1907 i 1639 9.646 8.528 428 2.967 E 751 I63 § 29.618 E 22.464 5 76.1 E Imes; POTI . am (899). SAMTREDI . BATUM (106). I908 1830 10.978 8.986 477 4.273 lI.I64 I69 I 27.091 1 22.805 1 84.2 i RION I TKWIBULI (52), TIFLIS a KARS (297), I z : : : ALEXANOROPOL . ERIVAN (155). SHARON“ - I909 I830 I0.204 8.640 490 4.208 1.174 I88 I 28.656 I 2I.384 I 74,6 ' cIIIITuRI (58), ULUHANLU = worn (190) , , : : WITH BRANCHES I910 I830 10.356 8.828 534 4.372 I.I84 I97 : 28.555 : 20.668 : 7I,4 ' 1911 I830 10.466 9.224 607 3.537 1.038 208 5 29.604 5 19.686 5 66.2 I9I2 1830 11.215 10.052 667 4.148 L155 2I4 I: 32.288 E 19.840 : 61,2 I913 1835 a 12.121 12.004 783 4.666 1.268 216 i 35.5I5 § 22.430 E 63,2 I : E E 6/ l- | 5 l V A - 9 O ‘4 N l I907 1357 8.132 2.546 281 4.269 1.231 E 265 a 20.979 12.122 57,8 LINES: UBAVA - KOSHEDARI (317)- NOVOVILEYSK I 1908 I350 8.190 2.774 288 4.840 1.3I2 i 269 i 18.008 H.951 66,4 ROMNI (762), OSSIFOVICHI - oonccmc (72), : Kh'liyggAll‘E-HEQDSIVILISHKI (199) 1909 I350 8.359 2.891 295 5.517 1.485 292 : I9.925 12.054 _ 60.5 W ' I910 1350 8.258 3.4I9 362 5.475 1.492 298 a 21.099 11.856 54,6 1911 I368 8.881 4.007 414 6.696 1.693 309 5 22.901 11.280 i 49.3 I I912 I4I0 8.864 4.307 438 5.632 1.564 315 5 24.058 11.703 48,6 1913 I422 8.660 4.986 532 5.959 3 1.576 a 351 23.988 13.742 57,3 7/ “oskow ' KOORS" ‘‘ N'JN' NOVCOROD ‘No "0070“ I907 1217 14.680 7.655 559 8.575 L848 2II i 33.026 24.133 73,1 LINES: Moscow . mam _-_ Novcoaoo (440), KOVRQ‘I = I908 1207 14.980 9.183 634 I' 9.351 1.939 200 : 32.I93 23.271 72,3 IOOROM (110), MOSCOW = KOORSK (540) I I WIIH BRANCHES 1909 I207 13.696 9.570 651 i 7.551 L709 1 220 i 3I.938 i 21.041 65,9 1 I l I910 120? I3.268 I0-844 7I6 i 7.441 1.658 I 217 i 33II53 5 20.516 6I,9 I9II 1209 13.II7 I2.843 865 7.494 1.734 1 274 l 35.491 2 I9.732 55.6 I 1 I912 1218 13.883 H.137 966 7.64I L769 1 287 5 36.973 3 20.467 55,3 I913 1232 H.640 15.244 1005 8.219 1.96I i 289 3 38.366 5 23.766 61.9 I I I . l I i 8/ NICOLAS I907 I969 16.426 6.921 873 6.069 1.576 i 228 5 40.439 529.461 72,9 LINES: PETROCRAD = MOSCOW (652% l-IHQSLAVL = I908 1982 17.870 7.939 983 8.342 2.137 262 i 39.888 i30.863 77.6 vIIIswI (258), BOLOGOYE .. POLOTSK (476), : : geegogfieég'eplém (53) 1909 1982 17.334 8.269 1010 8.927 2.303 287 : 41.920 31.953 76,2 I910 I491 16.371 9.266 H35 10.069 2.350 314 5 44.649 30.433 68.1 I911 ' 1618 15.588 10.321 1235 10.078 2.II7 325 E 44.104 26.745 60.6 1912 5 I629 16.259 H.759 I287 11.532 2.274 367 5 49.197 28.555 58,0- I9I3 i I63I 17.2I5 13.496 I492 ' 12.978 2.260 364 5 51.152 I31.545 61,7 . i . : i : ' ' l i I l s z a 2 a l . , E I : I : : : r 1 SLVAX'IIV‘H NVISSHH LLI P....--------0—-0---.‘ac---—---------q_;--—r-----r - - O - ‘ID-l Q . - I Q - — ' - - - - — _ h — - - -~.‘ - — _ - I'D? Q . - Q Q n-r Q - - . -Ib'rQOO-nfir—QOQ-E l l I I | | u A u c or R A 1 L w A v ' YEARS IAVERAGE ' TOTAL OF :PAssgucgps TOTAL or {10111. 170141 0F hvamcs icmss :opsmrmc : RATIO : ' kmmgm; mu“ I ARMED 84558118885, THOUSANDS :mucwr IF'REIGHT 1880:1915 ‘EXPENSES . or 0PER| mm anuucmnon m0 INDICATION or LENGTH ' 108884780 KILOMETERSIUHOUSANO) KILWETERS, TONS OF ‘You K14. {TRAINLOAD ‘THOUSANDS IUHOUSANOQ EXP TO | l | I (THOUSAND): (MILLIONSMFREIGHT :(MILLIC-NSM (TONS) OF RUBLESHOF RUBLESX GR REC| OF THEIR MAIN LlhfS : | L :CARRIEO : ' | J: ( z T l r r \L 3 i E E : 9/ p 8 RM 1907 2218 9.598 2.878 450 - 2.413 g 1.013 175 18.990 ; 11.853; 89.8 t | I " ' Lmcs; PERM . smmirgggggnggagé. 15225158121832‘: 1908 2218 11.770 2.890 527 3.582 1.440 175 19.710 _: 14.040 : 71,3 ‘i TOORA 330 , = ' ' . (Mnfcwoéssmznlgf 38285148114013? 1909 2271 12.828 3.171 509 3.718 1.511 170 20.811 : 14.820: 71.0 : PERM . VIA KA , = l (385). 7:814 anliggsggR - EKATER'NBURG 1910 2851 11.342 3.848 531 3.874 1.382 188 20.523 14.521 : 70,8 5 380 W. H 0 t ( ) 1911 2851 11.938 4.244 809 3.397 1.382 191 21.392 13.407 5 82,7 ; 1912 2721 12.458 4.594 850 4.222 1.837 233 24.545 14.281 5 58.2 E 1913 2732 13.308 4.918 689 4.739 2.037 281 29.198 15.588 5 53.4 E 5 i i 10/ P 0 L E s 8 K 1 A 1907 1445 8.907 1.815 249 2.418 732 184 13.293 9.818 5 72.3 E was: mm P28848114,‘ 2123287254331“ ERIIBQZQQM 1908 1480 7.394 1.943 341 3.488 791 199 14.521 9.941 '1 88,8 5 ‘($3336 izgkgiskwhxflgsgxéfigsbms. uosn - 1909 1480 7.885 2.054 298 4.029 1017 220 14.813 10.177 5 88,5 E 1910 1975 7.704 2.549 377 3.871 984 229 15.052 10.923 f 72,5 5 1911 2008 9.096 3.208 481 3.878 1.088 218 18.882 11.719 70.3 E 1912 2043 9.499 3.880 598 4.122 1.101 224 18.043 12.382 § 88.5 E 1913 2042 9.734 4.432 837 4.599 1.320 259 19.712 13.582 1 70.3 i E : I > I n/ P R I v I 8 L I ~ 8 K 1 A 1907 2303 14.511 8.019 438 8.090 1.953 208 28.888 24.183 5 83,8 E 4M8: {1:23:11mzgggoév1260:5311263)K0;5§R 1908 2421 18.478 7.511 830 9.179 2.275 213 3 31.923 27.970 87,2 gégggébxoléggsuxslsgcgé Ivalzllogagoés) 1909 2421 16.264 8.037 668 9.776 2.44I 232 5 33.298 . 26.275 E 79,3 8§§§$LEN2818 ‘(2.153.653 wakw (140’) 1910 2421 15.943 9.431 825 9.897 2.421 234 ' 38.915 § 25.804 E 89.5 #332?"érugggosfiggfi“Bi-5390113505233> 1911 2434 17.338 10.912 858 10.487 2.805 318 40.338 ‘ 23.329 E 57,8 (48) Win 884110883 ' 1912 2445 18.220 12.378 897 11.738 3.028 298 44.103 24.509 5 55,8 1913 2445 17.808 14.390 1080 11.871 3.212 308 44.342 28.347 2 59.4 I I l ‘2/ R ‘ ° " ' ° R E '~ 1907 1582 9.187 7.318 1 402 4.849 1.020 208 23.837 14.812 5 81.8 LINES; RIGA = OREL 100 , $8 = I i ‘ égggAmwsxfl 83085,’; (5219f .mggggggm 1908 1582 9.791 8.481 E 457 5.574 1.253 219 22.513 14.593 5 84,8 1 "m (‘33) "'T“ BMCHES 1909 1582 10.838 8.448 E 482 8.832 1.527 238 24.975 14.814 ; 58,7 : 1910 1582 11.235 9.399 5 505 7.237 1.794 282 27.895 15.032 553,9 : . 1911 1582 10.932 10.502 5 555 7.112 1.874 288 27.745 14.288 5 50.0 : 1 I l 1 51912 1582 11.154 11.881 3 821 7.498 1.850 - 280 29.905 14.954 -50,0 : : 1913 1582 11.425 12.913 5 883 8.413 1.750 298 31.538 17.890 56.7 i E i : i . - ' i i l I : : i 4 l : 0 : : : 4 E 1 = 5 E 8LlI SAVAA'IIVH NVISSIIH -..'I’ 0"‘- ' ' ' ' “ ' ' - ' ' ' ' 7 ' ' ' ' ' 7 ' ' ' 7 ' 7 _ ' ' — _ - 7 7 ' - ' _ ' -'I'\""""'"ll"""-'I'""_""l'""'-_":""-""""'“"":""""-T-""" 7' If i I I I l I ' ' I s T no R 710 ~ : "E 0: "I ' L ":1 11137331211:“53827378131442. assassins: 5:13:15 4:22.... I ND Kl OMETERS ;TONS OF ITON KM. TRAINLOAD ‘THOUSANDS ( HOU AN . WITH ENUMERATION mo INDICATION 0F’ LENGTH : :OPERATED : 1841835153‘ (THOUSA )EWIILUONS) FRE'GHT :(muw'wfi NS) 50? Rum-Esp? RUBLES) GR REC: WITH THEIR IIIIIN LINES I , I CIIRRIEO : , , , % 1I ' ’ I ‘1 .7‘! I l 1 i i l i ‘I I i I I I I I I 13/ s s I II I R I = s I I T 0 u s T 1907 1306 13.696 1.573 1.405 2.711 f 1.513 f 116 ; 25.131 {26.940 ;' 103.5 : muss; BATRAKI I. CHELIABINSK 1130 , BEROIAOOSH .. I i i i l 1 WM (5?). WWW JasomQcooT (86) 1903 1306 13.303 2.156 1.246 3.343 : 1.656 : 157 ,24.200 ,23.653 ,’ 97.6 : WITH BRINCHES 1909 1306 14.445 2.753 1.261 4.683 g 1.754 g 165 ;25.351 ;22.335 ; 66,5 : I I I I I l 1910 1306 12.947 5.239 1.277 4.304 g 1.677 g 137 ; 26.012 :20.355 : 30.0 i 1911 I306 12.250 2.977 999 4.132 5 1.660 E 213 E 23.719 3 17.022 5 71,3 : ,1912 1306 13.371 3.211 1.117 g 4.320 i 2.026 E 237 5 27.537 ; I7.606 E 63,9 : ‘1915 1306 13.136 3.756 1.126 i 5.157 1.932 f 241 { 28.I68 : 19.053 , 67.6 t I I I I I I 1 I I H/ s s I s R I N - v I I 8 II I 1907 1400 : 10.272 2.311 523 3.004 708 :I 194 5 14.350 ; 13.042 5121.3 5 was. 351322; ziggmm (1158) m0 ooswvIvI - 1903 1400 '. 10.907 2.799 682 3.951 950 Z 142 5 15.376 { I6.782 ; 109.0 3 WITH BMCHES 1909 1400 : 11.123 .215 ; 644 4.157 1.131 5 174 1 16.736 ;‘ 15.655 - 93.4 i I I 1 1910 1400 310.165 3.499 5 561 4.134 975 172 516.027 314.971 ; 94.0 ': I I l ' 1911 1400 5 9.629 3.525 5 536 3.703 E 399 E 139 ; 16.032 ; 12.360 I 76.3 : 1912 1400 i 9.392 3.663 5 564 4.027 1 974 i 212 {17.234 512.475 1 72.2 I l 1913 1403 9.564 4.364 I 644 4.276 1.009 f 220 § 13.394 ;-14.446 73.5 : l I I I i l ' 15/ N 0 R T H a R N 1907 - 3152 11.377 7.713 562 4.236 931 I 188 125.045 13.433 74.3 LINES; MOSCOW = YAROSLAVL (280), ALEXANOROV 31 ' : I85 : 5:332:0-(7830605A7g3&QYLVOLOgEIRSMA ( )’ 1903 3137 13.375 3.774 734 5.260 1.174 5 121 526.946 :20.541 76,3 ARHANGHELSK (636), NOVKI = KINESHMA (182), : g 208 : | 3723;: 762593333302565353757539I, 1909 3137 12.947 9.032 772 5.317 1.236 g 111 {29.066 20.020 I 69.2 VOLOGOA - VIATKA (636), OBOOHOVO : VOLOGDA : 225 : l ‘589’ ‘"T" “"8"” 1910 5137 12.340 9.636 330 5.615 I 1.357 5 117 532.627 19.632 2 60.3 I l l l I I I 236 I I 1911 3143 13.435 10.744 ; 374 5.651 I 1.452 ; 117 ;33.934 19.031 : 56.1 I I I I l I I 286 ; Z 1912 3143 14.403 12.550 1 1.015 6.284 1.322 5 137 ;33.312 20.965 I 54.0 I I l I 287 I 1913 3216 15.357 14.401 : 1.344 6.746 2.074 E 149 ;42.996 24.493 I 57,0 I 16/ N 0 R T H w E s T E R _~ .1907 2693 21.136 14.010 i 1.029 5.191 1.060 5 123 534.766 529.635 35,2 I uses; PETROGRAD I. 0241115101109 75 , BALTIC PORT . ' ' I' I ' ' i ' ' ' i I mmgggs). ms _ 500R$ET)(113)' may _ a1903 : 2724 22.634 Io.(.09 5 1.241 6.673 : 1.267 E 131 537.536 ,29.736 79.2 A , VALK II Y ORYEV 33 . KEGEL s : , , I _ _ _ I , - _ I , 3233525283)’ gcggogRao _ mg“), (mg). :1909 : 2724 22 149 17 040 z 1 301 6 527 5 1 303 : 144 £33 335 :29 299 75 6 AVVEJLV 173,0Rm1. ' , . . 0 . I . I I . -. I'. GROUND (m), plmovo(_ sgm (67) :1910 ' 2724 20 972 19 331 5 1 443 6 693 : 1 393 : 169 : 42 345 23 515 : 67 0 W" BRANCHES 11911 E 2724 20.323 22.503 ; 1.446 , 7.075 g 1.495 ; 193 ;44.113 326.949 ; 61.1 51912 E 2704 21.717 ;24.536 E 1.671} 8.145 E 1.742 E 217 549.047 ;23.709 '; 53.5 I I I 51915 E 2710 23.159 527.012 5 I.803 i 9.435 i 1.936 g 239 ; 53.445 : 32.242 ; 60.3 : : E E i E i E . 5 : : l I I i; I a l t I a 1 : :' ‘k : O '4 . SAVAA’IIVH NVISSIIH 61f1 SHAORINSK (118), EKATERINBURC = 11011511 (325), BGCDANOVICH = SSINARSKAYA (40) EKATERINBURG 4 10151145111511 (241) ~0v0~1 . KOLAEVSK = TCHELIABINSK (1425) WITH BRANCHES NEWLY FORMED 0F SECTICNS 0F SIEERIAN AND PERM RYS AND OF SOME NEW LINES '°' -------------- --------' --------- -"P--—-1 ---- -'1 ----- --r ---- --1-“-----r ---- --1 ---- --1- ----- '1 ----- --r ----- --7 ---- '1 1 1 1 1 u A u e or R A 1 1 w A 7 YEARS ‘AVERAGE ' TOTAL OF |PASSENGERSITOTAL or '101AL :TOTAL or :AVERAGE EGROSS ' OPERATING 1RA110 I IKILOMETER TRAIN : ARRIED :PASSENGERS:THOU$ANDS|FREICHT 1FREIGHT ‘RECEIPTS : EXPENSES 'OF OPER ' 3113 ENUMERATION AND 1A01¢1110~ 0F LENGTH :OPERATED T1L8M§TER§I(THOUSAND).KILOMETERS:T0NS or 110R KM. 11RA1NL0A0 :THOUSANDSI (TuousAuos1ExP 70 1 H 0 AND 1 1(MILLI0NS) FREIGHT (MILLIONS) TONS) 105 RUBLES or RUBLES CR or THEIR uA1~ LINES ' 1 1 1 RR1£0 1 1 ( 1 1 )1 % REC i -----1----- -- 1 1 1 a 4 L L ~ ' 1 1 1 | I I 1 : : : : l 1 i i \1/ S 0 u T H = w E s 1 e R N i I ‘ i l I I ' LINES 0 Es 1907 4293 33'598 10-954 1 1-254 1 11.532 1 4.005 1 210 1 72.105 1 45.757 1 63 5 1 0 5A . KOVEL (857), RASDELNAYA . oouc c E ' ' ' 3 1 ' ' élgiggé'hflgioina _ SMMENKA (334). “0803611. 1908 4180 30.495 11.663 1 1.441 1 13.235 : 4.158 { 214 1 64.565 1 44.397 1 68.9 4 2). VAPNIARKA . TSVIETKOVO ' ' ' ' £228); gfiHER'KKA . VOLOCHISK (166). “sum 1909 4180 1 28.997 12.117 1 1.405 : 13.654 1 4.195 { 232 1 68,596 1 44,552 1 55.1 1 1 3 , SDOLBUNOVO . R 031 1 0 ' ' ' ' ‘ I ‘ fiqtfimxzgzgm (289). SHMEQIMX 1; 3,2111%‘). 1910 4180 ' 28.783 13.069 1 1.559 1 15.027 1 4.469 1 250 1 73,829 1 44_023 5 59,7 , A 14 - OMAN 193 , FASTOV . ' I ' ' ' 251251K1913001. KIEV - éovtg (445). ROVNO IgII 4193 31'360 I4'6I3 5 I'772 ' Is'Ios : 4'683 1 281 1 84’938 : 43'816 : 5115 7 I I | l l w|n1BR1Nc1£s 1912 4189 31.895 15.810 1 1.903 1 13.782 1 4.555 : 282 1 83.301 1 43.725 1 52,5 1913 4132 32.347 17.157 1 2.075 1 15.089 1 4.742 : 293 1 88.015 1 45.580 1 51,8 , I I Q | | l l | 18/ s 0 u 1 H 5 E 1 1 E E 1 1 I | | \ LINES: zooRig = SEVASTOPOL (1000), LOSOVAYA 4 I907 1 3277 28'676 8'883 1 941 E 17'980 I 5'65? I 214 1 591079 1 381852 1 65 8 1 IKI VKA (180), KRAMATORSKAYA . 1 1 ' 1 ' ' 12:2?N131 133).F23L60R00 , KOOPIANSK 1903 1 3277 28.559 10.243 1 1.153 1 18.725 1 4.402 1 225 1 57.314 2 39.359 I 68 5 1 , 01 v. ooss1A 120 . v110 s = 1 1 . 1 1 1 ’ 011266651275" (916 "ARKOv(. 511AMENKA|=LH 1 1909 3277 26'536 12'376 1 L306 1 Ig'ass 1 4'63’7 1 268 1 661099 1 391128 1 59 3 1 N v 5 2 . L 030114 = vono 8 ' 1 1 1 ' ' ' ' ESZ:SNCHOO$?')ROMN‘ (213). poLrivz £225). 1 1910 3277 24.395 I3.826 1 1.455 1 21.474 1 4.503 1 299 I 53.255 I 33.047 1 55 0 1 AYA 5 . KoR1510 . ' 1 1 1 1 ' ' 1 ' 1 NICOLAEV 1 BR§O~ (63) VKA PI1YI~~TK1 11211 1911 3277 25.320 _ 15.225 1 1.555 1 22.744 1 4.598 1 324 1 72.002 1 35 810 I 49 7 i WITH HRANCHES -1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 1912 3282 23.303 1 15.582 1 1.310 1 24.355 1 4.124 1 337 ' 57 845 ' 37 050 ' 54 5 5 I | | = : : : . : . 1 . I 1 1913 3233 24.875 1 18.449 1 1.983 1 25.797 1 4.472 1 355 5 72.712 1 40.240 155,4 1 E E E i E E 1 i E i 9/ r R N s 3 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ‘1 A A Y K A L ' I 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1907 1805 3.345 1 875 1 359 1 588 1 451 1 119 I 11.152 1 25.575 1233 1 1 Llkfi: TNNOKENTIEVSKAYA . 1nxoorsx . i 1908 1815 7 918 ' ' ' ' ' I ' ' 1 u450000811 A~0 sRarcnsx (1805) . 1 1 2.061 1 615 1 1.268 1 482 1 103 I 9.175 1 23,202 I35? 8 ' 111111 BRANCHES : I909 {815 5 741 i I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 " 1 1 . 1 .855 1 575 1 1.384 1 535 1 151 1 11.095 1 20.788 1137,4 1 1 1910 1815 5.741 I 1.869 1 622 : 1_219 : so ' i i . i I 1 1911 1822 7 S61 1 6 200 1 500 E E 28 1 155 1 11.498 120.084 1179.5 1 i 1919 182i 9"20 1 “- 1 1 851 1 475 1 182 1 10.397 117.995 1155.1 1 ' ~ .4 1 2.750 1 749 1 1.019 1 500 1 191 I 1 ' 1 I I 1 1913 1821 8 87“ 1 3 I43 : 8I8 : 1 E E A 1 13.050 119.368 1148.6 1 1 - ~ : - z : 1.055 : 594 = 207 1 13.732 119.875 1144.8 1 I 1 | I | I 1 | 1 | : : : 5 E E 1 : : : l l 1 | | | l I I 20/ O H S K + ' . ' ' I 1 1 ' ' ' l ' 3°7 ' 31 I 12 ' 12 I 41 ‘ ' ' ‘ 1 1 ' 111115; 11011511 1. KULQMSINU (559), 1.511011151111111 : E E 1 s 1 281 514 1' 699 1136.0 5 i z s a a = s 2 s a I | 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' I l | | I I l I g 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I 1 I I I I I 1 1 E I I 1 i i I Z 1 1 1 I 1 i I I I I 1 1 1 1 I I i I I I 1 1 1 1 1 I l I I 1 ' | ' I ' 1 1 1 - - : : 1 ; ------_----------__-----'----_- 05?[ SLVAA'IIVH NVISSH'H """"""""""""""""""""""" “"I""'""f""'"""1""""""T"'""‘"T"’"""'{"""":“"“"""'“"""'""":'"""“{""""""':""'""1‘ I l I l l | ~ A m E or R A | 1. w A v ' YEARS {memes : 10141 or :PASSENGERS:TOTAL or :TOTAL :TOTAL OF "ERAGE :GROSS :OPERAT'NG :RATIO l : “(1101461688 TRAIN Icmmso |PASSENGERS|THOU$ANDS|FREIGHT FREIGHT RECEIPTS tEXPENSES 10F OPERI WITH ENUMERATION m0 INDICATION 0F LENGTH , IOPERATEO ' KILOMETERSI (THOUSAND) muomcrsasnons 01-‘ , .KM. TFWNUJ'")'THWSIWDs :(THOUSANDS'EXP TO I | I I (THOUSANMI '(MILLIONS)IFREIGHT Hummus) (TONS) {OF WEI-68),“ RUBLE$):6R REC’ OF THEIR MAIN LINES ‘ m‘ ' LCARRIED ' _ _ $ _ I r 21/ s '8 E R ‘A " 1907 3365 25.038. 1.827 1.368 2.460 1.740 186 .39.540 41.566 . 105,1 LINE: 10851é$2423§8= TNNOKENTIEVSKAYA I908 3350 27.820 2.782 2.089 4.554 3.075 175 41.842 39.014 93.2 1909 3350 25.145 3.665 2.332 4.642 2.675‘ 181 39.967 36.527 88,9 I ;1910 3350 24.396 3.466 2.157 5.043 2.935 163 39.753 33.698 84.8 1911 3365 25.386 3.393 1.866 3.838 2.451 250 37.953 30.655 80.8 1912 3370 27.991 3.794 2.313 3.758 3.058 270 46.956 33.560 71,5 1913 3384 25.436 4.262 2.173 3.679 2.874 312 46.162 32.748 -70,9 I 22/ c E u 1 R A L- A s | A 1 I c 1907 2539 8.218 1.874 250 1.004 646 163 15.788 16.933 107,3 LINES: KRASNOVOUSK - TASHKENT (1869). 1908 2527 9.363 2.715 361 1.514 856 161 15.385 17.372 112,9 CHERNIAYEVO=AUDIJAN (326), MERV = w I909 2527 9 . 609 2 .986 382 I .492 856 182. I6 . 127 I6 . 880 104 ,7 1910 2527 ' 10.336 3.432 451 2.118 1.080 197 19.248 17.007 88,4 1911 2527 5 10.790 , 3.933 527 1.826 1.028 219 21.710 15.442 71.1 1912 2527 5 10.461 5 4.250 578 1 1.817 1.026 227 21.335 15.253 71,5 - 1913 2527 i 9.876 4.558 569 1.744 851 232 19.115 . 16.427 85.9 23/ T 4 8**K E N T 1907 2242 8.346 1.001 273 1.084 837 145 16.509 17.735 107,4 L|~E= aggsLaahzégggE~T 1908 2236 9.737 1.373 438 1.910 1.298 196 18.155 18.637 102,6 1909 2236 11.128 1.647 491 2.292 1.436 201 E 19.521 17.437 89.3 ‘1910 2236 12.626 1.463 510 2.534 2.123 238 E 25.506 18.744 73,4 1911 2236 13.733 1.496 567 1.814 1.777 234 E 26.913 16.700 59.5 1912 2236 12.718 1.558 593 2.087 1.892 286 5 27.259 17.299 63,5 1913 2236 12.869 1.992 658 2.376 1.951 307 § 28.810 19.251 66.8 I i . 1907 43.904 291.668 103.188) 12.517 115.460 32.975 201 : 593.153 481.413 5 81.2 I 1908 44.128 305.249 120.144 15.547 137.939 37.341 206 :586.049 : 479.966 81,9 T°T*L$ 1909 44.228 298.477 128.737 16.079 143.351 39.320 219 : 624.383 463.273 74,2 F°R STATE R4'LW4Y8 1910 44.612 289.135 130.412 _ 17.169 149.903 40.752 239 1 664.528 ‘453.407 68.2 1911 44.841 299.518 159.126 17.775 150.184 40.548 1?? {696.125 422.480 60,7 . 280 l 1912 ; 45.791 ,319.146 189.992 20.678 171.688 44.716 137 {776.359 460.067 59.3 I l | 1913 5 46.687 325.527 214.230 22.544> 188.067 47.718 149 5825.862 503.707 61.0 1 i I l i i i t I I I l 0 g ‘ 1 0 SLVAYIIVH NVISSHH ISl Z‘¢---——'—--———{- — - — — — - — ~ — — — _—'|-v — n n - --r——_~ —1--¢-—_qb-----. ..-.-.-r’.--..}..-.. 1 I " ‘ “ °F R‘ ' L " “ = 1218125212111 01 818.22.. 1284881281. 21 ‘4.121161 21221... ‘22211126122725: AR l A U H H 1 WITH ENWERAT'ON ‘"0 'ND'CITWN OF LENGTH II opsmreo IKILOMETERS (THOUSAND)'KILOMETERS TONS or Iron KM. ITRAINLOAOD THOUSANDS “THOUSAND EXP 1'0 I OF THEIR MAIN LINES a : In'uousmo)I :(MILLIONS) 'Eizgécgg I(MII.LIONS)I (TONS) OF RUBLES) 10F RUBLES 08$ REC‘ ________________________________ __ 1 i J ' ‘I I I 1 B,PRIVATERAILWAYS ; g g l I l l I I I l I 1/ 8 ° ° ° 5 L ° V s K I 1907 i 217 i 247 208 17 300 28 102 908. 848 71,3 I l I LINE: GOROCLAGODATSKAYA - NADEJDINSKI SAVOD 1 1 W,TH BRANCHES E 1908 a 217 : 338 215 19 408 47 193 I 881 497 57,7 1909 I 217 ' 340 208 19 470 52 203 ' 898 537 59.8 1910 217 _ 373 209 17 534 82 223 1.038 580 53.9 1911 217 488 243 20 808 75 204 1.188 542 45.7 1912 ‘ 217 514 285 25 727 80 209 1.348 588 43.7 1913 217 ‘548 348 30 793 85 217 1.593 888 43,2 2/ B E L G 0 R 0 0 - S 5 ° ° “ ' 1907 157 . 318 117 5 527 58 221 771 508 85.8 LINE: 8488' - 86490800 1908 157 284 125 8 428 41 230 815 500 81.2 WITH BRANCHES 1909 157 310 138 7 532 55 237 757 537 70.8 1910 157' 328 144 7 827 81~ 245 878 588 84.3 1911 157 381 208 13 828 82 235 945 848 88.3 1912 157 388 228 13 489 37 201 801 588 70,8 1913 157 354 235 13 543 42 241 797 542 88.1 i 1 i I I I I I ' 3/ W 4 R 8 4 W = v I E N N 4 ; 1907 : 781 : 8.387 8.859 384 7.148 . 1.057 288 23.888 19.498 81.8 I l I I 1 Vin ~8141E RYs-. N 3) : 1908 781 : 8.742 7.803 448 7.280 ' 1.139 279 25.234 19.743 78.5 : 1909 781 1 8.785 8.588 515 7.804 1.183 288 28.444 20.088 70.8 I I 1 1910 781 2 8.783 9.833 584 8.300 ‘ 1.315 : 322 31.148 20.227 85.0 : 1911 : 788 i 9.189 10.738 811 9.294 a 1.458 I 341 33.528 21.899 85.3 I ‘ l I I I I g I E : FR0M19‘12====-==S:TATE'§0\VNE;RSH|P‘ I I I | I | I I . I | | ! I 4/ v L 4 0 IC 4 v C A S ; 1907 ; 2498 ;18.832 4.319 845 i 4.953 g 2.411 228 42.558 28.307 ; 81,8 LINES; ROSTOV = VLADICAVCAS 898 , BESLAN = ' I I _ r I I 8 : BALADJARI (628)’ TlHoéfiTsgAYk : TSAR'TSIN E 1908 : 2498 :I9.58I 5.108 875 : 4.988 , 2.390 204 41.993 25.283 80,2 535 , KAVKASKAYA - STAVROPOL 154 , | 1 2 I F. l . _ .. éAvKgsKkYk : TEKATER'NOVAR (13%), 1 E 1909 i 2498 :20.2 3 8.313 982 : 5 912 : 2 888 219 49 950 28 317 58,8 L:8385;3:3;28= NovoRoLLlsx <272> ; 1910 g 2498 ;19.795 7.581 1.093 g 8.247 1 2.811 248 52.481 27.808 52.8 I I I I g 1911 E 2509 ;21.188 8.291 , 1.183 : 8.958 : 3.005 286 55.137 28.341 51,4 I I I I I I E 1912 i 2529 5 21.973 8.970 i 1.184 5 8.913 5 3.131 295 57.233 30.158 52.7 E 1913 E 2535 E 24.019 9.751 5 1.381 : 8.289 : 3.829 309 88.295 35.198 51.5 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ‘A I 1. L I. L 1\, h L IL, L SLVAA'IIVH NVISSH'H """"""""""""""""""""""""""" ‘"I""'"|'"""|'"' " ' “r""""r"-" "-"'""r"' ""I" " - "T""' "-r-"" ‘r--- "-1 1 1 I g g : i : i l i n A u e or R A 1 L w A Y : YEAR :AVERAGE : TOTAL OF IpAsssucsas'TorAL or iTOTAL ‘TOTAL OF IAvsnAcc \GROSS :OPER*TING: RATIO I . I‘ KILOMETERS TRAIN In so mssauccns 'THOUSANOS:FREIGHT :FREIGHT macswrs ‘EXPENSES I or open: mm ENUIAERATICN m0 INDICATION or LENGTH 1 IOPERATED : KILOMETERS: (mousmo) KILOMETERS horas or 10~ m. ,mAmLoAo ITHOUSANOS .uuousmos EXP TO I I 1 ' (THOU$ANO)| (MILLIONS) FREIGHT (MILLIONS \ (TONS) {OF RUBI-ESHOF RUBI-Esi 6R REC or mam mm LINES ' ' , I cmmso ; , 1 g . . . . . . . . . -- - l i i ---_ ----,_--__----I,__-_---_.:__-----_-.1_---_____2__-_--__.1. 5/ v 0 L 9 II - B 0 0 c 0 0 I II 4 1911 186 l 186 '10 6 126 12 5 127 f 403 458 E 113,3 : LIIIE= newness - TCIIISIIIIA - eoocoouu 1912 364 366 127 15 181 ' 27 143 : 827 ‘778 ' 94,0 mm BRANCHES 1 I913 364 402 147 17 203 31 I 181 1049 1029 99 , 0 l 6/ H E R B I - K E L ‘I’ S l 1911 139 401 408 16 571 45 E 248 986 672 68,1 l LINE; HERB! - KELTSI 1912 i 139 534 532 23 985 88 i 313 1565 1106 70,7 vmu BRANCHES I ' 1913 142 536 630 27 1059 93 310 1729 1148 66 ,4 7/ E l s K 1911 142 127 107 7 131 10 242 371 211 56,9 “"53 asoss'“ - “SK 1912 I42 269 267 20 266 24 284 840 556 66.2 1913 142 E 292 266 21 346 41 304 1272 694 64.6 : E 8/ I II II S 1901 79 322 1275 30 1661 47 237 I908 1646 81,1 E LINEs: L832 - 3%gggNl- L005 - KQLOOSHKI. 1908 79 349 1417 33 I687 52 249 2168 I666 76,8 5 ""1" BRWCHES 1909 79 369 1504 36 ' 2003 59 246 2373 1637 § 68.8 E 1910 79 358 1597 38 2070 61 240 2572 1640 : 63,8 5 1911 79 389 1830 43 2198 66 255 2727 2705 62,5 5 I912 79 396 1721 41 2069 62 249 2603 1717 66,0 5 1913 '19 406 I763 42 2096 62 ' 261 2602 1619 ' 62,2 E 9/ ‘I 0 3 c 0 W I V l N 0 l V '\ = R l 9 | N 5 K 1907 2624 9.202 5.182 474 3.276 926 210 20.798 13.870 66,7 a LINES; memsx .. PSKOV 656 . TCHOODOVO . STARA ' , , . . ." I . : R008‘ (‘68), Pnéocazo _ VHEBSK (57]). YA 1908 2636 9 748 5 552 522 3 866 1 104 242 22 529 13 960 61,5 : wfigogm-mggglvl (1099) 1909 2636 10.614 5.807 530 4.636 1.667 295 27.352 15.136 55,3 1 ' 1910 2636 10.786 . 6.838 607 4.752 1. 792 309 28.939 15.173 52 ,3 1911 2636 10.634 7.520 665 5.038 1.737 340 29.186 14.541 49,8 1912 2636 11.115 8.259 714 5.624 1.838 345 31.431 15.021 47,8 1913 2636 11.293 9.101 714 6.318 2.007 379 33.806 16.537 48 ,9 2 I. t l J SLVIIA'IIVH KVISSQH IZSI ----.-_-----_-_------------—-_-----__—‘- 10/ u LINES; II/ N LINES; IQ/ LINES; 13/ LINES; 14/ LINES: N A M E OF R A I L W A Y 8 WITH ENUMERATION AND INDICATION 0F LENGTH OF THEIR MAIN LINES 0 S C 0 W K A S A N ‘''‘''0 Moscow . RIASAN (I93), RIASAN-SVIASHSK (302) TIMIRIASEVO . NIJNI NOVGOROO (304), K0051195v= x4 = SEMETCHINO (102), ROOSAYEVKA = SSISRAH 5 BATRAKI (315), ROOSAYEVKA = PENSA (140), INSA= SSIMBIFZK (155), LOOBERTSI . 13340455 (397) WITH BRANCHES 0 S C O u = K I E V = V O R 0 N E S H MOSCOW = ARTAKOVO (807), KIEV = TCHERNICUV (261), KROOTI = KRASNOYE (219), KIEV = ' POLTAVI (352), NAVLA = KONOTOP (195), VOROSHBA HOOTOR MIHAYLOVSKI (I34), MARMIJI = VERHOVIE (I31) WITH UQANCHES R I A S A N = 0 0 R A L S K RIISAN = KosLov (525), KOSLOV = SSARATCV (977), BOGOYAVLENSK = YELETS (235), MOSCOV: P5V£L£TS (503, KASHIRA 2 vznav (53), oamxov SMOLENSK (533), BOGOYAVLENSK = sosuovx: (92 . TAMBOV = KAMISHIN (589), RTIEHTSHEVC = PENSAI (210), RTISHTSHEVO = TAVOLJANKA (121, ATKARSK vuLsx (273), PoxRowsx SLOBODI , YERSHOV I (233), KRASMI KuT = ASTRAHAN (613), YERSHAV I OORALSK = NIKOLA = YEWSK (380), KRASNI KUT - ALEKANDROV 54v (152), WITH BRANCHES l l I I I I l l I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l I l l I I l I I I I l I I I I I I I I I I I N 0 R T H D O N E T Z LGOV = HARKOW . RODAKOwO AND LINIAN . KRAnIA TOPSKAYI = NIKIIOVYA wlrr BRANCHES T R O I T S K POLCTAYEVO = "I l I I l I I I I l I I I I I | IRvILSK 5 I I I I I I I I I ! I907 I908 I909 I910 I9II I912 I9I3 I907 I908 1909 I910 I9II 19I2 I913 I907 I908 I909 I910 1911 1912 I9I3 I9II I9I2 I913 I912 IUI3 AVERAGE KM. OPERATED 22I5 2215 2215 ZZIS 22I5 2298 2610 2623 2651 265I 265I 2651 2663 2700 4367 4367 4367 4367 4406 4406 4412 207 053 679 v—* 0 L0 H O \O I """ '7I"""1 "" “‘] “““ "1 """ "5 """ "T "" ''T''''I ‘ I I 5 | | | I i I | TOTAL OF %ASSENCERS :TOTAL OF ‘TOTAL I TOTAL OF |AVERAGE I GROSS lOPERATING I RATIO : TRAIN KM. CARRIED PASSENGER ITHOUSANDSI FREIGHT [FREIGHT I RECEIPTS lexpewszs or OPER (THOUSANDS, (THOUSANCSI KM. TONS OF 5 103 KM. TRAINLOAD|(THOUSAN09(THOUSANOS IEXP TO I I |(MILLIONS)IFREIGHT (MILLIONS) l (1035) I 0F 303159 0F 303255)]02 REC | _____L"2__5___J“%£LJ____1____2_"“4____JJ_4 I I I I I I I I I : : : I : : : : I 10.700 5 5.025 g 532 g 5.233 g 1.401 g 243 ; 23.201 : 23.952 :34.9 : l I I I I I I I l 11.377 g 5.507 g 529 ; 5.333 I 1.535 : 222 I 23.720 : 21.131 {73.5 I I I l I l I I I 12.525 E 5.972 g 539 g 5.541 ; 2.057 E 253 : 33.570 I 21.437 :54.0 i l I I I l I I I I 12.412 1 5.439 g 705 g 5.344 3 2.144 ' 270 I 35.732 I 20.777 153.2 I l I I l I l I l I 11.991 ; 7.037 g 735 g 5.759 : 1.321 : 237 I 35.409 20.210 :57.0 I I I I l I I I l 12.303 ; 7.571 , 304 I 5.402 : 1.974 : 303 : 35.925 20.527 I55.5 : l I l I I I I I 14.304 ; 3.532 I 920 ; 7.204 : 2.332 : 340 : 43.057 24.711 :57,4 I E E E E E E E E I I I l I l l I I 13.595 ; 4.093 : 530 g 7.107 : 1.579 : 202 E 31.073 I 21.232 253.3 I l l I I l l I I 14.017 ; 4.401 g 551 : 7.459 : 1.730 . 205 I 31.357 21.224 {57.9 I l l I l I I l l 14.445 : 4.375 g 594 : 3.254 : 1.911 : 214 I 32.941 21.425 155.1 : I I I I I I I I 14,124 g 5.751 g 795 : 3.593 : 1.939 : 225 I 37.354 21.050 I55,5 I l I I I I I I I 14.945 : 5.234 : 350 I 9.337 : 2.150 I 245 I 40.700 21.555 :53.2 I I I I l I I l l I 15.247 : 5.557 E 334 : 11.109 I 2.433 I 250 I 45.013 I 23.239 {51.7 I I I I I l l I I I 15.353 : 7.157 : 912 : 11.703 : 2.515 I 233 I 43.517 5 25.135 254.0 ' l I l I I l I I E E E E E E E E E 13.190 5 4.539 a 504 5 534 5 1.935 5 191 5 37.732 5 37.509 599.4 I 13.513 5 5.235 5 735 5 3.259 5 2.450 5 199 5 33.932 5 35.432 590.5 5 20.223 5 5.535 E 795 5 3.591 5 2.320 5 199 5 45.100 5 35.304 573.5 5 21.935 5 5.952 E 900 5 9.725 5 3.221 5 205 5 52.095 5 37.501 572.3 1 19.995 5 5.142 5 920 5 3.479 5 2.702 5 223 5 47.505 5 31.303 555.3 5 20.317 5 5.373 5 914 5 9.215 5 2.353 5 225 5 50.510 5 31.944 553,2 5 22.327 5 7.123 5 1.004 5 10.333 5 3.291 5 231 5 55.350 5 35.579 553,7 5 a a a a = = a a = 1.003 5 201 5 14 5 1.115 5 303 5 455 5 2.944 5 1.423 543.5 5 4.234 5 332 5 75 5 5.512 5 1.429 5 473 5 13.515 5 5.524 541.5 5 4.312 5 1.077 5 101 5 5.574 5 1.555 5 495 5 15.024 5 5.300 539.3 f l I I I I I I I I 27 5 19 5 2 5 31 5 3 5 151 5 151 5 71 543.9 E 119 5 35 5 3 5 193 5 21 5 193 5 319 E 347 {42.4 E I I l I I I I I I : ' 1 5 E E I I I I 2 I I I I I I l I I l : : : t . I I E E E l O I --. _._..--_.----__.-------..-.-.--_-------------.-.----—-~--_-_--_---_-__--.-_.--_-.-_------_------.----.---. .- --.--_ van-05.-.-.. 1781 SLVAA'IIV'H NVISSIlH l.-----Q--—_- - Q _ - I - ~ - - _---------— N A H E OF R A I L W A Y WITH ENUMERATIDN AND INDICATION 0F LENGTH OF THEIR MAIN LINES 15/ LINE; F E R G A N A KOKAND = NAHANGAN 16/ LINES; S O U T H a E A 8 T E R N KOSLOV - ROSTOV (825), HARKOV BALkSHOV (67?), YELETS a VALOOIKI (418), 6481 oouarz LINES (322) WITH en4ucnes TOTALS FOR PRIVATE RAILWAYS T 0 T A L 8 FOR ALL ABOVE NAMED RAILWAYS. OREL - GRIASI _ TSARIT§IN (914), 7 ---- "7 '''' "r ----- ‘"1 ------ "1 ----- --I"-""1 ------------- "1' ---- "r """ "r""'"1 . I : I : : : I I I I : vs4as :4vca4ce I 10741 or :PA$SENGERS:TOTAL OF ‘TOTAL 110141 or AVERAGE IGROSS 1 OPERATING 144710 1 1 IKILOMETERS TRAIN |CAR 0 PASSENGERS:THOUSANDS:FREIGHT FREIGHT :RECEIPTS gsxpcwscs Ior OPERI 1 OPERATED ' KILOMETERQ (THOUSAND) KILOMETERSITONS 0F , n KM. TTRAINLOADITHOUSANDS ,(180064~05,64P TO: I ' (THOUSAND)I (MILLIONS)IFRE|GHT 1(911110N5) (10~s) .or RU8LES)IOF RUBL£S)|GR Rscl I 1 1 ‘CARRIED I I : I 1 I , I 1 I , I I ----_r ...... -1 ______ __: _ _ _ . , _ _ . --1 _ . _ . . . _ --1 . _ . _ . . _ _ --4 . _ . . . --I J __L _______ -4 ______ -q : IV E E E i E : : l I I ' I I I l I E 1913 92 ' 108 E 212 13 1 131 IO 106 1 913 E 420 546.1 E g z : ' : ' : 1 I I I ' : : : : E 1907 3480 18.511 2 4.923 772 5 8.590 I 2.566 227 42.307 28.589 67.6 f 1908 3480 19.474 2 5.357 E 916 2 9.473 2.811 224 44.497 30.969 169.8 E 1909 | 3480 ‘20.544 5.892 E 1.058 10.206 3.190 235 50.940 31.165 I61,3 ' I910 ' 3480 !20.544 6.871 2 1.188 10.074 3.103 238 55.250 30.641 55.4 1911 3480 20.404 6.884 f 1.198 10.485 3.200 252 55.163 29.917 54,2 1912 3480 21.372 7.118 1.203 1I.052 3.474 265 55.809 30.360 54,4 1913 3480 23.886 7.801 1.328 12.737 4.090 276 62.324 34.094 E54,’? ...... ....... ....... _- 1907 19.019 98.383 36.638 ; 3.993 39.374 12.056 221 230.140 173.653 75,5 1908 19.059 103.006 40.871 5 4.783 49.162 13.310 214 236.956 I70.455~ 71,9 1909 19.059 108.479 44.978 5 5.256 ; 53.849 15.672 227 272.325 175.613 64.5 1910 19.059 109.418 51.075 5 5.935 5 56.872 16.509 241 297.466 175.855 59,1 1911 19.790 1 111.303 55.911 5 6.290 5 61.275 16.644 270 306.291 173.529 54.9 1912 19.872 i 111.088 49.114 2 5.918 5 60.575 17.508 282 298.584 162.405 54,4 1913 20.354 1 119.757 54.287 ; 6.511 5 68.627" 20.265 299 338.657 185.090 54.6 - - _ _ - --.1.___~----£--—---- 3: | -’ I l 1907 62.923 3390.051 139.826 3 16.510 154.834 45.031 209 823.293 655.066 79.5 1908 63.187 5408.255 161.015 E 20.330 187.101 50.651 200 823.005 650.421 79.0 1909 63.287 i406.956 173.715 3 21.335 197.200 54.992 220 896.708 638.886 71.2 1910 63.671 5398.553 181.487 2 23.104 206.775 57.261 241 961.994 629.262 65,4 I I 1911 64.431 :410.821 215.037 1 24.065 211.459 57.192 267 L002.416 596.009 59.5 I I 1912 65.663 :430.234 239.106 : 26.596 232.263 62.224 282 1.074.943 622.472 57,9 1913 67.041 5445.284 268.517 E 29.055 256.694 67.983 302 1.154.519 588_797 i 59.2 . I I I g ; I 0 I I I l I I l I I I I I l I l I I I I I I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I 1 t i I I I I I I I I I I i I I i 1 I I .' I I I _ :~ I ; I: I i. 1 z Paper N 0. 77 THE STATUS OF RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN THE N ETHERLAND EAST-INDIES. By E. P. WELLENSTEIN, C. E. Netherland Indian Government Railways’ Engineer Formerly of Batavia, Java The Hague, The Netherlands The extension of the rail- and tramway system in the Neth- erland East-Indies is closely in accordance with the general condition of the different islands forming that colony. At the close of 1913, Java and Madura, forming an admin- istrative unity with an area of 2388 geographical square miles and with a population amounting to 30 millions, had 2434 kilo- meters of railroads and 2109 kilometers of tram-lines. Sumatra had, at the close of 1913, four separate systems of railroads and tram-lines, the total lengths of which are, respect- ively, 337 and 635 kilometers. The construction on the rail- ways in Southern Sumatra did not begin until two years ago. The rest of the Archipelago (belonging to the Netherlands) has no rail- or tramways. JAVA AND MADURA. The development of the rail- and tramway net has fol- lowed various paths, the principle of railroad construction by private enterprise being first adhered to. The first line, from Semarang to the Vorstenlanden, with a branch line from Kedo- eng Djati to Willem I, with a length of 206 kilometers. was en- tirely finished in 1873; the first part was ready to be opened in 1867. For this line, the State guaranteed a dividend on the capital outlay for construction, rolling stock, etc. On the other hand, after 99 years, when the lease expires, the railway track and everything belonging to it will become the property of the State, which will only have to pay a compensation for rolling 186 RAILWAYS AND TRAMWVAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES stock and some other minor items. This system of guarantee- ing the interest was not applied in any other case; no financial help was given for further concessions. The first railway was soon followed by a short line of 56 kilometers from Batavia to Buitenzorg, constructed and worked by the same company as the first line mentioned above. Fur- ther extension of the railway system was not due to private enterprise. When the extension of the system became more and more necessary, the State decided, in 1875, to itself start the construction and operation of railways. Only the line from Batavia to Krawang and from there to Kedoenggedeh was in later years constructed by a private company, which line, like that from Batavia to Buitenzorg—also lying in West Java and forming the first part of important State lines of great length-— has passed into the hands of the State. As a result of the colon- ial financial policy, railway construction could not always pro- ceed at a uniform rate, the railways being built from revenue, and no money raised to meet the costs. Only of late has the leg- islative power in the home country made money available on a larger scale. In all, 202 million guildersit have been spent for State railway construction in Java and Madura up to the end of 1913. The reason why private enterprise has not cooperated more largely in the extension of the railway net is due to the small returns that may be expected during the first years of exploitation. Without the help of the State, either by a guarantee of dividend or otherwise, the public could not, in many respects, consider railways a desirable investment. The State, instead of supporting private enterprise by subsidies or guarantees, has preferred to construct and work the railways itself. Yet pri- vate enterprise has energetically contributed to improve the means of transportation, namely, by constructing tram-lines, which, by their length as well as by their location are light railways rather than what is usually meant by tramways. It is true that the tramways follow more or less the exist_ ing roads, but in other respects, the character of tramways has not always been preserved. On several lines the traffic has Guilder 2 $0.40. RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST INDIES 187 increased so much in the course of years that simple tramway methods did not suffice, so that on some lines the reconstruc- tion is already in progress, which will transform the tram into a railway. To judge of the extent of private enterprise in this respect, it may suffice to state that at the close of 1913 there were 2036 kilometers of tram-lines in Java privately operated; the capital invested in these lines amounted to 95 million guilders. Principles Governing and Costs of Construction. As stated above, only a small amount of traffic can be expected, especially during the first years after the opening of a line. The fact that the island of Java is drawn out in length and has a great number of harbours excludes a dense traffic over long distance. Therefore, the cost of construction has to be as low as possible, while the capacity of the lines need not be very great. When the first railway was being constructed with a gauge of 1.435 meters, the question was considered whether a nar- rower gauge would not suffice for Java, and even for the whole of the Netherland East-Indies. In accordance with a report drawn up by two experts, the normal gauge has been fixed at 1.067 meters, which gauge has been used on the Batavia-Buit- enzorg line. Since that time, this latter gauge has—hardly with- out exception—been adopted for all the railway tram—lines; although since 1908, a width of 0.60 meter has been chosen for some tram-lines of minor importance. At the end of 1913, 206 kilometers of railroads in Java and Madura had a gauge of 1.435 meters; 32 kilometers of tram— lines (in the adjoining towns of Batavia and Meester Cornelis). a width of 1.188 meters; 4222 kilometers of railroads and tram- lines, a width of 1.067 meters ; and 83 kilometers of tram-lines had a width of 0.60 meter. So we see that the gauge of 1.067 meters, which has been adopted as the normal one, predomi- nates in all respects. The existing differences have, on the whole, caused little inconvenience, with the exception of the Djokjakarta-Soera- karta section of the Semarang-Vorstenlanden line. Originally, this section was merely part of a line to the harbour-town of Semarang; later, its connections with the nar- 188 RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES rower tracks have made it part of the main line which traverses the island in its greatest length. A provisional solution of the difficulty has been found by laying a third rail. On examination we find that the gauge chosen has been justified by experience. The capacity of the 1.067-meter track has proved sufficient in all respects; so far the advisability of doubling the track has been considered for only one line, start- ing from the harbour town of Soerabaya. The operating ex- penses are not excessively high, yet average comfort can be obtained. The traveling speed attained is 65 kilometers per hour on the plains and 45 kilometers per hour in the mountains. The speed on the plains will be considerably increased shortly; recent trial runs having shown that with specially constructed rolling stock the maximum speed can easily be made 120 kilometers per hour. Already, engines are in service which can draw 300 tons, exclusive of the tender, at a rate of 80 kilometers per hour on the level. At the same time, it has been possible to keep the cost of construction low; the State railway system in the mountainous, western part of Java had an original cost of construction of no more than 78,000 guilders (£6500) per kilometer, and for the flat, eastern part of Java, about 62,000 guilders (£5170). Of course, relatively large sums have had to be added for extensions and improvements. As the traffic increased, more or less had to be spent under this head. so that at the end of 1918, the capital outlay of the west- ern lines stood at 96,000 guilders per kilometer; of the eastern lines, at 83,000 guilders. At the same date, the cost of the lines with a gauge of 1.435 meters stood at 151,000 guilders per kil- ometer. Also for the tramways, the cost of construction has been very low. With the exception of the lines of the Batavia Elec- tric Tramway Company, which, for various reasons, have cost 138,000 guilders per kilometer, the highest cost of construction, namely, that of the line Djokjakarta-Magelang-Willem I, amounts to 84,000 guilders per kilometer. This tramway, of which only about 20% was laid on the public roads, shows these high costs because a rackline had to be used over great dis- tances. On an average, the tramways had cost nearly 46,000 guilders per kilometer up to the end of 1913. RAILIYAYS AND TRAMIVAYS IX XETHERLAXD EAST INDIES 189 It may be mentioned that for the railways with a gauge of 1.067 meters a rail section of 25.6 kilograms per meter has been used for a considerable time. This rail section, which, with few exceptions, has also been generally used on the different tram- lines, has been replaced on the principal lines of the State rail- ways by one of 33.4 kilograms per meter. The maximum weight permitted on the axles of the engines is about 10 tons. The heaviest engine used in flat country has a total weight. in working order (exclusive of the tender), of 53.6 tons; it has three coupled axles, with 10 tons on each axle. On the mountain lines, Mallet-Rimmrott engines have long been used, the heaviest of which, having 2 three-coupled axles and one driving axle, have a total weight in working order of 63.6 tons. Of late, a heavier type of engine has been used; it has 6-coupled (Gtilsdorf) axles and a total weight, in working order, of 76.7 tons, of which 61.6 tons is adhesion weight. On the 1.435-meter-gauge lines, the rail section has a weight of 41 kilograms per meter; the maximum load on the engine ‘axles is 14 tons. The heaviest engine has a weight, in working order, of 65 tons, exclusive of tender, of which 53.2 tons is adhesion weight. It should be added that, for the rail— ways with a gauge of 1.067 meters, 200 meters is generally con- sidered the smallest radius for curves; only occasionally curves with a radius of 150 meters occur. In the high mountains, the track often presents very steep gradients; on the Padalarang- Buitenzorg line. two parts are found where. over a considerable distance, a gradient of 40 per 1000 is maintained. Finally, we mention that, of the above rail- and tramway system, only 18 kilometers are worked by electricity. On sev- eral tram-lines and on some parts of the railway system, the change to electric traction is being studied and considered. Nature and Amount of Traffic. On the various railways and tram-lines, the goods traffic has developed very differently, according to the nature of the provinces traversed and according to their location. Traffic is, of course, greatest in the neighborhood of the difierent harbour towns, from which the goods are shipped for the world’s com- merce and where import articles arrive that have to be carried inland to the consumers. The greatest traffic is found on the 190 RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES State’s railway line leading to Soerabaya; then follow the lines connecting Semarang with the inland places. The number of passengers is also greatest in the neighbor- hood of the large harbour towns; the exceptionally great num- ber of travelers on the Bandoeng plateau is remarkable. The following data illustrate the amount of traffic; the great increase in the last five years deserving special notice. In 1903. on the different railroads, 2,253,000 tons of goods were transported; this rose to 3,371,000 tons in 1908; and to 5,193,000 tons in 1913. This is an increase of 54% in the last five years. For the tram-lines, the corresponding figures were 1,316,- 000 tons in 1903 ; 2,318,000 tons in 1908; and 3,423,000 tons in 1913. So in 1913, as a total, 8,616,000 tons of goods were trans- ported in Java and Madura. The city tram-lines excluded, the number of travelers rose from 33,016,000 in 1903, to 50,328,000 in 1908, and 83,110,000 in 1913; so, in the last five years the number of travelers in- creased 65%. This growth is partly due to the extension of the railroad and tramway system during those years, and partly to the greater development of the regions through which the trains pass. The amount of goods per kilometer of line was 920 tons in 1903; 1930 tons in 1913. The number of passengers per kil- ometer rose from 8500 to 18,600 in those years. The best comparison can be obtained when we take the average amount of traffic, which is the number of ton-kilome- ters, and passenger-kilometers, respectively, divided by the number of day-kilometers. Then we see that the average goods traffic rose from 200 in 1903, to 360 in 1913; that of passengers, from 480 to 1020. Trafiic Returns—Financial Results. As we have already mentioned, and as the above data show, railroad and tramway traffic in Java is not dense; hence, the traffic returns cannot be very great; it is only due to com- paratively high tariffs that, on the whole, the financial results have developed favorably. In 1903, the gross receipts of the State railways in Java RAIL‘VAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN NETHERLAXD EAST INDIES 191 did not exceed 18.68 guilders per day-kilometer; for the private railway companies this was 42.72 guilders. In 1913, these re- ceipts were considerably more favourable, namely, 37.49 guild- ers for the State railways and 67.47 guilders for the other lines. For the difierent tram-lines, the receipts differ very much; the greatest returns per day-kilometer are made by the two city tram-lines of Batavia and Meester Cornelis, with 106.24 guild- ers and 43.49 guilders, respectively. Of the other tram-lines, those with a gauge of 0.60 meter give the lowest returns. This was expected, as that gauge had been adopted where there was very little traffic; the returns are less than 8 guilders per day-kilometer. Of the other tramways, the Babat-Djombang line has the smallest returns, namely, 8.81 guilders per day-kilometer in 1913; the highest returns of that year were made by the Djok- jakarta-Willem I line, with 30.87 guilders, which is only 17% below the above-mentioned average of the State railways, or 37.49 guilders per day-kilometer. The average returns of all the tramways per day-kilometer was 20.40 guilders in 1913. These returns are mostly due to the traffic of goods; this predominates especially on the railways. In 1913, the total receipts of the railways were 36,067,000 guilders; 20.842.000 guilders. or 58%. being derived from goods traffic and 13.653000 guilders. or 38% from travelers; personal luggage being counted as goods. For the different tram-lines, in 1913—again the two city lines excluded—the returns of passenger traffic were 5,573,000 guilders; those of goods, 7,620,000 guilders. \Vhen we see how those returns are obtained, we find only few differences of any importance in the tariffs, as far as the final results are concerned. The returns per ton-kilometer for goods on the State railways were 4.5 cents*“ in 1013; for the private companies, they were 5.2 cents. The tram-lines show slight differences. The lowest returns are found 011 the Goendih-Soerabaja line and for the Madura Steam-tram, with 3.7 and 3.1 cents per ton-kilometer, respectively; the highest, on the Solo-Bojolali and '* Xetherland Cent : 1/100 guilder : 0.4 American cent. 192 RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES Djokjakarta-Magelang-Willem I lines, with 13.68 and 10.6 cents per ton-kilometer. The average returns per ton~kilometer for all the tram- lines were 4.7 cents in 1913; for the railways and the tram- lines together, 4.6 cents. These figures prove that the goods tariffs must be rather high; though we should not forget that, owing to the long— drawn-out shape of the island, goods are generally transported over short distances only. The average distance is only 69 kilometers, so the price paid per ton remains low. The above-mentioned large increase in traffic during the last few years probably shows that for the present situation the cost of goods traffic is not at variance with existing con- ditions. Passenger traffic, by tram as well as by train, shows little difference in the returns per unit; the average returns per pas- senger-kilometer on the railways being 1.2 cents; on the trams. 1.1 cent—the two city trams again excluded. The highest returns per passenger-kilometer are found on the Solo-Bojolali line, with 1.41 cent; then follow the Djokja- karta-Willem I line and the Rambipoedji-Poeger line, with 1.3 cent ; while the lowest are found on the line of the Pasoeroean Steam-tram Company, with 0.7 cent. The traffic can also show a great increase, though, in con- nection with the existing rate of wages, the passenger tariffs may be considered high. Here, also, traveling takes place over comparatively short distances; on an average. a passenger does not travel more than about 20 kilometers. It may be consid- ered necessary to lower the prices, especially for long distances, now that the tendency to travel longer stretches becomes more and more apparent. When finally we examine the financial returns on the capi- tal invested in railroads and tram-lines in Java and Madura, they may be considered very favorable. Here, also, the later years, and the late increase in traffic, have contributed to attain those favourable results. At the end of 1903, the capital invested by the State amounted to 137,639,000 guilders; the cost of construction of private railroads and tram-lines amounted to a total of 91,926,- RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES 193 000 guilders. The net balance of the working expenses for that year (1903) was, respectively, 4,822,000 guilders and 4,969,000 guilders; that is, 3.5% and 5.4%. On the total sum, 4.3% was made. For 1913, the corresponding figures are 185,515,000 guild- ers and 119,866,000 guilders for the amounts invested, respect- ively, in State and private railroads and tramways. The net balance was 13,328,000 guilders and 10,151,000 guilders; that is, 7.2% and 8.5%. So all the capital invested in railroads and tram-lines in Java and Madura gave an interest of 7.7% in 1913. These figures prove that the railroads and tram-lines are, on the whole, profitable enterprises; the largest private com- pany could pay a dividend of 17% in 1913. Only three com- panies, together possessing 131 kilometers of tram-lines, could pay nothing on their shares in that year. RAILROADS AND TRAMWAYS IN THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES. We mentioned at the beginning of this article that only Java possesses anything like a considerable number of rail- and tramways. In the other islands, only Sumatra has four rail- way systems, independent of each other; they are partly com- pleted and partly in construction. The oldest railway system in the famous tobacco district of Deli is due to private enterprise. At the end of 1913, it had 92 kilometers of railroads and 170 kilometers of tramways with a gauge of 1.067 meters. Constructed to serve a flourishing branch of cultivation, the financial results are exceptionally favourable. In 1913, 15% dividend could be paid to shareholders; the capital in- vested was 19,424,000 guilders ; the net balance over the work- ing expenses was 1,923,000 guilders. On these lines, also, goods traffic predominates. Of the total returns of 3,442,000 guilders, only 1,285,000 guilders, or 38%, was paid by the travelers. These financial results are (still more than is the case in Java) due not so much to the amount of traffic as to the excep- tionally high tariffs on the different lines. 194 RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST INDIES Altogether, 3,163,000 passengers and 613,000 tons of goods were transported; amounting to 57,431,000 passenger-kilome- ters and 19,630,000 ton-kilometers. The returns for the railways were 10.3 cents per ton-kilo- meter and 2.2 cents per passenger-kilometer; for the tramways, 8.8, and 2.1 cents, respectively. The tramways in the district north of Deli, in Atjeh, pre- sent quite a different character. There, military considerations led to the construction, mainly along the coast, of a tram-line with a gauge of 0.75 meter, which, originally, was chiefly in- tended for the transportation of troops. When gradually more normal conditions arose in this district, the tram-lines also fur- thered the economical development. For some years, it has been attempted to connect the Atjeh line with the Deli railway; which connection, when completed, will be of great advantage to both the districts. The cost of constructing the Atjeh tramway, which re- mains under military control, amounted to 18,544,000 guilders at the end of 1913, or about 40,000 guilders per kilometer. Though the gauge is very narrow, it has not been possible to construct the lines at a lower cost; the extraordinary circum- stances under which the tram-line was laid down certainly account for this. Altogether, 2,637,000 passengers and 114,000 tons of goods were transported in 1913, with an average return of 1.1 cent per passenger-kilometer and 3.6 cents per ton-kilometer. The net balance over the working expenses was 114,000 guilders, in 1913; that is, not quite 0.6% of the amount of the cost of con- struction. In the western part of the island of Sumatra, a system of district railways has been constructed by the State especially for the benefit of a colliery in the mountains, which mine is also worked by the State. As the central mountain range of Sumatra presents at that place a steep slope toward the sea, the construction of the rail- road met with great difficulties; a rack line had to be con- structed over long distances. The cost of construction was ex- ceptionally high; it amounted to 97,000 guilders per kilometer RAILH'AYS AND TRAMIVAYS IX NETHERLAXD EAST IXDIES 195 at the end of 1913. At that time, the total length of the lines was 245 kilometers. In that year. 405,000 tons of goods and 2.701.000 passengers were transported along these lines; the returns per passenger- kilometer were 1.4 cents; per tonkilometer, they were 2.3 cents. The net balance was 859,000 guilders on a cost of construction of 23,734,000 guilders; that is, 3.6%. This figure, however, does not exactly represent the financial situation, as the tarifis for the transport of coal from the State-owned mine along the State-owned railway do not even make good the cost. Finally, we mention the railways in South Sumatra. Only about ten kilometers are opened, 450 kilometers being under construction; yet the principles underlying those works are worth considering. Up to a short time ago, only such lines were considered fit for construction by the State as might yield adequate returns within a shorter or longer time, and where the indirect advan- tages also justified the necessary outlay in money. Indeed, the State railways and tramways in Java have, from the beginning, yielded not inconsiderable returns. The experience derived from other countries taught, however, that to further the right development of the colony, the construction of an adequate sys- tem of railroads should precede the cultivation of the land. A fertile soil, even when rich in minerals in various places, but without railroad communications, is not sufficient to induce the investment of capital. The example given by other colonies was followed in the Indies, in the first place, by the construction of railroads in South Sumatra. The necessary plans were made and a credit of 35 million guilders asked of the legislative power in the Motherland for the construction of 460 kilometers of railroads, to be completed within six years. The 35 million were granted without diffi- culty; the unanimity with which the plans were approved jus- tifies the expectation that in future large credits will be voted to extend the lines of the State railways, so that soon not only Java, but also the other islands of the Netherland East-Indies, may possess an extensive network of railroads and tram-lines. 196 RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES RAILROAD LEGISLATION—CONCESSION CONDITIONS. Railroad legislation in the Netherland East~Indies differs little from that in most countries of Europe; the principles may be said to be the same. Without a too strong regulation, the duty of the railways to serve the public is sufficiently empha- sized to guarantee its interests. It should not be forgotten that important conflicts have not occurred, so far. There is a ten- dency to introduce further regulations on these points where such may prove necessary. In 1866, the first “railway act” was passed, followed in 1886 by the first “light-railway act”. The tendency of the latter has been, by simplifying the regula- tions, to lighten the burden of such railways as work with in- considerable traffic and low speed. It is remarkable that private companies do not run rail- ways under the “light-railway act”; it is only applied to some State-owned lines. The regulation of tramway traffic also presents a peculiar growth. When the first concession was granted, it was thought that a tramway could be used only for unimportant traffic and for very short distances. So the maximum speed was fixed at 15 kilometers per hour; the greatest length of a train of tram- cars at 40 meters. Gradually, however, the character of the tramways changed. Constructed over great distances, they more and more became part of the main traffic system, rather than being of local importance only. It soon became necessary to permit a heavier traffic along these tram-lines than the fixed maxima allowed. So we see those maxima gradually raised, which is followed by additional regulations for the prevention of accidents. In the end, we find a very considerable traffic for which a tramway regulation is made to suffice ; which means that the public does not enjoy the guarantees for safety, etc., which they might expect. Therefore, a revision of the railroad legislation has been made, which has preserved the principle that speed forms the distinction between railways and tramways; the limit for tramways being fixed at 30 kilometers per hour. At the same time, the railways, as well as the tramways, are divided into primary and secondary lines; the limits of speed being 15 RAILWAYS AND TRAMIVAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST INDIES 197 and 45 kilometers per hour, respectively, for the distinction of the tramways and of the railways. It is to be expected that, in this way, regulation will be more or less extensive in propor- tion to the amount of traffic and the resulting speed of trav- eling. Among the conditions stipulated in the different conces- sions for the private railway companies, we mention the fol— lowing: For one line only, the above-mentioned one from Semarang to the Vorstenlanden, has the State given financial support; this was done in the form of a guarantee for interest. None of the other concessions received such support. The principal regulations speak of stipulations made neces- sary by the geographical location of the lines, etc. In all regu- lations, the right to nationalize the railways is stipulated; the only exception being one tramway line for which a concession has been given for an unlimited time, whereas for all other lines it expires after a certain period. Several principles have been followed in the course of years for the fixing of the amount which was to compensate for the nationalizing of a railway. At first, the idea was to repay the commercial value, i. e., the amount was fixed at twenty-five times the average net balance of the last years. Later, con- cessions have been granted in which the nationalizing amount was fixed by deducting from the final amount of construction expenses a certain sum for depreciation of rolling stock. Of late, a method has been followed which lies between the other two, and in which the compensation for nationalizing approaches the final amount of construction expenses in pro- portion to the number of years which have still to elapse till the date at which the concession expires. As nationalizing a railway is, after all, the only way to put a final stop to undesirable conditions, the principle of fixing the amount of compensation is too important not to speak of it at some length. In conclusion, we give the following tables containing in- formation about the development of railroads and tram-lines in the Netherland East-Indies in the last decade. 198 RAILWAYS AND TRAMVVAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES Length of Railways and. Tram-Lines Working at the End. of the Year (in km). 1903 1908 1913 Railways ................ .- 2,349 2,496 2,771* Tramways .. . - ..... -- 1,990 2,651 2,744 206 km. 1.435 111. gauge 32 “ 1.188 “ “ 4,729 “ 1.067 “ “ 465 “ 0.75 “ “ 83 K‘ ‘C ‘C 18 “ are operated electrically. Total of Construction Cost (in guilders). 1903 1908 1913 Railways - ..................... --192,199,000 218,751,000 264,033,000 Tramways .................. - - . 70,946,000 100,652,000 125,675,000 Per km. railway ........ -. 81,800 87,600 95,300 “ “ tramway.-- . 35,650 38,000 45,800 Working Expenses (in guilders). 1903 1908 1913 Railways ................... -- - 18,914,000 26,152,000 40,779,000 Tramways .................. -- 6,141,000 10,614,000 16,396,000 Railways, per day-km 22.10 28.86 40.31 Tramways, per day-km- -. 8.60 11.24 16.76 Net Balance of Working Expenses. 1903 1908 1913 Railways ...................... .- 8,151,000 12,223,000 19,628,000 Tramways .................... _. 2,836,000 5,185,000 8,213,000 Railways, per day-km .... -- 9.52 13.49 19.40 Tramways, per day-km 4.00 5.49 8.39 Net Balance in Percent on Construction Cost. 1903 1908 1913 Railways . ............ ._ 4.2 5.6 7.4 Tramways ....... .. 4.0 5.1 6.5 State-owned lines -- . 3.3 4.3 62* Private companies 5.5 7.5 8.6* * For these figures, the results of 1912 had to be taken. Amount of Traffic. 1903 1908 1913 Goods ton-km .................. -- 326,911,000 425,770,000 675,509,000 Travelers km ................... -- 767,553,000 1,158,024,000 1,939,533,000 Number of tons of goods 4,087,000 6,605,000 9,826,000 Number of travelers .... -- 42,538,000 63,392,000 106,131,000 RAILWAYS AND TRAMIVAYS IN NETHERLAND EAST-INDIES 199 Distance Covered. 1903 1908 1913 Number of engine-km-... 21,708,000 27,240,000 85,705,000 “ “ train-km 18,752,000 22,642,000 28,294,000 “ “ axle-km .... -. 854,955,000 588,850,000 786,458,000 Rolling Stock. 1903 1908 1913 Number of locomotives . - .... -. 832 970 1,134 “ “ carriages and luggage-vans 1,604 2,157 2,846 “ “ trucks ................................ .- 9,536 12,196 19,015 Paper No. 78 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS CONTROLLING AND GOVERNING THE BUILDING OF NEW LINES. By JOHN F. STEVENS, M. Am. Soc. C. E. New York, N. Y., U. S. A. —— The subject of this paper is one to which a very general, or a much detailed interpretation may be given. Broadly speak- ing, and adapting somewhat from Webster, it signifies the cor- rect and frugal management of resources, or capabilities of pro- ducing wealth, the proper manner to handle ways and means, so that the desired end may be best and most economically achieved. Certain principles can be set down, which are not original, but which have been recognized as axiomatic: That with due regard for true economy, only minimum capital should be expended that will produce the desired results. No increase in such minimum is justifiable, unless it can be clearly shown that it will increase net profits. No outside investment is justifiable, unless it is reasonably apparent that it will increase net profits, and not then, if it will take from the funds provided, sums which are needed for the proper construction of the road itself. The conditions under which many of the present railway systems of the United States have grown up, were very difierent from those which prevailed in any other civilized country in the world, and those conditions, excepting to a very minor extent, exist no longer with us. In the older countries, the centers of trade and population became well defined, beyond any probability of change, before steam, as a tractive power, became a factor in the situation. With these centers definitely fixed, and with the character and amount of the traffic between ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NE\V LINES 201 them a known quantity, subject only to small fluctuations, the matter of designing and building the proper tool to handle it became a comparatively simple task. The problem presented to our predecessors was from its nature much more complicated. An immense territory hardly known, as far as its detailed physical features or material re- sources were concerned, embracing every variety of climate and topography known to the temperate zones, became with wonderful rapidity the homes of millions of people, drawn not only from our own sparsely settled seaboard states, but from almost every country in the world: A mixed population of different races, habits and capacities, all seeking a permanent abiding place, and room for the energies of themselves and their descendants for all time to come. There was little time for study and analysis to enable an accurate forecast of the future to be made, as the demand became and continued abso- lutely insistent for swift exchange of people and products, not only between interior points, but between such points and the seaboard. And with a faith—we can call it nothing less— which was almost sublime, our fathers planned and built new, and extensions of existing lines far into and across lands where no paying traffic was assured, and which were inhabited almost exclusively by savages and wild animals; and unconsciously, these men erected for themselves as noble a monument as ever commemorated human achievement. It is undeniably true that were the theoretical problem presented to us today, of planning a system to handle the present traffic of this country, with the conditions as they now exist, the result, while resembling in its general features the railway map of the present time, would differ materially from it in many details; but no engineer or operator of our period, with all his advantages of technical training, of precedent and example, has any justification for adversely criticising his predecessors, when in their day, not only the financial means, but the very tools and men to work them, had to be evolved largely through their own unassisted efforts. A railway is simply a machine for the conducting of trans- portation, and the laws which should govern its planning and building are the same as those governing the planning and 202 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEW LINES building of any machine, and such laws, properly administered, will create one fitted to do its work the most efficiently at the least cost in fixed charges and operation. And as the engineer is largely the man to whom is entrusted this duty of “making a dollar earn the most interest,” it follows that there are cer tain definite essentials in each individual case, which he must carefully consider if his labors are to be crowned with success. The amount and nature of the prospective traffic, its character as regards rates, length of haul, cost of handling, as affected by speed, liability to claims for damages—its density, whether constant or fluctuating, balanced or badly unbalanced, whether wholly local or partly local and partly through, are all factors which must be carefully studied out, to enable an intelligent forecast of probable results to be made. Railway lines are planned and built to handle traffic, and the general principles upon which they should be planned are the same whether they are to develop new territory, that is, territory not already served by existing lines, or whether they are to share in a traffic already built up, in other words, to become competitors to divide with other lines a commerce that may or may not be certain of future growth. It is apparent to students of transportation in the United States, that the creating of large systems, by actual construc- tion, is past, and that while it is obvious that many miles of railway lines yet remain to be constructed, such mileage will be made up largely of branch roads, built to round out, to pro- vide feeders for, and to protect existing systems; that the necessity for new main lines, excepting in a few isolated and unique sections, is not at present manifest. The study of the conditions leading up to the contempla- tion of all such new lines, involves the same general problems, such as whether or not the line should be built at all, and if so, then where and of what character and cost. Railways are built to make money for their owners, and not as a rule from motives of philanthropy. Such then, being the case, the consideration of balancing the safe probable income (gross earnings) against the probable outgo (fixed charges, taxes and operation) be- comes the all important one, and the study of this considera- tion presents a separate, distinct problem in each individual case. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEIV LINES 203 When an established, successful system contemplates the building of a branch line requiring the providing ,of additional capital, it usually guarantees the bonds of such line, which renders the necessary financing an easy matter. The question of the earning power of such new line differs materially from that of a separate, independent proposed line; as, while the latter must depend upon its own strength to become a paying proposition, and while the former might in itself prove a losing investment, the long haul traffic it would give to the system, as a whole, would prove the wisdom of its creation. There is hardly a railway system in the United States, especially in the West, that does not afford examples of the truth of this state— ment. Many of the branch lines of such systems were added to them by purchase, and while the yearly financial balance of such branches, as the accounts are kept, may show on the wrong side, still, every official knows that the strength and support they give to the main lines, far outweigh any apparent loss, which they themselves may indicate. It may be set down as a rule: that in order to secure capi- tal for the building of a new independent line, the probable results to be expected must show at least ability to earn oper- ating expenses, taxes, fixed charges, and a sum over and above at least twice these amounts, to be applicable to sinking fund and dividends. Such requirement may seem to be unduly onerous to the eager promoter, but it is an economic financial consideration, and if it cannot be closely approximated, then the enterprise had better be dropped, and the energies devoted to it turned in other directions. And this phase of the problem brings sharply to the front the conservative care with which the data should be collected, analyzed, classified and summar- ized, that are to be used to interest capitalists to finance the proposition to a certain assumed amount, for the time being. Under such a program the approximate cost per mile, or total cost of the new line, as well as its operating expenses, must also be assumed, in which assumption the engineer and oper- ating man must co-ordinate; but when the probable financial results can be reasonably predicated, then the real work of the engineer will begin. The consideration of the probable safe financial results, 204: ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEW LINES which must control the building of a new line, is one to which is rarely given the amount of study which the conditions de- mand. The path of railway planning and building in the past, in the United States, is strewn with the wrecks of the hopes and fortunes of promoters and capitalists who have been lured to disaster by overheated imaginations and unwarranted assumptions in the shape of apparent traffic certainties, which, in most cases, a cold, careful, logical analysis made by com- petent, conscientious, experienced traffic men would have been clearly shown to be impossibilities. None but such men should be entrusted with the securing and preparing of such data, and no factor, great or small, which might afiect this result, . should be overlooked. What may be termed a house to house ‘ canvass covering all of the entire territory, which the new line can reasonably be expected to serve, should be made. Markets, ,. connections with other lines, divisions of rates, probable com- Zpetition, are most important factors to be carefully studied. ,The character of the country which the new line will traverse, iand its probabilities as to future growth, based not only on its jtapparent resources, but on the results which experience shows féhave been obtained in similar sections and under similar con- jiditions, should be thoroughly investigated. It is a well known truism that traffic, like water, will al- ways follow along the lines of least resistance, and while tem- porarily it may seem to contradict this rule, in the end the old natural law of the survival of the fittest will prevail; and it is dangerous to assume, on account of financial or other re- strictions, that if the new line cannot be made as good a trans- portation tool as its competitor, it will get any substantial part of the business. This is not a true assumption, for the handi- cap which will drive the major part of the traffic away from the new line, will drive much of the minor part away also. Other considerations from those noted above have gov- erned the building of some lines, such as roads promoted by communities or sections, in order to relieve monopoly so-called, either real or imagined. These attempts have generally proved disastrous for the promoters and financiers who were responsi- ble for them, and resulted in no lasting benefits to the public at large. Planned and built by parties having no practical ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BL'ILDING NEWr LINES 205 experience in the essential economics underlying the railway business, they have generally fallen into the ownership of the stronger lines, with the result that upon the public, in the end, was thrown the burden of additional carrying and operating charges, without any relief in rates and little improvement in character of service. Under our present regulation of railways by National and State laws, it is probable that such attempts at railway expan- sion will be infrequent in the future, as such regulations would seem to render them unnecessary, and it is 1; safe assumption that hereafter, new lines will only be built where economic conditions fully justify their construction. Neither will such lines be built in order to provide means for employing idle capital. The present outlook and the situation in which the railways have been placed during the past few years, offer little encouragement to expect that capital will seek an outlet for its energies along the lines of new railway promotion. Safety first, and the much more attractive openings for idle funds, will divert them to a great extent, into channels where more reliable returns can be expected, and where legitimate enterprises are not hampered and throttled down by the vagaries of political law makers. There are other factors, which may be called politic rather than economic, but which, if wrongly handled will most surely affect the general result. The importance of creating and main- taining cordial relations with the communities whose friendship and support are so essential to success, should be clearly recog- nized, and such relations should be established and maintained. In the matter of financing, the soliciting or accepting of local aid, as a rule, is of more than doubtful benefit, such aid, excepting possibly the fixing of reasonable prices for real estate, in the aggregate is ordinarily a negligible quantity. And too, the acceptance of such aid is usually construed by the public as imposing obligations on the railway company that are likely to cause embarrassment in the future. The printing and distributing of vast amounts of stock among promoters, should not be encouraged. Such stock is of doubtful value until a good earning power of the road has been demonstrated, and its issuance, excepting in very limited quan- 206 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEW LINES tities, is certain to become a handicap in dealing with hard- headed financiers. Such, in a general and preliminary way, appear to the writer to be leading economic considerations, to which the most careful thought and study should be given in working out any new proposition to build new, or to extend our present lines of railway transportation. Not only must present conditions— agricultural, commercial, financial and legal—be carefully weighed, but past experience must be consulted, if even a fairly accurate forecast of the future can be expected. As little as possible should be taken for granted, and a liberal discount should be made upon all factors, which, from their nature and uncertainty, cannot be proven beyond a reasonable doubt. ‘ ‘Hope springs eternal in the human breast,” but hope is a very insecure foundation upon which to erect a railway structure which will stand the storms of hard experience and sharp com- petition. Once, however, all the necessary data have been col- lected, carefully sifted and summarized, and the decision has been reached that the building of the line is a necessity, that it can be fully justified, and that the proper financial support can be found, then there enter into the proposition certain problems, which, while they are largely physical, are yet of great importance; and the manner in which they are handled, in connection with the purely economic questions, may make or mar the enterprise. These problems cover the actual planning and contructing of the physical road itself, in giving it a constitution and mem- bers suited to its needs, in short, to make it the kind of tool best adapted to the work it is to do, and it is these problems that it is peculiarly the province of the engineer to solve. The nature and amount of the expected traffic, as well as the country to be traversed, are the controlling factors, the proper appre- ciation of which must determine the physical characteristics of the proposed line. The engineer must approach the subject with an open mind, ready to receive, weigh, accept or reject every possibility which may be suggested, and to remember that no supposed natural gifts, or flights of the imagination will take the place of a cool, careful analysis of all the conditions as they are presented. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEWr LINES 207 The growing recognition of the fundamental truth that the planning and building of a railway is an exact science, and not a rule of thumb matter, will be of inconceivable benefit, not only to the railways of the future, but it will also tend to ele- vate the professional status of the true railway engineer to a plane which, in many cases, his right to occupy has not been generally understood and admitted. The economics involved in the building of a new line, should only be entrusted to a man who is not only a good technical engineer, in the broadest sense of the word, but he should also have a practical knowledge of the intricacies of handling transportation, the best and most economical methods of maintaining railway properties, and also, in a general way at least, the effect which the working out of the details of his problem will have on attracting traffic to the line or repelling it. A coordination of the various kinds of knowledge embraced in the above, in the hands of a man possessed of judgment and discrimination, should fit him to become what the writer has termed a true engineer. He should be furnished, not only with the general factors which made up the decision that the line should be built, but he should also be conversant with the details. This is especially true where the road will naturally enjoy a good local business, instead of being a bridge built mainly to haul traffic from a producing to a consuming point, across long stretches of unproductive territory. With a line of the former character, there is hardly a mile of its entire length where its character and cost of con- struction may not be affected by its prospective local business. The probable proportion as between passenger and freight earnings, as well as the character of each class and their rela- tive importance, are factors to which careful attention must be given. Ordinarily, in terms of both earnings and expenses, the freight will largely predominate, but too much prominence should not be given to that feature, as the comfort of passengers must be provided for, and while a road with easy grades and comparatively heavy curves may economically handle heavy freight, it must be remembered that human beings will com- plain—and justly—while dead freight will not, if hurled at high speeds over such a road. The mixture of passenger and freight traffic is a handicap, which prevents the engineer from 208 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEW LINES working out a perfect machine, but he must adjust his plans . to meet the conditions, and not sacrifice the interests of either class entirely to the other. Unless, however, the road is to be built to compete for highly remunerative passenger traffic, the one fact alone, that usually from 65 to 80% of the earnings come from freight, should emphasize the importance of securing the lightest grade the country will reasonably admit of, even at the expense of the introduction of somewhat heavier curvature than high- speed passenger service will demand. Concrete instances could be given where failure to appreciate the importance of this consideration, has resulted in serious detriment to the future value of railway properties. A careful study, commonly called reconnaissance, of all the territory to be covered by the new line—a study which will give the engineer a correct mental picture of it in all its physi- cal features, geographical and topographical—is a very im- portant, economical necessity. As a rule, no instrumental sur- veys (other than individual, by aneroids, etc.) should be at- tempted, until such a picture is fully complete in the mind. More mistakes in the essentials of location have been made, and more miles of poorly located line have resulted from the assumption of arbitrary rates of grades and curvature, and attempts to fit such standards to an unknown topography, than from any other cause. Find the theory to fit the facts and work it out, not the facts to fit the‘ theory. In other words, true economics demand that the engineer shall, when all data as to traffic and details of country are known to him, then evolve a line of such character that will come nearest to meeting all conditions, instead of trying to force a preconceived line of certain character on the country to handle its traffic. Once he has solved the general features of the problem, the rest are matters of detail, and with the application of the same recommended principles, he cannot go far wrong. He must remember that in the operation of the road, its financial status is, in the last analysis, like that of the individual —dependent entirely upon its income and its outgo ; and these terms mean, in the case of the former (as far as freight is con- ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEW LINES 209 cerned), ten miles (income) and train miles (outgo), and his problem is to build a road that can handle the greatest num- ber of ten miles, with the least number of train miles. That is all there is to the proposition. And it does not necessarily follow, that the lightest possible grade he can force through the country is necessarily the most economical one. An unnaturally light grade, may, and in many cases will, involve such length of line and such enormous cost of construction (necessitating not only abnormal fixed charges, but cost of maintenance, all of which will be reflected in heavy train mile expenses) that it will be found that a heavier grade, by reason of its shorter line, less expensive construction and better alignment, will prove, with proper adaption of power, to produce the more economical results. Again, like the individual, it is not so much what the road can earn gross, as to what it can save—its net. The writer is not attempting to argue as opposed to light grades. Light or heavy grades are comparative terms, and it is the grade over which the business can be the most cheaply and efficiently con- ducted that should be adopted, regardless of its percentage. The introduction during the last few years, of a certain class of locomotive, whereby enormous tractive power is obtained, without materially increasing strains on track or bridges, has introduced a different factor into, and to a great extent, has simplified the problem of gradients, especially on heavy moun- tain lines. In other words, where 'formerly restrictions in tractive power were necessary, to make wheel loads conform to strength of track and bridges, it is now possible to practically double the tractive force, and consequently, the gross load per train, without additional distress to permanent way. And in this manner, the effect of lightening or levelling up of grade lines, can be made practicable with marked decrease in train miles, and with a negligible increase in operating expenses and fixed charges. Of course, such a policy cannot be pursued in the majority of cases, but it can be in many, and it is a valuable point in railway economics for consideration. Another economy, to which the attention it merits is seldom given, is the consideration of so-called “pusher grades”. Time and space here will not permit of a technical analysis of this 210 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEW LINES important subject. It is a fact that the prevalence of opinion among railway operating men is against the use of such grades, and for which opinion no special reason can be given. Again, the question comes squarely back to cardinal principles: fixed charges and train miles. In many cases, where long stretches of non-revenue producing mileage would be forced to maintain a continuous light grade line, with abnormal expense in con- struction and maintenance involved, a thorough study of the value of pusher grades would surprise some engineers, who have been prone to give them no consideration. The matter of maximum rate of grade being decided, then its distribution becomes a problem of importance. Economical movement of trains demands that they shall be moved, not only with as large a tonnage as time will permit, but that they shall be moved solidly for the greatest distance practicable, both to avoid loss of time and cost of intermediate switching. Thus, if the proposed line is to be more than the economical length of one engine run, then the grades of each separate operating run must be worked out as an individual problem. And wherever any difference in rates of maximum grades may exist between different runs, it should be eliminated by adaptations of different classes of power, so that a continuous, unbroken movement of a uniform tonnage train can be made over the entire road. When we reflect that the average daily movement of a freight car is less than one-fourth of the daily mileage that the railways are paying train and engine crews for, it becomes very apparent that the fewer inducements that are given for holding up and switching a train, the better will be the operating re- sults. The comments which an old President made when he refused to approve a request for funds to build an additional yard, that “he would appropriate money to take up some of the existing yards to see if he couldn’t get cars moving”, contained a very large germ of wisdom. The economic adjustment of grades, in cases where the traffic is unbalanced, presents a complicated problem. Many times, however, this question is simplified by the nature of the country, as in case of roads built to handle the products of mines, which are often situated in high altitudes. In such cases, the problem is usually solved by the topography of the country, and the necessary limitations in capital expenditure. No set ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NE\V LINES 211 rules can be made to govern each case, but here is where the operating experience of the engineer, combined with his knowl- edge of construction and operation costs will, as a rule. produce the best results. The whole question, economically considered, of the ad— justment of grades and curvature, is one which no general rules can be absolutely made to cover. It goes without argument, that the lightest curves that can be consistently used, should be, whether the line is to handle fast passenger or slow freight service, or a mixture of both. There is no doubt but that the dangers of operation are materially increased by the intro- duction of a large amount of curvature, although it must be admitted that many of our most disastrous collisions have occurred on long tangents, in broad daylight. This, however, is where the human element asserts itself, and all we can do is to eliminate as many of the recognized sources of danger as is possible. The effects of curve resistance, not only in the absorption of power, but in the increased cost of maintenance of track and rolling stock, are too well appreciated to need discussion here. The compensation for curvature, if properly applied, will largely eliminate the first handicap, although, as it is some- times applied, without due consideration as to location of curve, speed and length of train, it is not of the full value that it should be. Practically each curve presents a problem which should be worked out on its own individual merits. The consideration as to what extent so-callec “permanent work” should enter into the construction of the line, as an economic measure, is one that must be governed largely by circumstances. There are times and occasions when the build- ing of masonry structures, steel bridges, expensive stations, etc., cannot be considered. The comparatively cheap cost of timber in some localities, and the absence of definite knowledge as to required capacity of waterways, fully justify its use in many instances. It is true that a railway is usually richer during its period of construction, when it is working on bor- rowed money, than it is ever afterward, and this dangerous knowledge has lured many an engineer into heavy expendi- tures, which might have been postponed for years, with large resulting economy. In the construction of almost every new 212 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BUILDING NEW LINES line there are instances where the expenditure of large sums can be deferred for long periods, or until the road has, by con- stantly increasing earnings, fully justified such expenditures. Temporary gradients, sharp curves, etc., can often be used until the traffic and importance of the line have fully demon- strated the necessity for the permanent work. And under these conditions, the financing can usually be done, without the heavy addition to capital charge, which the work, if done originally, would have entailed. The whole matter, however, is one requiring careful con- sideration, always remembering that the cost of supervision, engineering, law, right~of-way, rails, ties, ballast, buildings, signals, water service, and to a great extent, of bridges, is practically the same per average mile, whether the grading is heavy or light: in other words, light grades and easy curves involve what may be called the digging of a little more dirt. And by proportioning the cost of the above mentioned items to- the total cost, the force of the suggestion may be seen. But the economic consideration, which, it would seem from results, usually receives little attention, but which, with- out doubt, deserves very much, is the providing for proper terminals of a capacity not only sufficient for the present, but susceptible of enlargements for future requirements. It is a safe assertion that no other one cause, from a physical stand‘ point, contributes more to the high cost of operation, or is a greater handicap in giving good service, than the poor termi- nals of most of our railroads. It is frequently asserted, with much truth, that in many of our large cities, the cost of hand- ling a car, or a ton of freight, from the time it arrives in the break-up yard to the consignee, and back again from the ship- per to the same point, is as much as it costs to haul it 200 to’ 300 miles out on the open road. And right here the writer wants to emphasize that if it becomes necessary to economize (as the word is commonly used), do it out on the line but not at stations, and especially not at terminals proper, particularly in the amount—in area—of real estate secured. And these- terminals should be located as near the center of commercial and manufacturing activity as possible, especially if traffic com- petition exists, or is liable to exist, as is generally the case. Give the road between terminals a good constitution, in the DISCUSSION: ECONOMICS 1x BUILDING NEW LINES 213 shape of a proper location, with proper grades, and it will stand a lot of adversity and come out all right, but handicap it with small, improperly located and badly planned terminals, and it is useless to expect either first-class service or satisfactory returns. The line of argument adopted by the projectors of many new lines, in building into or through an old town, where keen com- petition from roads long established must be expected, is that they cannot afford to pay the high prices for real estate demanded for land near where the business exists. So they will stay out in the edge of the town and get a part of it, forgetting that the reason which induces four-fifths of the business to seek the nearest station, will induce about all of the remaining one-fifth to do the same. And a road that will cheerfully spend from forty to eighty thousand dollars a mile on its main line construction, will refuse to spend the equivalent of the cost of three or four miles of such line to obtain proper stations and terminals near the center of towns fifteen to thirty miles apart, whose trans- portation business amounts to a million or more dollars each, per year. No question is more insistent today, and no matter what laws and regulations are forced upon the railways, or; what rates they may be permitted to establish, they must— new and old—provide themselves with proper terminals, before they can expect good operating results and proper financial returns. The field of railway promotion and building is still open, and the writer believes it will widen and become again attrac- tive when the financial situation becomes normal, and when the general public understands and admits the community of interest which exists between it and the railways. The field is a legitimate one, but it must be cultivated on strict business- principles, a few of which the writer has endeavored to point out. DISCUSSION Mr. I‘. Lavis,* M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter) said that at an Inter- national Congress held to celebrate the completion of a most important link in the transportation routes of the world, one which it is hoped will draw the countries of North and South America closer together, it seems not inappropriate to discuss the difference in the habits of mind and thought of American and European engineers; and this especially * Consulting Engineer, New York, N. Y. Mr. Lavis- 214 DISCUSSION: ECONOMICS IN BUILDING NEIV LINES Lavis. in view of the fact that they will both probably play important parts in the development of the South American continent by railways, a work which is destined to receive a great impetus in the not far distant future. Mr. Stevens has pointed out the inherent difference in the trans- portation development of the two continents, Europe and America; in the former the railways have been built to link together existing developed centres of population with established commerce, in America they have been pushed forward into the wilderness ahead of civilization. The Euro- pean has, therefore, developed almost wholly along purely technical engi- neering lines to produce a structure or a machine to meet conditions and to connect points fixed within fairly definite limits; the American has had to develop a sense of vision of the future. Both have achieved wonderful success in their respective fields; there have been of course some failures, possibly more in this country, owing to the conditions, but it must be admitted that these conditions have developed in North America an appre- ciation of the true science of the economics of location and construction which is often only dimly sensed elsewhere. Mr. Stevens’ paper is instructive, if for no other reason than that after a lifetime spent in the development of transportation routes and in the construction of railways he instinctively devotes nearly half his space to a discussion of questions of finance—will it pay? There is, and rightly so. as it is a mere detail in view of the higher considerations, little said about the detail of surveys or construction, but certain prin- ciples, which he alludes to, some of which are not as well recognized as they should be, deserve emphasis and are as follows: (1) The necessity of studying the country and then determining the type of line which is the best compromise between topography and traffic rather than hunting for country to fit a previously conceived type. (2) The flexibility and adaptability of modern power, and the pos- sibilities of its use; and in this connection there might be added in some very few cases the possibilities of electric traction. This latter seldom comes into the field of view in the consideration of new lines, but the writer happens to know of one particular instance of some importance where it has, and of course its future possibilities are not known. (3) The general principles governing the relations of grades and curvature to the type of traffic and the fact that earthwork costs are a comparatively small proportion of the total cost of the line, the latter a point too often ignored or forgotten. (4) The need of providing adequate areas for terminals and station grounds. One further point may be made, and that is the growing appreciation of the fact that the negative values of curvature, rise and fall, distance and the operating value of different rates of gradient vary with the kind and character of the traffic. Sharp curvature is more costly in the case of a fast passenger train which has to slow down for it than for a long, heavy freight train; additional distance may or may not be an added DISCUSSION: ECONOMICS IN BUILDING NEW LINES 215 element of cost, etc. The tendency is now toward dividing the traffic into classes, and for many items to attempt to fix a value per ton mile rather than per train mile. It seems almost ridiculous at this late day to allude to the necessity of careful surveys once the general route has been decided on. In this the Europeans have been more generally consistent and careful than we have, and even today, although Mr. Stevens assumes as of course that such will follow, it is too often true that they do not; and even at this late date many of those who pay for construction fail to recognize the truth of Wellington ’s statement that it is “cheaper to move dirt with a transit than with a steam shovel.” Lavis. Paper No. 79 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE. By WILLIAM HOOD, M. Am. Soc. C. E. Chief Engineer, Southern Pacific Co. San Francisco, Calif., U. S. A. Following the decision to build a new line of railroad, the terminal points of which are defined, is the actual work of suitably locating the railroad. Suitably locating the railroad is designing its grade system and its center line in such a manner as to produce the most satisfactory investment for the owners. The most satisfactory investment for the owners, if of possible correct determination, might result in a materially different railroad, as first constructed, for instance, for owners not possessing a railroad of which the proposed new railroad is to become an extension or a branch, than for owners possessing a prosperous railroad of which the proposed new railroad is to become an extension or a branch, for the reason that a new railroad that is not an extension or branch of an existing railroad cannot endure so long a period of annual operating expenses and annual interest on the investment, together amounting to a sum in excess of its gross receipts, as can be endured by a new railroad which is an extension or branch of a prosperous railroad, to which it also contributes new traffic. For instance, with compound interest at four percent an- nual rate, and net revenue when operation begins equal to 46% of annual interest on the investment, and net revenue at the end of five years equal to annual interest on the investment, and net revenue thereafter increasing at the rate of 20% per year, it will require more than eight years from the date of commencement of operation of the road for recovering the THE LOCATING or .4 NEW LINE 217 losses of the first five years, and the increase in business may not be so favorable as assumed. Evidently the question of whether to build a railroad in reference to the expected traffic of the very near future or of a more distant future is of the first importance to the investors, and should be decided on by them as affecting the character and cost of the railroad which they desire to have located or designed. Some important portions of the investment can be regu— lated in amount by the character of the buildings, structures, track, ballast, etc. The necessary amounts of grading, tunnel- ing, sundry forms of masonry, and structures, are controlled by the location, as well as the future operating expenses of the railroad so far as they are affected by the curvatures, grade systems, and length of railroad. The most important matter is the determination of the grade systems, which if reasonably practicable should be of such ruling grade rates that they will not require change with any future increased traffic, that is, they should be the best practicable in reference to topographical conditions. Although this is not always possible with financial conditions under which the road is built, it is frequently possible and advantageous. In such cases, reduction in first cost can generally be made by the use at occasional points of sharp curvature to avoid tun- nels and to avoid or lessen grading work of unusual magnitude and cost. A railroad.so built with proper grade system will have hauled over it from the commencement of its operation, as heavy loads, of the sundry classes of locomotives, as will ever be possible, with the relatively minor objections, to the tem- porarily used sharp curvature, of the cost of resulting wear, and of operating over the extra distance, and possibly, the necessity for reduced speed for short distances. The future rebuilding of such a railroad, when warranted by traffic increase, will consist of occasional short reconstruc- tions, instead of the abandonment of considerable lengths of railroad. The grade system of a valley railroad or of one through an undulating country which has no great differences in eleva- 218 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE tion—if it is the most suitable grade system attainable—can, if necessary, be broken in the interest of cheapening the first cost of construction by the introduction of the well known expedient of velocity grades for use during the first years of operation, these velocity grades advisably having a maximum rate which is not in excess of the grade rate up which a fully loaded freight train can double, with half its load. These grades sometimes result in extreme unpopularity of the road amongst its passengers, unless the road is maintained in improbable excellence. In cases where a valley country grade meets the steeper grades required for surmounting a mountain range, the ques- tion of the advisable steeper grade becomes important as afiecting cost of construction and cost of operation; and with suitable advance consideration of the matter, it sometimes occurs that the most desirable grade system will cost little or no more to build than a less desirable grade system which might be decided upon without due consideration. It is sometimes the case that the use of the same class of locomotives on the valley road and on the mountain road is advisable, especially where the mountain grade is not necessarily of more than ordinary steepness, thereby reducing the number of classes of locomotives to be provided. For instance, if the valley grade is four-tenths of one per- cent, and the freight trains are adjusted to be hauled on long distances of this grade at twelve and one-half miles per hour by one Consolidation engine with fifty-seven inch driving wheels, thirty inch stroke and twenty-two inch cylinder diameter, and two hundred pounds steam pressure in the boiler, two of these engines will haul the same train at the same speed up a continuous grade of about ninety-six one-hundredths per- cent, or at a slightly reduced speed up a continuous grade of one percent. It would apparently be an unnecessary investment to expend considerable additional money to construct the road with a grade rate of less than one percent, especially in view of the fact that if in place of the two Consolidation engines on the one percent grade it ultimately became expedient to use, for instance, one Mallet Compound engine with fifty-seven inch THE LOCATING or A xnw LINE 219 driving wheels and thirty-inch stroke. with cylinders of twenty- six inches and of forty inches diameter and with two hundred pounds steam pressure in the boiler, which would haul the same train up the one percent grade at a speed of about fifteen and three-tenths miles per hour, which increased speed might be considered expedient or could be reduced by some extra ton- nage of delayed freight, etc., when desirable. In a question of this sort as to desirable grade rates, the passenger trains need not be considered as controlling, but the efiect of difi’erent grade rates may be illustrated by the follow- ing instance. A passenger train of four hundred and fifty tons, exclusive of engine and tender, would surmount a continuous four-tenths percent grade at about thirty—five and eight-tenths miles per hour if hauled by one engine with seventy-seven inch diameter driving wheels, with twenty-eight inch stroke and twenty-two inch diameter of cylinders, with two hundred pounds steam pressure in the boiler, and the same one engine and train will surmount a continuous up grade of one percent at a speed of twenty-five and six-tenths miles per hour. If it should be de- sirable to put two engines of the same class on the same pas- senger train, they would surmount the continuous up grade at about thirty-five and seven-tenths miles per hour. Instances can be multiplied as to varying grade rates, but the one already given sufficiently illustrates the advisability of consideration of the most desirable grade, and its adoption un- less prevented by adequate reasons pertaining to the invest- ment. If a very steep grade will enable a mountain range to be surmounted with a radically smaller construction investment than is required for a more desirable grade, it is sometimes justifiable to so build, with the plan of thereafter, at a suitable time, abandoning the steep grade after the construction of a better grade system, when warranted by the traffic volume. In this case it is desirable to know in advance of any con- struction work as to the position of the foot of each grade sys- tem, with a view of so locating the approach valley line as to require the future abandonment of as small a mileage of rail- road as practicable. 220 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE This last-named expedient, of using a relatively temporary grade system for surmounting a mountain range, will sometimes result in so great a difference in cost of construction as to result in the difference between the financial success and the financial ruin of the original investors. It is most important to have in view the fact that operating expenses can be adjusted, in a large degree, to variations in volume of traffic, and to a less volume than the anticipated traffic, whereas the interest on the investment cannot be so adjusted. The introduction of curvature to reduce cost of construc- tion of a valley or rolling country line is generally by the use of curves which are not especially objectionable as to sharp- ness and resulting reduced speed requirements and increased wear of track and rolling stock. The effect of such curvatures on running time of trains is sometimes over-estimated and un- warranted cost of construction incurred on this account, as well as in after years unwarranted cost of reconstruction. This is well illustrated by the time of the Overland Limited, running east between Oakland Pier, California, and Ogden, Utah, which has certain speed restrictions running down very steep grades on which there is considerable sharp curvature, the running time of which train on account of other curvature is increased but eighteen minutes in a total dis- tance of seven hundred and seventy-seven and four-tenths miles. Illustrating by another instance: the time of the Fast Mail running west from Ogden to Oakland Pier has certain speed restrictions running down very steep grades on which there is considerable sharp curvature, the running time of which train on account of other curvature is increased but six and four- tenths minutes in a total distance of seven hundred and seventy- nine and one-tenth miles. Evidently curvature efiects, other than in increased run- ning time of trains, exist in approximately defined but not thoroughly established values. The introduction of curvature to reduce cost of construc- tion of a railroad built on a steep mountain side or on the steep sides of a river gorge is generally justifiable to a degree that THE LOCATING OF A NEIV LINE 22]. might be considered extreme, particularly where the grade is so steep as to itself limit the speed of trains up grade, and where nearly as slow a speed is prudent on down grades, on account of the possibility of slides, minor washouts, rocks from mountain sides, etc., the objections to curvature in such situ— ations not including the effect on running time of trains. Careful engineering methods in such cases would include a consideration of the relative operating values versus the relative costs of construction of any portions of the line, where possible alternative lines were obvious. The worst error in such cases is where alternative lines are compared, neither of which is the proper line to adopt. To avoid this, and have a proper basis of comparison, the cheapest line which is reason- ably practicable, within the adopted maximum grade and maxi- mum curvature limitation, should be designed and used as a basis of comparison. When this is carefully done it will gen- erally be found that with the transverse slopes of the mountain sides very steep, the cheapest line will prove to be the proper line to build, with conservative consideration of the probable traffic to be assumed as a basis for the computations. The modern curve is located with easements at each end, variously termed spirals, easements and tapers, the latter being the term which will be used in this paper. It is advisable that these tapers should be readily run out on the ground by measurements and transit deflections, similar to the methods used for the principal curve, and with the mini~ mum amount of necessary field computations, for the reason that such field computations are unusually subject to error and particularly because they cost money unnecessarily. The tapers furnish a means of superelevating gradually, eas- ing the shock of the rolling stock in passing from tangents to curves; the effective amount of the easement being indicated by the distance that the main curve produced backward or forward passes inside of the terminal tangents. The usefulness of the taper depends on the general maximum running speed of the trains in the several localities, and where speed restrictions result in slow speeds, as for instance either up or down steep mountain grades, the taper is not needed to a very great extent, and in such localities a very short taper is justifiable 222 THE LOCATING OF A NEW’ LINE if it will save cost of construction versus the cost of construction required by a longer taper. It is evident that when a train or any part of a train is once on the main curve, the taper has no further effect, and it is no more appropriate to run too fast, for instance on a tapered eight degree curve than on an eight degree curve that is not tapered. A common form of taper in use, and which was designed and tabulated by the writer in the spring of the year 1881, con- sists of a series of short curves, each thirty feet long, each suc- cessive thirty foot curve being twice as sharp, three times as sharp, four times as sharp, etc., as the first thirty feet of curve used in getting from tangent to the main curve, with the reverse order in getting from the main curve to tangent. On valley lines, a taper beginning with thirty feet of a fif- teen minute curve leaves nothing to be desired for the use of the fastest trains. On mountain side and similar lines with steep grades and moderate grades, a taper beginning with a two degree and thirty minute curve is found excellent in its results and is justifiably used where a flatter (and longer) taper would involve increased cost of construction. Too flat a taper and too long a reversing tangent increases cost of construction in a mountain country with steep transverse slopes, or in a confined river gorge where flood water is danger- ous and where the mountain sides are steep, to an extent not always fully appreciated. The effect of the taper and reversing tangent in the increas- ing of cost of construction is indicated by the resulting distances in a direct line between the centers of the corresponding main curves, versus the sum of the main curve radii, the difference of these distances indicating the horizontal distance to be disposed of in excess of the no-horizontal distance required by reversed curves without tapers and without reversing tangents. The greatest effect of this sort results from the use of flatter tapers, indicating more benefit with the same expenditure in con- struction from longer reversing tangents than from flatter tapers, a reversing tangent of one hundred and eighty feet length, how- ever, provides amply for the longest engine and tender now in use, including a suitable length at each end of the reversing THE LOCATING OF A NEIV LINE 223 tangent for handling the elevation of the track for the first thirty feet of the taper curve. In illustration of this matter, two six degree curves with tapers commencing with thirty feet of one degree curve and with one hundred and twenty feet reversing tangent, will have their centers separated by a distance of twenty-one and seven-tenths feet in excess of the sum of their radii; and two six degree curves with tapers commencing with thirty feet of thirty minute curve and with one hundred and twenty feet reversing tangent, will have their centers separated by a distance of sixty-three and one- tenth feet in excess of the sum of their radii, resulting in the latter case in a distance of forty-one and four-tenths feet hori— zontal to dispose of in the last example in excess of that in the first example, which forty-one and four-tenths feet might result in prohibitive or at least in extravagant cost of construction. In further illustration of this matter : two ten degree curves with tapers commencing with thirty feet of two degree and thirty minute curve and with one hundred and twenty feet of reversing tangent, will have their centers separated by a distance of twenty- one feet in excess of the sum of their radii; and two ten degree curves with tapers commencing with thirty feet of one degree curve and with one hundred and twenty feet of reversing tangent, will have their centers separated by a distance of seventy-six and five-tenths feet in excess of the sum of their radii; and two ten degree curves with tapers commencing with thirty feet of thirty minute curve and with one hundred and twenty feet of reversing tangent, will have their centers separated by a distance of two hundred and thirty-three and five-tenths feet in excess of the sum of their radii. These extra horizontal distances to dispose of, for instance in a river gorge, would mean part or all of the distance more than otherwise necessary used in placing the center line of the rail- road more into the river flood exposure or more into the moun- tain sides in cutting or tunneling, and in close localities might give excessive cost of construction without increasing the suitable speed of trains for that locality; all of which indicates the need of conservatism in deciding on the financially appropriate taper curve rate. The field work of locating a new line should be as accurate 224 THE LOCATING OF A NE\V LINE t l t i i 'i y e .r instrumentally, including measurements, as is reasonably practica- ble, in order to avoid the subsequent cost during construction of erroneous work by the slightly increased cost of the location surveys. In locating a line on rough country, like a steep mountain side or a river gorge of like character, it is economical to have the preliminary survey made with the same accuracy of measure- ment and instrumental work as characterizes the final located line. This is not the universally prevalent practice, which explains to some extent the failures to place the line in its most advan- tageous position in reference to the topography which are oc- casionally seen and paid for heavily by the investors, often unconsciously. Where a finally located line is carefully planned in reference to a preliminary line, and the final line is correctly run out instru- mentally, it is certain not to occupy the carefully planned posi- tion if the instrumental and measurement work of the prelimi- nary line was not as correct as that of the finally located line; and, if the careful planning was correct, the located line will have to be resurveyed, which may be a considerable cost entirely wasted if the region is precipitous, or heavily overgrown with brush and timber. Field or field office computations for facilitating the placing of the final center line in reference to a preliminary line should, in steep transverse slope country, be based on working plats of a scale not smaller than fifty feet to the inch, and these plats be considered as diagrams, the final notes for field use being com- puted therefrom. Any less careful methods in such a region are reckless trifling with the resulting construction expenditure. Field books, for the use of engineers, designed to furnish ready solutions of the mathematical problems which occur in the field or the field office in locating a line of railroad, are sometimes somewhat circuitous in their methods, which tends to extra expen- diture of time that is paid for and to increased liability to error. All location problems that can present themselves to the engineer, with either the use of plain or of tapered curves. can be solved the most readily and rapidly by referring the centers of the curves to rectangular coordinates, one of which is generally THE LOCAITNG-OF A NE“7IJNE 225 most suitably an initial or a terminal tangent, the intermediate distances being most conveniently resolved by a corresponding traverse; the final solution of the most complicated problem then taking the shape of the working of a triangle. When this method is once understood, all other methods be- come cumbersome and wasteful of time. The reduction of grade rate on curves on long, continuous, maximum grades is of importance, the ideal condition being that there shall be no more resistance to propulsion on the curve than on the adjacent tangent. Of the various proposed methods, the writer has found by experiment that the following is satisfactory for all practical purposes :— Up to and including three degree curve, reduce grade rate thirty-five one-thousandths foot per degree of curve; Thence to and including six degree curve, reduce grade rate four one-hundredths foot per degree of curve; Thence to and including eight and one-half degree curve, reduce grade rate forty-five one-thousandths foot per degree of curve ; Thence to and including ten degree curve, reduce grade rate five one-hundredths foot per degree of curve. A slightly less grade rate reduction will answer the purpose on very perfectly maintained track. The comparison of alternative lines in reference to their annual operating expenses as affected by distance, grade rate and rise and fall, and curvature, all versus annual interest on their several costs of construction, should be undertaken with extreme conservatism as to predicted immediate traffic and its rate of increase, particularly in these times of passenger and freight automobile competition, as well as the possible competi- tion of additional rail lines that may hereafter be built advisably or otherwise. It is doubtful if less than twelve percent per annum should be used in capitalizing supposed saving in operating expenses versus more nearly known difference in cost of construction, whereas under conditions of a few years ago a much less annual rate could be safely used for such capitalization ; and some items of cost of construction may be exceedingly approximate. 226 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE This matter, however, is to be determined for each case. The well known variety of formulae and methods for ap- proximate determination of differences of cost of. operation need not be detailed, but in place of it a description of the method preferred by the writer may be of interest. If the accounts of an existing line of operated railroad are available, which railroad or some division of it resembles the proposed line in general physical characteristics and probable method of operation, it can be assumed for the purpose in view that the new road will have its manifest freight trains and its passenger trains, etc., of about the same tonnages—but perhaps with a less number of trains of each class—as the existing road. That is, a representative freight and passenger business can be assumed, with the total approximately corresponding to the con- servative prediction of the business of the new road for the as- sumed period, and this representative business can be in the form of a defined number of trains of the sundry classes per day both ways over the road. It will be noticed that the actual accounts of the existing road that are of interest in this connection should not include general expenses common to all tonnage, but only the direct train expenses as follows: Locomotive expense, car expense, train crews, maintenance of road exclusive of special accounts like snow sheds, for instance. Cost of locomotive fuel to have added to it suitable freight, for instance one-half cent per ton mile. The actual account items of the existing road should first be reduced to their value on equivalent straight and level track by the proper factor for the existing road, which account items can then be multiplied by the proper factor to obtain their sup- posed value per actual mile of the proposed road. The reasonably correct determination of these factors is of evident importance, and its importance increases with the amount of difference between the existing and the proposed road as to grade rises and falls and total curvatures. Also in the present state of railroad records it is prac- tically necessary to use the same factor for freight trains and for passenger trains, that is, a compromise factor, and an at- tempt to take account of all variations in classes and speeds of THE LOCATING OF A NE\V LINE 227 trains would require impracticable calculations and unattainable data. Assuming, however, an average resistance to propulsion for all classes of trains to be ten pounds to the ton of two thousand pounds, the corresponding up grade would be five-tenths of one percent, one mile of which with twenty-six and four-tenths feet rise would require the same power expenditure for the rise only as would be expended in running the train one mile on straight and level track. That is, the expenditure of power for lifting the train one foot vertical would be the same as for propelling the train on two hundred feet of straight and level track. Expenditure of power and cost of power (exclusive of en- ginemen’s wages) are not in proportion, the cost ratio being sup- posedly, all things being included, as about one-quarter to one- fifth of the expenditure ratio. One-fifth of two hundred feet being forty feet, and forty-four feet being conveniently used. Similarly assuming average curve resistance per degree to be equivalent to that of a grade of forty-tive one-thousandths percent, it would be about one-eleventh of the resistance of one foot vertical of grade, or per above assumption, one degree of curvature would be taken as equivalent to four feet horizontal. Evidently, in fact, the very light curves, thirty minute curves for instance, are probably operated without any extra cost ' over that of operating the same length of tangent; and similarly, where the ruling grade is, for instance, fairly steep, as one per- cent more or less, the cost of operating undulations of grades of very light rates is probably little or nothing in excess of operat- ing a corresponding distance of level grade, and the above as- sumed values of the cost of operating a foot vertical of grade and a degree of curvature are considered as being an average of cost of operating such light grades and curves, and of operat- ing grades and curves the actual cost of operating which may be in excess of the assumed cost figures. The cost of maintenance of road for passenger trains versus for freight trains is assumed to be per train mile for certain items, and assumed to be per the relation of the squares of the average velocities of freight trains and of passenger trains for other items. On some reads this relation would be about three, and on 228 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE some roads about four for passenger trains to one for freight trains; in both cases per their total tonnage. Doubtless with increased knowledge derived from more care- ful segregation of accounts of cost of operation, more minutely accurate factors will be attainable. The method may be illustrated by the following example: Actual distance one hundred miles. 1056 degrees curvature at 4 feet ........... -. 4,224 feet. 3122 feet rise East, 1102 feet rise West, 4224 feet divided by two gives average rise on round trip of 2112 feet at 44 feet .......... -. . -. .. . -. 92,928 feet. Total equivalent straight and level feet . 7,152 feet. Which is ....................................... .- -- 18.4 miles. Actual distance -- - - . -- - .- . . 100.0 miles. --_-_ Total equivalent straight and level dis- tance - . .... ..118.4 miles. which is 1.184 times the actual distance. Assume gross trailing load ...................................... --2000 short tons. Assume net trailing load .... -- . ............................ -- 800 short tons. Assume fuel oil ......................................... -. 56 cents per barrel. Assume fuel oil freight ............................... --10.54 cents per barrel. Assume train hauled by two Consolidation engines with 357-inch drivers and 30-inch stroke, with 22-inch cylinder diameter and 93.5 tons on the driving wheels, with 200 pounds steam pressure in the boiler, and each engine and tender weighing 190.22 short tons. Table A gives the cost for one train mile. Similar methods apply to all classes of trains, but if a helper engine is utilized daily, for instance sixty-five miles, and wages are paid for one hundred miles, the engineer and fireman would each receive per mile one hundred sixty-fifths of wage rates in Table A. It may be of interest to supplement the above with a state- ment of the difference in cost of hauling the same trailing load With one Mallet compound engine having fifty-seven-inch diame- ter driving wheels and thirty-inch stroke, with cylinders of twenty-six inches and forty inches diameters and with one hun- .6 EIXI'I MEIN v .410 sxuvooq 1111.1. Table A. Cost of One Train Mile with lI'wo Consolidation Locomotives. Sundry Costs. Per Per Actual Equivalent Additive Straight Constant Total Cost and Level per Actual per Actual Mile Mile. Multiple. Mile. Mile. Cents Cents. Cents. Cents. Engineer, road engine 5.350 ...... .. 1.0 ...... .- 5.350 Engineer, helper engine ......... .. 5.350 ...... .. 1.0 ...... .. 5.350 Fireman, road engine 2-970 ------ -. 1.0 ...... .. 2.970 Fireman, helper engine ‘2.970 ------ -- 1.0 ...... -- 2.970 Road engine fuel ...... .. 13.200 1.184 ...... .. 15.629 Helper engine fuel ...... .. 13.200 1.184 ...... .. 15.629 Road engine fuel freight ...... -- 2.484 1.184 ...... .. 2.941 Helper engine fuel freight ...... -. 2.484 1.184 ...... .. 2.941 Road engine repairs ................................................................ .- 8.735 1,184E ______ __ 10319, Helper engine repairs ...... .. 8.735 1.184 ...... __ 10,342 Road engine lubrication ...... .- 0.440 1.184 ...... __ 0,521 Helper engine lubrication ...... .. 0.440 1.184 ...... .. 0.521 Road engine roundhouse men, etc. .............................. .- 5.470 ...... -- 1.0 ...... .. 5470 Helper engine roundhouse men, etc. .......................... .. 5.470 ...... -. 1.0 ...... __ 5,470 Train crews 17.731 ...... .- 1.0 ...... .. 17.731 Car lubrication, oiling, inspection, etc. .............................. .. 17.047 1.184 14.547 34,731 Maintenance of road for road engine ................................ .. 1.205 1.184 ...... _. L427 Maintenance of road for helper engine ................................ .. 1.205 1.184 ...... __ L427 Maintenance of road for cars ______ __ 12.676 1.184 2.146 17.154 Total for one train mile ...... -. 158.916 being for 800 net tons 0.198645 cents per net ton mile. 230 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE dred ninety-seven tons on the driving wheels, with two hundred pounds steam pressure in the boiler, and with other conditions the same as before, the engine and tender weighing one hundred thirteen and one-tenth tons. Table B gives cost for one train mile when using one Mallet compound engine. That is, the use of the Mallet compound engine in place of the two consolidation engines, in this instance, Saves 20.306 cents per train mile, “ 0.025382 cents per net ton mile, 0.006835 cents per gross ton mile, the gross tons including the engines and tenders. 6‘ This equivalent straight and level distance method when applied, for instance, to an operated division of an existing rail- road, for the purpose of segregating these direct operating costs of a train to sundry parts of the division, for instance, to the several distances between stations at which the train stops, will give results which added together will equal the actual total of these direct operating expenses of that train over the entire division, regardless of what values may have been'assumed for curvature and grade rise and fall. If so used, however, it would be well to have a factor for passenger trains and a factor for freight trains, corresponding to their respective resistances to propulsion at their several aver- age speeds. This method of alternative line comparisons, which may be considered as predicting the operation of the road, with an as- sumed traffic, although necessarily imperfect, can be said to be at least as perfect as the data at hand, and if used conservatively will prevent the injudicious adoption of too expensive a line. THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE 231 05.x»: +5.: and“ $5.1m Qua: 9.9m mafia $0.2 come Eomwm ooocv ommd .350 6:2 1:53‘. .8; $00 230% l l I | I I 0| I l l | | | ll l I A a l | I0 I l l l 0 I II .350 6:2 3:53.. 3% 33200 52:35 +14% +2; 13% 0% ca #24“ 42A wwfim wmfié 0A 0% 63332 .9260 632 ESQ HE: 2925 "Emit/MESH .80 5:5 c8. #0: .8; E50 mcmm:.c 5:2. NB: 2% .30 M55: 5:5 5:: 02¢ .54 13:5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. W26 .54 was; .fi. oezzzeficfia ofiwsu .30 :12 E5 055252527 ...................... : .825 525.3985 .956 555422.53 .50 5.0.: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $5.5 E25 weed .............................. .- .35 H:2: 8:055:04 5520850 353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2232.53 @596 383 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -- was?! 2296 33m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -- Ewmpfl 65 cause 35% ...... -- 35% 55mg 23% 02:. @595 ~52 $5535 ommd @596 was Qeefiwzm .2200 5:2 $35324 Sm .330 .3225 6332600...“ 5:82 26 E53 e22 53H. 25 .80 $60 .m 035B DISCUSSION: THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE Hood. Mr. Eaton. Mr. Hood. DISCUSSION Mr. William Hood, in answer to a question by Mr. Wm. J. Ryan as to Whether the rate of compensation should be different for short and long trains and for passenger and freight lines, said the old theory was that there should be less compensation for short trains than for long trains; also ‘that compensation is practically adjusted on the basis of long trains, on the possibility that sometime long trains would be operated. The rates of compensation given in the paper were those which he had estab- lished in 1875. Experiments later made in Belgium indicated a somewhat greater rate of reduction than he used, due, probably, to the more rigid rolling stock in use there. After building many miles of line, using his rates, a series of experiments showed that the sharper curves pulled a little more easily than the tangents or the easier curves. Mr. G. M. Eaton,* Mem. A. I. E. E., said that in locating a main trunk line to be operated electrically, some modification may be made: (1) Heavy locomotives of shorter wheel base may be used. There- fore, it will be possible to use somewhat sharper curves than on steam roads. (2) The grade may be increased considerably for short distances, due to the great overload capacity of electric locomotives, for a short time. (3) The curve compensation may be somewhat decreased when the regeneration of current is considered. Mr. William Hood, in closing, said that, referring to the remarks of Mr. G. M. Eaton concerning modifications of grades and curves for main trunk lines to be built for electrical operation, he would quote and answer as follows: “ (1) Heavy locomotives of shorter wheel base may be used. There- fore, it will be possible to use somewhat sharper curves than on steam roads.” Suitable speed limitations on curves are independent of the kind of locomotives used. “(2) The grade may be increased considerably for short distances due to the great overload capacity of electric locomotives, for a short time.” Electric locomotives and trains, as well as steam locomotives and trains, will run more satisfactorily on a road without occasional unduly steep short grades, and economy in road construction can be attained by suitable skill in other directions than severe grade chopping. “ (3) The curve compensation may be somewhat decreased when the regeneration of current is considered.” It seems not advisable to in effect steepen grades locally against up grade trains for the purpose of increasing the gravity effect 011 down grade trains. In general it seems best to build a main trunk line as well for elec- trical operation as for steam operation. * Eng. Ry. Division, Westinghouse Elect. & Mfg. 00., East Pittsburgh, Pa. Paper No. 80 THE LOOATING OF A NEW LINE. By DAVID \VILSON, B. A., Assoc. Mem. Inst. C. E. Johannesburg, South Africa The actual work and methods of locating a new railway are so much dependent upon the type of line which it is pro- posed to build, and this, in turn, is so much modified by the physical character of the country and by its industrial history and development, that it seems advisable to examine these matters at the outset. South Africa is a plateau rising, as far as railway develop- ment has gone, to a height of 5735 feet, that being the altitude of Johannesburg, the greatest industrial centre in the sub- continent. Lines from five ports concentrate at this point. Four of these ports are within the South African Union; the fifth, Delagoa Bay, being in Portuguese territory. All these lines of railway encounter rough and steep country at short distances from the Coast. None of them, with the exception of perhaps the Delagoa Bay line, were planned as Main Lines to develop important inland mining and agricultural areas. They were designed to meet the requirements of small pastoral communi- ties living at no great distance from these ports, and after- wards extended great distances inland on the discovery of diamonds and gold. The main obstacles which the country presents to railway development were encountered in these short lines, and had to be dealt with at a time when neither the development nor the prospects of the country had made it possible or desirable to spend the capital necessary to carry out heavy works. The gauge of 3 ft.‘6 in., to which all South African lines of impor- tance are built, was decided on at this stage. This gauge was 234: THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE very suitable at that time, but if the pioneer lines had been built to be extended over long distances of comparatively easy country and to carry a large traffic, then it is possible that a wider gauge would have been justified. Large sums are being spent in reducing grades and in reducing and flattening curva- ture, but the question of a wider gauge has so far not been seriously raised. Sharp curves and steep grades were freely used on all the lines, and were necessary in order to negotiate the narrow kloofs and steep ascents. The Natal Main Line. for instance, on which alone is now carried over three and a half million tons per annum on a single line, has a minimum curva- ture of 300 ft. radius and grade of 1 in 30. The grades are not compensated for curvature, and, as the limits of grade and curv- ature are freely used together, the virtual grade is not better than 1 in 25. The line rises to a height of 2225 feet in the first 28 miles. It has on this section approximately 375 degrees of curvature to the mile. Sixty trains now pass over this line daily. The principal problem to be faced by the locating engineer in South Africa is that of grades. There are problems on the Coast belt, of lagoons, blown sand, corrosion and washaways; and inland, of waterless plains and great distances; but the question of grade has been the main consideration in the work- ing of South African railways. It will therefore be instructive to consider the various methods that have been adopted for overcoming heights. These methods have been, at the different stages of railway develop- ment, (1) steep grades, (2) reversing stations or zigzags. (3) artificial development, and (4) heavy work, with or without the assistance of artificial development. The early engineers had no option but to introduce steep grades, as the worst problems had to be solved in some way at a time when the resources of the country were undeveloped or undiscovered. The steepest grade adopted was 1 in 30, uncompensated, that being a grade which is practicable almost anywhere, although a rack section (which has since been replaced by a 1 in 50 grade) was introduced on the Delagoa Bay line, and reversing stations in conjunction with 1 in 30 grades were used in ascending van Reenen’s Pass on the Dra- kensberg. Reversing stations were used as a means of getting THE LOCATING OF A NEYV LINE 235 a 1 in 50 grade on the northern section of the Natal main line. These are a cheap and ready method of getting over grade diffi- culties in the first instance, but are expensive to operate, and are a serious cause of delay if heavy traffic is afterwards devel- oped. The question of replacing those referred to is under consideration, and even for unimportant branch lines, reversing stations are out of favour, and recent examples are not likely to be repeated. The next stage in the development of the art of laying out easy grades on steeply rising country has been artificial devel- opment, and South Africa has many interesting and picturesque examples of this method. The engineer in difficulties is con- stantly on the look-out for a likely spot where he can go through a nek with a cutting and, circling round the shoulder of a hill, reverse his direction. Then he will probably find a point at the junction of two or more valleys, where, by crossing the tributary streams, and re-crossing the main stream by a high bridge, he regains his original direction at a much lower level. This method is still in use even for main line work, and although it necessarily introduces a large amount of curvature, it is difficult to see how some of the ascents can be gained otherwise. An extensive deviation of the Natal main line which is at pres- ent being constructed furnishes an interesting example of cross- ing a summit on a comparatively easy grade by means of arti- ficial development, combined with heavy works. The deviation commences at Pietermaritzburg station yard, and the obstacle to be surmounted is a ridge 1518 feet above the starting point. The only practicable point of crossing the ridge is less than six miles from the starting point, in a direct line. It was prac- ticable to reduce the summit only 134 feet by means of a tunnel 902 yards long. Starting from the grade at the mouth of the proposed tunnel, natural development failed to reach the sta- tion yard by some 250 feet in elevation. The grade and the two ends of the line being fixed, either absolutely or by practical considerations, it was necessary to have recourse to artificial development. This was done on curves of 71/2 chains radius (495 feet radius; or approximately 11.5") at the cost of heavy work. There is no slack grade, except for crossing stations; the located line being 143/4 miles in length. In addition to tun- 236 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE nelling, it is estimated that the earthwork will be in excess of 75,000 cubic yards per mile, for a single line. Artificial devel- opment in this case introduced at least 300 degrees of curvature, all on the limit grade. As at least 40 heavy trains per day will be run over this line; £30 per degree is quite a moderate amount to which to equate curvature. For this class of line the method adopted should be used only as a last resort. As the improvement of this particular part of the Natal main line has been under consideration for some 20 years, and as at least four routes have been carefully surveyed, it may be taken that a direct line was unobtainable. While artificial development is exceptional and undesirable on main line work on account of the amount of curvature of necessarily small radius introduced, for branch lines it may be said to be the normal method of locating fairly flat grades, a grade of l in 40 being the steepest now favoured for branch line work. For this class of work the limiting radius of curvature is 5 chains (330 feet; 100.6 metres). It is comparatively easy to develop length with this limit of curvature. The steepest grade now being used for the main lines is 1 in 50, but that is used only with the greatest reluctance, the standard which is aimed at being 1 in 66 as a maximum. For instance, surveys are now in progress to relocate the first section of the Natal main line from Durban. which, after various reverse grades, reaches the first step in the plateau at a height of 2500 feet, and in a length of some 40 miles. The grade on the present line is 1 in 30, against both “up” and “down” traffic, uncom- pensated on curves of 300 feet radius, there being approxi- mately 370 degrees of curvature per mile. The new location will be on a 1 in 66 grade compensated, with no reverse grades. Curvature will be reduced by about half, and the length will not be increased. Final estimates of the cost have not been completed, but it is not misleading to say that the cost will be approximately £20,000 per mile for a single line. This is a direct line, the gradient being attained without artificial devel- opment. Tunnels up to about half a mile in length, but mostly much shorter, are being introduced to cut through the sharp spurs, instead of the old system of going round on sharp curves. The old line and the new location are instructive examples THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE 237 of the earliest and latest stages of the progress of railway loca- tion in South Africa. Having, in the foregoing, glanced at the physical and economical conditions that have influenced the development of railway construction in South Africa, and having indicated the standard which has been attained in main and branch lines in the more difficult parts of the country, it is now proposed to examine the considerations by which the locating engineer is guided in the selection of a route and in deciding in detail questions of grade curvature, rise and fall, length, etc. In these matters the principles laid down by Wellington in “The Economic Theory of Railway Location” are followed, with due regard to local conditions, and American engineers will find nothing new in South African practice. Grades being the great difficulty in South Africa, the first consideration is to get the best practicable grade. In this respect, it is very easy to compare different schemes, the only difficulty being in anticipating the growth of traffic. South African railway managers have had many surprises in this respect in the past. A few years ago the problem in Natal was to carry imported goods to the gold mining areas. and grades against traffic moving inland were being improved to facilitate this work. Now the problem is to carry coal to the port, and empties back to the coal fields, the traffic to the mines being relatively unimportant, and it is found to be imperative to build practically a new line. After grades, curvature is the greatest consideration. Curvature 011 the pioneer lines is extremely heavy, averaging as much as 370 degrees over the worst sections. As usually hap- pens. the sharpest curves are associated with the heaviest grades. The difficulty of grades has been overcome to some extent by the introduction of exceptionally heavy engines, designed to run on curves of 300 feet radius (19 degrees) on the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The South African Railways Class 12 engines, which have proved most successful. weigh 91 tons 16 cwt. without the tender, and it has been claimed that they are the heaviest non-articulated engines working on such a narrow gauge. Under these circumstances, the difficulties arising from curvature, especially sharp curvature, on steep grades, become 238 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE accentuated, and the wear on rails and tires becomes very great, in some situations an 80-lb. rail lasting only about six months. For new work where curves and grades are more favourable, it is considered that the expenditure due to curva— ture is about eight pence per degree per annum multiplied by the number of trains run over the section per day. The justi- fiable expenditure to avoid curvature is, on the most important lines taken at as much as £25 per degree. The cost per train mile on the South African Government railways is appproxi- mately 5/11. In a country presenting the physical characteristics of South Africa the question of rise and fall is most important. This especially applies, however, to a comparison between two routes of considerable length, but it is seldom that the locating engineer has the luxury of selecting such a route on purely engi- neering principles. A great many other considerations have weight in this, as in other countries, and rightly so. It is there- fore difficult to define South African practice with regard to rise and fall on a large scale. On any particular route, the question of saving rise and fall is seldom of relative importance. for the reason that so little can be done by heavy works to shorten the long inclines which are a feature of the country. For minor rise and fall the average practice is to allow 12/- per foot per daily train (round trip) but grades would not be broken up for the sake of strictly observing this rule. The question of length is the only remaining consideration. In main line work, length is in every case sacrificed to grade, at least to the extent of getting a 1 in 66 grade on main lines and 1 in 40 on branch lines. An important deviation recently completed on the Natal main line cuts out a section 21 miles in length having 1 in 30 uncompensated grades in each direction. On the new line the maximum grade is 1 in 65 compensated. but the length is 28 miles. Within the prescribed limits of grade, however, the question of length is most carefully studied and on important lines it has been considered justifiable to expend as much at per foot to effect minor shortening. It sometimes happens however, especially on a single line, such as practically all South African lines are, that circumstances do not justify expenditure proportionate to this. It is often THE LOCATING or A NEW mm.‘ 239 difficult in broken country to locate crossing stations to suit the traffic. If heavy expenditure can be avoided by lengthening a section which is less than the average between crossing stations, the question should be carefully considered on its merits, as a considerable lengthening might be introduced without appreci- ably delaying the traffic. The methods adopted in the field by the locating engineer do not present any novel features. In the settled districts, a map to the scale of one inch to the mile, shewing farm boundaries and the principal streams, is generally obtainable. In the first reconnaissance, if the route is of any considerable length, an aneroid barometer is used to ascertain the altitude of tying points. The next step is to run between these points with an Abney level to ascertain whether the limit grade is practicable. The length can be roughly ascertained by sketch- ing on the map and from local information. Should grade dif- ficulties present themselves a rough tacheometer survey is run and plotted. This, with field notes. will enable the length, curvature, etc., to be roughly estimated; or some salient points may be fixed from each station, and a rough contour plan pre- pared. If satisfactory results are obtained, a detailed tache- ometer survey is made and a contour plan prepared to con- venient scale, of, say, 200 feet to the inch in moderate country, and 100 feet to the inch in broken country. On this, trial lines are located and sections plotted, and the locating engineer care- fully balances the elements of safety, cost, curvature, length, etc. It may be said that it has been found in South Africa. as elsewhere, that it is often not so much a question of balancing curvature against cost, as of eliminating a fair portion of it altogether by extra care and the help of a good contour plan. When the route has been decided upon the line is staked out and a plan section and cross sections plotted. Should the country be broken, the final location of the line is done from the cross sections and the line is, where necessary, re-pegged. The 66-foot chain, divided into 100 links, is the unit of measure- ment in use over nearly all South African railways, and curves are defined in terms of the radius in chains, while grades are given in ratios. This necessitates the preparation and use of a great many tables and leads to many calculations that might 240 THE LOCATING OF A NEW LINE be dispensed with by the use of a more rational system of units, but in practice the inconvenience is not so much felt as might be supposed. All curves are located with transition curves at the ends, generally three chains long, and grades are connected by vertical curves at least four chains long. Grades are com- pensated for curvature at the rate of from 0.035 to 0.05 per cent per degree of curvature. A compensation of 0.04 is found, generally, to be sufficient, if not rather excessive, on new rails, but there is an impression that for long trains extending over perhaps more than one curve the resistance due to curvature increases. On sharp curves check railing adds to the resist- ance. The condition of the rails and tires and the length of rigid wheel base are important elements. The tendency there- fore is to increase the compensation to 0.05 where possible. The foregoing refers to the practice of locating standard 3 ft. 6 in. gauge main and branch lines in the more difficult parts of the country. Although South Africa is not by any means a regular plateau, the difficulties decrease inland and there are extensive areas presenting no particular obstacles. On the other hand, there are parts near the Coast which cannot be economically developed by means of a 3 ft. 6 in. gauge rail- way with a limiting radius of curvature of 300 feet (91.4 m.; 19°). A two-foot gauge has, consequently, been introduced, with a minimum radius of curvature of 175 feet (53.3 m.; 32.75"). There are 474 miles of railway of this gauge within the Union, and in German Southwest Africa there is a line over 360 miles in length on a gauge of 23.6 inches (0.6 metre), with a minimum radius of curvature of 38.26 metres. This line rises to a height of 5370 feet. These lines serve their purpose, but owing to the delay and cost of trans-shipping they are not looked upon with favour. At the present time, although some existing lines are being extended, there is no proposal within the Union to build new lines, and any proposal in future to depart from the standard gauge of 3 ft. 6 in. will be most care- fully scrutinised before being adopted. DISCUSSION: THE LOCATING OF A NEIV LINE DISCUSSION Mr. William Hood,* M. Am. Soc. C. E., in response to a request from Mr. A. H. Babcock that he give his views with reference to the location of a line for electrical operation, said that if a new road is to be built to be operated exclusively by electric power, and it is certain that it will never be operated by steam, in whole or in part, it is quite correct to build for exclusive electrical operation; that it is not uncommon to build for both kinds of motive power, owing to the uncertainty involved; and that in his opinion it would be injudicious to tie a railroad up to unnec- essarily sharp curves and steep grades if a better line is available at small additional cost. A railroad built for steam power may be well operated by electricity. In general, he would not favor short pieces of unneces- sarily sharp curvature and steep grade, unless it were absolutely certain that the line would always be operated by electricity. * Chief Engrz, Southern Pacific 00., San Francisco, Calif. Mr. Hood. Paper N 0. 81 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT OF RAILWAYS. By WILLIAM GRIFFITH SLOAN, M. Am. Soc. C. E. Chief Engineer, MacArthur Brothers Company New York, N. Y., U. S. A. The operations involved in the construction of railways have always required the employment of large numbers of men, the majority of whom constitute what is known as un- skilled labor, in contra-distinction to the various classes of mechanics ordinarily called skilled labor. Due to the decrease in the amount of available unskilled labor and the great decrease in the efficiency of that avail- able, the increase in labor—saving devices and appliances for railroad construction work has been rapid during the past twenty-five years; but due also to the physical conditions enter- ing into construction of this kind, methods which would be entirely suitable for one piece of work would not be at all adaptable for other work in many ways similar, and the result has been a great diversity of such labor-saving appliances in an attempt to meet the various conditions. Railroad construction divides itself into the following prin- cipal classes of work :— 1. Clearing of trees and underbrush and the grubbing out of roots. 2. The excavation and transportation of earth and rock to form the roadbed. 3. Tunnels. 4. Construction of bridges, which has the following sub- heads :— (a) Timber bridges. (b) Concrete and masonry bridges. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT 243 (c) Culverts of metal or earthenware pipes. (d) Steel superstructures of bridges. 5. Tracklaying. 6. Ballasting. 7. Structures, such as stations, water stations, shops, etc. CLEARING AND GRUBBING. The work included under the first division mentioned above, ordinarily spoken of as “Clearing and Grubbing”, is carried on today in much the same manner as it has been for many years past, except that the lack of efficiency in the labor available for this work is particularly noticeable. The hardy axemen found in such great numbers in this country a quarter of a cen- tury ago are fast disappearing, and the axe in the hands of the foreign laborer is not an effective tool. The writer has seen many railroad clearings that looked more as if the trees had been gnawed down by beavers than felled by axes. So far as the grubbing is concerned, there are a number of stump-pulling appliances, which together with the traction engine, which has developed rapidly in recent years, and the explosives now manufactured for the purpose, have enabled this work to be done more effectively and cheaply. EXCAVATION. It is under the second classification of work, viz., Excava- tion, that probably the greatest development of construction appliances has been made. The work of excavation, using the word in its broad sense, includes the loosening of the material, the loading of same into a means of conveyance, conveying to the place of deposit, and depositing in place. The first of these operations, that is, the loosening of the material, depends primarily upon the character of the material to be handled, and to some extent on the means of conveyance to be used and the disposal. In the construction of railroads, materials of all degrees of hardness and toughness are encoun- tered, and it is sometimes necessary to deposit material in a position where it must resist the action of water, and where larger pieces of rock are required; or again, it may be deposited in a low embankment where the larger pieces of rock can not 244 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT be used. All of these conditions, as above stated, affect the manner in which the work must be done. Of the various methods in use, the following are probably representative :— the pick. the plow, drills and explosives. Under the latter heading come some of the most interesting and valuable advances and improvements to be found in the development of this art. The blasting of rock has been known and practiced for several centuries, but since the invention of dynamite this work has been carried on in an entirely dif- ferent manner and to far greater effect. The drill has progressed from the old hammer and steel and churn drill to the highly effective air drill of today, carry- ing with it a corresponding increase in capacity for the removal of rock at very much less cost. There has also been adapted to the removal of rock on rail- roads. during the past few years, the well drill, by which large and deep holes are drilled throughout the excavation to be made. and large sections of it so loosened by the simultaneous shooting of a number of these holes that steam shovels are enabled to work continuously for long periods before it is neces- sary to do further blasting. thus obviating the moving back of the shovel and other equipment before each shot is made, as is necessary where only the face immediately ahead of the shovel is shot. The second of these operations, viz., loading, has also shown many interesting developments. In much of the railroad con- struction carried on today. the material is loaded into the means of conveyance by men with shovels, after having been loosened with the pick, if necessary, in the same manner as has been done since the early days of railroad construction. Likewise. much railroad work is done by teams and scrapers, of which there are a number of kinds. Those com- monly in use are the drag scraper and fresno for short hauls, and wheel scrapers for the longer hauls, the material being loaded by dragging the pan of the scraper through the material, which has previously been loosened by a plow, if necessary. Of the above mentioned, the fresno is the latest develop- ment and is almost wholly taking the place of the drag scraper. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT 245 Hauls in excess of eight hundred (800) to one thousand (1,000) feet can not be made economically with a wheel scraper. For- merly, where long hauls were necessary, much of this work was done by hand loading into wagons or small cars. In certain classes of material the elevating grader is used for loading into wagons. This consists of a plow which turns its furrow onto an elevating belt, which in turn deposits the material in wagons driven alongside. The grader is propelled by either horses or traction engine. The elevating grader fur- nishes a means of doing work very cheaply, where conditions are suitable. The material to be handled must be such. however, that it can be carried over the belt. and in stony or very sandy ground this is not practicable. Many miles of the Western prairie railroads in this country have been constructed by the use of graders depositing direct in the embankment from long borrow pits on either side of the line of railway. Where the amount of work to be done is sufficient. and justifies its installation. the steam shovel furnishes in many cases the best and most satisfactory method of loading material. It has the advantage of being adapted to handle either earth or blasted rock. and the roots and stumps of trees do not inter- fere with its operation. as in the ease of team or hand work. In fact. it is not necessary to grub out the stumps ahead of the shovel on work which is being done by this method. Material from the steam shovel is usually loaded into cars and hauled by locomotives to the place of deposit. The develop- ment of the steam shovel has been in the direction of capacity rather than change in type. and there are found on railroad work today shovels weighing from 20 tons to 110 tons. The so-called drag-line. which is primarily adapted to the handling of material where the points of deposit and of excava- tion are both within reach of the machine. is now being used to some extent in the loading of cars and wagons. and to that extent is taking the place of the steam shovel. its particular advantage being that it can dig much below the grade on which the machine travels. which is a great advantage. particularly if the material is wet and the ground soft and swampy. There are several types of drag-line machines. the basis of all of them being a heavy steel bucket which is carried forward 246 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT either from the boom or cableway and drawn back through the material to be handled, during which operation it loads itself, and then is raised and carried to the point of deposit and there automatically dumped. Where conditions are favorable, material can probably be handled more cheaply by this method than by any other method in use today. The operation of conveying is accomplished in various ways. It is to meet the requirements of economy in this opera— tion that developments have been made not only in it, but in all of the other operations involved in excavation. In the old days when much railroad embankment was made by men using wheelbarrows, it was good practice to con- tinue their use only so long as the time, and consequently the cost, of transporting from the pit to the dump and returning did not exceed that of loading, which in practice limited the distance earth could economically be moved by this method to about one hundred and fifty (150) feet. If the distance was greater, some other method was resorted to, the cost of trans- porting necessitating the change. The cost of transporting is often reduced by increasing the capacity of the conveying medium, which in turn has required new and improved means for loading the larger conveying mediums, and in very many other ways can be seen the far- reaching influence of this operation for a general development throughout the whole field. Where scrapers are used, the scraper with its load is drawn by horses to the point of deposit and there dumped. Likewise, where elevating grader and wagons are used, con- veying is accomplished in the same way. Where steam shovels are used, conveying may be done by wagons if the haul is short, but it is ordinarily accomplished by the use of cars and locomo- tives. The track for these cars may be either narrow gauge (3 ft.) or standard gauge (4 ft. 8% in.), the determining condi- tion as to the gauge used being, first, the amount of work to be performed at any particular point by the plant, and second, the accessibility of same from an existing railroad or‘ other means of transportation. The large, heavy cars and locomo- tives required for standard-gauge work are moved only with considerable difficulty through a rough country. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT 24.7 The operation of depositing the material, in the case of work in which teams and scrapers and wagons are used, is the simple one of dumping the material and leveling off same by men with shovels. Where material from steam shovel is being deposited in railroad embankments, if the height of the embank- ment is more than four (4) or five (5) feet, it is necessary, in order to avoid continually raising the track, to build trestles or other means of support for the track on which the material is brought to the dump. Such trestles are constructed gen- erally strong enough to support only empty cars, the end of the fill being maintained at grade to furnish support to the locomotive and loaded cars which are dumped as they pass over the end of the fill. Where the 3-foot-gauge cars are used, the dumping is accomplished by tipping the car sideways by hand and allow- ing the material to run out. This is also the case with the smaller cars up to a capacity of, say, six (6) or seven (7) yards, where standard-gauge cars are used; but there are also cars having capacities up to thirty (30) yards used on standard- gauge work where the dumping is accomplished by the use of compressed air furnished from the locomotives. Cars of this capacity are not generally used on new con- struction work, being more often used for the filling in of trestles and otherwise improving existing lines of railway, and are largely taking the place of the flat cars and plow, which were much used formerly for this purpose. After the dumping of the cars, a certain amount of spread- ing is necessary. which is generally done by men, in case narrow-gauge plant is used; on heavier work, where larger amounts of material are being used on standard-gauge work, the spreader is often used for this purpose. The spreader con- sists of a heavily weighted car having adjustable wings on either side, which in passing over the track, levels off and spreads the freshly deposited material by means of these out- spreading wings. Spreaders are now to be had in which the adjustments are entirely actuated by compressed air. As a substitute for temporary trestles on very high and short fills, there has in recent years been used a type of cable- way bridge, which has proved of considerable economy. 248 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT While on the subject of excavation, it is proper to mention two other interesting methods by which this work has been accomplished within the past few years: these are the construc- tion of railroad embankment by use of the hydraulic dredge, as instan-ced by work done by one of the railroads of this country which skirts the bank of the Mississippi River, and also by the so-called hydraulic sluicing method, which was used by one of our Western railroads. TUNNELS. The history of tunnelling is most interesting, extending as it does from the most ancient times, when the work was carried on by barring and wedging and by fire and water, used alter- nately to heat and quench the rock, down through the seven- teenth century, when the introduction of gun powder entirely changed the method of doing this work. The amount and character of work done under the old methods are amazing. The great development came. as in the case of the rock excavation mentioned above. with the invention of dynamite and the im- provement of drilling machinery; and while the study of the different methods used in this country and abroad for the driving of tunnels, and also of the different types of drilling and other machinery, would be most interesting, it can not be undertaken here,‘ it being sufficient for the purpose of this paper to briefly mention some of them. The determination of the method to be followed in the driving of a tunnel always involves the questions of progress and cost, such a method being adopted as will give the max- imum of the former consistent with a reasonable cost, all things being considered. This does not necessarily mean that the above mentioned maxima and minima are absolute; but rather, having assumed a certain justifiable cost, the method must be such as to produce a maximum of progress, and vice versa. The points at which work may be carried on in driving a tunnel are obviously limited by economy. Generally speaking, the two ends of a tunnel are accessible for this purpose at reasonable expense. To afford additional working faces, shafts must be sunk, and the problem of how many, if any, are justi- fied, must be solved. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT 249 If the tunnel in question is the critical part, as regards time, in the construction of some large project, the cost of several shafts and the adoption of rapid but expensive methods of tunnel driving may be justified. In the driving of any railroad tunnel, or other tunnel of large cross section. through rock, the work is carried on by first driving a drift or tunnel of smaller cross section, called a heading, somewhere within the cross section of the finished tunnel. The purpose of this is to facilitate the excavation of the remaining part of the cross section of the tunnel by afford- ing two free faces to the rock which is to be removed, which greatly increases the effectiveness of the explosive. The size and shape of the heading should be such as to permit a maximum of progress and leave the remaining cross section in the best shape for its removal. The location also should be such as to permit the easiest removal of the remaining cross section. To a considerable extent. the location depends upon the character of the rock. a bottom heading is often the best where the rock is self-supporting. and a top heading where the rock requires timbering for support. It will be evident that the driving of a heading, with its constricted working space, does not admit the use of labor- saving appliances for handling the material, and is entirely a question, except as to the use of drilling machinery, of hand labor. It will also be evident that the progress of the whole tunnel is entirely dependent upon the progress in the heading. In European practice where the greatest records of prog- ress have been made, they have been accomplished by driving two, or even more, headings connected by cross drifts to facili- tate the removal of the material and ventilation. Due to the relatively low cost of labor in Europe. this has been done with- out increasing the cost of the whole tunnel excessively. In the United States, however, these methods have not been generally followed, a single heading usually being driven, with consequently slower progress. It is in the removal of the remaining cross section of the tunnel, after the heading has been driven, that labor-saving appliances have been developed, principal among which is the 250 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT application of the steam shovel operated by compressed air for the loading of blasted material into cars. There have also been constructed for work of this kind, drill carriages mounted on cars which, in turn, are carried on a track, and which permit the removal of the whole battery of drills before each shot is made, and the replacing of same, as a unit, as soon as'the muck has been sufficiently cleared away to permit. Machines of this kind have also been combined with load- ing devices, consisting of belt conveyors onto which the blasted material is shovelled by men and conveyed automatically into cars, which in turn are hauled away by either horses or electric locomotives. During the last few years there have been brought out a number of so-called tunnelling machines the general principle Eof which has been aIIiYgFre'ciprocatin'g; and at the same time f'revolving, cutter-head so mounted on a track as to be brought into contact with the face of the rock, which is gradually 5 broken down by blows of the cutter-head, the pulverized mate~ . rial being either washed back by flow of water or carried back by a system of conveying belts. These machines have all been, ; however, in the nature of an experiment and have not been i‘, brought to a state of development where they may be consid- lered of practical use. In and around New York City during the past decade, there has been carried on a very large amount of sub-aqueous railroad tunnel construction, in the doing of which there have been developed many interesting applications of compressed air, special designs of shields and grouting machines, and other devices for handling the excavated material and cast-iron plates and concrete with which these tunnels have been lined. BRIDGES. The trend of bridge construction of American railroads is altogether toward the construction of permanent structures. With the great increase in use of concrete for this purpose, and the decreasing timber supply of this country, there are com- paratively few timber bridges now being constructed. What few frame timber bridges are built are in inaccessible places CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT 251 where it is out of the question, within the limits of economy, to bring in steel or other material, and where suitable timber is abundant on the ground. There is, of course, still being constructed a considerable amount of timber trestle work, and outside of the approved appliances for driving piles and the pneumatic and electric hand drills for drilling holes for drift bolts, there has been little development in labor-saving appliances in this work. The enormously increasing use of concrete for railroad structures has practically revolutionized the branches of rail- road construction in which it has been used. Aggregates for concrete are far more generally and cheaply obtain- able than stone for masonry, and concrete does not require the skilled labor necessary for the construction of masonry structures; and by the combination of concrete and steel, to form so-called “reinforced concrete”, the actual quantity of concrete required in many structures is far less than would have been required if they had been constructed of masonry. The developments in the art of making and placing con- crete and appliances for same have been many and of varied kinds. Portland cement has practically entirely taken the place of natural cement, which was formerly largely used. Many types of concrete mixers have been put in the field, of which there are a large number which are entirely practical and economical of operation. Likewise, various types of dumping buckets for handling the concrete have been devised; and during the last few years a considerable amount of concrete has been handled from the mixer to the structure by elevating it in a tower and dumping it into a chute, through which it flows to the place of deposit. For the smaller drainage openings on railroads, cast iron pipe is probably principally used. Both vitrified earthenware pipe and pipes of reinforced concrete are used to some extent; the latter shows an increasing use. The increase in locomotive and train loads has required increase in the capacity of railroad bridges; and the develop- ments in bridge-shop practice and equipment, erecting machin- 252 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT cry of increased capacity and field-riveting appliances have all influenced the changes in bridge design. Plate-girder bridges are replacing truss spans up to one hundred (100) feet or more in length; and there is a growing tendency to use riveted bridges for spans up to one hundred and fifty (150) feet or more, the considerations being greater rigidity and economy, and being made possible by power field- riveting machinery and more efiective and powerful erecting appliances. The use of concrete in connection with steel spans, as for floors or protection to members, should also be noted. TRACKLAYING. Economical and rapid tracklaying is dependent upon having at all times a supply of the necessary materials, includ- ing rails and ties,_ delivered on approximately the location where they are to be used. In prairie country where teams can be used for the pur- pose of distributing this material, the distribution is accom- plished in that way; but in country where it is impossible to distribute by teams, some other method must be devised. Where the amount of track to be laid is small, the work is usually done from a work train and rail car, handling the material from the work train by hand. To facilitate this handling, where long stretches of track are to be laid, there have been devised tracklaying machines. The general principle of them all is to furnish a means of conveying the ties and rails ahead of the work train, depositing them approximately at the point where they are to be used. Generally only one half the number of ties are carried for- ward and bridles are used to hold the track to gauge while the work train passes over. after which the remaining half of the ties are put in place and the track is spiked. By this method a well organized crew should easily lay two (2) miles of track per day. BALLASTING. Ballasting, where done on a large scale, is accomplished by the use of bottom-dump cars for depositing the ballast DISCUSSION; CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT 253 ' %\ alongside or between the rails, after which the track is raised / IQ with jacks and the material tamped under the ties by hand. STRUCTURES. / As in the case of bridges, concrete has entered very largely into the field of miscellaneous railroad structures, such as sta- tions, water stations, shops, etc. In many cases, the smaller structures are made as a mono- lith at some central plant, loaded onto cars and shipped to the place where they are to be used. This particularly applies to the switchmen’s houses and similar small structures. Some very interesting water stations, including the tanks. have been constructed of concrete. and as above stated, where permanent structures of this character are to be built, concrete is very generally used. SUMMARY. In reviewing the whole field of the development in rail- road construction methods and equipment, it is probable that the increasing use of concrete would stand first, after which would come the development of the modern explosive as a means for easily and cheaply facilitating the movement of the large volumes of earth. rock and other material necessary for the construction of our railroads. DISCUSSION Mr. W. J. Ryan*, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. 13., stated that on the North- Mr, ern Pacific Railroad at Mandan, South Dakota, a drag-line fill about 1.5 Ryan- miles long was built in the autumn and was not brought to grade till the following spring. The material was quite wet when deposited, and the freezing and thawing in this interval of time settled it well. He felt that had they attempted to bring the fill to grade when it was new, it would have been unsatisfactory, because usually a drag-line fill is very loose. ,, He added that the material was placed in the fill for 6 cents a yard‘ \ for actual labor costs after the Plant was installed; while steam-shovel i work in the same locality was costing 10 or 12 cents per yard for labor. if Mr. William H00d,“"‘é M. Am. Soc. C. 13., said that his experience with Mr, drag-line scrapers has been exclusively where, owing to the swampy Hood- * Engineer, Snoqualmie Falls Lumber Co.. Snoqnalmie, Wash. *" Chief Engineer, Southern Pacific (30., San Francisco, Calif. 254 DISCUSSION: CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT Mn (,nature of the ground, it has been impossible to do the work otherwise Hood,i\ than with a drag-line scraper or with a very long haul and dumping from ‘,itrestles. In such a situation, as between the two methods, the drag-line ‘jiscraper is, of course, very economical. J Mr, Mr. C. I‘. Loweth, *** M. Am. Soc. C. E., said that he had found Loweth- cableways for the construction of fills economical but not ra id. In South Dakota, the Chicago, Milwaukee & . aul y. had bui a fill miles long and from 5 to 35 feet high, rapidly and economically, with several drag lines; but the fill settled slowly and unevenly, and looked rough and unfinished from the start and does still. The temptation was always to make the berm less than it should have been. *** Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee 86 St. Paul Railway, Chicago, Ill. Paper No. 82 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA. By MAURICE E. KERNOT, M. Inst. C. E., M. Am. Soc. C. E. Chief Engineer for Railway Construction, Victorian State Railways Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Ninety-eight per cent of the railways in Australia are owned by the Governments of the States and Commonwealth, and a similar percentage of the construction in progress is being carried out by the same public authorities. The railways of Australia on June 30, 1914, had a total mileage opened for traffic, as follows: Length Standard Gauge Miles Kilometres Feet Metres Commonwealth . 623 1,002 4' 8 1A; " and 3’ 6" 1.43.308 and 1.06678 States. New South \Vales . 3,967 6,38t 4’ 8%" 1.43309 Victoria 3,835 6,173 5' 3" 1.00017 Queensland 4,570 7,355 3' 6" 1.06678 South Australia - 1,845 2,969 5' 3” and 3’ 6" 1.60017 and 1.06678 IVestern Australia . 2,967 4.773 3' 6" 1.06678 Tasmania . 519 83" 8’ 6" 1.06678 Total - 18,326 29,492 The small mileage of private railways is almost wholly connected with mines and sawmills. At present there are about 3,400 miles of railways (5,474 kilometres) under construction, including about 1,150 miles (1,851 kilometres) which are being built by the Common- wealth Government. Railway construction proposals in populated parts are usually originated by local agitation, but many large schemes which open up new country are initiated by the Govern- ments. Government railway projects are reported on by Stand- 256 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA ing Committees of Parliament after hearing evidence and ob- taining expert reports as to first cost, probable revenue, and operating expenses. In the survey of new lines, the principles of railway loca- tion as worked out in America are applied. Short momentum grades, and temporary steep grades are used on difficult sec- tions, and the lines are regraded when the development of traffic justifies the cost. The original location and grading are done with this in View. Incidentally, it may be worth while to mention that the acquisition of the land required for building railways is, in all the States except Victoria, carried out by the Constructing Authority, and the cost is charged up as part of the construc- tion cost. In Victoria, however, the land for new State railways in country districts has to be acquired by a local Trust under Parliamentary powers, and handed over free of cost to the Government before construction work is started. The money to pay for this land is raised by a tax levied on all land which is enhanced in value by the building of the railway. This tax varies pro rata to the enhancement of the unimproved land value. In all cases, Crown lands are given for new railways without charge. The costs of construction are limited to specific amounts by the Acts which authorise the lines. Should the limit be exceeded, special appeal has to be made to Parliament _to au- thorise the increased expenditure. Two principal methods are followed in carrying out rail- way construction, viz: (1) Large Contracts. (2) Direct Labor. (1) Large Contracts. The method of construction by letting large contracts was the general one from 1854, when railway construction in Aus- tralia commenced, till 1892. Since then, it has given place largely to construction by direct labor, i.e., by labor employed directly under Government supervision. The large contracts have been for lengths up to about 100 miles (161 kilometres) and for amounts up to £2,000,000 ($9,- 600,000). CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 257 The contracts do not ordinarily include the supply of rails and fastenings. These are specially imported in large quan- tities and supplied to the contractors. Two steel plants equipped for rolling rails have now been started in the State of New South Wales at Lithgow and Newcastle, and promise to supply most, if not all, requirements when they get into full work. Buildings and other items of equipment, such as water supplies. are also the subjects of separate contracts. The contracts have been in most cases based on a sched- ule of rates, the payments being made on the actual measure- ment of work done at the rate scheduled. Progress payments are made monthly at the rate of 90 per cent on the value of work done. Emergent work, for which no schedule rate was provided, has been paid at rates fixed by the Chief Engineer. It has also been the custom to provide heavy penalties for delay in completion of lines beyond the date specified in a contract. A money deposit of 5 per cent on the total contract amount, as arrived at from the estimated total quantities of work and the contract rates, is required. and ten per cent of the value of work done to date is held back from progress pay- ments as further security for the satisfactory completion of the contract, until the amount held is sufficient to give full security for satisfactory completion. The conditions of contracts generally throw all risks on to the contractor, and give the Constructing Authorities very full powers for making alterations and additions to the work. Specifications are usually couched in general terms, and only in the case of small contracts do they describe the work in detail. The schedule to the contract shows the actual quantities of work required to be done as shown on the plans, sections and drawings, which form part of the contract. The number of items in the schedules is large, it being common practice to schedule all main line cuttings separately and also all stuff required to complete each separate embankment, and many contractors quote separate prices for each. In this way the number of items in the schedule often runs up to over one thousand. As a consequence of the large number of items in 258 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA the schedule, and the hurry with which contractors usually complete their tenders or bids, mistakes in arriving at the total amount are often made. It is the practice to keep a contractor to the amount shown at foot of his tender, and require altera- tions in prices to adjust errors in arithmetic. Tenders may be submitted by anyone, without restric- tion, so long as the proper deposit of money is made along with them; and the practice is to accept the lowest tender, it being assumed that all contractors are of equal merit, unless they have been formally disqualified, which is very rarely done. It would often be more profitable to accept a tender from a contractor of good repute at higher cost rather than one from an unknown man or one who has given much trouble. Contractors often adjust the prices in their contracts, thus speculating on the probability of the quantities shown in the schedule being exceeded or diminished, and also with the idea of getting in their profits chiefly from the items of work which have to be first carried out, and so practically having a set-off against their money deposit. The conditions of contract give power to the Chief Engineer to insist on adjustment of un- reasonable prices or he may make a deduction from payments to protect the Constructing Authority. The critical item of railway construction contracts is usu- ally that for ballast, and the question whether the contractor shall make large profits or lose money on his contract often hangs on the opinion of the Chief Engineer as to whether bal- last from a certain source complies with the specification. In carrying out the contracts there is often much delay, as contractors think it pays them to wait over wet seasons or for a fall in market prices of materials, and take their chance of obtaining a remission of penalties for delay. In actual ex- perience, the penalties have seldom been enforced, and the effect on contract work has been bad. It has been the general practice to provide for a settle- ment of disputes which arise in settling up contracts by arbi- tration. The results of arbitration have been unsatisfactory. Contractors in many cases took up railway work at non-paying prices, either through ignorance of the value of the work or in the hope of making up losses by claims for extras and con- CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 259 cessions. In such cases. and in many others where the con- tractors had good prices, enormous claims for extras and allowances were made, and very heavy expenses were incurred in investigating or resisting and contesting such claims. and very large awards were in many cases made in favor of the contractors by irresponsible arbitrators. In Victoria alone in a period of 10 years, seventeen con- tracts for 384 miles (618 kilometres) of railway, aggregating a cost of £1,320,904 ($6,340,339) under the Chief Engineer’s final certificate, went to arbitration. Extra claims amounting to £416,594 ($1,999,651) were made by the contractors. on which the arbitrators’ awarded £111,993 ($537,566). The ex- penses incurred and paid by the Constructing Authority in addi- tion came to £30,000 ($144,000). Other States had similar, and even more serious, experiences. An appeal to the Supreme Court was also made by con- tractors on the ground that the powers given to the Chief Engineer by the conditions of contract were excessive and inequitable, but the Court held that when a contractor had signed the conditions with his eyes open he was bound by them. In recent years the Chief Engineer has, in some cases, been made sole arbitrator, and this practice has. on the whole, worked well. The Chief Engineer. in such cases, holds him- self aloof from direct supervision of details of the contract. (2) Direct Labor. The difficulties and large expenses incurred in the settle- ment of contracts. the frequent long delays in completion of contracts, the desire to obtain more economical railway con- struction, and the wish to start works promptly in times of depression when large numbers of unemployed men are in want of work, led to the introduction of the Direct Labor system in Victoria in 1892, and since that date it has been used for all railway construction in Victoria, and largely followed in the other States of the Commonwealth, where, however, the practice has oscillated between the two systems—large con- tracts and direct labor—with a gradual increase in the pro- portion of direct labor work. The work in Victoria has been under the direct supervis- ion of the author, first, as Assistant to Francis Rennick, the 260 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA late Engineer in Chief, and for the past 12 years, as Chief Engineer for Railway Construction in the Department of Railways. The following notes apply particularly to the working of the Direct Labor system of construction in the State of Vic- toria. The practice in other States has been similar in most respects. All expenditure is charged directly to the money voted for the particular line. A strict, continuous audit is made by an outside auditor. All the work has been completed to the satisfaction of the Railways Commissioners in whom the lines are vested for ope- ration on their completion, except in one case where the esti- mated cost had been cut down by Parliament against the advice of the Chief Engineer. This system has been tested on two occasions by calling for tenders or bids for 30-mile (48.28 kilometers) sections of construction. On the first occasion the lowest tender received was 10% higher than the Departmental estimate. It was re- jected and the Department carried out the construction of the line by direct labor, and finished it at a cost below its own estimate. In the second case, a tender was received which was 1%% lower than the Departmental estimate, but after investi- gation it was decided not to accept the tender, and the line was built by direct labor at a lower cost than if the contract had been accepted. As a further check on the cost of the work, numerous tenders for items, such as earthworks and bridges, have been called for from time to time for works up to about £10,000 ($48,000) in value, and whenever bids were obtained which were not appreciably higher than the Departmental estimate these tenders have been accepted. A large proportion of these contracts turned out unsatisfactorily through the contractors failing to complete them, or being much behindhand in com- pleting them, thus causing interference with other work. The writer had freely expressed from time to time his opinion that when a change of conditions, bringing higher wage rates and a curtailed supply of efficient labor, arrived, the direct labor system would be more difficult to work, and CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 261 as these conditions arrived and the wage rate for laborers in- creased from 5/—- ($1.20) per day of 8 hours to 9/—— ($2.16) the advisability of a return to the “large contract” system was frequently considered, but it has been found that, while the cost of direct labor work has increased under these conditions, the cost of contract work has risen quite as much, and the former system has continued in full use up to the present. The length of railroad built by direct labor in Victoria has been 1,239 miles (1994 kilometres), with an expenditure of £4,198,190 ($20,151,312). The number of lines constructed has been 56, and the cost per mile has varied between £1049 ($5035) and £85,560 ($410,688). In carrying out work under the direct labor system, an Engineer is placed in control of the job, with suitable assist- ants, including a Pay Clerk, who acts as his accountant and is directly responsible to him, while he is responsible for the whole of the work, including all money payments made on the job. His duties thus cover a large scope, as he is Manager of the work as well as Engineer, and great care has to be exer- cised in selecting new men for the positions. Those who have made the best records have been trained in the service. Drawings and specifications for the work are issued to the Engineers in charge from time to time as required. The Department has often been called on to commence work under urgent conditions. The quickest record for start- ing work was made on an occasion when authority to proceed with construction was given, and a survey party and an en- gineer to take charge were sent to the work on the same day; one hundred men were sent to the work two days later and employed immediately. In this case, the first portion of the line was in easy country, so that the permanent location of a piece of the line could be marked, the section plotted and graded, and earthworks set out in 48 hours. In employing workmen it is usual to put on suitable men who make application on the spot. Experienced railway work- ers find their way to new works in considerable numbers. When, however, the supply of these is not sufficient, requisi- tions are made on the Government Labor Bureau. The men are provided with tents and cooking utensils, for 262 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA which they have to pay in instalments. Laborers have to pay for their own shovels and tradesmen have to provide their own small tools or pay for them; other tools are provided by the Department. The tents and tools supplied are not taken back from the men, except in cases where they leave before they have earned sufficient money to pay for them. The climate of Victoria, and in fact of Australia, too, allows outdoor work to proceed all the year round; the great- est hindrances it makes being due to occasional heavy rains in winter near the coast and great heat and dryness inland in the summer. Piecework is used as far as it can be applied to advantage. Simple work, such as barrow-led earthwork and bridge car- pentry is done by gangs working at fixed rates, while work requiring the use of horses and plant is generally let in petty contracts made locally with men on the works. The piece- workers and petty contractors sign a simple form of contract, which gives power to the Engineer-in-charge to stop the work at 24 hours’ notice for any good reason. When a local contract is taken up by one man, who em- ploys other men, the form of contract provides further that his employes are to be paid directly by the Department at standard wage rates, and the amounts of such payments are deducted from the amount coming due to the contractor. Offers to carry out work at prices so low that there is no reasonable prospect of the contractor ’s earnings being sufficient to pay standard wages are rejected. Fixed rates are arranged at the Head Office and are adjusted from time to time so that efficient, industrious men may make standard wages or a little more. Piecework men who fail to make earnings up to standard wage rates after a fair trial, and wage men who fail to work efficiently, are promptly dispensed with, the aim throughout being to pay prices which are fair both to the worker and the employer and to get a fair day’s work for the day’s pay. The Construction Acts require that the average earnings of the workmen as a body shall be not less than the standard wage. For the adjust- ment of piecework rates, test trials are made from time to time with gangs of men of average efficiency, working under capable CONSTRUCTION METHODS ANI) EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 263 supervision on day wages. The actual earnings of pieceworkers are analysed and compared. both on individual jobs and between different lines. regularly. There is an increasing tendency to do more of the work with gangs employed on day wages. These gangs. when under the control of capable gangers, working under effective super- vision. and with a regular weeding-out of men who do not work efficiently. do good work. and, in many cases. do the work at rather less cost than pieceworkers. All the work, whether done by the piece, by contract, or by day labor. is measured up fortnightly and the costs com- pared with other work, so that inefficient gangs may be promptly dealt with. The hours of work in Victoria are 48 hours per week. which has to be worked at the rate of 8 hours on each week day in two shifts of 4 hours each. The starting and stopping times are the same throughout the job. except when specially authorised otherwise by the Head Office. Overtime and Sunday work are discouraged. A thorough system of time-keeping is kept in operation, and includes the apportionment of the time to the different items of work in a rather elaborate schedule of apportionments. including sufficient information for an analysis of costs. As an example, the items in connection with a cutting are as follows: Ganger Ploughing Explosives Getting. filling and trimming Leading by . . (average lead . chains) Tipping and trimming bank Carting fodder and water The workmen are paid fortnightly, but necessitous men who are taken on receive advances during their first fort- night’s employment. up to an amount of 10/—-($2.40) per week, as they earn it, in order that they may buy food. After the first fortnight. no further advances are made. This is done in order to put the workmen in the position of being able to 264 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA pay cash for all the purchases that they may have to make from the purveyors of rations, who usually visit the Works two or three times a week and compete with one another for the men’s custom. All storekeepers and others selling goods to employes are advised not to sell on credit, though they fre- quently do so to their sorrow. In remote localities the men are supplied with rations by the Constructing Authority and charged cost price. Steel girders, bolts and spikes, sawn timber, fencing wire, explosives, bricks, cement, and other materials are obtained by public contracts for the separate items. Sleepers, timber fence posts, piles, telegraph poles, and parts of the bridge timber are obtained by petty contracts let to small parties of timber hewers, who deliver at the nearest point of a railway to the forest and are paid in cash on delivery. The standard rates of wage at present current are as follow: s. (1. Concrete Laborers - .- - -. ---.-- 9/6 ($2.28) per day. Laborers - .- - .- -- 9/- ($2.16) “ “ Leading Hands ............................. -- 10/— ($2.40) “ “ Batter Men Tip Men First class men only 9/6 ($2.28) “ “ Jumper Men Platelayers -- -. -. . ...... -. _ ........ -. 9/6 ($2.28) “ “ Ploughmen—Picked men ............... -- 9/6 ($2.28) “ “ Blacksmiths . -- - ....................... -- 11/— ($2.84) “ “ Bricklayers .- -- - -- 11/— ($2.84) “ “ Carpenters—Bridge work .................. -. 11/— ($2.84) “ “ Masons -- -- - _ - 1/41/_> ($0.33) “ hour. Painters ................................... -- - 11/— ($2.84) “ day. Gangers—Ordinary .......................... -- 10/- ($2.40) “ “ (or as specially approved) Horse, Tip Dray and Adult Driver -. -- 14/6 ($3.48) “ “ [Driver 9/— ($2.16), horse and dray 5/6 ($1.32); each extra horse 5/— ($1.20).] The stafi in charge of a construction job is provided with quarters in temporary buildings and tents, and the Department provides the cook and mess equipment. In return for these concessions, the members of the staff are required to be avail- able at any hours which the Engineer in charge may desire, CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 265 but any officer who is kept on duty over an extended period for long hours can apply for and be allowed time ofi in con- sideration. The organization of the staff is shown in the Ap- pendix. Very large piecework gangs have been worked from time to time on heavy excavation work by fixing a piecework rate and placing a competent foreman over the men to direct their operations and to see that they work efficiently and pull to- gether. The extra output obtained in this way often more than pays the foreman’s wages. The Direct Labor system has shown the following ad- vantages: (1) A saving in time. The period required under the old contract system for com- pleting surveys, plans, quantities, specifications, and drawings, advertising and letting contracts, which extended over many months, has all been saved, and the expense so incurred largely reduced; also, the actual work of construction has been car- ried out, on the average, in about two-thirds of the time taken by contractors. Work is often started on the heels of the surveyors who locate the line. (2) A saving in cost. Instead of a contractor paying a staff to carry on the work, while the Department paid another staff of officers and inspec- tors to supervise them, one staff under the Department now does all the work, while the workmen do the work as well and as cheaply for the Government as for a contractor, when properly handled. The contractor’s financial and commercial arrangements were often badly made and caused loss to him, and loss and trouble to the Constructing Authority. The percentage in- cluded in the contractor ’s prices to give him a profit is saved. Money with which to carry on the work is obtained by the Gov- ernment at half the rates of interest which contractors often pay. The heavy claims which were made in connection with large contracts and only settled with great expense and trouble, often by tedious and costly arbitration, are quite avoided. Partial stoppages of work, shifting of station sites, and alterations of design, which usually led up to the large claims, 266 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA are now made more freely and, in most cases, have only small effect on the cost of the works; while other unforeseen con- tingencies are dealt with promptly and easily. Full advantage is taken of cheaper materials discovered when carrying out works, and of fluctuations in market rates. Modifications in design and execution are freely introduced when economy or efficiency may result. Contractors, when tendering, had to make large allowance for providing plant, including locomo- tives and trucks, which might be left idle on their hands, with poor opportunities of realising at reasonable prices, and, in many cases, made shift with very inferior wasteful plant in consequence. Under the Direct Labor system, all construction in the State being done by one party, better plant is provided and it is more regularly utilised, the cost for any individual line being thus largely decreased. (3) Other advantages which apply to Government work are: That it has been possible to distribute employment system- atically and fairly among the unemployed workers of the State, and also to secure payment of standard rates of wages with- out the difficulties which have occurred in enforcing the mini- mum wage clause under contracts. Generally speaking, the men have worked contentedly. Complaints from them have been fewer than might have been expected and have been fairly met and dealt with. In twenty- three years there has not been one large strike, and occasional small ones have been handled easily till they fizzled out. In comparison with contract work, the Departmental Offi- cers may not have the stimulus of increased profit to urge them on to strict economy and keep them keen in reduction of costs, but with diligent, effective supervision and control by com- petent officers, the efficiency of working is little, if any, behind the average of contract work. EQUIPMENT. The equipment of plant and tools for railway construction work in Australia has been supplied chiefly by importation from older countries, and there is not much that is new or original to describe. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 267 Locomotives of American type being more suitable for run- ning on unfinished tracks and roughly laid temporary sidings than the stiffer engines of English and European design give the best satisfaction. For work trains, a truck designed in Victoria with body 33 feet (10 metres) long, built with low hinged sides, sunken hop- per and trap doors for ballasting is giving much satisfaction. It is easily adaptable for carrying rails of standard lengths. Bal- last trucks of the “Rodger” pattern are also used. Many old- fashioned four-wheeled trucks are still in use and are very handy for jobbing work. Ballast ploughs are used to a small extent. Steam shovels of both American and English makes are in use in comparatively small numbers. Much of the construction requires only light earthworks, which do not give scope for them. Heavy cost of transport beyond the rail head, difficulty in working them in single line cuttings, and in training men to handle them effectively have also checked their use. Ballast loaders of different types have been used, but, owing to their limited reach for picking up the ballast, have not become general. In a country where work can usually proceed all the year round, and the conditions seldom require the laying of so much as one mile of track per day, there is not much scope for track- laying machines. Two machines of the Roberts pattern are in use on a transcontinental line of 1,063 miles (1,711 kilometres) in length. In districts similar to the American prairies, grading ma- chines, wheel scoops, drag scoops, and buck scrapers, usually of American manufacture, are used. The long, heavy English ploughs are giving place to American ploughs with short steel beam and mould board. The two-wheeled tip dray, holding about nine tenths of a cubic yard and drawn by one horse with a driver to each dray, is holding out against the four-wheeled dump wagons of larger capacity drawn by two horses, on account of its handiness. The dump wagons have been introduced and used to a small extent in work which best suits them. Wages have increased lately and it is expected that this will lead to their more general use. 268 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA Long leading of stufl? is often done with muck wagons of the fiddlestick pattern running on temporary track and drawn by horses. They hold from 2% to 3% cubic yards (2 to 3 cubic metres) and are tipped at speed by running against a bumping log, the pedestals lifting right off the hind axles. Small steel wagons of two-feet gauge running on light rails, with trays holding three quarters of a yard and tipping on either side, are much used. They can be easily altered to tip at the end of the track. They are drawn in rake's by horses and give better re- sults than tip drays on much of the work, especially on the longer leads. In small tools there is little of special interest to note. The old English No. 4 navvy shovel is practically standard. A shovel with a straight handle about five feet (1% metres) long is used for throwing earth up high lifts, but its superiority over the short handled shovel is doubtful. Bridge foundation and erection plants are of patterns evolved in other parts of the world. Pile driving is usually done by an iron monkey weighing about thirty hundredweight (1527 kilogrammes) hoisted by a steam winch and tripped by hand to fall about ten feet (3 metres). Steam pilehammers are little used, if at all. Stone crushers of both the parallel jaw and gyratory type are used, and the latter are increasing in favor. In track work, track jacks with ratchet and pawls made locally are found useful. Packing of rock ballast is done with a beater, which is like a double-ended pick with one end T— shaped, with a flat face about 2% inches by 7/8 inch (.064 by .0023 metres). This is preferred to a tamping bar, as the wide spacing of the hardwood sleepers, 2’ 9” to 3’ 0” (.838 to-.914 metres) centres, and their depth of only five inches (.127 metres) give room for the beater to drive the ballast well in under the sleeper. Sleeper adzing and boring are done with machines de- signed locally to suit the hard timber in use. The sleepers pass over revolving cutters, which cut the rail seat to a cant of 1 in 20 and are then turned over and the spike holes bored with angers which descend from above. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 269 Note—On the date of mailing the above, it is just an- nounced that the New South Wales Government has made a contract with an English firm to carry out railway construc- tion works to the value of £10,000,000 ($48,000,000). The exact conditions are not yet made public, but negotia- tions in another State with the same firm were on the proposed basis of an estimate to be agreed upon by both contracting parties, the work to be carried out to the satisfaction of the Government Engineer, the Contractor ’s books to be the subject of audit by a Government Auditor, and payments to be made on his certificate. If the work cost more than the estimate, the payments by the Government were not to exceed the estimate; and if the work cost less than the estimate, the Contractor was to be paid the actual cost, plus half the savings. The Con- tractor was to receive, in addition, a remuneration of 71/2% on the estimate, and to accept payment in Government de- bentures at a price valued at a rate per £100 to be agreed upon, and to enter into a bond to keep the debentures off the public money market for a fixed number of years. 270 CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT IN AUSTRALIA Minister of R63..-" APPENDIX. URCANIZATIUN 0F RAILWAY BUNSTRUGTION BRANCH VIGTRRIAN RAILWAY DEPARTMENT. Board of Land and Works (lhllvny construction lunch). Chief Engineer for Railway Construction. Assistant Chlef Lend leeountax LOIOL' Enunun cm“ Glut‘ Aequleltlem: meglstretlen and correspondence Clerks. Inspecting Senior superintendunt Englnoor for Plll'lt Ind Drgftsmln, Surveyor. construouom Speelegzpperte, Materiel Oflloer. Deslgnlng lnspeotlng sh". Survey Stefl. Eflgmaua Costs Clerk. Construction Stall. _ The Services of the Chief Accountant to the Railwn Commissioners are "in part made use of" under the provision ' Conveyancing and law work are carried out by the Crown Solicitor ys Commissioners, and of the Estate Ofiicer to the Railways s of Act No. 1250 for Accounts and Land Acquisition. Paper No. 83 TUNNELS. By CHAS. S. CHURCHILL, M. Am. Soc. C. E. Roanoke, Va., U. S. A. ——-_- INTRODUCTION. The construction of tunnels in America in recent years has been much more rapid than is indicated by the increase in the mileage of the railroads themselves. Their need has arisen from three causes: 1 From the construction of new railroad lines 2 From the improvement of alignment and grades; also in connection with the double-tracking of existing lines, and enlargement of sections that are consid“ ered small 3 From the construction of important terminals While those of the first and third classes are generally described in the various engineering publications, many of those included in the second class, which are the greatest in number, do not appear. For example, on a railroad having a present length of a little over two thousand miles, there were added since 1904 for the construction of branch lines twelve tunnels having an aggregate length of 7863 feet, the maximum length of any single tunnel being 4770 feet; while those added in connection with double-track and improving lines and on low grade lines numbered thirty-two, having an aggregate length of 32,251 feet, the maximum length of any single tunnel being 3291 feet. Some examples of tunnels constructed for these reasons, and coming under the second class, are: The Snoqualmie tunnel through the Cascade mountains 272 TUNNELS (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry.), 11,890 feet long. Com- pleted January, 1915. The Rogers Pass tunnel on the Canadian Pacific Railroad, which will be a double-tracked tunnel five miles in length, the work on which was begun in 1913. The Nicholson tunnel, on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad, a double-tracked tunnel 3630 feet long, to be completed early in 1915. Examples of the third class are the Seattle tunnel, which is a double-tracked tunnel for terminal purposes at Seattle; length, 5141 feet; completed in 1905. The Mount Royal tunnel, on the Canadian Northern Rail- road, Montreal, Canada, which is a double-tracked tunnel hav- ing a length of 17,000 feet, built for the purpose of entering the terminal station at Montreal. Completed in 1914. The tunnels under Bergen Hill, North River, City of New York, and East River, which provide entrance into New York for the Pennsylvania Railroad System, and which have been in operation for some time, are built for two or more tracks for a length of 27,052 feet. The American Railway Engineering Association in its Manual of 1911 publishes therein, as representing good prac- tice for new construction, single-track tunnels 16 feet wide, with a clear height from base of rail of 22% feet; double-track tunnels to furnish the same clear width outside of each track and the same height over the center of each track. The tunnels constructed during recent years approach these dimensions where steam locomotives are used exclusively, but where elec- tric power is used, much smaller cross-sectional area is followed in good practice. The Mount Royal tunnel referred to, at Montreal, and the Pennsylvania tunnels in New York present examples of these. With the rapid increase in the use of electric power, it is probable that not only will it become unnecessary to widen many existing tunnels, but tunnels that are built in the future will be of this smaller cross-sectional area; such, for example. as the single-track section of the Pennsylvania tunnels in New York, which has 225 square feet of area above the track. It may be said, therefore, that so far as dimensions of cross-sec- TUNNELS 273 tions are concerned the art of tunnel design is in a state of transition, in that those dimensions depend upon the probable style of power that will hereafter be used. The methods of constructing tunnels, involving elements that make up the cost thereof, have also been in somewhat of a transitional state during recent years on account of the eifort of every party interested therein to secure their construction at a comparatively high rate of speed and still at as low a total cost as practicable. The brief outline which follows, of the methods used in constructing a number of recently built tun- nels, has been compiled in order to call attention to, and bring out discussion of, the different typical methods of construction that have been followed in recent years, under the usual vary- ing conditions met with in tunnel work—methods that have been used, primarily, for the purpose of securing speed, com- bined with safety, economy in construction, and the best means for securing proper ventilation. In this outline, the areas of cross-sections are given, and the number of cubic yards of material removed per foot of ad- vance of both heading and entire tunnel section are recorded, together with the rates of progress, in order that a correct com- parison may be made of all the results secured under each method of procedure. SNOQUALMIE TUNNEL. On Change of Line at Snoqualmie Pass, Cascade Mountains, Sixty Miles East of Seattle, Washington; Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. Single-track tunnel, 11,890 feet long, opened for traffic in January, 1915. Length of new line, including tunnel, 4.5 miles. The object of building this tunnel is to shorten length of line 3.7 miles; reduce Summit Hill, and eliminate 443.5 ft. of rise and fall (made up of westbound 4.7 miles of 2.2% grade, east- bound 4.4 miles of 2.75% grade); to cut curvature 1239"; to decrease snow trouble resulting from a fall exceeding fifty feet in some seasons; to reduce pusher service to a minimum and save in operating cost. For the greater portion of the distance the bore passes through bodies of massive black slate, intercepted by compara- 274 TUNNELS tively thin strata of grey quartzite, blue conglomerate and an andesite dike; all of which dip to the east with an angle of approximately 75 degrees to the horizontal. The formations are generally shown on Plate I, which also shows the location with plan and profile of tunnel. Plate 11 shows method of excavation and plan of doing the work. Plate III shows the completed cross-section of tunnel. The width of the completed tunnel section is 16 feet; area to subgrade, 352 sq. ft.; area above track, 337 sq. ft.; crown of arch to base of rail, 22 ft. 5 in. (see Plate III). Average section excavated, about 517 square feet, making about 19.2 cu. yds. per foot of tunnel. Owing to the nature of the ground—there being much debris, fractured rock and water—the 436 ft. of the west end of the tunnel were driven by the top heading method, and enlarged and timbered to a standard section to allow concrete lining without removal of the timber. The re- mainder of the work from the west end was done by the bottom heading method, which was considered most economical, as providing means for trapping material from above directly into cars in the completed heading, and because progress in removal of the balance of the section was not dependent upon the use of shovel. A heading 8x13 feet, requiring removal of about four cubic yards per foot advance, was driven at subgrade and along the north line of the tunnel section and was kept‘from 1000 to 2000 feet in advance of the bench, the distance varying with the progress of the bench, which was dependent upon the labor situation. The order of procedure is shown on Plate II. Work in the heading was carried on continuously, the crew consisting of three shifts of four machine runners, four helpers, ten muckers, two nippers and two shift bosses. The runners, helpers and muckers worked six-hour shifts, laying off twelve; the nippers and shift bosses worked twelve hours. Fourteen to thirty 9-ft. holes were drilled for each shot, depending on rock encountered, the drills being mounted on a cross-bar four feet above subgrade, four holes being drilled below the bar, acting as lifters, and all others above the bar. Average break per shot was about 6.1 ft.; average time TUNNELS 275 between shots. 15.5 hours; and average daily progress. 9.5 ft.; maximum progress in any one day having been 25 ft. These figures are averages for the entire distance of west heading; however, under favorable conditions a shot was fired about every twelve hours, the time being divided about as follows: Two and one-half to three hours breaking down roof and mucking back; seven hours setting up cross-bar, drilling and mucking out; one hour taking down, clearing and shooting; and one hour waiting for the heading to clear of the gases. Many exceptions to the above were encountered, an example being the andesite dike where twenty-four hours were taken to drill one round. Before a shot was fired. steel shoveling sheets were laid on the floor and up against the face of the heading so that the muck, which was broken finely, could easily be shoveled to the low heading cars of one yard capacity. All heading work was considered “preferred” and carried a bonus to all directly connected; a bonus of one hour ’s time being given for each foot over ten feet per day, bonus paid every ten days. Following the advance heading a crew winged it to full tunnel section width, after which the trap or stoping timbers were placed. Bench openings were then driven to full tunnel section at intervals of a hundred and fifty feet, from which the bench was worked both ways. As a usual thing, the entire face was drilled and shot at one time, in that way giving the machine runners and muckers continuous work in each stope. Average progress on the west-end bench was 7.7 feet per day; however, this cannot be taken as a criterion as to what speed could be obtained, as the bench work was held up for some time due to the fact that the work was carried on with a limited payroll, and when labor was scarce the heading was pushed at the expense of the bench progress. Several timbering schemes were used; the first 436 feet at the west end was standard tunnel timbering, to be concreted in place; the remainder of the work had stoping timbers. to take out the bench, and where the roof was at all treacherous, an “A” frame was built up from the stope bent and the roof 276 TUNNELS held by crown bars, all to be removed ahead of the concreting; where the roof was good, the stoping timbers were taken down and moved ahead. “A” timbers were used from Station 10 to Station 26; remainder of tunnel, except in a few places, was not timbered, as the lining work followed the bench closely. \Vork at the east end of the tunnel was not started until in 1913, and due to the fact that the approach cut was not completed the tunnel was driven by the center top-heading method. The amount excavated per foot advance in heading averaged about 21/2 yards. The heading was winged to the wall plates; shafts were sunk to subgrade at several places and bottom drifts run both ways so that when the approach cut was complete the bench material could be stoped out, as on the west end, the material being used to make the fill for the rail- road yard at the east end of the tunnel. Driving data, west end, are as follows: prior to April 26, 1912—436 feet top heading. June 1, 1912, to August 4, 1914— 6971 lineal feet of bottom heading. Average per day, 9.5 feet. Maximum progress per day, 25 feet; 77 days shut down to wing out. Average progress per shot, 6.1 feet. Average time be- tween shots, 15.5 hours. Maximum monthly progress (March, 1913), 455 lineal feet. Driving data, east end: May 1, 1913, to August 4, 1914— 4483 lineal feet of heading. Average per day, 10 lineal feet. Average progress per shot, 5.4 feet. Average time between shots, 13.1 hours. Maximum monthly progress (September, 1914), 433 lineal feet. Bench progress for the west end is as follows: average progress, 7.7 feet. Maximum monthly progress (November, 1914), 658 lineal feet. For the east end: average progress, 10.3 feet. Maximum monthly progress (November, 1914), 644 lineal feet. Dynamite used per foot advance of tunnel, 55% lbs., cost- ing $8.27. Quantity of dynamite used per cu. yd. of tunnel excavation, 2.8 lbs. While the rock encountered was hard and unaffected by weather, it was so stratified, fractured and filled with soft talc seams that lining throughout was a necessity. The lining section is shown on Plate III, a comparatively simple section TUNNELS 277 to build, and concrete was easily placed from the high-line timbers. Concrete lining in the tunnel averages about 6.1 cubic yards per lineal foot. The main concrete plant, capable of handling 150 cu. yds. of concrete in a day of ten hours, was built outside the tunnel at the west end, and the work of concreting from the west end progressed while tunnel excavation was in progress. Concrete work at the east end was started as soon as sufi‘icient full sec- tion was excavated at that end. The east heading struck some bad ground, and to save timbering, the arch was concreted from the east concrete plant before the bench was removed, and in so doing a great saving was made in cost of timbering. Ventilation at both ends of the work was accomplished by exhaust method, a large fan in the power house being con- nected to a 2-ft. ventilation pipe that opened at the end of the enlarged section. In addition to this, an auxiliary plant at. each end forced air into the heading through a 10-inch pipe, a canvas section being used within 100 feet of the face to allow its quick removal at time of firing a shot. SANDY RIDGE TUNNEL. On Elkhorn Extension of Carolina, Clinchfield & Ohio Ry., at Dante, Virginia. Single-track tunnel, which was completed in 1914; length, 7804 feet. The permanent lining of the tunnel is in progress. Plate IV contains a profile of the tunnel showing the line of cleavage between sandstone and slate, the two materials mostly encountered. It also shows the monthly progress from the time the excavation was started, in October, 1912. Sketches on Plate V indicate the method of excavation adopted, the top center heading system having been used, working from each end of the tunnel. The minimum width of the lined tunnel section will be eighteen feet; maximum, nineteen feet. The minimum square feet of area is 364; maximum, 378. The average area of the excavation made, including falls, was 625 square feet, requiring the removal of 23 cubic yards per lineal foot of tunnel. The average area of heading removed was 85 square feet, 278 TUNNELS or 3.1 cu. yds. per lineal foot of tunnel, but where timber lining was required the excavation of heading material was increased to 6.5 cu. yds. per lineal foot of tunnel. The area of the sub-bench removed averaged 132 square feet. The work was planned to keep the sub-bench about 8 feet behind the heading; and the drilling to progress in such a manner that the holes in heading, in the sub-bench, and the full bench could be fired in a series of shots that would result in an advance of the full tunnel section of from 7 to 8 feet. Figure 1, on Plate V, illustrates the methods of drilling and shooting. Ordinarily, 22 to 24 holes were placed in the heading, using the Vscut method. Twelve-foot drills were run in the cut holes, starting about eight feet apart at the face of the heading and bottoming from 12 to 18 inches apart. Ten- foot drills were run in the side rounds. From seven to eight feet were removed as a result of one blast. Two rows of verti~ cal holes, twelve in all, were drilled in the sub-bench, the length of drills being eight feet. Four holes were drilled in the full bench, with two side holes at times. The two center holes were sprung three times, and the side holes twice, to form a powder chamber. All other holes were shot straight. This method of springing full-bench holes is responsible for some additional breakage in the side walls, but was adopted in order to secure the greatest possible rate of progress. Up to September, 1913, the benches were carried immediately behind each heading, and a weekly progress of 45 feet was made in each end of the tun- nel. In September, 1913, the bench was kept 80 feet behind the headings. This method was followed until February, 1914, making a weekly progress of 50 feet at each end of the tunnel. At this date it was decided, on account of ventilation, to stop work on benches temporarily and drive the headings alone. This course was followed, the headings meeting on May 20, 1914. Work was resumed on the benches in May, 1914. and excavation was completed in November, 1914, notwithstanding more temporary timbering was required than anticipated. The work in this tunnel was in progress almost continu- ously, the men being under pay about 22 hours per day for six days in the week. The labor worked in two shifts of ten hours per day. LACON lA .l .1 E 3 It (I O 0 I1 (1 8 LOCATION PLAN. 5; SCAL-Ei.ZOOOF'T.-I-|N ' 3 o t} 0 6° ._ ‘3;? PROFILE OF TUNNEL. C.M & svpRY. PLAN <8< PROFILE SNOQUALMIE TUN NEL.WASH.. OFFICE OF’ CHIEF-— ENGQ. CHICAGO, H._L.NOV.al—l9|4 SCALE AS SHOWN MASSIVE BLACK SLATE \, M11551 #5 BL ACK SLATE WEST PORTAL. MA SSII/E cum? TZ/TE 5L4 CK 511A TE TE GK’EEN/éf/ SHALE' moo "235 °‘ 65°‘ .5 25 35 45 so 60 7° 80 ' so ,00 no * ‘20 EAST PORTAL CROSS~-SECTION OF ROCK F‘ORMATIONS INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM GEOLOGICAL REPORT AND snows FORMATION EXPECTED IN DRIVING TUNNEL q MASS/YE BLACK SLATE IP50 y. ‘\ k \d I Q J \‘9 2 D L) I‘) Plate I. I 1: . | Q 3 . . m IV 011/ 8 3 . f0 // P/afa 2 t‘ 3 .3 I a a . .g \ . v . ‘ _ \ t cw & l3 g 3*- @ Vie g I _ ‘,3 a?) ' i i‘ "0 Tqo Bench f0 Fu(/ Tunnel Soc/Ion E Q‘ 1.910’ T ii -@ © \ ! m/yed f0 _‘ awdl‘h of" . a Tunnel _ 4 Slop/y Dr/fr‘ Soc/Ion. i Sub Graph‘: 1 LOW/NO EAST LOONINé WEST SEC r/o/v A 7 WEST END SHOW/AG Afr/400 0E ExcAwq T/ON SECr/o/v AT 5457' 5ND SHOW/NC METHOD OF Examr/o/v LONG! TUD/NAL. SEC r/o/v SHOW/N6 HEAD/N65, SHAF 75 AND 5 Top/Ne D/Q/F'TS /”_ e’ .330 .’ PW rtrJ'wf-Iy _ ‘vzo. Arch mywyzx C-c flemov'd ahead of. 5140 WI Colic/‘ah?!’ Vb»! n. 1.5/our P79‘ Concre/ed 77mber/hy W5 Removed '. D/W Wu?’ ‘.3 . . z F'plgjr-alab 00d )yna/ Condo, r: SEC 770'VAT WEST END SHOWING 34 "f-‘QAME WMBEQWC. SEC r/o/v AT EAST END fr” 7 R $ 26 '0 m M USED $7?! IO'O TO TA 7Z‘MDOQARY WMEER/NC. G)‘ Ab?! - Lay/WWW a/ Fmbermy 5'-0'C'C for‘ al/ sacflbna. SEC T/ONAT WEsr END SHOW/NC SEQUENCE or CONCPETING SECTION/IT Eqsrf'rvo SHOW/NC SEQUENCE or Co/vcpEr/Ns . W08 M3 U350 W PLACCS 0N EAST 6N0 ALSO mmdl'll. Hurslcnohar 54.1! {mum ~NOTE~ nor DEM”; cnonw 842$ . . d , m7 , m cmrn‘dabmd 1n makvy If»; Drmvry fhe Follow/y were used for {n/ormahon 5140 //.s m coon-crud ahead DWI/y N9 0‘6590- ' ' m4 -/4 zafoaled sear/may 2449/3.) ' from am“ a fry asap; Taryn/‘my Fmber/hj'Kh/ed Poclfmb/e 0“ 2,492) ' ‘ ' ' ' - ' :Tmber/ry for Concrefe Track (P0040610 Ban! /7, /9/3) - ' krrporury Timber/15 " . f ' ' ' j I I v - Rowaed 0:: I4, A914 occorj/rg lo 0m» .1. 0''. N3!” 0” fly v Scpf ~73 7m rxyYRociab/qflec .3, I914 ) I - 3% v v - I Mew Concrefny/IrrhYPvd'd'flk. 6%’ 3449”) SEcrlo/v/armr STOP/N6 WMQERS. , 5 SEcr/ONAT W50 mic-RE 77mER/NG MS (.4550 mQcavcRETE mic/(Ova '" 0'" 'm'" W “0: Umcoaaay Plate 11. C. M. 8: St. P. Ry., Snoqualmie Tunnel. Timbering Schemes and Stages in Excavation and Construction. Abrfed 2 ' // lo /ov-ma9:o%looZ . 00.2): mM.. em I904. .QTKLUSJEM. .233 MEN‘ >8: “Rik in mm + Rm .& hearse 1. m0. .rwjwDls Apr. / , I903. May/7, /903. (Jul /7, /903 Now. /9. /904 Dec /7, 1904 Jan. /4, /905. JUNE. 20, I903. ..w... ..\r N D m Jw. “mime EM. 5.. we. //.. m0. Hmmoeoo 5.. Q0. \mf. WW TUNNEL- DRIVING App/'0 ach Norfh Porfi/ rim/‘fed .. ,- Rm G.N.F?% Corr-ac fed Jan. 6, l 905 mm #NW Approach Sauf/v Porfa/ sfarfed Apr. 5 , I903. Firs?‘ W0” P/afe N. Porfa/ 52f F/rsfWd/ P/af-e 5. Porfa/ 521‘ Advanced Dr/fi‘ mef 57‘0. 4/ + 40 00f. 26, /904 M0. / £051‘ Dr/fi‘ mef 51‘0.4/+ 35 A/04/. /5, /904. N0. 2 £057‘ Dr/fi me?‘L 5m. 4/ #59 Now /5, I904. N0. / Wesf Dn'fif mew‘ 5m 4/+2/ A/ou l/, /904. N0. 2 Wesf Dr/fi‘ me?‘ am 4/ +2/ Now // Bench C0mp/e7‘ea'.. . Care a// fake/7 0uf..... Excas/m‘ion comp/efed .. .. . - \W. ‘.V /\ k \,I I, I ._ a 1? MIN“ R... swim m0. UMMEUUMO \ /,,/. . QvqtQww RROORESS PROFILE. SEATTLE TUNNEL / , \4: \ .2 /........ mmtmm mfg. I \ - \‘ " .VO. \rmndjzd‘u. GP I no. >121 . 67 .../..\. main.“ eaten m/fl C... .. .. mmtmw .5. Emmcxmkflflm JL 66 Sat Q .. we II 00. Nnmmim>OZ II 62 w.\.\.\m llIl SEATTLE.WASH T I 60 QWsQh. / I A44; “ / N‘ 322/4]..‘ .wqtsm, tea 5.5% 4Y0. >waxsbmumnwu \“4» Wm. Blue Clay and Gray Loose I Gray Blue C/ay Gem Grm/ B/ue Cem'r/f zone 5/08 Cem. Gram Ewtwm. w! _/// K! Y 6 ‘Pp’ '_,/r‘- / H .ufltsm, .QO. IOU/12 59 58 57 56 55 {/FII; - _."~v _ 53 WhtQb. '.\l 52 ‘I: ‘if/.157” R,- . .qo J_uu( S... . 7.... sm.. on b... not on 50 QQarmw to. >45 1 . at? Nm+m$ ;. . . hmthnw 49 . nOmJD) dPmZDU emit. w .IQ . . “0.16311 n. . moths no +5..‘ 47 _... so. Fm3o3< go >52; 6 Queens Neuter pip /.,. . . mmarms. FT m/vrxmv QN+ m.‘ 46 so. Kwmiwrnwm mossy IOO 50.0 FT. 45 kwtmflv mmfirmmw NO. HUmOFUO 4-4 _ _ . fins .Q motfimfi 3 ‘Steam mm + my -4 I... fi 5 .Q mBsQ S ‘Skew . . _. . ..tmm .Q *QNEQQR. 3 not?“ . ._ .WQ%\ Kw ..xuQ \N+ N? 43 I00 FOOT STATIONS Plate v11. BEQQEQO tokoontou . . . . n69 RR Tessa a. . \sf L. \ tfi h t . 4 - -. .. Rescue. 9...; $5.156 . so. 39°2/Y0“ 42 HMQEU>OZ . and GI'QK "y 500:! W Grav Clay .m r r era/rm. m M a... - hw C YE/kw Hordpa/I C eme/rf (,emenf C/ay Blue Gray ,& .{O 5/1/6’ Clay .w. Dry 0 I 05/611)‘ Try .vm, + Q»? 4| \ . .. 4.10 0 armml . Nuumolroo \/ . .. \m+ mm . .... \ul. Qm. re. main. mmmZmFnum, ké .1; . aces... stem were. 40 39 37 \....... owl. mm, . krrmm 36 35 .\ .H.. “i .... in .5303,‘ v0 \IJD) Qwiefi 34 W QQTWW V0 . .VO \fJD7mm.+m.m. U233 .. /% IP02 _ ....//\... 3+ No .. mm + m6 . e0 33 __ . wzwwmduIn “I wmim |It_mm$>o .QO. >112 5.... 81m swim 32 1.. so. I .. N732 . _.... 10. ..Zflfld . Nmxvmw mm+mN .. . “mt MN QD.IUQH_0 omwouomu. .3539 3am ramom .HHH> 985 Q. n w _ o m _ mun?‘ no m.;(uw .O.m .uO MUZ_>OKQ U7__l_ DUW_>UN._ 026‘ ZUU>>PUm Q7I>>OI® 070:2 \rUX ..E.&.O o x» . My #1 V/I. . ISO: Qmx‘hfi \ .\ 209..\ L A, .e. 92‘ \c. r HM I 9 .x... .w 0 r-Ruemwoq o .\M 9.7 e e.» n . .. ti’. o e. . ..fo 6 \ ..utw! . am e8 . c WEST'ER'N LINES ROGERS PAss TUNNEL. PR GRESS DIAGRAM. 0 January 29,!95. Winnipeg MOUNT MACDONALD ‘m .g 40'-|'mch ver’r'lcal g 4‘= 1 mile horizorrfal. :: :5 IN IQ :& l l‘ ____________________ _- Lenq+h of Tunnel 5 miles C/ayé; 500/der Cw‘ Cror'vn Driff Lef/ 76p Orig‘ [Pig/77‘ TOP Dr/fi' 1 | ll J11 : . I 'g ': , . "2 ' Cross Cu?‘ {4 II I 1 - 57;‘7‘0177 $209186. Lefffioz‘foml ‘Dr/ft _ _\ Dr/ff ' J ‘b ‘ ‘ ~ \ \ \ _ 56" a] I ‘\\ ~\ \\\ CROSS SECTION OF wgsT D ‘ff ~_\ \\\ \~\\ me” n PionZZ r‘Facsg 11506’ ZpEFt~~ \\ A’! hfWa/l- PORTAL OF‘ TUNNEL. 4705' 7*3'~\\ /afe Dr/fi \ ‘ \‘ 4"=l mil hor‘lzorH-aI. ' PIOMeerDr/ff I76 9 '0; range] comp/aka’ Profile Grad? CROSS SECTION MAIN TUNNEL. Plate IX. Pack Scc'fion 2 I. / 9 lined for”) 567/700 _ J0'76 /"Defbrmeo/ Or fwlsfiso/ Bars .30/7' /on_9r, /0/0/0eo/ Ja‘afenoé l Concrefe fined a“ 588/185 as 4! 5 6. P: R ROGERS PASS TUNNEL pea/30550 w/v/va 5.50 now iiié-M ‘0 Cub W: per- /m 6*.’ I l l l l | 3. l I ~ “I . jg . L a, . N m‘ / H Q \ l N .- l l t‘ I l - l ' 5 7"” I 33. l l I (' . \ ~‘?- '-~ t— ‘: \ \1 l . I _ II ' _ I ‘.9 i | \ Zuni-I'll? DJ :V/(In'n 0!) 20,7 I . -< I "I -"I w/// "0/140/1/ qrae/na/ o/ur/rgg (0.‘!- f — I P— ‘Ib - I .vfructen wife/v f/QcoQ/J'ccn/‘F-e o _ L 02' a i ,5 cefli‘rn u:e verf-ccv/ 1517:’: a: l bi . t l .40... W 04/45/28.’, loaf/"19'1" \ F— ' i I , I l no/o/I/lona/ p0.’ and 6117421"? If ' >-J< K , ' . re ulredra gr- I an If'C.'80J~ b r -' p _, "7' ‘ 1'07 rmée If' A" Ti 3 i‘ I 9 ' r .9 v‘. ‘I l ' ill I‘! T l l-— I - I /. -,l J'Yf’ecloio/ea'w ‘ ~ it‘ _~‘ \J/ooceofy >4 J I16 c/c‘a/e: Ol‘aoce /Z’ X I?‘ jfl-uf‘ Ifreyu/kecf/ /? ‘De/armed 50ft,’ \Eoaceo/ lé’f‘enifiea Plate X. Completed Tunnel Section. 0/9' Q'J . 1 30 19 =6 EXCAVATION} I) ‘U I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _v- T _ _ ___ -_ .- _ _ - / / '5' I‘ \ \ / I Q l = / ,6 I I, I \ \ ExcA 3 2 I ~ 3 I l \ \\ . _qv / / \ I l \\ \ L __- —/_‘ ;;_ ___ __ I L _ ___ _T_ "1— ‘I:— _: _ (0 ' N01” lea h n I , 02> 50f e‘T Q_ -A,-_-— .-on + . 8 / <23 2 MaxlO \ 94 Ex‘ 1‘? . . ‘c0 __ - ‘t _ § ---- -"- @800 I I P: }\ ~‘é _‘°;————< " 1‘ (Wedge k - g % 'MInimumIO'. MaximuméO' ' = 2 9 R 2 E 2- ' ‘ - k ‘*5 [F “l I}! NOTE; Concrefe Wa//, 6/05 '15" - ES & q . .. m Excavaf/onZ Eafif 5M6 0f H’eeenf'm ‘80 '}75pafm,/ l ‘ v6 " Tunnel fobeKepf50 féeflnAa’I/ance M‘ red is’ . b A l—s3.—J_l_'-"I ~ I , ~24 ~ ' 7’16/0'6 0f . 5 ' MICE—W 131-.3,‘ of Exca vaf/onZ on Wes _ --_-_:_::_:____ ___f _;n__ fig 5%; ‘zg __ I Fi'eaenf Tunnel _ _ _;_-;_ __ _ _ __5_Ub;qfd_d2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ 6'HpeO;L;‘,‘,-,;;5' I ~ . _ . _ . T . T , ' “heavy 588/@098 6 ‘Z‘Zifépe LOUISVILLE 63 NAfiI—IVILLE RAILROAD Co fioum 500/70' mm Norfn 500/10' 77'ack. ' KE NTU CKY DI vI 5 IoN. ' ORDER OF WORK FoR THE-ENLARGEMENT OF T6 //354 l CovINeToN TUNNEL. ScALE‘i-fl' ' OFFICE. OF ENG'R 0F CoNsT'N. Nov 50, BIO LOUISVILLEKY Plate XI. TUNNELS 295 The main central heading on same date was 3947 feet from the east end and 3336 feet from the west end of the tunnel. The shovels working out full section had reached points 1769 feet from the east end and 375 feet from the west end. The section of the pioneer drift requires the removal of about 2.1 cu. yds. per lineal foot of advance. The section of the main central heading of the tunnel re- quires the removal of about 4 cu. yds. per lineal foot of advance. The progress on each of the central headings has been at the rate of about 22 feet per day in rock; the advance secured by each round of shots being about 6 feet. Under this plan of working in rock section the total amount of material which is moved by hand per foot of total advance is about 6.1 cu. yds., made up of pioneer drift and main central heading. This ma- terial is taken out in small cars, through the pioneer and con— necting drifts, to points in the completed tunnel behind the two shovels, and is removed by regular tunnel cars. The main part of the tunnel section is excavated by the two shovels load- ing into tunnel cars, which are handled through the completed tunnel, the maximum haul beyond the ends of tunnel being two miles. Drilling and blasting the rock is conducted from the central heading, the holes being drilled radially therefrom in lengths approximating 30 feet of tunnel at one shot; and it is estimated that. on account of good ventilation and lack of ob- structions of any kind in the central working heading, a round ‘of shots in this length can be made in approximately 16 hours. COVINGTON TUNNEL. On Louisville & Nashville Railroad. Enlarged from a very small single-track section with a maximum width 13 ft. 8 in., to a double-track section equiva- lent to that of the standard proposed by the American Railway Engineering Association. The original tunnel was constructed about the year 1852 (no records of which exist), and was 754 feet in length. It had a very small section, as indicated on Plate XI. It was lined partly with brick and partly with stone masonry of varying thickness. As this tunnel was located close to Covington Yard, a considerable switching movement was handled at all 296 TUNNELS times through the tunnel, and it was constantly filled with smoke. The tunnel was driven through a peculiar formation; about 85% of the material was an indurated clay, or so-called soapstone, separated at intervals by thin ledges of hard lime— stone. It was necessary to construct the enlargement in such a manner as to keep the tunnel open for traffic, and the diagram on Plate XI shows the order of procedure that was approxi- mately followed; the general plan being to let the old masonry lining remain as far as possible to act as a smoke shield. Excavation No. 1, the upper heading, was begun at the south portal and carried continuously, night and day, until completed. The arch timbering above Excavation No. 1 was carried forward as the excavation progressed, being kept up close to it. It was found necessary to take out a greater amount of excavation, in this process, than is indicated in the diagram. The two parts, one numbered 3 and one numbered 5, were being taken out with No. 1. After good progress had been made on Excavation No. 1, Excavation No. 2 and part of Excavation No. 4 were taken out. The last step in the excavating was to complete that around the old masonry. The work was begun in February, 1911. In July, 1911, an accident happened to part of the old masonry, due to its being struck by a car, and the removal of the old arching was under- taken in the month of August and carried to a completion, a light timber shield being put in its place to protect the men from smoke while constructing the lining of the new tunnel. No heavy blasting was required in removing the material for enlarging this tunnel. The plan of the completed lining does not show the reinforcing bars which were used in the sec- tion throughout the tunnel. TUNNELS ON THE‘ GRAND TRUNK PACIFIC RAILI/VAY. Figs. 10, 11 and 12 are attached as best showing the methods used by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway for per- manently lining single-track tunnels constructed in yielding material and originally lined with timber. TUNNELS 297 G.T. P. R. TUNNEL SECTION N9|8 /’ \"I'I ' I '5II:I'-'1_I2H;_"\ I s ' \\ i I\ ‘\v/l \ ’\ a\ \ A - “z \ ‘I’ \\~ '9? ‘1'9, 0 ' x l I \"\ia'!,‘I / I ,>_\ ."'a o - ‘:9 _ ,I, ,. i _ \ . . J _ __ ___—___ _ __r __ _ __ _ | - I L_.g . "(I)" _‘I ‘I,’ 1, “can 7 I IQ ‘1' t ‘9"’ (- /Iofl r2000 co 4/ / I; f f / I é; \II 0 mb‘ ""1, ,0 1:0"? X r arr In a, an”: I. t}, I‘ " \I ~' I~1 I-.- - , ' W: M . (I I119 1m (WM ’ ‘7 ‘ I - I’ ‘I 'I II' ‘ , I‘; I)? '5" f L's/In (aflt/‘t/t {JO/Ir I , ‘)0! I II \ :fl/Ilél ' i ,1! I /I2 I4! I _ \ I - I \ 501° _— __ _ I— _ — _ I H ‘ I I \Q a We,” ' I \ | L I , 1 4| 1 II I N: r y -53‘ . L. I I ‘U \ I N t F, a/a, .r///A /a 7!”? flma/e/ Mrler’a/ ”’ 0"‘ loam‘ ' §:___-7'_ I I i x’ -- TI - - - I I. I: ' “13",. I per A’, 0/7'41008/ Jt’r’f - 5):: p5,,’- U I ‘r #1 I“ "II {#114, iii/n TIA.”- Qaii/M" "1 3” ‘ ‘I c" Q‘ \ I ‘I a, ‘ . - ___" r‘ " — * ‘s In‘ {60% QQ'zLL/"fl lo; I_‘__ PH/J'Z "WIZLIL-‘M NI ‘I I? I ‘I: I':1 - Lil-ft “ 6;”? 2 /I-/Z-/a 24 fln/n/Az' I' 7320 480 I3, .1 I I I 4 l 1 - 1' _' ~ ‘ ' @ If Ina-1, 12R”- -; 41*“ “LI I fi/a/ "86 I 8 '4 ‘5 ' \Q 1 . — ~ T _ _ — I K, II I- W I M: < J- a I M II a II I ' : |u°"’ Q _ l .— “ “Q \ l . I0’. 4‘ . f I l If :6‘, I! Paaé 41;; I; ‘J Q/: 3 8en/ a: M0“, on $29 ‘29 at‘ $9 I I \ ,°. 3': ' i, F55 " A!” I’ I’ " ~ ~ '20 . ‘ ' I \Q ‘t \IJIIQMJ} 17// /any//aa’/na/ rad,‘ fife 7% y l I 9 I I \ \ , . .' I ' I S 8 I I} ; a, Marin/afar"; “A” 756: 0/ f've/ J/ée/ W1!” 4” uA/vna/e .r/re-ryn‘; I ' \° I ' , -' "I! I § 5 \4&I:" 92E: ;///70/y8/J' WM“ 115"‘! a/J-oaaa P'r "f I” I I I .'".0'.\I a - \ ~ \ “his. / ai/tn'l'hn) 1» law ix/z . I a '.- ; IIA [If /22/’! ‘ll- \\ - b 'r'\ n l . i ‘ . / , ' Y ___-1 "I ~ — I|I ' I _,/ ’ _ / , ‘\v / - a I- —;_‘|1’I'E|I’~II:II*- PH (‘51" ‘II— I‘ =:III-‘I=4' I I *"e " OQKZF/m N A GENT . , I I(____ ___/00_‘__———— _ _: Ik_________‘_Za-'0"___________*II L_____ ___ __ _Z/-'7'____ __ _ —_____>I VERY YIEI MM 2 SLIDING MATERIAL. fi/Héefmq a: Ina/xca/eo/J‘Aaur any/na/ Z/nmy of‘ Kmne/ a: 319mm an W/Y/VEZ ‘5757/04’ N'II 5, arrar'atmefi/ Jr for”?! af/I’e/rrkrcmy rad‘, in 479! $9450 Rama /e or many 0/ 7": f'ramzr a! part/bl’: when (M67? f/f' 550/0 "11 6» flame/r on Cur/J! a: ,0” J79: 7? 734415‘?!- flem ércmy rad/J A, A; /£/g/fitfl(d daze/#1471}, C/ea v05; /; sun‘ m4"), :0 o’far 1 /0'0' - Fa'a'c‘ar Fig. 10. Concrete Tunnel Lining, Grand Trunk Pacific Ry. 298 TUNNELS G‘ T- P. R. TUNNEL SECTION N218 :4 an do Y/QJ tw 66 051W 0/ mwm 0/a ..sa 5 ,5 can :7” w...“ rwwk am” e vr/mfz 6 man I! Zea/U1 Isa Wfiw ll pr lllllm i l l i l l l l l I 1 | I l l l l 1 llhu 1 1 l l l... 111..‘ l , . 1 l l l l l l l l l l I llJll La l l l l l l l l | | l l | l l l i IIHllkllllllL IIINWIIIH I I I I I I I I I I I I I 0 I I I I I I I I I IIII I IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I'II In.) \0 .nn\0.\\\ \@ MURNx RRR hnh\ \QQ “30$ khwRbhsQ \Rn..\\ lfl||§lll|i||ll2 P llllllllllllllllll llHNlllllll. ralrlPNIl e"'l$ I ' I I ' I I i l I I I I I I I I ' l l I I ' | I ' | I I I I I I I I I ‘lull- I Illrill. I I'll. 7&/7/7e/ Z /'/7/'rlq Fe/nfE/c/rzy //7 01/73/02 07’ 8.1.. \669. \QSSG 3 40a $165600. 0% 04\ L\.00k %.~k\b\w\m\\m\,\0 hh\0.\\ub.n.\b\s\.\ \\A\ . // - I I III . wllw. l I l l l I l l llHHllJHi | I I l l l l l l l l l llfihmimllrlllu 1 I l l l l 1 11 ..1 o . -.llllllltll.llll.._.ll llllltlllllllllhafil IAJ _ l . qllJilllllllllllllql l l I I l l I l l l l I IINHRIII'IW I l l l I lldllewa fl . willlHHh-MuHHHIUHIHHIIHHIIINHHHHHHmhsHHHHU llllll ll .1 . n/ . x 1.. ......... -14 .............. 1%“. .... l. I. . Z O YII I- I I I I I I 1 I I I I IIFI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II -II0 1 . _ . l l l l l I l l l l l I llrl l I I I I l I l I I I l l l ll 1. IIIIL J. 0 ,fl _ R...» r _ . // .. Ila llllllllll |l+||11||lllilllllsharllljiillliJll 0,2 _. 1 ........... 1.512%.“ 1111111111 {as 1111 1-. + “mm . 11+ I 1 l I 1 l l | 1 I l 1.. III | I l l a | I I l a ..Imilfillllufi l 1 l l I l a l ll |.. c . Joe-.. ........ 26..---. ........... 11.1.}? 7.. .662 v \Ij 10.‘ 11 n 5.8 /a” £0 £8 / ¢6 5 w/x F _ pi 5 w». JM/w/m s.\ .35 KoQMoGQQIQ \0 $46,166.01 w\0R.\~\\\§ If J .38“ M k0 MR}: \UWIQ: \b\\.\.\0 UWQ .900.\ %~\\bk-0\R.\\b\\\9\ . .WXWN /ab 6/ 01‘ //7 /r) [a of’ 6079/7 /1./a/: - 76/5 p/w/v ra/d/‘B’ fafiau/ny #9 /8 & A9 Spccza/ Fig. 11. Reinforcing Details for Concrete Tunnel Lining, G. T. P. Ry. TUNNELS 290 6.1” P. R’ TUNNEL SECTION N920 .4 00 _ QIQNH 50 MRI \UNQNEtQ 0.0.2; . . \\? M\\N\we\ Q‘ .\.\Q\\.\\ul\ 0‘ \qUrUAu‘fiv\\\vv \fl\\v.\\»~IuhL1 b“ \QKKQ am!‘ Nhlwm L...G\ \...K\ Q\0\\r1\vtk \bYN .nkfiwv MskMkQsiuk I..I_o.\. 8% .Nkamw QR.Q\ he... .ui\\.\h 0K \Ihduwvuhlfi .\\ - WNW‘ I T . - 2/ J 6r I/Mvfz. 5567/00’ 0’? /8 -9 .Q"__ 30/ 6' A’; I / / o u.>m_m .w\0%I _ 3 J.“ a 43;.’ 3_ .u .r _ I U ~ .Aa I L _ _ A 045 4 ..4 2 m/ I Ii _ a ,. _, . 9 f T IIII ll i,Iw/%\ l i ll 14 M _ / f. in. '- 7 _ // a m .4 7m .2. / ¢w\ M _ n. 1 w. r .5 _ . _ _ h w .4 w. I _\Uh\r\h.\\\§\\ LAN .\\v°\\00b.\fli I i Q” h. II:I*Q_HW N .Ivlnallll M003 an. . / ..~ / l l .'8>I__l_ _ \'L_ __ \VQQQ \d. N k.\\\ IVS \wkrbk 04 1444482 / fcpé/lpvr //n 1470/ 7110"!’ Details of Reinforcing Bars, Concrete Tunnel Lining, G. 'I'. P. Ry. V// /‘5//7/2/'C/r17 fad/J‘ f0 .56 0)‘, f/Vt/ J'lldc/ w//% on’ uz‘gma/Je .r/rerry/V; of 419600 fersyxn. Je/5//o//r%/h/arcm.7 Bar; flea/an“; ff” 75'97/7e/5' M [Ii/rye: once/17;! 7!.’ 7.3-74 7:676 fl-m/arcmy rad: fa Jcléry/rfenea/ Pig. 12. /v/ \ “km: \0 9 n . . is. a N m. a d . 50/ r 1 >0... U. .v! a Ilrlll "w a l I IIIQNI I “.4490 III II I14? I l I I1 300 TUNNELS CONCLUSION. The plan most generally used in excavating tunnels in hard material or rock, in the United States, whether single- or double-track, is the top center-heading method as shown in Fig. 2 of Plate V of the Sandy Ridge tunnel, and in Fig. 2 of the Nicholson double-track tunnel. The method used in the Snoqualmie tunnel was the bot- tom-heading method, the bottom-heading being driven on one side. The method used on the Mount Royal tunnel was the bot- tom central-heading. The method being used on the Rogers Pass tunnel is a parallel pioneer drift, followed by a tunnel heading located near center of the tunnel section. As all of these tunnels were constructed chiefly in rock of varying degrees of hardness, as described, it seems well to com- pare the progress and determine the reasons for the most fav- orable results. In future tunnel construction. the best methods for securing maximum speed at minimum costs, with the latest forms of appliances, may probably be selected more readily than heretofore. The detailed data and plans from which this summary has been deduced were furnished by the following parties: Snoqualmie Tunnel .......... ..Mr. C. F. Loweth, Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway. Sandy Ridge Tunnel ....... -.Mr. Ward Crosby, Chief Engineer, Carolina, Clinchfield & Ohio Ry., and Rinehart & Dennis Co., contractors of tunnel. Nicholson Tunnel .............. ..Mr. J. G. Ray, Chief Engineer, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry., and Mr. D. W. Flickwir, contractor of the tunnel. Mt. Royal Tunnel ...... .. . Published description in pamphlet by Mack- enzie, Mann & Co., Ltd, contractors of tunnel. Seattle Tunnel Mr. A. H. Hogeland, Chief Engineer, Great Northern Railway. Rogers Pass Tunnel ........ ....Mr. J. G. Sullivan, Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Railway. Covington Tunnel ........ -- ....;Mr. W. H. Courtenay, Chief Engineer, Louis- ville & Nashville Railroad. G. T. P. Ry. Tunnel ............ ..Mr. H. A. Woods, Assistant Chief Engineer. 301 COMPARA 771/f 0AM O/V TUNNELS. / 2 3 4 5 //‘¢'f"5- 671/06‘ Ufllfi/f 671/0)’ 147062‘ NMbwéU/V MT #0 K41 P061596 fin‘fo‘“ @1064 Slate Sandstone h’ard 5orldsrom L/mesrone Sfare " 5C Guarrz/rc and r. Ml: and L" lie> cf (fwd Character of Idarer/a/ Cong/omemre .S/ore 5/Ofe RJr'f/nqa Igneous Rock OucrfZ/fe Length Fr //8 90 7804 3650 /7000 25400 Number of T-ac/rs / / 2 Z i’ Nzafflrea Ems/760’ Sec ‘fa/7 352 378 660 -4/4 525 Area Sec fxcaa/afea' 5g Fr 5/7 625 964 702 6'3/ Cu Yds Excel/area’ ,Oer A/n Fr /9 2 23 o 35 7 26.0 E . 30 76‘ 5 I? 25.0 I ‘sofrom _ +Pcenfc-Cg-rr Head/n9 — Locar/on of 5orrom-5/o’e Top -Cenrer 70,0 ~Cen/‘er 6?” f¢" [ca/crime’ Head/mg- Cu Yds Per‘ L/n Fr 40 a/ 50 50 40 my Head/n9 - 14v Dai/y Prvog Each f‘: .95 75 80' /3 5 20. 5 Head/ng— Max Number Worked 2’ E’ 3 3 2 Head/ng - A/umber Holes OrI/led /4 to 30 22 to 24 I8 ro E4 /8 to 24 26 f0 32 Head/ng- Depth 01‘ Holes ~ Fr .9 /0 8-10 5 r0 8 6 Head/n9 ~ Av éreak per Shot 6/ 75 7.5 50 00 Sha/fs, Number“ 0 0 2 2 0 area: 77,0 150' 5 b b nah 5 b h areakrulz 5%‘ U n Bench - Method of Pemawng ‘aggro/7:11! and .sgovel org/g’ sggfiu Zfigrshage/ .5 mo Sena/5 ‘Av Dal/y Progress Foch/7 77 75 @ // 6 A35 23 6 {j g '5 e l - / fol/ Sec Av Da/ly Progre 95, F! I? 7 @ I04 74 Q /_9 2 473 57010 jgpfl- 75 Pounds 60% Dynam/re per Cu Yd E 8 40 / 7 Z 23 3 0,” hg’d5/Jfg ,Qx/nds 60% Dyna/n Per Fr Tunnel 55 25 .9333 60 7 58 0 'Zfiamhérdsme Excess fxc Per Fr Tunne/~Cu Va 35 .50 3 7 “ 3 0 J; Max head/n? er day / Toro/ mm‘, m fwo head/no; 27% moor/u‘. Total overoqe a’oI/y progress /n head/rigs /44' Q Genero/ average progress 1n each bench when work/nq - 9 fr p Z Heod/ng _srarfed Oct /9/2, our May /9/4 =/9 monfns Bench starred Nov /9/Z our Nov /9/4 Z4mo. @ Genera/ average progress If? 2 benches d/Srrloulfed over Who/e 3 Two shaft: total 1‘! 2'3] 'useo’ 'lb'l/J ru yo’; .S‘Iorfed 5epf IQIZ fin/shed /n 7 mo Head/09 work 07.79 cuyds ~comp/e red Sepr l9/4 ’ Bench Sr‘arfeo' Nov l9/i @ Tunnel rgqulred IJ/Z mo a/fer Comp/61709 shaft; ~avéy daMy progress 74 ff‘ 4 M'ax/murn of 4 breakups‘ used In heod/nq In 15 rno al/ head/nos Comp/e/‘ea’ and I/; rm/e breakups prof/ress of one and In a monfh was in Jan /9/5 - 93215‘ = 3015‘ portray Max full sect/on loroqress of one and /n o monfh was in Auo-l9/5 -527 >9 = 26 7fi‘per day Ful/ sec/Von removed by o’r/l/Ino Z6 roo’l'a/ holes 01 rlnqs spaced ooouf 517 dPJrf', f/r/no obow‘ 6 r/nq5 aonoecuhvg/y_ @ /n hard sch/sf- Hws lncreose’d f0 5705. romp/eke If,’ A’ mo 01/ fan/)6,’ I Q June l9/2 ro Dec /9/Z per/Jo’ // f/lprr yin Prlces‘ Tun/[l j .5 Folk 100 or, {a for Q‘w'f/ (r " ‘I/ 302 DISCUSSION: TUNNELS BIBLIOGRAPHY. Snoqualmie Tunnel, Railway Age-Gazette, May 29, 1914, Vol. 56, p. 1183. Sandy Ridge Tunnel, Railway Age-Gazette, Nov. 7, 1913, Vol. 55, p. 862. Mt. Royal Tunnel, Railway Review, Dec. 12, 1914, Vol. 55, p. 710. Seattle Tunnel, Railway Gazette, Nov. 11, 1904, Vol. 37, p. 534. Rogers Pass Tunnel, Railway Age-Gazette, Dec. 11, 1914, Vol. 57, p. 1082. New York Tunnels, Pennsylvania Railroad, Proceedings Am. Soc. C. E., Vols. LXVIII and LXIX. DISCUSSION Mr. Mr. William Hoodfi M. Am. Soc. C. E., referring to the discussion of Hood- the tunnel section on the second page of the paper, said that the width of a tunnel is controlled, in general, by the largest size cars and engines operated on the line, and also by the convenience of the trackmen. But, more important still, it has been found that, in general, a tunnel 16 to 17 ft. wide can be constructed for the same cost as one 14 to 15 ft. wide. The reason is that work is more economically done in the wider tunnel. The Southern Pacific Co. up to some time in the 90’s used to build tunnels 14 ft. wide at sub-grade and 16 ft. wide at the springing line. This section was changed to 17 ft. clear inside for the same price, the contractor being glad to adopt the larger section. This road new builds tunnels of 17 ft. clear width. M1‘- Mr. W. A. Cattell,* M. Am. Soc. C. E., stated that all of the tunnels Catten' on the Western Pacific Railway, 44 in number and aggregating 45,350 ft. in length, were constructed 17 ft. wide; (1) to decrease first cost by per- mitting the use of a steam shovel during construction, (2) to secure better ventilation in operation and (3) to provide greater safety for employees engaged in track maintenance. Mr. Mr. J. G. Sullivan,** M. Am. Soc. C. E., referring to the Rogers Pass Sum‘mn- Tunnel, said that the 46-ft. advance mentioned in the paper refers to both ends of the tunnel. For the last two weeks before he left, there was being made an advance of 55 ft. per day, or 27 ft. at either end of the tunnel. The pioneer drift is used for ventilation, air being forced from it into the main heading. The gases in the side headings are gotten out by the ordinary suction methods. This arrangement allows for almost con- tinuous work by all of the men. Work can be continued in the heading while shooting at the bench. He desired to ask if the figure of 0.58 lb. of dynamite per cubic yard of excavation in the shafts of the Nicholson Tunnel is correct. Mr. Mr. Chas. S. Churchill replied that this figure, 0.58, is correct; the Churchm- local conditions made this possible. tChief Engineer, Southern Pacific 00., San Francisco, Calif. * Consulting Engr., San Francisco, Calif. ** Chief Engr., Vvrestern Lines, C. P. Ry., \Vinnipeg, Man., Canada. DISCUSSION: TUNNELS 2.0 (D C») Mr. Sullivan, replying to a request for information concerning the sort of pipe used for air ducts in the Rogers Pass Tunnel, said that ordinary l2-inch wooden pipe made for low water pressure had been used and this had given better results than galvanized iron pipes. The system is all one line with branches in the headings. Steam shovels operated by compressed air were used; also compressed air locomotives with 12-yd. cars, and dinkey locomotives for small cars running into the headings. These latter are also operated by compressed am To a question concerning the type of drill employed, he replied that a light drill of the Leyner type had been used and that it had proved very satisfactory. Air and water under pressure are forced through the drill. One man can carry the drill in and out. One of the objects of building the Rogers Pass Tunnel was to elimi- nate snow sheds, which were used not so much on account of the snowfall, as to take care of avalanches and slides, which are not uncommon. The method used in constructing this tunnel is adaptable to rock that will stand without lining during construction. Shafts would accomplish the same result, but in this case the use of shafts was not feasible. As to saving of time by this method, the best bids originally had were for completion in not less than 7 years; using this method, the contract was let for completion in 31,43 years. The actual tunnel work will be completed in about 3 years. By letter Mr. Sullivan said that regarding construction of Rogers ' Pass Tunnel, there is very little that he cared to add at the present time to what Mr. Churchill has said, excepting to note a few changes in plan and to advise progress up to date. Plate X was a plan made before they had any experience in the soft ground. It was found, when soft ground was reached that considerably heavier timbering was required, and a seven-segment arch was used in- stead of a five. It was also found, however, that the 12 by 12 strut shown in the bottom of the tunnel was not required; therefore, in the lining, the solid invert of concrete was omitted; the weep holes are placed higher and run directly into a “V”-shaped trough in the concrete base. Struts of about the same section as the invert are placed between 20 ft. and 30 ft. apart to take care of strains caused by swelling of the earth which might take place. Regarding ‘the progress of the work, on July 25 work on the pioneer headings was stopped, when these headings were a little less than one mile (5202 ft.) apart, having been driven from the east end 10,740 feet, and from the west end, 8870. The total of these figures will not equal the total length of the tunnel on account of the pioneer tunnels being started at higher elevations than the tunnel proper and somewhat closer together than the portals of the tunnel. For the remaining mile of tunnel, the centre heading alone will be driven, and it is expected that this will be driven and the drilling for enlargement of same finished before the Mr. Sullivan. 304 DISCUSSION: TUNNELS Mr. Sullivan. Mr. Courtenay. shovels will reach the last cross cuts into the pioneer tunnel. As Mr. Churchill has stated, the main object of this method of driving the tunnel was to devise a cheap and rapid method of taking out the major portion of the rock by steam shovels. The steam shovels on August 19 were 16,488 feet apart, or about 3.12 miles. Mr. Sullivan believes it will be admitted from the record of the past three months that the method is proving a success. The average monthly advance of the steam shovels has been 1636 feet; and as the contractors are always improving on methods, it is hoped to exceed this record before the tunnel is completed. The main headings in the centre of the tunnel on August 19 were only 4677 feet, or 0.89 miles apart. There have been twelve cross cuts made from the pioneer tunnel, six at each end. A word of explanation may be necessary as to the equipment we are using: Mr. Churchill states that the excavation from the shovels is loaded into tunnel cars. These are ordinary standard-gauge 12—yard dump cars. Mr. W. H. Courtenay} M. Am. Soc. C. E., wrote that the Coving- ton Tunnel described by Mr. Churchill is within the city limits. It was impracticable to drive a new tunnel on either side of the old tunnel on account of local conditions. As about 170 engines passed through the tunnel daily, it was impera- tive that the method of constructing the double-track tunnel on the centre line of the old narrow tunnel provide for keeping the smoke and gas from locomotives from the men engaged on the work of enlargement. To accomplish this with minimum cost, it was decided to maintain the old single-track tunnel masonry until the enlargement of the section and construction of masonry lining for the double-track section could be com- pleted. The method indicated on Plate XI was devised by Mr. J. E. Wil- loughby, who was in charge of the work, for conducting it without inter- fering with the very frequent train movements through the tunnel, and for attaining the desired result with the least expenditure. The heading, Excavation 1 on the print, was first driven from both ends of the tunnel. Concurrently with Excavation 1, the arch timbers were placed. of Excavation 1 to 6 feet below the crown block of the arch timbers on the center line, and low enough on the haunches to permit placing the lower wall plates indicated in dotted lines on Plate XI. During the progress of the work it was found that parts of Excavations 2 and 4, sufficient to permit building the side walls, could be made concurrently, and this was done. \Vork according to the program outlined was proceeding satisfac- torily when by oversight of the yard master, cars too large to pass through the old masonry lining were started through, resulting in col- lapse of 120 feet of the old lining. At that time there were being offered by connecting lines a large number of cars whose dimensions exceeded * Chief Engr., Louisville & Nashville Railroad, Louisville, Ky. The plan was modified to the extent of carrying the bottom. DISCUSSION: TUNNELS 305 those permissible through the old tunnel, so, the conclusion was reached to remove the remainder of the old masonry lining and to substitute therefor a timber smoke shield with vertical sidewalls 13 ft. 6 in. apart in the clear, with vertical clearance from top of rail to the knee braces of 16 ft. 6 in. Steel reinforcement of the concrete was not used throughout the tunnel, but only at points where there were falls of material from the roof. In 1906 the Louisville & Nashville Railroad Company concluded to enlarge another tunnel about 8 miles south of the above described Cov- ington Tunnel, this last mentioned tunnel being 2147 feet in length and having practically the same section and character of masonry lining as the Covington Tunnel, and having been driven through much the same character of material as the Covington Tunnel. At the time this work was undertaken, double-tracking the line was not in contemplation. This tunnel was enlarged by removing the old masonry lining in stretches of from 6 to 16 feet, depending upon the general condition of the material behind the old masonry as well as it could be ascertained, and when removing the old lining in short stretches the section was enlarged and new concrete lining of larger section placed. The procedure was to work on a number of short sections concur- rently. No timbering was used for these short sections, and While there were some falls from the roof, none were of any magnitude and there was no serious difficulty. A few years later it was decided to double-track the line, but the difficulties of again enlarging this tunnel, and at the same time taking care of the traffic, were so great that conclusion was reached to construct the second track in vicinity of the tunnel on a new location some distance away from the old tunnel. The practice generally of the writer, when having occasion to double- Mr. Courtenay. track lines which pass through tunnels, has been to construct an inde- ‘ pendent tunnel for the second track. This has been accomplished success- fully in a number of cases, in some of which the distance between centers of tunnels has been 50 ft., the minimum distance between centers having been 35 feet. The engineer has frequently to deal with such problems as lining with masonry tunnels which had previously been lined with timber. The practice of the writer with reference to this work has been to line them in short sections about as described above. At times he also has occasion to deal with bad falls in tunnels. The Cumberland Gap Tunnel, where the States of Kentucky, Virginia and Tennessee corner, is a case in point. This tunnel is driven generally through shale which has a very heavy dip. The tunnel was originally timbered. Some years ago a break occurred in the roof of this tunnel, extending to a height of 80 feet above the track. The situation was a dangerous one for the men engaged upon the work. A heading drift was driven through the debris, the cavity was timbered, and the material 306 DISCUSSION: TUNNELS Mr. Courtenay. obstructing the tunnel was removed, the tunnel lined with brick masonry of the horseshoe section, and then the whole of the cavity above the tunnel was packed with rock. In 1904 the company with which the writer is connected was engaged in constructing a new line of railroad in eastern Tennessee, on which there were a number of tunnels, generally driven through rock. In some of the limestone tunnels large clefts filled with clay were found in driving the tunnels. The procedure, when these soft clay pockets were dis- covered, was to attempt to hold up the ground at all cost and not to sufier the tunnel to break through to the surface, if it could be avoided. In such ground usually a small drift was driven on the center line at the crown of the tunnel and timbered; then a small drift was driven on each side for the wall plates. When these drifts had extended to 12 feet in length, the timber wall plates were placed and blocked up; then excava- tion was carefully made from the side drifts to the center crown drift and the timber arch blocks placed; then the remainder of the headings excavated, the tunnels having been driven by the top heading method. A number of tunnels were driven through clay pockets of the above character and through a formation of yellow clay with a large number of limestone boulders floating therein, under the immediate direction of Mr. J. E. Willoughby, M. Am. Soc. C. E. A few years after the line through one of these tunnels which had been driven through clay carrying limestone boulders had been put in operation, a rear-end collision occurred between two freight trains in the tunnel. One of the trains was a coal train. The result of the collision was a fire which ignited the coal and also burned out a section of the tunnel which had been lined with timber, the tunnel having been lined with alternate stretches of timber and concrete, the expectation being to complete the concrete lining later. ' Material fell from the roof of the tunnel in the burned section until the natural surface was reached, leaving a large hole on the surface approximately conical in shape. The fallen material was wet, for fire engines had been brought to the tunnel and used in an effort to put out the fire. This problem was attacked by driving a drift of merely sufficient size to let a locomotive through, and timbering this drift with approxi- mately rectangular section of timbering as it was driven; 4-in. by 4-in. oak poling boards 16 feet in length were driven ahead as the work progressed. Much difficulty was encountered by the men being overcome by fumes from the burning coal as the coal was uncovered, and the work was greatly delayed on this account. However, the above method was followed, the wrecked engine within the tunnel removed, and traffic restored long before the tunnel could be brought to the adopted section and new concrete lining constructed. Notwithstanding the fierce fire which roared through this tunnel, the sections which had been lined with concrete were very little damaged. DISCUSSION: TUNNELS 307 The concrete had been reinforced with steel rods, and in a number of places the heat caused approximately circular pieces of the concrete about one foot in diameter and from 3 to 4 inches in thickness, to pop out. Where these pieces of concrete were caused to break out from the face of the lining by the heat, it was seen that the concrete reinforcing rods were sharply buckled on account of the expansion due to the heat. Not- withstanding this, the concrete was not seriously damaged and did not require renewal. An unusual experience was with a tunnel in southern Alabama. This tunnel had originally been lined with oak timber. When the original oak timber began to show considerable decay, the timber lining was renewed with black cypress, a character of timber which the writer had known to last with very little decay for twenty years in other tunnels. After this cypress had been in place a few years it was discovered to have been almost totally destroyed by dry rot. The timber held its shape, but was so completely decayed that a piece of it 4 in. wide and 2 in. thick and a foot long could readily be broken across between the hands. The writer’s practice has been to require frequent inspections of timber in tunnels by boring, but it was thought the cypress in this par- ticular tunnel had not been in place a sufficient length of time to justify earlier inspection, by boring. Mr. M. M. O’Shaughnessy,* M. Am. Soc. C. E'., wrote that Mr. Churchill ’s interesting and instructive paper deals exclusively with rail- road tunnels, which naturally constitute a very large proportion of the tunnels recently constructed in America, but with the rapid development of the larger American cities tunnels for vehicular, pedestrian and street car traffic are no longer of uncommon occurrence. The first impression that the Eastern visitor obtains on entering San Francisco is surprise at its uneven topography. A dismembered branch of the Coast Range divides the city into two main districts, and spurs from the principal ridge extend in every direction, forming steep bar- riers between the intervening level stretches. While these hills are a relief from the monotony of outlook so common in Eastern centers of population, and while on their slopes some of the best residences in San Francisco are located, by obstructing vehicle and street car traffic they have, until recently, retarded this city’s growth and development. To afford to promising districts beyond the ridges adequate transportation facilities, one tunnel has recently been completed and another is now in course of construction. STOCKTON STREET TUNNEL This project was undertaken to connect the North Beach District to the business center by a shorter and more direct route and easier grades. The entire length is 1323 feet, extending from the north line of "' City Engineer, San Francisco, Calif. Mr. Courtenay. Mr. O‘Shaughnessy. 308 DISCUSSION: TUNNELS Mr. O'Shaughnessy. Sutter Street to the south line of Sacramento Street. Of this, 412 feet is in open-cut approaches and 911 feet in tunnel. Approximately 180 feet of the tunnel adjacent to the portals was constructed by the cut-and-cover method. An ascending grade of 2.33 percent begins at the north line of Sutter Street, running thence to the north line of Bush Street, from which point the tunnel rises on a 4.29 percent grade. Fairly hard sandstone was anticipated, but schist, slippery blue shale and yellow clay were pene- trated. This failed to arch itself thoroughly in the limited distance to the upper ground surface and during the winter of 1913-14 became satur- ated, necessitating extreme caution and heavy timbering. The standard tunnel section has a clear span of 50 feet and a rise of 19 feet, affording two 7-foot sidewalks and a 36-foot roadway in which has been con- structed a double-track municipal electric railway. As originally de- signed, the intrados of the reinforced concrete arch was tricentric, the abutments 8 feet thick and the crown 18 inches thick. Contract for the tunnel construction was awarded in April of 1913, to Jacobsen & Bade for the sum of $337,000, but as it was deemed neces- sary, owing to the treacherous nature of the strata disclosed in the excava- tion, to strengthen the section, increasing the crown to 32 inches thick- ness and the balance of the arch proportionately, the first construction cost was increased to $416,528. Work started on the south approach June 2, 1913, drifts were started in November, 1913; concrete lining completed June 25, 1914; core excavation started July 17 and was completed Sep- tember 5, 1914. Open-cut approaches and cut-and-cover sections were done by a 20-ton Marion steam shovel, with a one-yard dipper loading directly into 4- and 5-yard auto trucks. When excavation in the south approach was com- pleted, bunkers for the handling of surplus excavation were constructed at Sutter Street at the end of a trestle along which a train of eight 114- cubic-yard side-dump cars, hauled by a 35-hp. electric locomotive. brought material from the three drifts, one of which entered at the crown and one at either side of the core, at sidewalk level. Two upper holes and two lifters 6 feet deep were used in the face of the drift, taking about two hours to drill. The load per hole was usually six sticks of 35% dynamite. When the drifts had been completed, the excavation for the concrete ring was carried out by the crownbar system of timbering. Crownbars, of which there were twenty along the extrados, had minimum dimensions of 10 inches in diameter and 20 feet in length, were round fir and placed to break joints. Lagging was 3 inches, and posts, round or square, were not less than 10 inches diameter, or on side; trans- verse sets of timbers were placed on 5-foot centers. Six operations were necessary to complete the excavation between drifts and for the abut- ments. They were: (1) lowering the floor of the top drift and placing the first crownbars; (2) and (3) widening the top drift and placing addi- tional crownbars; (4) connecting the top and side drifts; (5) excavation of abutments; (6) completing the section ready for the concrete forms. DISCUSSION: TUNNELS 309 This excavation was very expensive; about 2,500,000 feet of lumber was used, including forms. Most of the lumber had to remain in the tunnel. After removing the transverse sets of timbers, forms for the concrete were supported by the central core, and Nl-t'oot sections of the reinforced concrete lining, running 18 cubic feet of concrete and 1000 pounds of steel per foot, were poured. The load over the section to be poured was sup- ported by reinforced concrete stulls, 4-in. by 4-in. in section, which rested upon 2-in. by 4-in. wooden blocks on the forms. These stulls were embedded when the concrete was poured, becoming part of the permanent lining. A 1:2:5 mix of Santa Cruz Portland cement, sand and rock was used. Near the south portal, concrete materials were brought into bunk- ers and flowed by gravity through chutes into a 1-yard Foote mixer operated by a 15-hp. electric motor. Concrete was dropped from the mixer into a steel tank, whence it was forced by compressed air into the forms. The compressed-air plant which supplied air to drills, for ventilation and for delivering concrete, was situated over the tunnel, and consisted of an Ingersoll-Rand, 16 by 18 two-stage compressor driven by a 200-hp. motor. A 4-inch air inlet and an 8-inch discharge pipe were fitted to the concrete The output of the mixer, 160 cubic yards in 8 hours, was easily handled, a cubic yard of concrete being moved in 2 Concrete was transported a maximum distance of 1000 feet, in which distance it was elevated 90 feet; a pressure of 125 pounds per square inch was used. Labor costs were high in shifting the 8-inch discharge pipe, and the L’s and other specials had to be renewed often, the life being about 60 hours’ actual use, or 1200 cubic yards concrete transported. Straight pipe wore at couplings and had to be recut and rethreaded. After the concrete arch had thoroughly set, a 1.5-ton Marion steam shovel of the revolving type with a 5Ai-cubic-yard dipper was used in removing the core. The surface of the concrete was thoroughly cleaned and roughened, and the 2-in. by 4-in. wooden blocks which supported the stulls were removed, the resulting pockets being filled with a rich mixture of cement and gravel. A scratch coat of 1:2 cement plaster was then applied, over which was placed a finish coat of Medusa plaster. Cast iron drainage pipes 4 inches in diameter extend through the abutments every 25 feet on either side of the tunnel for its full length, and lead into 6-inch ironstone pipe drains under the sidewalks, where they are connected to the main sewer in lower Stockton Street. An underdrain along the center line of the tunnel conveys seepage from the roadbed of the railway to the main sewer. There are 23 expansion and settlement joints of copper and tar paper placed at regular intervals. To light the tunnel electric conduits were embedded in the concrete with globe connections at 255-foot centers. The cost, $616,528, was met by a graduated scale of assessments paid in ten annual installments on the property benefited on both ends of the tunnel; $416,528 was the cost of construction and the balance paid for damages to adjacent lands. drum. minutes. Mr. O'Shaughnessy. 310 DISCUSSION: TUNNELS Mr. O’ Shaughnessy. COST SUMMARY. Excavation Labor Material Unit Open cut 1.47 0.21 cu. yd. Labor includes 66c for hauling, sub-contract. Headings 6.25 1.60 011. yd. Includes timbering Stopes 6.50 2.12 on. yd. Core 1.24 0.20 cu. yd. Steel Open-cut sections 8.69 28.42 1000 lb. Tunnel 14.76 28.58 1000 lb. Concrete Plastering _ .. . . 0.47 0.51 sq. yd. Open-cut section 0.84 5.39 cu. yd. Tunnel section 0.82 5.79 on. yd. Forms Tunnel . .. 41.17 2.06 100 sq. ft. Open cut section 2.98 0.37 100 sq. ft. TWIN PEAKS TUNNEL This project is now in the course of construction. The bore com- mences at 17th and Castro Streets, and extends in a general southwesterly direction, penetrating the Twin Peaks Ridge 925 feet below the highest peak and terminating in a 10,000-acre tract of land highly desirable for residential purposes. The tunnel will provide much needed rapid transit facilities to the entire district beyond the ridge. Funds to the amount of $4,000,000 for construction and for the acquisition of the necessary lands were raised by means of a graduated assessment plan. One eighth of this sum was required for the purchase of necessary lands and rights of way, including a strip 1900 feet long and 90 feet wide from the present southwesterly terminus of Market Street. Commencing at the easterly end, the 12,000 feet of length is divided as follows: East approach, 187 feet; east portal and subway section, 292 feet; Eureka Valley Station, 300 feet; subway section, ventilating intake sta— tion, 18th and Hattie Streets, 1072 feet; 29 ft. 6 in. tunnel section, 30 feet; taper connection, 180 feet; standard tunnel section 5144 feet; ventilating intake, Relief Home Tract; standard tunnel section, 1347 feet; Laguna Honda Station, 300 by 44 feet; standard tunnel section, 2988 feet; west portal and west approach, 85 feet. A 3% ascending grade obtains from Market and 17th Streets, elevation 139 feet, to the Laguna Honda Station, elevation 375 feet, and thence a 1.15% grade descends to the west portal, elevation 340 feet. The west portal, which leaves Market Street near 17th Street, is designed to connect with a future subway in Market Street. The subway section was adopted for the entrance because of the limited overhead clearance. It has two compartments, each 14 ft. by 15 ft. in the clear, and runs 8 cubic yards of concrete and 900 pounds of rein- forcing steel per foot. DISCUSSION: TUNNELS 311 Eureka Valley Station has platforms 300 feet long to accommodate each track, and stairways at each corner connecting with kiosks at the upper street level. This station is designed to accommodate trains from a future MissionSunset tunnel to the southeast corner of Golden Gate Park. W'ork is practically completed up to 18th Street, over which distance fee simple title has been acquired to a 90-foot right of Way, the surface of which is to be used for vehicles and street traffic as a portion of the Market Street extension, part of the plan to construct a scenic boulevard on easy grades around the Twin Peaks Ridge. For all of the west approach, subway section and Eureka Valley Station, excavation was done in open cut through yellow and red sandy clay with a Marion steam shovel, 11/_>-yard dipper loading directly into 4- and 5-yard motor trucks. The surplus material was hauled an average distance of 3 miles to the Islais Creek District where it was used in deep fills to bring Oakdale and San Bruno Avenues, links in the system of boulevards, to grade. The cost of removing and hauling was about $1 per yard—~35c for labor, 650 for hauling. The cut on the subway section varied from 25 to 40 feet and the sides stood on a 1 to 4 slope, little water being encountered. Piles were driven to hold the embankment from Ord Street to 10 feet west of the taper connection. Over this stretch a Vulcan steam shovel with a 11/4z-yard dipper worked on an upper bench, the Marion shovel following on the sub-grade level. Concrete work fol- lowed the excavation and inclines were constructed at intervals to per- mit the motor trucks gaining the intersecting street levels. At 18th and Hattie Streets is located one of the two ventilating stations, each of which has a capacity of 75,000 cubic feet of air per minute, at a pressure of 0.7 ounces. A complete change of air will occur throughout the tunnel every 20 minutes. The ceiling slab in the standard tunnel section has openings every 100 feet, which are made adjustable to suit the air pressure at that point. By this means it is hoped to avert the defective attempts at tunnel ventilation heretofore employed. as foul air will be removed from all portions of the tunnel by simultaneous drafts. The area of the 5-ft. by 15-ft. segmental air chamber between the ceiling slab and the intrados of the arch is 64 square feet. - The subway cut crosses 18th Street, and the piles which were driven on the lines of the cut at 4-foot centers were capped and 12-in. by 16-in. stringers spread solid to form a bridge to carry the 18th Street car line. Along about this point the steam shovels gave way to hand loading into auto trucks. To minimize the hand labor, a 10-foot core remains, the footings to be poured in side trenches up to the bottom level of the tile drain, which will be set before the side walls, ceiling slab and arch are poured. A shovel operated by compressed air piped from Laguna Honda Station-where is situated a plant of three compressors of 3000 cubic feet capacity, each operated by a 200-hp. motor—will later remove this core and load into cars, on tracks, which will be drawn into the finished subway section and up an incline motor-driven, endless-chain escalator Mr. O’Shaughnessy. 312 DISCUSSION: TUNNELS Mr. O’ Shaughnessy. Mr. Churchill. through openings 10 by 30 feet left in the roof slab of each compartment at Ord Street. The surplus will be used for backfill over the subway section. Concrete for approach walls, open-cut section and Eureka Valley Sta- tion has been completed. The mix for the entire project is 1:214:5, with 8 pounds of hydrated lime to 100 pounds of cement. Santa Cruz Portland cement, 1 part river sand to 2 parts bank sand, Niles gravel and Pyramid brand hydrated lime are being used. TWVIN PEAKS TUNNEL QUANTITIES Concrete 78,000 cu.yds. Excavation . 480,000 on. yds. Rock 70,900 cu. yds. Cement 95,900 bbls. Sand 31,900 cu. yds. Steel 2,612 tons. Hydrated lime 1,534.4 tons. Of the total cost of the project 85% was raised by 10 annual install- ments from the undeveloped land on the southwest terminal which will be brought within 8 minutes of the settled portion of the city; and the remaining 15% from the property on that portion of Market Street on the northeast end adjacent to the work. The entire time of construction is estimated at 3 years, when a rapid transit line will be operated through the tunnel. Mr. Chas. S. Churchill, in closing, and referring specifically to the Rogers Pass tunnel, said that the continued rapid progress on this con- struction during the year 1915 bears out all the statements made com- mendatory of the special method adopted by Mr. J. G. Sullivan, Chief Engineer, in this construction. Mr. W. H. Courtenay, in his further description of the enlargement of Covington tunnel, shows the difficulties that have been met with in various works of this character, many of which have been undertaken by railroads in the East that pass through the Blue Ridge and Alleghany mountain systems, where variations in character of material are extreme and frequent geological faults are encountered. He also brings out clearly the fact that it is good practice, and which is in general use, to build a second single-track tunnel instead of enlarging an old single-track tunnel under traffic conditions; and he finally describes many of the difficulties that have arisen in connection with the maintenance of rail- road tunnels through these mountain systems. Mr. M. M. O’Shaughnessy has added a detailed description of some highway tunnel work in San Francisco. These cases are properly listed under the general head of “Tunnels” (the title of the paper), because, as a matter of fact, there are no material differences met with in the con- struction of a highway tunnel from what are experienced in building a double-track railroad tunnel; and any conclusions that may be drawn DISCUSSION: TUNNELS 313 from the one are just as applicable to the other. Even in the matter of ventilation, the writer now wishes to record the fact that he has con- structed, and has under way, the ventilation systems for operating pur- poses of steam railroad tunnels, electrically operated tunnels, and high- way tunnels where automobile traffic is heavy. So, similarity exists in both construction and maintenance. In conclusion, the writer desires once again to call particular atten- tion to the tabulated statement, from a study of which it will be noted that any method of tunnel excavation by which speed is secured primarily by use of explosives results in an excess of excavation and some lack in economy; and those methods described which in the case of double-track tunnels produced rapid progress with the moderate use of explosives and with small amount of excess excavation per foot of tunnel, are those that call for special study in future tunnel construction of all kinds. Mr. Churchill. Paper No. 84 TUNNELS RECENTLY CONSTRUCTED IN ITALY. By Prof. LUIGI LUIGGI, M. Am. Soc. C. E. In collaboration with Com. Ing. LUIGI CAUDA Ing. ROBERTO ALMAGIA Ing. Cav. GUIDO CONTI-VECCHI Members of the Italian Society of Civil Engineers Rome, Italy __ GENERAL INFORMATION. Italian railways are characterized by a large number of tun- nels. Many of these tunnels are very important, on account of their great length, and others for the difficulties of construction or the rapidity with which the headings were driven. The tunnels famous for their great length are naturally few, but among the most important—from 5 to 11 miles long— may be mentioned the Mont Cenis tunnel, 13,671 metres (44,785 feet) long, and the Simplon tunnel, 19,803 metres (64,536 feet) in length, the longest of all; both of these tunnels are very well known. Then comes a group of three tunnels: Capo Sele, 15,256 metres (50,052 feet) ; Croce del Monaco-Ginestra, 15,833 metres (51,945 feet); and Murgie, 16,071 metres (52,726 feet) long. Among the new tunnels now in course of construction are those of Isoverde, on the new direct line between Genoa and Milan, 19,450 metres (63,812 feet) long, and Montepiano, on the Flor- ence- Bologna line, 18,650 metres (61,187 feet) long. They form a group of very important examples of good tunneling. The number of tunnels from 1 to 5 miles in length is, of course, larger; and among them, and deserving of special men- tion, is the Ronco tunnel (on the Genoa-Milan line), 8,306 metres TUNNELS IN ITALY 315 (27,251 feet) long, which gave much trouble during construc- tion owing to the bad character of the blue marl-rock encoun- tered. This material, in contact with damp, hot air, swelled up and caused such great pressure that ordinary revetments were crushed, and in some places granite revetments 10 feet thick had to be adopted. The tunnels less than one mile in length are almost count- less. Then there are lines where the length of tunnels is almost equal to that of the line in the open. For instance, on the Genoa- Spezia line, 92 kilometres (57.3 miles) long, there are 114 tunnels, several over three miles in length, and all together measuring about 45 kilometres (28 miles), or half the length of the line. On the new direct Rome-Naples line, now nearing comple- tion, the section between Terracina and Formia—about 50 kil- ometres (31 miles)-—has a total length of tunnels of 27 kilometres (17 miles), or more than half the length of the line. Three of these tunnels are each nearly 5 miles long. In fact, Italy might be called the “Country of Tunnels”. Owing to its hilly conformation, there are tunnels every- where and for all purposes; that is, not only for railways, but also for ordinary roads, some of which date from the time of the Romans, as the “Passo del Furlo ’ ’; tunnels for drainage purposes. dating even as far back as the Etruscan period, about 600 years B. C.——and of these there are tens of thousands of miles in Cen- tral Italy, especially around Rome: and tunnels for carrying water, either for aqueducts or water-power, among which, deserv- ing of a passing note, are the Albano Lake tunnel near Rome, 1,200 metres (3,940 feet) long, excavated through tufa rock in 18 months by the Romans, 397 B. C.; and the Fucino Lake emis- sary, 4,800 metres (15,748 feet) long, driven during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, between 41-52 A. D., which is really a monument to the engineering skill of the Romans. Among modern aqueducts may be mentioned the “Pugliese ’ ’, 1175 miles long, perhaps the largest in the world: for a length of 213 kilometres (133 miles) of main line, it is of ovoidal section of 8 by 9 feet (see Fig. 6), with 97 tunnels, measuring 93 kilo- metres (58 miles) in all, or 44% of the total. Three of these tun- nels are each over 9 miles in length. They have just been com- pleted and will be described later on, as they constitute some 316 TUNNELS IN ITALY extremely important works and are notable for the exceptional rapidity with which their headings were driven. In passing in review some of the most interesting tunnels recently built in Italy, and not yet well known, we may classify them in the following order: 1. Railway tunnels of great length. or which have presented special difficulties. 2. Aqueduct tunnels of small sections but of very great length. 3. Tunnels of very wide section, more than 50 feet in width, for ordinary road traffic. 1. RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SPECIAL LENGTH OR DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTION. (a) Tunnel of Montorso on the New Direct Rome-Naples Line. It is 7530 metres (24,700 feet) long, with the section repre- sented in Fig. 1, which is the usual section on important lines. The rock is fissured limestone, with some caverns: one of these caverns extends about 35 feet below and above the line and is 70 feet long. It was filled with packed stone up to the plan of formation, and was then covered with an arch, with very strong piers, which were used also to support the roof of the cavern. The headings were driven from the two portals, without any intermediate shaft; compressed-air Ingersoll rock-drills and dynamite were employed, with the following results: Rome heading Average daily advance - - 8 ft. Maximum daily advance 14 ft Naples heading Average daily advance - ft. Maximum daily ad\ ance -. . -. 1' f t. LIQD in. in QIO Some sections, at the beginning of the work, were also driven by hand drills, with an average advance of 6 ft. 6 in. and a maxi- mum of 10 feet per day at each heading, which is most notable and forms almost a record. Owing to the solid nature of the rock, the revetment is from 16 to 22 inches thick, made of ashlar masonry with courses of bricks in the crown and of dressed stones in the haunches. The tunnel was begun in June, 1907, and finished in March, 1911. TUNNELS IN ITALY 317 (b) Tunnel of Vivola on the New Rome-Naples Line. This tunnel is 7451 metres (24,455 feet) long, with cross section as in Fig. 1. For about 450 metres (1480 feet) on the Rome side, the ground was of loose clay with big boulders; the remainder, good limestone with much water. I .\\\‘\\,\\.\.\\|||l|lIIIIl//,/// T _____ “T \\ i \\\\\\“\\ ””/// = s‘ l *e I s | 0/ e 1 § . n/ 4 § * a 8| ________ "is-PL §%____ =0: % ' & I l/ / : . . l l l__ ‘I , .l p ’ !_ ,///,I A}? 1w.’ 40° , Fwswr //,7, -~//,LL///,////14///4.I," é,//. L. ________ "an; ______ __n' l L 19 2o 50 4,0 fez, Q 1. Z 5 ‘r 5 (.5 7. 5 9 ‘P mQtpQS Fig. 1. Tunnel on the New Rome-Naples Line, Through Good Limestone Rock The headings were driven at formation level, by hand through the clay and by compressed-air rock drills in rock. The explosive used was dynamite. Electricity was used throughout for driving the air compressors and locomotives and for lighting the tunnel and yards. This helped materially in attaining the noteworthy rapidity with which the headings were driven. 318 TUNNELS IN ITALY Rome heading Average daily advance .......... .- . - 8 ft. 3 in, Maximum daily advance-- - -. 16 ft. 8 in. Naples heading Average daily advance. -_ ............. -- 12 ft. 9 in. Maximum daily advance -- 27 ft. g:- 8 o _ — _ — _ _ — _ d _ _'_‘>, 1 l4 7 I | H‘ v: I I 1 1 ‘ H ./ ., , l ’ l" l",/" ' ‘w,’ '1’ u. '/) ii i £51‘ ' r" f ' " T’; ‘ 1 1 I "a 11”’ " ‘2' O A I i I . 1'" ./5'.-~'-_‘T'I 1 : | I z | ’/V I“ "Pi/IF" ii I x, e ' ,. 1 » 62° 1 11’ , .4/ , l 3 if” 'r’ir ‘'fl 4) o ’ J”- - v d '4 ~2 / ’-f~ “T {c Q‘? ‘I.’ . // A 4’/ .’ 1 /" 1'2." 1 "I ‘ .2 ’ wig’; / ‘ 'l'./’ ' <\\ ) g , v ~ _ i _ vlrrgposia _ __~de"i_|a ‘gig-,i \igkflqaloiia w _ I01 “ /. ,IIJ, . . / l/, r/ -/ m I‘ 5pr1nq1nq Lme of ‘i Arch F l i ‘(417 1' a 1 o /I // ‘C I S l ,¢____Z_Q5_5_____, \ _, ' ,9, 1 '1' if); an, . ,2- 191 7'4’; 1 “f- ""1 1405'» ._ " 9* I ‘38! 44°‘ ".61 v “1 f" "24.1: $7‘ 10 I d , \\\ V f“ ' M M'- ''’1 1 “H; . g 1 01 10L a, _ ~ ~*~ \ j>~~~-_ “k .9! 1 3g ~ M ‘ o-i “q” I \\ 1w’ 1” 11.46 m-‘IIN 1 1‘07/ "I. I." “.6858 E\hl‘$\;L—llfii_ +1 ' " 7 of ~"~— \ r‘__~_—I__H \Q'l l /[5/ /.-, 411', _1___ '____°3I:\,_4.see_ _. .L___ ° ‘* . .9’ I‘ 4 I!’ L_ E. . 1‘40825r/ i ______ “L ____.:__..l._~AQ§2i_1-£',/_ __._ _1__,,| '7 A.» >‘° 4‘ I h :1’ ‘ 1 , L I 5; ‘16.4 - - = 1230/ “ 212 _ _ _ g30_ 1 '. ’, A L‘———-—--—— ———- ->J —--l.— ._>_ / ' .fi'r rt ‘ ' I 1 i F 1 I‘— T‘ ‘ //{C: 1W’ ,6“. 4 A; 73 g _ 0'21"" " fling ‘ I’. 71% 3a,, '21.» en 0 h T ' ' ‘Pena’ 0173 "1'. , _ 'r._.‘ I I . 9’, ' e' - ‘I,’ ._l~ _ J‘) é / /_>\\\/, :1 ,2; ‘1,9’ ( v I ,1} A‘ lm/I/ / ,é ‘a’ /.~I'Ir C/A} / /1 \ ‘ . f A ', f “31" ‘I Hf‘? - I: - j/ "1 ll 1 i+- iii-~64 i ‘l i} g 3.949 13.349.____.__ __,.I 5; IL. _______ ___4.949 ______ __,rn _____ __4_049_ ____ _ __ .2: l.___ _ 8166 _______________ __ _H 3 =1.005 f) +0175 b=1.005 5+o.223> Pig. 2. Massico Tunnel, New Rome-Naples Line, Through Very Pissured. Lime- stone Rock with Deep Caverns. In the short section excavated by hand through boulder clay the average daily advance at each heading was 5 ft. 10 in.; the maximum, 10 ft. 4 in. Except in this section—where the revetment was made of bricks and dressed stone, 30 inches thick—all the tunnel was lined with ashlar masonry only 16 inches thick. TUNNELS IN ITALY 319 \5|_‘\ \ ‘21W; \E “ l\ a t‘ as “it? r 4w - i‘, i’\\ ‘to. l I .A- 2% \ \ >7’! \ . \ \\ \ ‘\ l \ ._ I \ \\ \. \ l \ ‘\ : \\\ A \n -. m " a: ‘t I ‘I, ‘ l I!‘ ,' Yilll.\ '\' u— /'I .‘I 7 \- \\\* I l n ' Iv‘ I / g’; I ' t :2 flail’- 3; M ‘* '/ 367 // Pig. 3. Massico Tunnel Through a Cavern. \ I, \ . ‘X .- Va mm,“ :l'DL -- f4 "%'_”///’__“."/4”/////4 a” // |,. s \w“ ‘- n ' \\l\ g1" I \ was“ \ \ \ é 320 TUNNELS IN ITALY The tunnel was begun at the end of October, 1909. and was finished at the beginning of November, 1912. (c) Tunnel of Massico on the New Rome-Naples Line. The total length is 5365 metres (17,601 feet), with section as Fig. 2. For the first 425 metres (1390 feet) the mountain is formed of volcanic sand and fragments of lava; the rest is limestone, very minutely fractured and, in places, mixed with clay, with abun- dant springs. Also chaotic deposits of big blocks were met with, evidently due to large caverns that have caved in, as three caverns of some 60 by 90 feet were still open and happened to be across the tunnel (Figs. 3 and 4). The headings were driven at crown level when in loose vol- canic sand, and at formation level where rock was met with. In loose material, the excavation was done by pick and shovel, heavy timbering being necessary; thus, the advance was only from 5 to 6 feet daily. In rock, Ingersoll rock-drills and Demag air-hammers were employed, together with either dynamite or Nobel gelatine, Nos. O and 1. Rome heading Average daily advance . . . . -. 12 ft. 6 in. Maximum daily advance 22 ft. 8 in. Naples heading Average daily advance . 12 ft. 7 in. Maximum daily advance .. 23 ft. 6 in. On the Naples side, in a good section of limestone rock, a daily advance of 21 ft. 10 in. was maintained for some weeks in succession. The revetment for the sides was made of ashlar masonry; the arch was partly of bricks laid in cement mortar and partly of Portland cement concrete. The section through the caverns had to be carried on with greater precautions, owing to the loose nature of the rock, which, when disturbed, would fall in great blocks. The roof of the cavern also had to be supported on strong masonry piers (Figs. 3 and 4), so that the work begun in September, 1911, was not finished till April, 1915, notwithstanding the rapid advance made in the good sections of rock formation. TI'NNELS IN ITALY 321 (d) Tunnel of Borlasca on the New Genoa-Ronco-Arquata Line. The tunnel is 1012 metres (13.260 feet) long. 8.80 metres (29 feet) wide at the springing of the arch. 1.40 metres (14 ft. 6 in.) radius, and 6.40 metres (21 feet) high. The geological formation consists of limestone for one fourth of the length, and for the rest of conglomerate varying from very ” as l I" . ’ \ | I ‘x \ \ _—_-~ 8c’ .5’ \\\\\\\%ll|IIIII/ | l// \ \ / // -' I\\ o/ % / I {ll}, ./- 21 a 4, in 27. =- ‘ji \4\\\\ \‘ I ‘B y‘ a; 1%’ -' ' "' 4.“: "I!" I /_‘/ #légwfl’r'dfi ¢r'.'<"\ 1 \\\~-- I\ I‘ i’ n ' ',<.____§_9i9_11_,F_;_32£+9____,i¢O,AO',<— 1.57 —-*1*- 1,04 1': l‘— _2,61__ _.»1 i-<-2,08-—+4 Fig. 5 (top, left). Capo Sele Tunnel, Pugliese Aqueduct. Section Through Slaty Blue Clay, Rather Bad. Fig. 6 (top, right). Capo Sele Tunnel. Section Through I‘issured Slaty Clay, Very Bad and. Watery. Fig. 7 (lower, center). Murgie Tunnel, Pugliese Aqueduct. Section Through Good Limestone. line, are not forgotten. These tunnels had to be rebuilt three times—with revetments 10 feet thick, although for single line—- before they stood the outside pressure. Italian experience on this subject now proves that the work must be pushed on with the greatest speed, with most ample ven- tilation of the heading, and with absolute absence of steam or gasoline locomotives that may generate heat or produce warm 326 TUNNELS IN ITALY damp air, which is the cause of the rapid disintegration and ex- pansion of these arg’ille scagliose. Then, of course, the masonry revetment must be made as soon as possible—and in short sec- tions—-in order to leave the rock exposed to the air for the short- est possible time and, in any case, for only a few days. For these reasons, electricity only was used in this tunnel, both for lighting and for motive power, including locomotives; and compressed-air rock-drills, coupled with strong ventilation at the headings and active aspiration of the vitiated and damp air at the portals, kept the inside of the tunnel, not yet lined, as cool and dry as was possible under the circumstances. The average daily advance at each of the four headings was 8 metres (26 ft. 6 in.) in rock; 6 metres (20 feet) in good, strong blue clay not hydrated; and 3 metres (10 feet) in arg'ille seag- l’iose, or slaty clay, which necessitated heavy timbering and special precaution for rapid lining with masonry, so as not to give the ground time to swell up under the influence of the damp, warm air of the tunnel. Notwithstanding all this care and precaution, many sections of the tunnel caused great anxiety on account of the infiltration of water and, especially, on account of the inflammable gases (grisou) met in some places and, also, by reason of a large pocket of mud found in an old buried valley, which could not be crossed and had to be avoided by going around it. The tunnel required nearly five years of work, and con- sidering its exceptional length and that it could be attacked only from the two portals and one intermediate shaft, the progress attained is really quite notable. (g) Croce del Monaco-Ginestra Tunnel. The length is 15,823 metres (51,912 feet), with nearly the same cross section as shown in Fig. 5. The geological formation was of volcanic sand and tufa for about 1 kilometre from the portals, while the central part was of pliocenic blue clay alternated with strata of miocenic sand- stone and marl. Only hand excavation was possible in such ground, and all the precautions for clayey stuff had to be adopted, both for ven- tilation and electric haulage of materials. However, the great difficulties met with in this tunnel were TUNNELS IN ITALY 327 the bad nature of the ground, the combustible gases (gr/£3011.) and abundant springs, aggravated by sudden inrushes of quick- sand or mud. But the worst of all was a section 102 metres long (about 340 feet) where sulphuretted hydrogen poured into the heading and caused the workmen to faint or even to fall asphyxiated. So, exceptionally strong ventilation and special protections for the men had to be adopted, such as helmets for working in deadly gases before this very dangerous section could be bored and lined. Now it does not give any further trouble. The work was carried on from the two portals and from three intermediate shafts; but owing to the great difficulties met with, it required nearly six years to finish it, which is also a very good result. (h) Murgie Tunnel. This is the longest tunnel of all—16,021 metres (52,726 feet) —and its cross section is 4.85 square metres (52 square feet), as it has to carry only 5 cubic metres (1320 gallons) of water per second. Its section (Fig. 7) is rectangular, 2.08 metres (6 ft. 10 in.) wide by 2. 61 metres (8 ft. 6 in.) high, including the semi-circular arch. The revetment, 0.40 metres (16 inches) thick, is made en- tirely of Portland-cement concrete, in the proportion of 300 kg. cement, 0.5 cubic metre of sand from crushed rock, and 0.8 cubic metre of 1-inch crushed limestone—or 111,: 21/2: 4 parts by volume. The interior is laid with 1 :1 cement mortar trowelled very smooth. The tunnel is cut through a uniform limestone formation of the cretaceous period, not very hard and fractured in many parts. Also small caverns were met with. The almost complete absence of infiltrations was most notable and, in fact, the water for the concrete had to be brought by auto-cars. The excavation has been done, by means of compressed—air hammers, from the two portals and from five shafts 12 feet in diameter and 32 to 192 metres (105 to 630 feet) deep, provided with electric elevators of 3 tons power. The average advance at each heading was 4 metres (13 feet) per day, but in some sections an advance of nearly 9 metres (30 328 TUNNELS IN ITALY feet) per day was attained for several weeks. This was due to the excellent nature of the rock, which, besides being easily ex- cavated, did not require any timbering and stood perfectly for many months—that is, until the revetment could be completed ——which gave great freedom in carrying on the work. Nothing special, and only one very deep cavern, was met. This cavern might have threatened the stability of the tunnel with falling debris, so the tunnel was deviated for about 300 feet in order to pass outside the sides of the cavern into the solid rock. The motive power for the locomotives was electricity. The work was finished in 26 months, and considering the ex- ceptional length of the tunnel and that the region was without roads (a service line 2-feet gauge and 20 kilometres long had to be built), without water, and without dwellings, and that workmen, food and water had to be brought from afar, the rapidity of con- struction was quite exceptional. These three tunnels were carried out under the direction of Signori Bazzocchi and Maglietta. 3. TUNNELS OF VERY WIDE SECTION, FOR ORDINARY ROADS. Two tunnels notable for their exceptional width of 50 feet —and one of them for the great difficulties of construction—— were built during the last decade, one through the hill of Faro in Genoa and the other through the Quirinal Hill in Rome, right under the Royal Palace. (i) Faro Tunnel in Genoa. The harbour of Genoa, the most important of Italy, is sep- arated from its industrial suburb of Sampierdarena by a rocky hill. The only communication by carriage road, until a few years ago, passed at a height of about 20.50 metres (68 feet) above the sea, while a level road between the harbour and the industrial center was sadly needed. Thus, in 1907 a tunnel was decided upon, the plans of the late Signor O. Bernardini adopted, and the work carried out by Cav. L. Biondi. The tunnel (Figs. 8 and 9) is 961 ft. 3 in. (293 metres) long, 49 ft. 2 in. (15 metres) wide and 26 ft. 3 in. (8 metres) high at the crown, with a gradient of only 3 feet on the whole length. | I | | / r, \%|(‘,/Jr ,__ ' ‘i 7 .A\ - ,9]. / ‘ _js! ‘? \ d 'I ‘r ‘- ,' rs‘, by‘ ,xs‘ ~~_ ~~ "1 ‘.' (if X ,1”, 3, _ ~ “\\ ,1 ‘L l / \ ,l \ I I \ Ta //" 1'“ 1' \‘ 3 l i 3 l’ \\ it?‘ *3 //\ \ I! 4- \\ I l l 4 \ ,\ C %-II ’|‘\'l \n, I‘ -\\',\\\~\ I \"Ig »\\H,‘l~,\\\ ‘T n _\'\\\ ‘A \ \fl 2 / , (\1 5 | | ., E \ "'l l . ‘ v 1 " ~ .716‘ 5 t I ~ 5 .6 ‘0 ~‘ - < ~ \ ~/ I '. z ‘ -r ~-\ .71 F- L" ':.v~':__.‘- '“7n 1"‘ I. 1,!!!’ "I, 1 ,U ,1} II/i, I,” r l , I , /// I, t)‘: _A\ '0, A”? .ffl‘Kx’o, "'L‘*“L‘L 6 ‘ "/11, ‘QM/I'll’! Ill”! 8 "\lrn ‘I,’ “\' 1' ’ ‘RITE-I" "~71 1;, Ici- " ‘LL-["1 2&0’, '5 " I "-\ E :/\'///\ ‘r ' ‘'-’"\'\\/q' 1;’, 1 A)" / '1‘ — ,._h:_~ “ ‘ \\ . '\’ \\\ ." I‘. " , ‘ “e \ 4.. h ) ,\.\\,,\\\’\\ \’ \Cfllh ~ M ‘ ‘. ~_ .'.\\~ \\ \ ~ , \ \ \ \\-\ -\ g | *4 | l o‘ \o ' 20‘ 5 Q‘ 4Q‘ 50' 1 Q inwri Hi i 4h l J fQQil O 2 A 6 6 10 l2 1‘! L ‘L L l l L l L 1A1 I i 1 l L j] 14g I g I l l_{ TQQiTQfi 1 3 5 7 8 11 45 15 Fig. 8 (left). Faro Tunnel Near Genoa, for Ordinary Traffic. Section Through Good Limestone Rock, with Light Revetment. Fig. 9 (right). Faro Tunnel Near Genoa. Diagram of the Successive Stages of Perforation and Revetment. w N) 330 TUNNELS IN ITALY It is excavated through the limestone rock forming the hill of “Faro” by means of small headings, as shown in Fig. 8, where the numbers indicate the successive phases of the excava- tion. The masonry of the arch was built between the fourth and fifth phases, whilst that of the side walls was built only after the entire excavation had been completed. The quantity of material excavated was 53,470 cubic yards, and cost an average price of about 3 dollars per cubic yard. The blasting holes were drilled by hand and the explosive was dynamite. No difficulties of any sort were encountered. The arch is of bricks laid in cement mortar; the thickness varies from 2 ft. 7% in. to 4 ft. 7 in., according to the nature of the rock. The side walls are of rubble stone with a facing of ashlar masonry. The two entrances are of architectural design. The cost was as follows: Excavation - - - - . . . . - . . .-..$159,133 Inside masonry and pavn cents .. . . - -- 81,878 Entrance portals . . . - - -- . .- .- 32,046 Total - .................... .. -- - - - $273,357 (j) Quirinal Tunnel in Rome. This tunnel connects the lower districts of Rome with the Central Station and serves a very intense traffic of tramways and ordinary vehicles. It is 350 metres (1150 feet) long, 15 metres (50 feet) wide, 9.50 metres (31 ft. 2 in.) high, with semicircular arch as in Figs. 10 and 11. The thickness of the revetment varies from 4 to 7 feet, according to both the nature of the ground and the weight of the buildings overhead, one of these buildings being the Royal Palace. The nature of the ground was very bad, being formed of loose debris and the ruins of ancient Roman buildings, and was often crossed by old sewers, which, in case of rain, carried much water. So the work had to be carried on in very short sections and be lined at once with very heavy timbering followed by blocks of masonry revetment, both for preventing the fall of TUNNELS IN ITALY 331 .mwfiufism 538M 30 on» we 25mg nwsoanm. .wnouamw Hgom 25 Swap 223mm 68E ESSA no Hoofiomasm g 3 new wwnfiozsm team 32;? nofioom .omooq knob 683m 5 398a Hanged A33: 3 .afi ssom 5 65:5. 35:3 is: 3 .wE a a m m m a Ougwv 9 m m m m .H v 1 m _ “ JFJ .: 9 he .\ a o as u...— n A m I n _ 113 .3 .3 .o n .3 .2 .o _.I l l__....£ I l I. “i I I......% I I I“ _ \ ,1:\¢ \ \.7 .//..¢ ,\\~\.>\h 2, .\. f‘ H u . e _\\ k.1..\¢...H.\.. H: ..\.<..,\. _ , .. a. .... . .. .,==_.==§=____=._=._ ; .. . . . . . . .. ., .. .=_.==______________===§.. . . _ s222%?smwzggssaw .... :4- .gaézgmés..wgaggs . e , (1,», 03.1mm’, u\>\\?- \s \Xuoiw» WU?) Y4K 3 \ \\\\ \n . \ . on “5... .. A. . ..v\ ..algawmsu.animate...Hah.....a......saawesmssh\\a. _ ...\ Manama... - -, (. "I “w M. n l.- 1 4': I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I l I I I I I I l I\ I l l l I I I I I I II .I I - I I Ia \ ...H...\|“\\\ IHIW . v. x . 1 \ \ Q '1,“ f\%.\ 5 — H a ..u\\..\ A. _..... HGZZHFM HZ Hflbfifl e b 0 t d a H s g n .1 d "H H B a e H e r e m s t e w .r. ..w hm a e 3.. O! 5 ..be 5 1 eR 1+ V gin 6d c. an .0} at da 4 . nn L“ 30 Oil .1 4 MM wt L9 mu 8i re.“ 06 11 M11611 Hf l5 0 f at om ml -5 am [971 g l a . 4 tem a m e t 0| 0| em .fla an. wm 0D u S a itiitdflthzvllnn L n 1 _ov\_\oo_7_6 en _ .\ _ \ ‘IL I _ \ _\_ . T A \ \\ u \\ \ /+ / T1 _\ \ / a I \\ I am ‘ - w \3 u m we, .mw. R \4v 0 M L .mQ B \ \ C T ’ Q N L U _ O \.'I _ _2 litAltRHldll l. _ \hm id! |||| i t P,“ T N _ 0 A, n E _ 10 o 1 “how E L. h .b (l\ . r. l .H H L 7 / T 5‘ // / \ / . as r e - \vr // 4 \ Supported. ,‘E‘ig. 14 (right). Quirinal Tunnel. Diagram of Work of Perforation and Revetment Under the Royal Gardens Without Heavy Loads but Through Loose Debris of Old Roman Buildings. TUNNE LS IN ITALY 333 debris and for shoring up the Palace overhead. Even with all possible care and precautions, many settlements and cracks could not be avoided, with the consequence that heavy expenditure for indemnities, compensations and repairs had to be met. The successive stages in the boring of the tunnel and then lining of it with masonry are clearly indicated in Figs. 12, 13 and 14. The two portals are richly decorated (Fig. 15) and the inside is lined with enamelled tiles and profusely lighted by electricity. .s..u~“¢-~_....~‘-.~-_ » Fig. 15. View of Eastern Portal of the Quirinal Tunnel in Rome, 50 Pt. Wide. The pavement was of asphalt, but now is being substituted with ‘ ‘ Soliditit”, a concrete made with a. special Portland cement with a very high percentage of silica, forming an exceedingly hard surface, but not slippery. The work was most successful except in one detail, it is too noisy, and when the traffic of tramways is very intense the noise is almost deafening. This is accounted for by the semi-circular curve adopted for the arch. In the Faro tunnel, in Genoa, where a semi-oval curve was adopted, the noise is much less; but it must also be said there are no tramway lines. The cost of the whole tunnel, including all decoration and 334 TUNNELS IN ITALY compensations for damages to buildings, underpinnings, repairs, etc., was 3,500,000 francs ($700,000) or $610 per foot run. The plans were prepared by Comm. Viviani and carried out completely by Cav. Luigi Botto, C. E., during 1900 to 1902. CONCLUSIONS. From the foregoing, we may conclude that tunnels are quite a common occurrence in Italy, where perhaps the finest examples can be found. Formerly, when they were bored by hand drilling and black powder, an advance at each heading of 2 to 3 feet per day was considered very good. Since the introduction of compressed-air rock drills, air hammers and dynamite, an advance of 20 feet per day is quite usual; and even 25 to 30 feet per day has been attained in good limestone, when not too hard or too wet. In this kind of work Italian engineers and workmen have quite a reputation and their experience may, perhaps, be of interest to American colleagues. Paper No. 85 THE RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND, 1905-1915. By R. WINKLE'R, Mem. Swiss Soc. E. & A. Director of the Technical Division of the Swiss Railway Department ‘ at Bern Bern, Switzerland -_____— INTRODUCTION. Swiss railway legislation distinguishes between “Princi- pal” and “Secondary” railways. Secondary Railways, according to Art. 1 of the Statutes of December 21, 1899, are those railways and railway portions which specially cater to local traffic or special objects of trade and do not handle the large through-service for passengers and freight. Accordingly, the Swiss Federal Council, by decrees dated Aug. 10, 1900, and Jan. 24, 1905, defined Secondary Railways as follows: 1. All narrow-gage railways, cog-wheel railways, cable railways, street railways and tramways. 2. A number of specially designated standard-gage rail- ways to which the above given legal definition applies. All other lines are accounted Principal Railways. When the construction of a new railway is under consid- eration, it is determined by Federal law or by an Act of Concession whether or not it shall be classed as a secondary railway. In regard to the proprietorship of railways, distinction is made between railways belonging to the Government or “Swiss Federal Railway” (S. B. B.), private railways and those rail- ways running across the frontier and subject to foreign admin- istration. 336 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND On January 1, 1915, there were: In operation Under construction Principal Railways. 255 3 km. (1588.08 mi.) 30.8 km. ( 19.13 mi.) Secondary Railways 2958.2 km. (1837.04 mi.) 302.8 km. (188.04 mi.) Total -. . 5515.5 km. (3425.12 mi.) 333.6 km. (207.17 mi.) Of this was Double track 860.5 km. ( 534.37 mi.) 18.3 km. ( 13.7 mi.) Lines of the Swiss Federal R. R. . 2793.3 km. (1734.64 mi.) 32.2 km. ( 20.0 mi.) Private Railways 2668.8 km. (1657.32 mi.) 299.6 km. (186.05 mi.) Foreign Railways 53.4 km. ( 33.16 mi.) 1.8 km. ( 1.12 mi.) Total ..... -- .--- 5515.5 km. (3425.12 mi.) 333.6 km. (207.17 mi.) These figures show 0.133 km. of railway in operation per square kilometer (0.214 mi. per sq. mi.) and 146.3 km. (90.9 mi.) of railway in operation for each ten thousand inhabitants. The general formation of the country rendered the con- struction of the railways a task far from easy for the engineers and financiers. Toward the northwest of Switzerland the Jura Mountains form a range of ridges and valleys between 1000 and 1700 meters (3280-5575 ft.) above the sea; towards the southeast lies the great wall of the Alps with its mountain peaks towering almost 5000 meters (16,400 ft.) above sea-level. Between these two mountain ranges lies the Swiss table-land. It reaches from Lake Leman to the Bodensee, about 50 km. (31 mi.) wide and 250 km. (155 mi.) long, comprising in the neighborhood of 30% of the total area of the country, lying at an elevation from 300 to 500 m. (984 to 1640 ft.), while at the borders and more especially toward the Alps it reaches an elevation of almost 2000 m. (6560 ft.) traversed by some isolated mountain chains. The water courses, which have cut deep valleys in the Alps, and which the highways follow, also traverse the table- land and present manifold obstacles to roads and railways. On this account, the number of railway bridges and tun- nels, determined by the topography of the country, is very great, and there are certain lines which consist of practically an unbroken series of such constructions. But the Alps, in earlier times the terror of travelers, are RAILW'AY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND 337 now penetrated by tunnels among which are the longest in the world and through which a world traffic, safe from land-slides, avalanches, and mountain torrents, flows day and night from north to south and back again. )Vhen we say that the traffic of the world pours through the Alpine tunnels of Switzerland, we speak no idle word,— for does not the mail from Buenos Aires and other South Ameri- can ports reach New York by way of the Gotthard Tunnel? Statistically these conditions are shown in the following table: On Jan. 1, 1915, there were: In operation Under construction Total Bridges of more than 2 m. (6.56 ft.) clear span . 4411 228 4639 with a combined length of. .- 67.722 km. 5.123 km. 72.845 km. (42.1 mi.) (3.2 mi.) (45.3 mi.) Tunnels: Number of .-.. 575 52 627 Total length, single track .. 164.628 km. 37.757 km. 202.385 km. (102.3 mi.) (23.46 mi.) (125.76 mi.) Total length, double track 70.105 km. 9.138 km. 79.243 km. (43.57 mi.) (5.68 mi.) (49.25 mi.) Total . . . . 234.733 km. 46.895 km. 281.628 km. (145.87 mi.) (29.14 mi.) (175.01 mi.) TUNNELS MORE THAN 2000 m. (6560 ft.) LONG. Lack of time and space compels us to confine our discus- sion to Swiss tunnels of more than 2000 m. in length, notwith- standing the fact that in the case of many of the smaller tun- nels details of interest might be presented. First we will present, for the sake of completeness, a table, A, of tunnels over 2000 m. long put into operation before the end of 1904; then a table, B, of tunnels opened since 1905. and finally a table, C. of tunnels more than 2000 meters long still in course of construction in 1915. Tables B and C contain among other things the principal dimensions of the cross-sections; the profiles are given in the accompanying diagrams. We will amplify the information given in Tables B and C by a discussion of the most important conditions affecting construction work prosecuted during the last ten years. 888 (INV'IHEIZLIAAS LIIO S'IGINNILL LVAA'IIVH CI! 10 11 12 Railway S. B. B. J. B. Rh. B. M. O. B. Abbreviations: S. B. B.—Swiss Federal Railways Table A—‘I'unnels in Operation Before Dec. 31, 1904. Length Class Name of Tunnel m. N o. of Opening Remarks ft. tracks day P. Hauenstein T. 2495 2 May 1, 1858 Between Laufelfingen and Olten (8186) P. Des Loges T. 3259 1 July 15, 1860 Bet. Les Hauts, Geneveys and (10,692) Convers P. Biitzberg T. 2526 2 Aug. 2, 1875 Bet. Schinznach, Dorf and Ef- (8284) fingen P. De la Croix T. 2966 1 Mar. 30, 1877 Bet. St. Ursanne and Courgenay (9731) P. Glovelier T. 2009 1 Mar. 30, 1877 Bet. Glovelier and St. Ursanne (6591) P. Gotthard T. 14,998 2 Jan. 1, 1882 Bet. Gtischenen and Airolo (49,206) P. Ziirichberg T. 2093 1 Aug. 1, 1894 Bet. Ziirich-Letten and Ziirich (6867 ) Stadelhofen P. Albis T. 3359 1 June 1, 1897 Bet. Sihlbrugg and Baar (11,020) P. Musegg T. 2107 1 June 1, 1897 Bet. Luzern and Meggen (6913) S. Eigerwand T. 2182 1 June 18, 1903 As far as Rotstock Aug. 2, (7159) 1899; see table B, No. 5 S. Albula T. 5865 1 July 1, 1903 Bet. Preda and Spinas (19,242) S. Jaman T. 2424 1 Oct. 1, 1903 Bet. Les Avants and Allieres (7953) " P.—Principal Railway, standard gage; 1.435 m. (4 ft. 8% in.) S.—Secondary Railway. The secondary railways of these tables are all narrow gage; gage 1.000 m. (3.28 ft.) Bet—Between the stations. J. B.—Jungfrau Railway Rh. B.—Rhatische Railway M. O. B.—Montreux-Oberland Bernois Table B. Tunnels Put Into Operation Between Jan. 1, 1905, and Dec. 31, 1914. Kind and Arch Height Highest Gage of the Greatest Above Rail Elev. Base Railway Length N0. Width Base of Rail M. M. of M. M. M. Railway Ft. Name of the Tunnel Ft. Tracks Ft. Ft. Ft. Opening Day Location Remarks S. B. B. P. 1.435 Simplon Tunnel I 19803 1 5.00 5.50 704.98 June 1, 1906 Between Brig and 9084 m. (29800 ft.) (4’81/2”) (64970) (16.4) (18.04) (2312.9) Iselle under Swiss Jurisdiction S. M. B. S. 1.435 VVeissenstein Tunnel 3700 1 4.80 5.60 722.09 August 1, 1908 Bet. Oberdorf and (4' 8%") (12139) (15.75) (18.37) (2369.05) Giinsbrunnen S. B. B. P. 1.435 Ricken Tunnel 8603 1 5.20 5.80 622.34 October 1, 1910 Bet. VVattwil and (4' 8%") (28225) (17.06) (19.03) (2041.78) Kaltbrunn B. T. S. 1.435 \Vasserfluh Tunnel 3557 1 5.17 5.60 657.29 October 3, 1910 Bet. Brunnadern (4' 8%") (11670) (16.96) (18.37) (2156.40) and Lichtensteig J. B. S. 1.000 Eigerwand~Jungfrau-joch 4931 1 3.70 4.050 3457.00 Bet. Eigerwand and Opened as far as Eismeer 3478 in. (11410 (3’ 2.8") Tunnel (16178) (12.14) (13.29) (11341.83) July 1, 1912 Jungfrau-joch ft.) on July 25, 1905. Total length of tunnel 7113 m. (23337 ft.) B. L. S. P. 1.435 Liitschberg Tunnel 14612 2 8.00 6.00 1242.70 Bet. Kandersteg (4'81/2") (47939) (26.25) (19.68) (4077.09) July 15, 1913 and Goppenstein Rh. B. S. 1.000 Tasna Tunnel 2350 l 4.30 5.00 1385.00 Bet. Ardez and (3’ 2.8") (7710) (14.11) (16.40) (4543.95) Julv 15. 1913 Fetan Table 0. Tunnels Still in Course of Construction, Jan. 1, 1915. Kind and Arch Height Highest Gage of the Greatest Above Rail Elev. Base Railway Length {0. \‘Vidth Base of Rail M, M. of M. ' M. M. Railway Ft. Name of the Tunnel Ft. Tracks Ft. Ft. Ft. Opening Day Location Remarks P. L. M. P. 1.435 Mont d’Or Tunnel 6097 2 8.60 6.10 898.09 May 16, 1915 Bet. Les Longeville 989 in. (3245 ft.)_ _ _ (4' 8%”) (20003) (28.21) (20.01) (2946.47) and Vallorbe under Swiss Jurisdiction S. B. B. P. 1.435 Hauenstein-Base Tunnel 8134 2 8.40 6.20 451.93 Probably January 1, 1916 Bet. Tecknau (48%") (26686) (27.56) (20.34) (1482.70) and Olten B.L. S. P. 1.435 Grenchenberg Tunnel 8565 1 5.20 5.80 545.05 October 1, 1915 Bet. Miinster and (4' 8%") (28100) (17.06) (19.03) (1788.21) Grenchen S. B. B. P. 1.435 Simplon Tunnel II 19825 1 5.00 704.98 Probably May 1, 1918 Between Brig and 9075 in. (29770 ft.) ' _ (4' 8%") (65042) (16.40) (18.04) (2312.90) Iselle under Swiss Jurisdiction Abbreviations: S. B. B.—Swiss Federal Railways Rh.B.—Rhaetian Railway S. M. B.—Solothurn-Miinster Railway P. L. M.—Paris-Lyon-Mediterranean Railroad B. T.-—Bodensee-Toggenburg Railway P.-—Principal Railways J. B.-—Jungfrau Railway S.-—Secondary Railways B. L. S.—Bern-Ltitschberg-Simplon, Bern Alpine R. R. Co. Bet.-—Between the stations. RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SIVITZERLAND 339 THE SEVERAL TUNNEL UNDERTAKINGS. 1. The Simplon Tunnels I and II. (No. 1, Table B and No. 4, Table C). Tunnel I. The Simplon Tunnel I, 19.803 m. (64.970 ft.) long, is the longest mountain tunnel in the world. Running from northwest to southeast, with two short junctional curves respectively of 320 and 400 meters (1050 and 1310 ft.) radius, the rest on a tangent, it bores through the huge bulk of Mt. Leone [3561 m. (11,683 ft.) altitude] which divides Switzerland from Italy, between the stations of Brig on the north side and Iselle on the south. The history of the whole undertaking, its geological aspects, the work of the survey, the installation and the construction have been presented in de- tail in various publications by distinguished experts. We would refer all those interested in the subject to the attached list of references and confine ourselves to the most important data indispensable as a basis for comparison with other con- struction work of this type. For forty years the authorities and contractors had striven to make clear the technical problems involved and to overcome the financial and political difficulties which opposed the work of construction. Actual work was finally begun in 1898 on the basis of a plan submitted in 1893 by the firm of Brandt, Brandau & Co., and on the basis of a forfeiture contract entered into by a syn- dicate composed of Engineers A. Brandt and K. Brandau, the Bank of Winterthur and the firms of Sulzer Bros. and Locher & Co. The contract stipulated that the temperature in places where work was going on should not register above 25° C. That the influx of water was to be rapidly drained off from stretches where construction was in progress, and, that where difficulties presented themselves in connection with rock exca- vation, etc., the most favorable possible conditions both for the carrying out of the work and for the men employed were to be maintained. This caused the contractors to choose the two-tunnel method of construction, which, based on the experi- ence gained in the construction of the 14.998-m. (49,206_ft.) long St. Gotthard Tunnel (1872-1881), at that time had been 346 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND first recommended by W. von Pressel for the construction of longer and deeper tunnels. The distance between centers of' the two single-track tunnels was fixed at 17 m. Only the east- ern tunnel, No. I, was to be completed. Of Tunnel II, on the west, only a bottom heading was to be driven, lying on the eastern side of the finished cross-section, and serving for ven- tilation and for running in empty work trains. It was to be masonry lined as far as necessary to ensure its safety. Hydraulic drills, Brandt system, were to be used for the mechanical drilling. The survey of the axis of Tunnel I was carried out after the plan of the survey of the Gotthard Tunnel in a most care- ful manner, commensurate with the importance of the work, by means of a tying in of the axis points on both sides, as given by the construction plans, with a triangulation extending over the mountain. This survey, on its part, was connected to one side of the geodetic triangulation which connected the Sim- plon Astronomical Station with the points of the first order of the Swiss Survey. The minute direct measurement of a base line to close the triangulation was thereby saved. The geological conditions (what now seems surprising) were, before the beginning of construction, very insufficiently understood, and on that account and owing to the sequence and nature of the rock formation, influx of water and temperature conditions, difficulties entirely unexpected and unpredicted were encountered in connection with the driving of the heading. Thus the tunnel traversed, instead of a simple gneiss formation, a section of the most complicated Stratification, and at a point 10 kilometers (6.2 mi.) from the north portal, where it was expected the tunnel would be in the middle of the Mt. Leone gneiss, it ran, first, into Triassic marble and anhydrite and then into Jurassic limestone and slate which extended more than 3 km. (1.8 mi). Altogether there were about 11.3 km. (7.0 mi.) of different kinds of gneiss and 8.5 km. (5.3 mi.) of marble, gypsum, anhydrite, limestone and slate of the Triassic and the Jura. Ten kilometers (6.2 mi.) from the north portal, where the exca- vation, according to expectation, should have been dry, hot springs were encountered with a discharge of about 300 second- liters (10.6 sec-ft), and instead of the expected 38°-39° C., the RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SVVITZERLANI) 34I temperature rose to 545° C. In the Teggiolo marble. which it was expected to encounter about 7 km. (4.3 mi.) from the south portal. but which was actually encountered 4.3 km. (2.7 mi.) from it, cold springs were met with of more than 1000 second- liters discharge (35.3 sec-ft). More than one month was occu- pied in traversing these 60 meters (197 ft.) of water-bearing strata and the end had barely been reached when another dif- ficulty presented itself in the shape of a tremendous rock pres- sure from every direction. For this stretch of 42 m. (138 ft.) the heading had to be driven with centers made of 400 mm. (15.7 in.) I-beams bolted together and the spaces between filled with concrete. Here for almost seven months the drills were idle. On the south side there was also encountered a region of hot springs, where the final stretch of 245 m. (804 ft.) of head- ing consumed almost six months. That this great number of diificulties was overcome, thanks are due to the painstaking and liberal planning of the equip- ment, the method of construction chosen. the wonderful organi- zation and the extraordinary energy of the contractors. as well as to the cooperation of the highest authorities of the country. In fact. the Federal Council guaranteed to the Jura-Simplon Railway at the time of its absorption by the State (1903). an indemnity to cover the increase of price which the Railway Company had to pay the contractors in order that they might be able to carry on and complete the work. Hydraulic power plants, with turbines of 2100 hp?‘ on the north side and of 1100 hp. on the south side, furnished the power for operating the various installations. In order to ensure uninterrupted work, semi-portable steam engines were provided. Particularly worthy of mention is the 3200 in. (10,500 ft.) reinforced concrete head-race at the water-power plant on the north side. In the neighborhood of each tunnel portal stations were maintained containing everything necessary for the prosecu- tion of the work; also the machinery for drilling and for the ventilation of the tunnel, the work-rooms for repair of machines and tools, store-rooms, sheds for coal and rolling-stock, shelter and accommodations for the employees and workmen, baths, * 1 metric horsepower equals 75 meter kg. per second. 342 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND hospitals and administration buildings; and, last but not least, every contrivance for the conveyance of the workmen, the con- struction material and the spoil. High-pressure pumps delivered water, about 36 second- liters (1.27 sec-ft.) on each side, at 70 to 100 atmospheres pres- sure for the operation of the rock drills and the ventilation and cooling in the heading itself. Ingersoll and Burckhardt & Co.’s air-compressors gave an air-pressure of 100 atmospheres for supplying the tunnel locomotives. Two fan blowers were in- stalled on either side for ventilating the headings. Each sup- plied 25 cubic meters (8829 cu. ft.) per second with a pressure of about 250 mm. (10 in.) of water. They could be operated for suction or compression and regulated for volume or pressure. An electric crane of 4000 kg. (8818 lbs.) capacity was provided on the north side for unloading the spoil trains. At both ends there were built about 13.5 km. (8.4 mi.) of 0.80-m. (311/2-in.) gage track. Since the air was conducted through Tunnel II and through the last cross drift to Tunnel 1, those portions of the heading lying behind the last cross drift had to be supplied at the face with fresh air by means of a special arrangement known as “secondary ventilation”. To this end, two small ventilators were installed in heading II. Each gave about 0.75 cubic meters (26.5 cu. ft.) per second of air with a pressure of 500 mm. (19.7 in.) of water. They were operated by turbines of 10 hp., which were driven by water taken from the high-pressure water sup- ply for the drills. Fresh air was also supplied right at the heading by means of water jets, but this worked less econom- ically. For cooling the air, new plants were necessary, as it was shown with the progress of the tunnel that the anticipated temperature of 42° C. was greatly exceeded. Two special tur- bines of 300 hp. each drove two high-pressure centrifugal pumps, each one of which delivered 80 liter-seconds (2.82 sec- ft.) of water at 22 atmospheres pressure. The cooling water was brought into the tunnel in separate pipes and served for the operation of the dust-sprinkling apparatuses, by which the compressed air forced into the tunnel was lowered 10° or 12° C. In the conduit for the secondary ventilation an ice car was introduced, which served not only to cool but also to dry the RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SXVITZERLAND 343 air. The lowering of the temperature produced by ventilation and cooling corresponded to a removal of heat of about 2,332,- 000 calories per hour (9,250,000 B.t.u.). The Brandt drill, which in the course of time has been greatly improved by Sulzer Bros, has as a distinguishing fea- ture a hollow circular cutting tool made of the best hardened and tempered steel, 65 mm. (2.6 in.) outside diameter and 30 mm. (1.2 in.) inside diameter, with three teeth on its edge. This tool is forced against the rock with a pressure rising at times to a maximum of about 15,000 kg. (33,000 lbs.) and at the same time is slowly turned. A part of the operating water flows through the bit, cools it and washes out the cuttings. In the driving of the headings it was customary to fasten three machines on a beam across a drill car. In the cross drifts only one drill was used. as a rule; all other excavation was done by hand drilling. Ten to twelve holes were drilled on an average for each set-up, which resulted in a progress of from 1.00 to 1.30 m. (3.28 to 4.27 ft.). Ordi- narily four or five set-ups were made daily. The consumption of dynamite with machine drilling ran 4 to 6 kg. per cubic meter of excavation (6.7 to 10.1 lbs. per cu. yd.) and with hand drilling 0.6 to 0.7 kg. (1.0 to 1.2 lbs.) or 1.5 to 2 kg. per cubic meter on an average (2.5 to 3.4 lbs. per cu. yd). An attempt to throw back the loosened stone from the face of the heading by means of jets of water applied during the explosion of the charges, and thereby make it possible to set up the drills again more quickly, did not give the hoped- for results; but the contractors succeeded in devising other practical means for lessening the time required for mucking and clearing away. From the bottom heading of Tunnel I, complete excavation was accomplished by an upraiser with a top heading run for- wards and backwards, enlargement to full arch section and excavation of the lower benches; after this the lining of the side walls in ashlar and of the arch in courses was carried out. For the masonry lining, artificial stones of only about 80 to 140 kg. per sq. centimeter (1138 to 1990 lbs. per sq. in.) compressive strength were employed. The masonry lining of stretches in the water- bearing strata, especially where pressure was encountered at 344 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND Km. 4.45 to 4.492 (2.76 to 2.79 mi.) gave unusual difficulty. In the latter instance, an invert 2.50 to 2.80 m. (8.2 to 9.2 ft.) thick and a four-course arch of cut stone, 1.67 m. (5.48 ft.) thick at the crown, laid in cement mortar had to be built. The iron frames had to be cut through and it was necessary to proceed in small sections with the greatest care in order to avoid, as much as possible, new movements of the rock or man- ifestations of pressure. This work consumed more than a year ’s time. In the middle of the tunnel, heading II was widened to full size and connected with Tunnel I by two diagonals. In this man- ner a crossing station 500 m. (1640 ft.) long was constructed. This station was fitted up with the necessary signals and safety devices and ever since the opening of the road has been occupied by officials. The north locating heading of the tunnel was begun on Aug. 1, 1898—the south on Aug. 16 of the same year. The rate of progress on the north side reached a maximum of 7.25 m. (23.8 ft.) per day in July, 1903, and on the south side a maxi- mum of 7.93 m. (26 ft.) per day in June, 1902. Owing to a strike, the work was interrupted for one day in 1899 and four- teen days in 1901. The holing through occurred at 7 :20 A. M. the morning of February 24, 1905, at 9.385 km. (5.83 mi.) from the south portal. The control of the axis showed a variation in alignment of about 202 mm. (8 in.), a difference in elevation of 87 mm. (3.43 in.), and an excess of length over that computed of 0.70 m. (27.6 in.). The arch in Tunnel I was united October 18, 1905, 2635 days after the beginning of the excavation. This shows a daily progress of 7.51 m. (24.6 ft.) of finished tunnel. The last rails were laid in January, 1906, and finally various cables, of a total length of 110 km. (68.35 mi.), were installed in about ten days more. On the 21st and 22nd of February, 1906, the tunnel was taken over by the Swiss Federal Railways and opened for traffic June 1, of the same year. Special mention is due the firm of Brown, Boveri & Co., who made an agreement on Dec. 19. 1905, with the management of the Swiss Federal Railways, and by the end of May, 1906, had equipped the tunnel and the approaches, as well as the sta- tions of Brig and lselle, with a three-phase 3000-volt current for the electric operation, at their own risk and expense. For the RAILYVAY TUNNELS OF SIVITZERLAND 345 application of this system, it was necessary that the Italian State Railways should place at the disposal of the Swiss Federal Rail- ways the electric locomotives which could be operated with this form of electric current and which were designed for the Valtellina lines. The daily average number of laborers reached its maximum on the north side in the third quarter of 1900 with 1953 men, of whom 1500 were employed in the tunnel. On the south side. the maximum was reached in the third quarter of 1904, with 1939 men, of whom 1386 were employed in the tunnel. Altogether there were required in the construction of the tunnel, including its own equipment and whatever buildings there were outside of it, on the north side (Brig) 3,448,425 days’ work, and on the south side (Iselle), 3,603,005 days’ work, or a total of 7,051,430 days’ work. There were fifty-one fatalities. With respect to sickness, it is to be remarked, that thanks to the thorough hygienic meas- ures in the tunnel and environs, that dreaded disease of miners, Anchylostomiasis due to the so-called “tunnel worm” (Anchy- losi‘omum duodenale), did not make its appearance. By the workmen on the north side, mostly Italians, there was sent home by postal order, during the years 1899-1905, 2,154,661 Fr. ($415,850) and a sum no less was probably brought home personally. The cost of Tunnel I, including the bottom heading of Tunnel II, stood, at the end of 1913, at 58,500,000 Fr. ($11,290,- 500), or about 2,954 Fr. per meter ($173.83 per ft.). Tunnel II. Under the terms of an agreement dated April 15, 1898, and an amendment dated October 9, 1903, the tunnel construction firm of Brandt, Brandau & Co., was bound to build the second tunnel without ballast and superstructure for the sum of 19,500,000 Fr. ($3,763,500) in the same way as Tunnel I had been built, provided they were given the contract within two years following the completion of the work in Tunnel I. On Jan. 3, 1908, within the specified time, they were awarded the contract, and the General Management of the Swiss Fed- eral Railways granted, through the authorities, a sum of 34,600,- 000 Fr. ($6,677,800) for the completion of the whole work. The contractors explained that they were unable to carry out the 346 RAILWAY TUNNELS or SWITZERLAND construction of Tunnel II for the contract price and refused to make any guarantee for the safety of Tunnel I during the con- struction of Tunnel II. After lengthy negotiations the Construction Company was released from the contract. In the meanwhile bids were called for. The prices ranged between 25,500,000 Fr. ($4,921,500) and 47,000,000 Fr. ($9,071,000), wherein the bidders to be given con- sideration stated that safety for Tunnel I could not be guar- anteed. At last the board of administration of the Swiss Federal Railways decided, on July 19, 1912, to carry out the work as a departmental construction. Mr. F. Rothpletz was selected as Director of Construction. He had already been employed on Tunnel I and since then had held important positions on the tunnel work in the Weissenstein, Ltitschberg and Grenchenberg tunnels. The length of Tunnel II was . .- 19,825 m. (65,042 ft.) Of which there was already finished in the construction of Tunnel I-.-- - 649 m. ( 2,129 ft.) Leaving still to be constructed -- - 19,176 m. (62,913 ft.) The construction began with the erection of the outside plant in December, 1912. The top heading was begun on the north side on Dec. 20, 1912, and on the south side April, 1913. The widening and the masonry followed close upon the head- ings. The Meyer system of air drills was used. In each drift about 40 drills were operated, on an average, when the work was under full headway, in the year 1914. For the arch and in parts of the walls, in those stretches where there was not much pressure, there was used an artificial stone, manufactured in Brig, with a compressive strength of at least 260 kg. per sq. cm. (3700 lbs. per sq. in.). Compressed-air and storage-battery locomotives are used inside and steam locomotives outside the tunnel. Until July 15, 1915, ventilation was provided by the equipment used for the service of Tunnel I. Since then a new and larger plant, in con- nection with the power station for the electric haulage of trains, is in operation on the north side. It delivers 90 cubic meters (3178 cu. ft.) per second for Tunnel I and 25 cubic meters (883 cu. ft.) per sec. for the north heading of Tunnel II. The southern workings will be ventilated from Iselle. The highest temperature encountered was 24° C. on the north side in July, 1914. RAILWAY TUNNELS or swrrzennxxn 347 The Director of departmental construction was able to pro- ceed most advantageously, because. having had the benefit of ex- perience during the construction of Tunnel I and the heading of Tunnel II and knowing meter for meter just what rock would be encountered and what difficulties would have to be overcome, he was able to select at will the number and posi- tion of the workings. Hence the construction of the difficult stretch at Km. 4.352 to 4.500 (2.70-2.795 mi.) from the south portal was begun in May, 1913, in order to have this completed before the regular driving of the tunnel from the portal reached that point. In that way the adjoining stretches of about 100 m. (328 ft.) on each side of the proper pressure stretches were com- pleted ; with this the stretch lying in the dolomite region of cold springs at Km. 4.352 to 4.452 (2.70 to 2.765 mi.) ; after that the pressure stretches passing through the soft limestone and mica- schist, at Km. 4.452 to 4.500 (2.765 to 2.795 mi.) were undertaken in the following order: 1. Invert'blocks were placed the entire length of the pres- sure stretch, with carefully built masonry foundation for the iron centers in the bottom heading. 2. Building the side walls for the entire length and con- creting the spaces between the iron frames and the rock walls. 3. Excavation of the arch and lining with masonry. 4. Removal of the iron frames, installation of the conduits and leveling up of the bottom with concrete. In order not to release the latent pressure of the mountain, two things were necessary—rapid work and the immediate fill- ing of the hollow spaces. The work progressed favorably. Begun December, 1913, it was hoped that the last arches could be united at the end of April, 1914. About the middle of April, with still three 4-meter (13.1 ft.) rings of the arch open and two courses in the wall on the point of completion, certain agitators decided that it was the psychological moment to start a victorious strike. The management sought to insure provisional safety for the unfin- ished places and answered, on the 18th of April, with a com- plete suspension of work; already on the 26th of the same month the work was unconditionally resumed and brought to a satisfactory completion on the 29th of May, 1914. 848 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND The work in Tunnel II only slightly afiected Tunnel I along the pressure stretches. On the other hand, the so-called “shelling” of the rock met with in the construction of Tunnel I repeated itself in the Antigorio gneiss from the south portal up to Km. 4.380 (2.72 mi). Flakes and slabs would fly off with a loud report from the living rock. This would occur without any warning and there is no known method of avoiding it. It must be attributed to the release of internal stress existing in the mountain. Such a “shelling” of rock caused considerable dislocation of the conduit, side wall and arch of Tunnel 1, in July, 1914, at Km. 3.300 (2.05 mi.) from the south portal. The western wall had to be replaced and strengthened for a length of about 25 meters (82.0 ft.). The reconstruction of the arch and the placing of an invert must be deferred, if possible, to the time when the train service can be transferred to the com- pleted second tunnel. Owing to the mobilization of the Swiss army on Aug. 3, 1914, the greater number of the workmen were dismissed and the work confined to a short stretch along which the comple- tion of the masonry lining was necessary to insure the safety of Tunnel I. By the end of December, 1914, 8942 m., or 43.6% of the entire tunnel was completed. The total number of days’ work since the beginning of construction was 1,041,129. The num- ber of fatalities was four. In January, 1915, the work in the tunnel on the south side was taken up again. Work on the north side is still in abey- ance at the time of this report. The cost of lining the 52 meters (171 ft.) of pressure stretch, inclusive of the safe-guarding of Tunnel 1, was given by Chief Engineer Rothpletz at 370.673 Fr. ($71,539), or 7128.32 Fr. per meter ($419.44 per ft.). The driving of the second heading has probably cost about the same amount. The total cost of the completed Tunnel II is estimated at 27,500,000 Fr. ($5,307,500). This figure would place the cost of the completed double tunnel, without ballast, track and electric installation, at 86.000000 Fr. ($16,598,000) or about 4338 Fr. per meter ($255.25 per ft.). RAILIIVAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND 349 2. The Weissenstein Tunnel. (No. 2 of Table 13.). The Weissenstein Tunnel, 3700 in. (12.139 ft.) of single track. on the line of the Solothurn-Miinster standard-gage branch. pierces in the Jura Mountains the two-fold lines of the \Yeissenstein and the Graitery chains between the stations of Oberdorf and Gansbrunnen, and passes under the valley of Gansbrunnen between these two mountains. The establishment of the tunnel axis was accomplished by a direct survey ever the mountain; the length of the tunnel was determined by triangulation. Construction was commenced the end of 1903; the holing through occurred on September 23, 1906, and the completion at the close of 1907. Of the entire length, 3518 meters (11,542 ft.) are on a grade of 1.8% and the remaining 182 meters (597 ft.) are horizontal. The steepest grade on the open road is 2.8%. As a system of construction, the driving of a bottom head- ing at sub-grade level of 6 sq. meters (64.58 sq. ft.) cross-sec- tional area was chosen. From the bottom heading uprisers were driven to the top of the arch; later followed the construction of a top heading. then widening above the spring line to full sec- tion, excavation of the lower section and lining with masonry. Next the short horizontal portion on the north side was under- taken by hand drills. Inasmuch as the water conditions proved favorable, the heading was carried over to the reverse grade and passed under the Gansbrunnen Valley. where floods of mud and water, and then a cave-in, occurred. At Km. 0.294 (0.18 mi.) from the north portal. work on this side was suspended. On the south side the drilling was done with percussion drills, which were operated at a pressure of about 7 atmospheres. In the bottom heading there were usually in operation three drills of 90 mm. (3.55 in.) diameter on a drill carriage. mounted on a horizontal drill shaft fastened securely against side and roof by hand screws. The compressed-air pipes had a diameter of 90 mm. (3.55 in.) from the plant to a point about 30 m. (98.4 ft.) from the face of the heading and from there a diameter of 50 mm. (1.97 in.). A water pipe of 38 mm. (1.5 in.) diameter delivered the necessary water for washing out the drill holes. 350 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SIVITZERLAND In traversing the foldings of the Jura Mountains all the characteristic and various strata belonging to the Trias, Lias, dogger and malm formations were encountered, such as gypsum- keuper, dolomite, opalinus clay, oolite, Portland-marl, Effinger and Geissberger lime, oolitic spar, Kimmeridge lime, etc. At the south portal and in the Gansbrunnen Valley, the Tertiary conglomerates, fresh-water limestone and molasse, the latter for the most part in the form of marls, and a short stretch of Quar- ternary moraine were encountered. The mountain was highly metamorphosed and demanded, especially in the marl and anhy- drite strata and opalinus clays, either immediate or subsequent lining. Owing to the frequent inrushes of water, which reached at times 450 second-liters (15.9 cu. ft. per see), the work was often delayed and rendered more difficult. In October, 1904, when the work was uninterrupted, an average daily progress was made of 6.50 m. (21.3 ft.) and a maximum of 8 m. (26.2 ft.). For the whole construction time the average monthly headway in the bottom heading on both sides together was about 113 m. (371 ft.). The control of the tunnel axis taken after joining the two headings showed a lateral deviation of 49 mm. (1.93 in.), a dif- ference in elevation of 11 mm. (0.43 in.), while the actual length of the tunnel was 0.66 m. (2.165 ft.) shorter than the calculated length. The tunnel was ventilated by three Sulzer ventilators ar- ranged in series. The air pipes in the finished tunnel had a diameter of 600 mm. (23.6 in.). Pipes of 350 mm. (13.8 in.) diameter were laid in the neighborhood of the heading and provided with sheet- metal protection as far as was necessary. The air temperature in the headings was from 11° to 13° C, the temperature of the springs from 850° to 950° C. The necessary machines and workshops for the construc- tion of the tunnel were installed at the south entrance; at that place there were also installed the necessary welfare and safety arrangements for the workmen. Wangen, on the River Aare, furnished the electric power. Masonry lining was anticipated for only 50% of the length RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SIVITZERLAND 351 of the tunnel. In actual fact, the tunnel had to be lined com- pletely for a distance of 3025 meters (9924 ft.) and partially for a further distance of 297 m. (974 ft), or altogether 87% of its entire length. There remained, altogether, a total distance of 478 m. (1568 ft.) unlined, or 13%. After the tunnel was opened for traffic it was necessary, in the Molasse marl region at Km. 2.9-3.4 (1.8 to 2.1 mi.) from the south portal, to construct an invert and to grout the roof arch in certain places for the pur- pose of making it watertight. For the most part the masonry lining was a light stone section, partly with footings for the invert; a stronger section was used only for a distance of about 32 meters (105 ft.) through the stretch of moraine. The stone work, consisting of limestone, was set in hydraulic-lime mortar and in wet places in cement mortar. Later on, in the completion of the arch, cast concrete blocks were used. The cost of the completed tunnel, inclusive of the additional work taken over by the Railway management, amounted to 3,691,273 Fr. ($712,415.68) at the end of 1914, or about 998 Fr. per running meter ($58.68 per ft). 3. The Ricken Tunnel. (No. 3 of Table B.) This tunnel is 8603 meters (28,225 ft.) long, single track and on a tangent. It lies between the stations of Kaltbrunn and Wattwil on the Uznach-Wattwil line which connects the basin of Ziirich Lake with the valley of the Thur. The longitudinal profile shows a grade of 1.575%, all on the north side, while the maximum grade of the whole line is 2.0%. The survey of the tunnel was carried out by means of a tying in of the established points on the axis in the neighbor- hood of the tunnel mouth with the governmental triangulation. The bench mark for leveling was tied in with the government levels. The two approaches and portals of the tunnel lie in loose earth and moraine. For the remaining distance the tunnel traversed the so-called “Ebnater” and “Bildhauser” strata formed of sandstones and marls and belonging to the lower Siisswassermolasse of the pre-Alpine period. The first 300 meters (984 ft.) were opened up with a top heading and constructed according to the Belgian method. The 352 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND remaining 8300 meters (27,230 ft.) were carried on with a bot— tom heading. On the south side to a point about 2220 meters (7282 ft.) from the portal, the bottom heading was 1.45 meters (4.76 ft.) above the bottom of the tunnel; for the remaining 6080 meters (19,947 ft.) it lay on the bottom of the tunnel itself. The first plan, which involved the laying of the walls and the use of many tracks at the same time, was not satisfactory and was abandoned in favor of the second method. By this method the top cut uprisers followed the bottom heading in two stages, then widening above the spring line to full section, excavation of lower section, and the masonry lining of the side-walls and arch. In the pressure stretch of about 200 m. (656 ft.) long, at point 3.230 km. (2.0 mi.) from the north portal, after the bot- tom heading was carried up, the two side lower sections were stoped out and the side walls were laid up in masonry, so that until the excavation of the arch section, some four weeks later, its entire weight was carried on the wood centers. This was followed by earth motions, cracks, and contractions in the com- pletely walled tunnel to such an extent that the entire recon- struction of the masonry of this stretch was necessary. The heading had a cross-section of from 6.0 to 6.2 sq. in. (64.58 to 66.74 sq. ft.). Excavation was accomplished by hand, in hard chalky sandstone with the customary two-man drill, in the soft marl with ratchet drills similar to hand drills, which drilled 1.00 to 1.20 meters (3.28 to 3.94 ft.) of hole in thirty minutes. Dynamite was used for blasting purposes. A roof-lagging was, for the most part, sufficient in the heading. The average daily progress in driving the heading was 2.7 to 3.6 meters (8.86 to 11.8 ft.). On account of a strike, work in the headings was suspended from July 3 to Aug. 1, 1904. Begun in January, 1904, the headings were holed through on the 30th of March, 1908, at 4.400 km. (2.73 mi.) from the south portal. The final measurements showed a lateral deviation of the two axes of 155 mm. (6.1 in.), a difference in height of 28 mm. (1.1 in.) and a difference in length of 0.19 in. (0.62 ft.). The tunnel was completed in July, 1910. The tunnel is lined entirely with masonry. The material used is lime-sandstone of about 1330 to 1350 kg. per sq. cm. (18,900 to 19,200 lbs. per sq. in.) compressive strength. In the RAILWAY TUNNELS OF S\YITZERLAND 353 dry stretches hydraulic-lime mortar was used, and in the pres- sure stretches and wet portions Portland cement. The average monthly headway along the arch was 102 to 105 m. (335 to 344 ft.), the maximum 162 in. (531 ft.). Plants for the necessary ventilation, motors. pumps, etc., were established at both ends of the tunnel. Telephone com- munication connected the workings with the plants. Air was supplied through pipes of decreasing diameters of 80, 60. 40 and 35 cm. (31.5, 23.6, 15.8 and 13.8 in.) to the face of the headings. Air and rock temperatures ranged between 17° and 22° C. While, in accordance with the geological predictions, work was hindered by no great inflow of water, nevertheless in the driv- ing of the locating heading and the widening, fire-damp, or Methane (CI-I4), was met with most unexpectedly on many oc- casions. These gas sources were characteristic of the lignite strata lying in the sandstone (Molasse) region. The appearance of this gas necessitated interruptions and disturbances in the work of construction. On the 9th of March, 1907, on the north side 42 meters (138 ft.) back of the face or at Km. 4.141 (2.57 mi.) where widening was proceeding, an exceptionally strong gas source was cut into. This gas, burning with a broad. thick flame about 1 meter (3.28 ft.) long. necessitated, on account of the great amount of heat produced, a suspension of the work and a lagging up of the roof of the rear stretch of marl, where, owing to the drying out of the rock, considerable stone was loosened. Though the intensity of the escaping gas ceased rather quickly. the work remained stationary at Kin. 4.203 (2.61 mi.). On March 28. 1907. at Km. 3.799 (2.36 mi.) a strong gas source was encountered on the south side and ignited by the blasting‘. This occurrence, unique in the construction of Swiss tunnels, occasioned a longer suspension of the work. To protect the workings lying behind, the burning portion was shut off by a bulkhead 12 m. (39.4 ft.) thick, so that when the air was shut ofi the fire went out. Two pipes, provided with valves and located in the bulkhead. served the purpose of sampling peri- odically the gas discharged as to composition and pressure. The result showed a content of Methane of 91% to 92% and a pres- sure of 12 mm. (0.47 in.) of water. At Km. 3.524 (2.19 mi), that is, as far as the tunnel was supported by wood, excavation 354 RAIL\VAY TUNNELS OF SIVITZERLAND and masonry were carried on and finished. After that the work was confined to the installation of the necessary apparatus for the removal of the imprisoned gas. After this was accomplished—by the middle of October, 1907—and the wall and earth dam removed, the construction of the heading was resumed on the 22nd of the same month. By means of a copious supply of air (about 5 cubic meters [176 cu. ft.] per second), the use of safety explosive (Grisoutine), safety lamps, electric lighting, suspension of all other work in the tunnel during the driving of the heading, the exclusion of steam locomotives from the tunnel, construction of air-tight trap-doors and refuge stations for the laborers, provision of life- saving apparatus (oxygen equipment) and bandages, it was endeavored to avoid all the perils consequent upon the prose- cution of the work. Owing to this there was no loss of life to be regretted on account of further escape of gas. The number of days’ work consumed in the construction of the tunnel was 1,521,978. There were seventeen fatalities. The cost of construction of the Ricken Tunnel was 12,867 ,- 200 Fr. ($2,483,370), or about 1495 Fr. per meter ($88.00 per ft.). 4. The Wasserfluh Tunnel. (No. 4 of Table B.) The VVasserfluh Tunnel of the Bodensee-Toggenburg Rail- way, 3557 m. (11,670 ft.) long, lies between the stations of Brunnadern and Lichtensteig, connecting the Necker and the Thur Valleys. The tunnel is single track ; it runs in a straight line with the exception of a curve of 400 m. (1312 ft.) radius and about 400 m. (1312 ft.) long at the eastern portal and has a grade of 1.04% toward the west portal at Lichtensteig. The maximum grade of the outside line is 1.85%. The survey of the axis was accomplished by means of auxiliary points on top of the mountain. The length of the tunnel was ascertained without direct triangulation by means of a calculation of the coordinates of the axis points surveyed on both sides and tied in to the triangulation of the canton. The elevations were determined by double levels and by trigonometric computation as well. For almost its entire length the tunnel passes through dense conglomerate occasionally intersected by seams of marl. RAILWAY TUNNELS or S\VITZERLAND 355 The order of construction consisted in the driving of a bot- tom heading of about 8 sq. meters (86.11 sq. ft.) cross~section, driving uprisers. top cut, widening to full arch section, excava- tion of lower section, and laying the masonry of the walls and arch. Owing to the grade being on one side. the principal part of the work was concentrated at the west portal on the up grade and machine drills installed here. Hand drills only were used on the east side. A plant was therefore installed suitable to each end of the tunnel. The machine drilling was done by three pneumatic percussion-drills of the Bechem and Keet- mann pattern, mounted on a horizontal cross-bar; for the widen- ing and trimming, H. Flottmann & Co. ’s drills were used. One drill, with a working pressure of from 4 to 6 atmospheres, makes 190 blows per minute of 225 mm. (8.86 in.) stroke, using about 3 cubic meters (105.9 cu. ft.) free air and bores 1 meter (3.28 ft.) of drill hole in the hard tough rock in about 13 minutes. A meter of the heading required 15 to 20 kg. of dynamite (10 to 13.5 lbs. per ft.); the average daily headway was 3.50 to 4.50 meters (11.5 to 14.8 ft.). The hand drills gave a similar head- way of 1.30 to 1.50 meters (4.26 to 4.92 ft). A percussion drill, with a weight of about 13 kg. (28 lbs.) and a stroke of 25 mm. (0.98 in), made a meter (3.28 ft.) of bore hole of 23 to 30 mm. (0.9 to 1.18 in.) diameter in hard rock in 18 to 20 minutes (1 ft. in 6 min). Timbering was necessary in only a few places. particularly where the top heading was being driven in marl strata. The ventilation of the west heading, attempted by means of the use of two Sulzer ventilators No. VII, was hardly sufficient and had to be increased before holing through by the introduction of two pneumatic injectors into the air conduit. which, on account of being operated by compressed air, could only work when the drills were not running. The tunnel is lined with masonry for its entire length, for the most part only 40 cm. (15.7 in.) thick. There were no pressure stretches; on the other hand, at 2.280 km. (1.42 mi.) from the west portal a water cavity was cut into, which, flooding the tunnel, quickly spent itself; the remaining flow decreased to about 10 liter-seconds (0.35 sec-ft). Lime- sandstone and lime conglomerate were used for the masonry, 356 RAILW'AY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND laid in hydraulic lime, and in the wet places, in cement mortar. One portion of the wall was built of concrete 1 :3 :6; some hun- dred meters of the arch, of concrete blocks 1 :2 :5 set in cement mortar. Particularly notable is the construction of economizing arches in the side walls. The bottom heading was commenced the end of December, 1905; the holing through followed on the 2nd of April, 1909, at 2419.55 m. (7938 ft.) from the west portal. The control showed a lateral deviation of the two axes of 50 mm. (1.97 in.) and a difference in elevation of 10 mm. (0.39 in.) ; the measured length was 0.28 m. (0.95 ft.) longer than the calculated length. The masonry lining was completed on the 6th of May, 1910. The average daily number of workmen reached a maximum in September, 1909, with 743 men. It is to be noticed in passing, that the work was carried on as departmental construction from the end of December, 1905 until April 30, 1907. A contracting firm operated from May, 1907 until June, 1908. This firm had to undergo two strikes, and on account of insufficient progress had to abandon the work, which was completed by the Railway Company itself. The cost of the finished tunnel was 2.786700 Fr. ($537,833), or about 784 Fr. per meter ($46.10 per ft.). 5. The Jungfrau Railway Tunnel. (No. 10 of Table A and No. 5 of Table B.) The railway, which proposes boldly to reach the peak of the Jungfrau, 4166 m. (13,668‘ ft.) high, the famous summit of the Bernese Alps, is now built and opened for operation with a total length of 9474 m. (31,083 ft.) to the station of Jungfrau- joeh at an elevation of 3457 m. (11,342 ft.). At this point the work has been provisionally stopped. From Km. 2.163 (1.34 mi.), where the road traverses the solid rock of the Eiger to the present terminus—that is to say. at 7113 111. (23.337 ft.)— the road lies in a tunnel, which winds in curves with a least radius of 167 in. (548 ft.) near the surface of points between stations, windows cut through the rock can be reached by means of short cross-drifts. The tunnel was constructed in four sections from 1897 RAIL\\'AY TUNNELS OF S'WITZERLAND 357 to 1912. The survey inside the tunnel was based on topograph- ical and photogrammetrical measurements of the mountain. As the longitudinal profile indicates, the grade in the sta- tions was 3 to 11%; for a stretch of about 3 km. (1.9 mi.) between Eismeer and Jungfrau—joch 6.33%, and for the re- mainder 257 . The working was driven as a top heading and worked from the under side only. It was then immediately widened to full section in the arch and the side stopes removed. The tunnel lies for its entire length in unusually hard rock, the lower 5 km. (3.1 mi.) in Alpine limestone and the upper part in gneiss. On that account it was possible to do away with not only the timbering of the heading but also the masonry lining of the tunneL The theoretical excavated profile measured 3.7 m. (12.14 ft.) wide. 4.05 m. (13.29 ft.) high above the top of the ties with a cross-section area of 14.6 sq. m. (157.1 sq. ft.) and a depth of ballast of 0.30 meters (0.98 ft.). The actual cross-section proved to be larger than the theo- retical in consequence of the greater amount of rock which had to be removed during the first years. Also the niche, 0.70 m. x 0.85 m. (2.3 x 2.79 ft), which was blasted out from Km. 2.20 to 3.80 (1.37 to 2.36 mi.) at the spring-line level, and intended for carrying the high-pressure current. crumbled slowly away, so that the unprotected conductor, carrying a 7 000-volt current, had to be replaced in a short time by a cable. The drilling was done as far as the station of Eismeer by electrical drills. at first by those of the Union Electrical Co. of Berlin. according to the .‘~ ai'vin system. and then by Siemens & Halske cranit-percussion drills. Two of the latter machines did as much as four of the Marvin system machines. The Siemens & Ilalske machine used, moreover. only 1.50 hp., while the l'nion machine used 5 hp. On the other hand. the cost for repairs of the former was 100% higher than for the latter. From Eismeer on, compressed-air drills, Ingersoll system. were used; also percussion drills of the Flottmann sys- tem subsequent to the year 1910 were occasionally employed. The freezing of the air conduit was prevented by the installa- tion of a condensed-water receptacle. 358 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND The average monthly progress in the heading reached 115.2 m. (378 ft.) ; in the lower side stopes, about 115.00 m. (377 ft.) ; the highest daily progress was 4.80 m. (15.7 ft.). A single blast in the heading gave about 0.85 m. (2.79 ft.) progress on an average; in the lower side stopes, about 1.40 m. (4.59 ft.). Dynamite and Westfalite were used for blasting. One running meter of the tunnel fully excavated required about 40 kg. (26.8 lbs. per ft.) of blasting powder, 65 m. of fuse and 35 firing caps (65 ft. of fuse and 11 firing caps per ft.). In the beginning, especially during the winter months, frequent acci- dents resulted from frozen dynamite. Thereupon the manufac— turers produced a special brand of “not easy to freeze” dyna- mite, and such accidents were thus prevented. Various ventilators, which delivered the air at the head- ings, were used for the ventilation of the tunnel. Inasmuch as the higher one went, the less oxygen there was, the bad effects of the gases due to dynamiting made themselves felt by the work- men sooner and much more noticeably than in the valley. Owing to insufficient ventilation, symptoms of carbon monoxide pois- oning frequently appeared among the workmen, such as head- ache and complete loss of consciousness. On that account an oxygen inhaling apparatus was kept in the workings. The diameter of the ventilating pipe was 400 mm. Three ventilators were put into the air pipe at about 1 km. (0.6 mi.) apart. The temperature in the tunnel ranged from + 7° C in the upper part to ——3.0° C. It might be mentioned, as a most extraordinary event, that on Sunday, the 15th of November, 1908, in the storeroom at Km. 3.600 (2.23 mi.) the whole winter ’s supply of dynamite, about 25,000 kg. (55,120 lbs.) exploded. The cause of this acci- dent is yet unknown. The partition wall at the tunnel bore, about 20 m. (65.6 ft.) thick and for a distance of about 40 m. (131 ft.) was seriously damaged. Fortunately there was no further accident. According to the accounts of the Company, the cost of the tunnel, without the lateral widening for the stations, was: RAILIYAY TUNNELS OI" S\YITZERLAND 359 Per For the stretch— Length Elevation running 111. 111* 111* Fri‘ Fr. Scheidegg-Rotstock . - 759 2100-2500 466,559 614 (672+87 Q) Rotstock~Eigerwand . 1510 2500-2900 995,030 659 Eigerwand-Eismeer _ - 1296 2900 3200 1,286,480 993 Eismeer-Jungfrau-joch -- 3635 3200-3500 4,126,204 113.3 Total __ _ ._ 7200 2100-3500 6,874,273 955 Notwithstanding the experience gained during the years and the introduction of improvements in the operation of construc- tion. there was a heavy advance in the unit costs of the tunnel for the step 3200-3500 111. elevation (10.500-11,480 ft.) compared to that from 2100-2500 m. elevation (6890-8200 ft). Difficult conditions affecting work, transportation and rock formation are considered the principal factors occasioning this astonishing difference. 6. The Liitschberg Tunnel. (No. 6 of Table B.) After a new connection with Italy had been assured for West Switzerland and the country lying behind it, by means of the Simplon Tunnel between the Mt. Cenis and St. Gotthard Tunnels. the canton of Bern aspired to get for itself and that area lying to the northwest and traversed by French, English and Belgian railways, a direct line to the Simplon and the upper part of the Canton of Wallis. After careful examination of various competitive plans, the line through the “L'otschberg” was chosen. The enterprise was financed in 1906 by the Bern-Alpine Railway Company, Bern-Ltitschberg-Simplon, on the basis of a forfeiture contract entered into with a French firm of con- tractors. The line was to be built with a maximum grade of, 2.7% and a least radius of curvature of 300 m. (984 ft). It was to be operated by electricity, with a 15,000-volt single- phase alternating current of 15 cycles. The total cost of con- struction was estimated at 83,000,000 Fr. ($16,019,000). The most important part of the work, which lay between the sta- * 1 meter : 3.28 ft. i 1 franc : $0.193. Small tunnel between Scheidegg and Eigergletscher. 360 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND tions Kandersteg on the north and Goppenstein on the south, was the Liitschberg Tunnel. This tunnel, about 13,800 m. (45,275 ft.) long, single track with a turn-out in the middle, was undertaken by a syndicate of contractors for the lump sum of 37,000,000 Fr. ($7,141,000). The Canton of Bern shared the cost of construction by assuming a subsidy in the sum of 17,500,000 Fr. ($3,377,500). The Swiss Confederation, for its part, made an additional grant of 6,000,000 Fr. ($1,158,000) in order that the large tunnel might be double-tracked from the beginning and that both approach slopes might be prepared for double-tracking later. The total cost of the tunnel was in- creased to 50,000,000 Fr. ($9,650,000) owing to the double tracking. Immediately after the signing of the contract, in July, 1906, the work of surveying was begun. The tunnel was laid out on a tangent, with the exception of a curve 93 m. (305 ft.) long and with a radius of 400 meters (1312 ft.) at the south approach. The Kandersteg and Goppenstein axis points were connected to each other by a simple triangulation with the geodetic tri- angulation of the III order of the Bernese Oberland. In this way a sufficiently accurate survey was made over the mountain, taking into consideration the deviation of the plumb line, and which permitted the tunnel alignment to be given on each side by a sight to a signal point through tipping of the telescope. The determination of the elevation of both axis points was ac- complished by tying in to government precision levels. The longitudinal profile given in the accompanying table shows that the north portal was 1199.9 111. (3937 ft.). the summit 1242.7 111. (4077 ft.) and the south portal 1219.45 m. (4001 ft.) elevation, and that the grade on the north side was 0.7 and 0.3% and on the south side, 0.38 and 0.245%. The maximum clear opening of the double-track tunnel is 8.00 m. in width, 6 m. in greatest height (26.2 ft. x 19.7 ft.), and has a cross-section of 40.7 sq. meters (438.1 sq. ft.). The conduit [60 x 60 cm. (23.6 x 23.6 in.) with 0.7% grade], can drain off 730 sec-liters of water (25.8 sec-ft.). The installations included, on both sides, the plant for the operation of the drills and ventilators, setting-up and main- tenance of the machinery, tools and transportation material; RAIL\VAY TUNNELS OF SXVITZERLAND 361 lodging for the officials and men; and welfare equipment such as baths, showers, dry and disinfecting rooms, hospitals and schools. Meyer’s compressed-air percussion drills were used on the north side; on the south side, the Ingersoll drills. Two 2-stage compressors of about 350 hp. each furnished the necessary air at 10 atmospheres pressure. For ventilating purposes there were two Capell centrifugal blowers of 60 cubic meters (2118.9 cu. ft.) per minute capacity each, at a pressure of 250 mm. (9.84 in.) of water. The furnishing of fresh air to the workings was gradually improved in 1909 and 1910 by the installation of two powerful Capell fans of 25 cubic meters (882.9 cu. ft.) per second capacity each, at 250 mm. (9.84 in.) of water pressure, each requiring 160 hp. There was built in the finished tunnel an air duct of 6.4 sq. meters (68.89 sq. ft.) cross-section through one of the masonry partition walls, at the end of which second- ary ventilation, consisting of turbo-blowers, injectors and sprays of water, was installed, in order to bring fresh air—0.5 to 1.0 cubic meters (17.65 to 35.3 cu. ft.) per second—to the face of the workings. After holing through, the secondary ventilation was discontinued, the wall broken down, and the ventilation carried on, partly by blowing, partly by suction through the full tunnel section. Transportation in the tunnel was provided by means of compressed air locomotives, for which 2 Meyer’s and 2 Inger- soll compressors of 220 hp. each furnished air at 120 atmos- pheres. The gage of the “dinky” was 0.75 m. (2.46 ft.). The entire plant was operated by electricity. The electric energy, about 400 hp. at first and reaching 2500 hp. in the four working years, was furnished by the railway company from the power plants of the United Kander and Hagneck Works as a three-phase 15,000-volt alternating current. The electric stations contained all the necessary means for transforming and distrib- uting the current. For this the contractors had to pay a sum of one million Fr. ($193,000) for each end of the tunnel. The complete excavation was accomplished from a bottom heading of 6 sq. meters (64.6 sq. ft.) cross-section, through top drifts or uprisers according to the character of the rock. According to the opinion of the geological experts, the tun- 362 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND nel, after traversing in its northern third the talus lying on the slope of the mountain, should pass through Cretaceous and Jurassic sedimentary deposits. The Gastern granite and crys- talline slate comprised the other two-thirds. In the Gastern Valley, which was crossed at a depth of 180 m. (590 ft.) be- neath the floor of the valley, the tunnel must certainly have had not less than 100 m. (328 ft.) of solid rock above it. An- other opinion, to which little attention was paid, advocated the digging of a test shaft over the tunnel center in the Gastern Valley for the purpose of obtaining some light on this last question. Drilling began in October, 1906, with hand tools; machine drilling began on the north side on the 7th of March and on the south side on the 9th of April, 1907. Four and one half years after the beginning of the machine drilling, that is, on the 9th of September, 1911, the tunnel, according to contract, was to be completed. The average daily progress reached a maximum in the limestone of the north side in June, 1908, of 7.57 m. (24.8 ft.), in the gneiss of the south side in August, 1908, with 6.10 meters (20 ft.). In the second quarter of 1908, on the north side the daily number of roundsf was 6; on the south side, 5. There were required per cubic meter of excava- tion in the bottom heading in the high mountain limestone of the north side in the second quarter of 1908, 2.44 m. (6.12 ft. per cu. yd.) drillhole, 3.76 kg. (6.33 lbs. per cu. yd.) dynamite and an equivalent of 2.42 m. (6.06 ft. per cu. yd.) drill steel. Each drill cut 117 meters (384 ft.) of hole before repairs were nec- essary. Per cubic meter of the remaining excavation, 0.50 kg. of dynamite was used (0.85 lbs. per cu. yd.), or an average for the whole excavation of 1.13 kg. (1.91 lbs. per cu. yd.) was required. The crystalline schist and gneiss of the south side required at the end of 1908, 2.63 m. (6.61 ft. per cu. yd.) of drill hole. 4.16 kg. (7.02 lb. per cu. yd.) of dynamite and 4.64 in. (11.6 ft. per cu. yd.) of drill steel per cubic meter excavated. Each drill made 1 meter (3.28 ft.) of hole in 0.37 of an hour and after boring 29 meters (95 ft.) of hole had to be repaired. For widening to the full section, which was done in part by boring drill, in part by percussion drill and in part by hand, *Round-drilling holes, backing away and shooting. RAILIVAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND 363 1.32 kg. (2.23 lbs. per cu. yd.) of dynamite was used, or an aver- age for the whole excavation of 1.70 kg. per cubic meter (2.88 lbs. per cu. yd.). In the Gastern granite section in the middle of the tunnel the quantity of dynamite used and the wear and tear on the drills was somewhat higher. Two unfortunate events occasioned considerable delay in the driving of the headings in 1908. On the 29th of February, Goppenstein, the southern power and service site, was partially destroyed by an avalanche, and the hotel belonging to the company destroyed, whereby twelve people lost their lives. As a result of this occurrence, opera- tions were suspended on the south side during the month of March. This was followed on the north side on the 24th of July, at Km. 2.675, under the Kander River in the Gastern Val- ley, by a breaking in of water and earth. Within ten minutes about 7000 cubic meters (247,200 cu. ft.) of material and 2400 cubic meters (84,700 cu. ft.) of water rushed into the heading and filled it almost entirely for a length of 1175 meters (3854 ft). The 25 workmen in the heading were not able to escape in time and perished. The cave-in spread up to the surface of the valley, where an elliptical depression of 40 by 50 m. (131 ft. x 164 ft.) diameter, and a maximum depth of 2.10 m. (6.9 ft.) appeared. There could be no doubt about it: the workings, contrary to the geological predictions, had left the solid rock lying on the right side of the valley slope and had run into the alluvial deposits of the Gastern Valley saturated with the ground-water of the Kander. The destroyed headings were for the time being abandoned, and closed at Km. 1.426 (0.88 mi.). The water escaped by means of seven pipes. The discharge of water decreased from an original 4000 to 95 second-liters (141 to 3.3 sec-ft). Negotiations between the railway company and the con- tractors as to the continuing of the work, resulted with the con- sent of the Swiss By. Department, in abandoning the continua- tion of the tunnel in a straight line and in moving the crossing up the valley, in an easterly direction, where the granite re- mained in the floor of the valley. The relocated tunnel bends at Km. 1.203 (0.75 mi.) from the north portal, with a curve of 1100 meters (3609 ft.) radius, 364 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SIVITZERLAND from the straight line location towards the left and returns to the same (straight line location) after describing two wide curves of the same radius as above at Km. 3.998 (2.48 mi.) from the south portal. The new heading begins at Km. 1.368 (0.85 mi.) so that the length of the abandoned portion amounted to 1307 meters (4287 ft.). The length of the relocated section is 9330 meters (30,610 ft.), of which 2237 meters (7338 ft.) are curved. The greatest deviation of the new location from the old is 1610 meters (5281 ft.). This necessitated an increased length of 810 meters (2658 ft.). Only in February, 1909, the work of driving could be taken up again. The daily progress increased amazingly. The average daily progress on the north side reached a maximum in July, 1909—in Alpine limestone using 4 Meyer percussion drills—of 10.66 meters (34.97 ft.). In January, 1911, in the Gastern gran- ite with 5 machines a maximum of 8.24 meters (27.03 ft.) was attained. On the south side, in March, 1911, using 5 Ingersoll machines, a maximum of 6.55 meters (21.49 ft.) was obtained. The greatest daily headway was 13.2 meters (43.31 ft.) in the limestone and 10.6 meters (34.77 ft.) in granite. The rock temperature reached a maximum of 340° C at a point 6.150 km. (3.82 mi.) from the south portal. The great- est depth of rock over the tunnel, about 1570 meters (5151 ft.), was at Km. 6.250 (3.88 mi.) from the south portal. The holing through occurred on March 31, 1911, at 7.353 km. (4.57 mi.) from the north portal. The check measurement showed a lateral deviation of 257 mm. (10.1 in.) 102 mm. (4 in.) in the elevation and, relatively to the calculation, a decrease in length of 0.41 meter (1.35 ft.) in a total length of tunnel of 14.612 km. (9.08 mi.). The lining of the tunnel could not keep pace with the rapid progress of the headings, because the ventilation left much to be desired until the holing through occurred. The masonry lining consisted principally of a thin facing, which was partly composed of artificial stone of a least compressive strength of 180 kg. per sq. cm. (2560 lbs. per sq. in.) after 28 days. An invert was constructed for only 426 meters (1398 ft.). In 1911 the water carried away by the conduit varied be- tween 60 and 566 liter-seconds (2.1 to 20 sec-ft.). The composition of the mortar employed is especially to be RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND 365 noted. In two factories especially constructed for the purpose, Portland cement was mixed with stone dust in varying degree and formed into “L'otschit”. “Lotschit 10”, or that mixture having a tensile strength of 10 kg. per sq. cm. (142 lbs. per sq. in.) was used instead of hydraulic lime; “Liitschit 22”, or that having a tensile strength of 22 kg. per sq. cm. (312.9 lbs. per sq. in.) was used instead of pure Portland cement. The Swiss test called for a minimum tensile strength of 6 kg. per sq. cm. (85.3 lbs. per sq. in.) for hydraulic lime and 22 kg. per sq. cm. (312.9 lbs. per sq. in.) for Portland cement, all after 28 days. Good lime and cement always give a considerable excess strength over the requirements. There was used on an average per cubic meter of masonry lining 120 to 150 kg. (202 to 253 lbs. per cu. yd.) of mortar. The lining was completed on the 22nd of April, 1912. This made 7.3 meters (23.95 ft.) of completed tunnel per day. The total excavation was 843,034 cubic meters (1,102,190 cu yds.), the masonry 190,098 cubic meters (248,535 cu. yds.), and 4,046,543 days’ work were consumed. There were 64 fatalities. By postal order, 8,480,148 Fr. ($16,366,685) were sent to Italy. The railway was opened on the 15th of June, 1913. A suit is still pending between the Railway Company and the contractors arising out of the catastrophe of July 24th, 1908. Disregarding this suit, the cost of the tunnel was stated as 50,071,000 Fr. ($9,663,700), or 3427 Fr. per meter ($201.65 per ft.). 7. The Tasna Tunnel. (No. 7 of Table B.) The Tasna Tunnel, 2350 meters (7710 ft.) long, lies on the Lower Engadine Bevers-Sehuls line of the narrow-gage Rhaetian railway, between the stations of Ardez and Fetan. It is a side slope tunnel, made necessary by an extensive slide of the sides of the ravines in the valley of the Inn River between the valleys of Tasna and Piizza. The tunnel penetrates the slope in the Tasna Valley in a northerly direction in order to reach hard rock as soon as pos- sible, turns in a curve of 200 m. (656 ft.) radius towards the east and then runs in a straight line 2118 meters (6949 ft.) to the eastern portal in the Piizza Valley. 366 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND The longitudinal profile shows the tunnel as running from the entrance on the Ardez side for 300 m. (984 ft.) up with a grade of 0.2% to the summit, 1385 m. (4544 ft.) elevation, whereupon a down grade of 2% occurs to the portal on the Fetan side. The maximum grade on the open line is 2.5%. The survey of the axis was done by means of a triangula- tion connected with both ends of the tunnel, the base line of which was connected with a base measured at Tarasp in the Inn Valley. The tunnel lies for about 300 meters (984 ft.) in broken granite, then for a short space in serpentine, and for the most of its length in Biindner schist, which is intersected by veins of gypsum. On account of the weakness of the rock, and with an eye to economy, hand drills were used exclusively. On that account the plant was reduced merely to the installation of the absolutely necessary shacks and storehouses. An electric cableway connected the principal working headquarters at the entrance to the headings with the valley road, some 100 meters (328 ft.) below. The air was renewed in the tunnel by venti- lators at each end. The drilling began on the Fetan side in December, 1908; a year later on the Ardez side. The order of operations was as follows: From the tunnel entrance (on the Ardez side) as far as Km. 1.50 (0.93 mi), the Belgian system was employed; that is, top-heading, excavation of the arch, lining of the arch, invert cut, complete excavation and building of masonry side walls. For the lower half, the work was carried out according to the “full excavation” method, that is, bottom heading, top cut, excavation of the arch, excavation of side stopes, and masonry lining of the walls and arch. The heading had an average height of 2.2 meters (7.22 ft.) and a breadth of 2.5 meters (8.20 ft.) and a cross-section of 5.5 sq. meters (59.2 sq. ft.), and required timbering for practically half its length. The tunnel is lined throughout with ashlar set in Portland cement, and for about 1500 meters (4920 ft.) with a strength- ened pressure section, in part even as thick as 1, meter (3.28 ft.). RAIL\VAY TUNNELS OF S'WITZERLANI) 367 During the night of the 16th and 17th of June, 1910. at Km. 0.200 (0.12 mi.) from the Ardez portal, a cave-in occurred in the heading. accompanied by a great inflow of water. Owing to this the driving of the heading on this side was discontinued for a full seven months and the holing through delayed at least three months. The holing through occurred on the 7th of July, 1912, with a very exact meeting of the axes; the masonry was finished by the end of April, 1913. This showed an average daily progress in the headings of 1.84 meters (6.03 ft.) and a progress of 1.50 m. (4.92 ft.) of finished tunnel. The number of days’ work consumed was 257,109. Blast- ing powder was used as follows: For the headings, 26,700 kg. (58,740 lbs.) of dynamite; for the widening out 30,600 kg. (67,320 lbs.) of Westfalite, Telsite and Cheddite; 8,112,000 firing caps and 185,000 meters (606,900 ft.) of fuse. This gives unit amounts as follows: Blasting Powder Firing Caps Fuse Per running me- ter in tunnel- 24.4 kg. 3465 78 m. (16.36 lbs. per ft.) (1056 per ft.) (‘78 ft. per ft.) Per cu. m. of excavation . . 0.8 kg. 115 2.5 In. (1.35 lbs. per cu. yd.) (88 per cu. yd.) (6.28 ft. per cu. _\ d.) There were seven fatalities. The final figures are withheld, but the cost of the tunnel itself should be 1,592,000 Fr. ($307,256) or about 678 Fr. per meter ($39.86 per ft.). The opening of the Lower Engadine line, Bevers-Schuls, occurred on the 1st of July, 1913, according to program. 8. The Mt. d’Or Tunnel. (No. 1 of Table C.) Instigated by a spirit of competition to have the best con- nection between Paris and Milan, the Paris-Lyon and Medi— terranean Railway Company of France determined to improve their approach to the Simplon Tunnel by means of a double- track cut-off from the station of Frasne to the Swiss border railway station of Vallorbe. The actual distance between Paris and Milan was shortened 17 km. (10.56 mi.) by a line 25 km. (15.53 mi.) long, the maximum grade on the French side was lowered from 2.5% to 1.5% and the summit of the line was 368 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND lowered to 900.19 m. (2953.37 ft.) elevation, or about 115 meters (377 ft.). The line cuts through the Jura range of the Mont d’Or, 483 m. (1584 ft.) below the highest elevation, by a tun- nel 6097 1n. (20,003 ft.) long of which 989 n1. (3244 ft.) lie in Swiss territory. The maximum grade on the Swiss approach was 2.0%. The tunnel has a grade of 1.3%, entirely on the Vallorbe side, on a tangent of 5404 meters (17,730 ft.) and a 1.09% grade on an approach curve of 700 m. (2296 ft.) radius. This condition necessitated the principal part of the work being done from the V allorbe end. Four compressors were installed here requiring an aggregate of 940 hp. These delivered the air for the drills at 8 atmospheres. There were also three com- pressors of 220 hp. each for the operation of 7 compressed-air locomotives which required 150 atmospheres. For ventilation, 2 Sulzer ventilators of 50 hp. each were set up outside the tunnel, three similar machines on the inside. For drilling in the heading on the north side, Meyer ’s per- cussion or rotating drills were used, depending upon the nature of the rock. Of the latter there were four on a drill carriage with a cross shaft. For the widening out, percussion drills only were used. The plant installed on the Frasne side was simpler: one 200-kw. transformer. one 210-hp. electric motor, one Ingersoll- Rand compressor for the operation of the percussion drills, one portable engine of 120 hp., with generator attached for reserve, one Farcot ventilator of 42 hp. for the ventilation, four electric pumps of 25 liter-seconds (0.88 sec-ft.) capacity for handling the water from the neighboring slopes, and three gasoline loco- motives for the tunnel service. The gage of the temporary tracks on the Swiss side was 1.00 m. (3.28 ft.) ; on the French side, 0.60 m. (1.97 ft.). The electric energy for the operation of the installations at either side of the tunnel was furnished from the power house of the “Power Co. of Lake J oux” in the form of a three-phase current of 13,500 volts. Baths, hospitals and schools were established. The tunnel axis was determined by a triangulation and a direct survey over the mountain. The driving of the bottom heading began on the 14th of RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SVVITZERLAXD 369 November, 1910, on the Vallorbe side, at first with a cross-sec- tion of 7 sq. meters (75.35 sq. ft.), and later 9 sq. meters (96.88 sq. ft.) ; excavation and top heading followed. As soon as the arch was excavated, the arch masonry lining was laid up on iron centers. then the sides stoped out and masonry lining of side walls laid up. On the Frasne side only a top heading was used; in other respects the work was carried on in the same manner as on the Vallorbe side. On the latter side 6 set-ups were made, in three daily shifts, of 12 to 20 drill holes each 1.50 meters (4.92 ft.) deep, each hole loaded with from 2 to 3 kg. (4.4 to 6.6 lbs.) of dynamite (blasting gelatine of 93% nitroglycerine). As an example, in September, 1912, the average daily headway was 8.20 meters (26.90 ft.). At first about 1 km. (0.62 mi.) of dry lime rock was tra- versed; then 3.2 km. (2.0 mi.) of blue, impervious lime, for about 800 m. (2625 ft.), interspersed with marl, which swelled up and dissolved in water. After the marl, fissured limestone was encountered. In this formation on the 23rd of December, 1912, at Km. 4.273 (2.65 mi.) from the Vallorbe portal, 93 meters (305 ft.) behind the face of the heading, large quantities of water were struck, amounting to 3000 liter-seconds (106 sec-ft) During the hasty flight from the tunnel, two work trains collided, but the whole affair fortunately came out with- out loss of life. The discharge of water sank to 700 liter-sec- onds (24.7 sec-ft.) on the 25th of December, but increased again to 5000 liter-seconds (175.5 sec-ft.) on December 28th and 29th on account of rain and melted snow, and after about 14 days remained steady at from 350 to 400 liter-seconds (12.3 to 14.1 sec-ft). The water pouring out of the tunnel caused consid— erable damage on its way to the Orbe. Owing to this, the springs of the streamlet “Bief Rouge”, 5 km. (3.1 mi.) distant and lying 84 m. (275 ft.) above the tunnel, dried up. This entailed serious hardship on the part of those having water rights further down the stream. The heading was closed by means of a wall 7 meters (22.9 ft.) thick; two pipes with manometers and valves were in- stalled to regulate and shut the flow of water off completely. On Jan. 17, 1913, the valves were closed and on the 19th to the 370 RAILYVAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND 23rd of the same month the springs of the “Bief Rouge” began to flow again. Under the protection of the dam the tunnel canal was built for carrying off 1000 liter-seconds (35.3 sec-ft.) of water and a conduit was installed outside the tunnel with a capacity of 7000 liter-seconds (247 sec-ft.). The water dammed up behind the wall was released from the 21st to the 24th of February, 1913, the barricade itself was then removed and the driving of the heading resumed. But the “Bief Rouge” disappeared again. On the 17th of April, 1913, at'Km. 4.407 (2.74 mi), another spring was run into, which flowed into the heading with great violence and made it necessary to evacuate. Continuous rains and copious melting snow caused the water to increase during the following night to nearly 10,000 liter- seconds (353 sec-ft), which, nevertheless, was carried away without any serious damage. Simultaneously the water veins which had been encountered earlier dried up, which was an indication that the different pockets were connected with each other and with the entire spring region of “Bief Rouge”. By means of a parallel heading the locations where water appeared were passed around; the holing through of the heading was accomplished on October 2, 1913, at Km. 5.044 (3.13 mi.) from the Vallorbe portal. The work had consumed in all 1054 days and showed an average daily progress of 5.79 meters (18.99 ft.). The maximum daily progress on one side was 11.00 meters (36.1 ft.) in the Oxford strata. The tunnel had to be lined with masonry for its whole length, provided with an invert, and in stretches made water- tight with cement grout. Owing to the outbreak of the war the work suffered a serious set-back. In the spring of 1915, they first succeeded by means of an ingenious system of drains to make the masonry water-tight where the springs had been found and to place the veins and pockets under a pressure of 84 meters (275.6 ft.) of water, so that the flow again started in “Bief Rouge”. There were eleven fatalities during the construction of the tunnel. The cost of construction, although the completed figures have not yet been given out, has been stated at about 21,000,000 Fr. ($4,053,000) or 3444 Fr. per meter ($202.65 per ft.). RAILW'AY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND 371 The opening of the Frasne-Vallorbe line occurred on the 16th of May. 1915. No artificial ventilation has been provided for. It is hoped that the natural draft of the tunnel, with its unilateral ascent of about 78 m. (256 ft), will always be suffi- cient to remove the smoke and to renew the air. 9. The Hauenstein Base Tunnel. (No. 2 of Table 0.) In order to improve the northern approach to the Gotthard on the Basel-Olten route, the Confederation in 1910 granted a credit of 24,000,000 Fr. ($4,632,000) for the construction of a cut-off line with base tunnel through the Hauenstein. At the present time, the J ura range is pierced by the oldest of the great Swiss tunnels built during the last 60 years, namely, the Hauen- stein Tunnel. 2495 m. (8186 ft.) long. The construction of this tunnel lasted from 1854 to 1857 and was accompanied by a bad fire and cave-in, in which 63 men lost their lives. The summit of the existing line is at Laufelfingen station, 561.80 m. (1843 ft.) elevation. The north approach has a maximum grade of 2.13%; the southern, in the tunnel, a maximum grade of 2.626%. The new line branches from the old line at Sissach station. reaches the north portal of the Base tunnel, 8134 m. (26.686 ft.) long, immediately behind Tecknau station, with a maximum grade of 1.05%. After leaving the tunnel it crosses the Aare, in order to reach the station of Olten, one of the prin- cipal junction points of the Swiss Railway System. The north- ern leg of the tunnel is 1807 m. (5928 ft.) long and has a 0.15% upgrade; the southern leg is 6327 meters (20,758 ft.) long and has a down-grade of 0.5% and 0.75%, approaching Olten. The summit lies at an elevation of 451.73 meters (1482.1 ft.), that is 110 meters (360.8 ft.) below the highest point of the exist- ing line. The new line is to be 111 meters (364.1 ft.) effectively, but 30 km. (18.6 mi.) virtually shorter than the old. The run- ning time for passenger trains will be shortened from 15 to 20 minutes, for freight trains 25 minutes. In January, 1912, the work was let, after twice submitting to bids. and at an increase of price of about 13%. The total cost of the new line will amount to about 26,000,000 Fr. ($5,018,- 000) on this basis. According to the figures of the Federal Railways, the reduction in annual expense through a saving 372 RAILIVAY TUNNELS OF S\VITZERLAND in personnel and material should represent a capital of 27,500,- 000 Fr. ($5,307,500). The determination of the direction and elevation of the two-track straight-line tunnel was made by means of a triangu- lation and set of levels tied in with the Swiss general survey. For control, a direct survey of the axis was made over the mountain. O11 the 20th of February, 1912, the driving of the heading was begun with hand drills, on the south side at Olten. In the course of the year, the construction of the plants on both sides was completed. The work tracks had a gage of 0.75 m. (2.46 ft.). In the reinforced-concrete power house on the south side, which on account of the longitudinal profile had to undertake the larger part of the work, two Sulzer Diesel motors, connected on the same shaft, delivered 500 hp.; also three low- pressure compressors, each requiring 225 hp., furnished each about 30 cubic meters of air per minute at a pressure of 8 at~ mospheres. A conduit system of patent welded pipes of 200 mm. diameter (7.9 in.), carried the air to the various workings, where, in heading 2 to 3, in the widening, 30 to 35 percussion drills were in operation. Outside, the transportation was done by means of steam locomotives. Inside the tunnel, compressed- air locomotives of 9.5 to 24 tons service weight were used. Two high-pressure compressors, of 250 hp. each, furnished 13 cubic meters of air (459.1 cu. ft.) per minute each at 150 atmospheres for the operation of the tunnel locomotives, which had a work- ing pressure of 135 atmospheres. Three Sulzer No. 9 high pressure ventilators arranged in series and requiring about 50 hp. each, furnished 5 cubic meters of air per second each, with a pressure of 500 to 600 mm. of water. These were put in suc- cessively, following the driving of the heading, so that at the end of the conduit they always had at their disposal 5 cubic meters (176.6 cu. ft.) of air per second. The air ducts were made of sheet metal, 3 mm. thick and 1000, 800 and 500 mm. diameter (0.1181 in. thick and 39.37, 31.50 and 19.68 in. diameter). There were in addition installed on the south side a steam- driven saw mill; an electric lighting plant of 110 hp.; an elec- RAILWAY TUNNELS or SWITZERLAND 373 trically-operated pump for furnishing 80 liter-seconds (2.8 sec— ft.) of clear water for the Diesel motors and compressors; black- smith shops and repair shops, with all the necessary machines and tools; a magazine for the storage of 10,000 kg. (22,000 lbs.) of dynamite; baths; medical and sanitary quarters; quarters for the officials and men; the necessary buildings for the ad- ministration and inspection departments; and a telephone plant and installation furnishing connection between all these build- ings and the tunnel. Because there was less work on the north side, the plant was correspondingly smaller, although similar. After the plant was finally set up, the work went on at a rapid and smooth pace. The headings traversed the different marl, gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite, muschelkalk, oolite and Bajocian strata of the Jura range. The rock was for almost the entire length stable and for the most part dry. The greatest amount of water encountered was 119 liter-seconds (4.2 sec-ft.) on the south side and 11 liter-seconds (0.39 sec-ft.) on the north side. The temperature reached a maximum of 25° C. at a point of maximum overlay 482 meters (1581 ft.) below the surface. From the bottom heading, excavation was carried on by means of a top heading, later, by means of a top cut enlarge- ment to full arch-section and the removal of side stopes. The masonry of the side walls and arch followed at a short distance. The holing through occurred on the 10th of July. 1914. 18 months before the stipulated time, at 5.865 km. (3.64 mi.) from the south portal. This showed a daily average progress of 9.35 meters (30.68 ft.) since the beginning of the tunneling. The greatest daily headway yet made was 16.3 meters (53.47 ft.) in March, 1913, on the north side. The control of the axis showed a lateral deviation of 4.5 mm. (0.17 in.), a deviation of 12 mm. (0.47 in.) in the elevation, and a difference from the computed length of — 1.20 in. (3.94 ft.). The masonry lining, for the most part a thin facing, was laid in cement mortar throughout. In the stretches that were dry and not subject to pressure, an artificial stone was used for the arch with a specified minimum crushing strength of 180 374 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND kg. per sq. cm. (2560 lbs. per sq. in.) but having in fact an average crushing strength approaching 300 kg. per sq. cm. (4267 lbs. per sq. in.). At the beginning of August, 1914, owing to the war, the work had to be considerably reduced. In spite of everything, the arch was completed on the 9th of April, 1915. An aver- age daily progress of 7.12 m. (23.36 ft.) finished tunnel was made. To the 31st of March, 1915, 1,236,959 days’ work were re- quired in the tunnel and for the plant installed outside and connected with it. Work was interrupted on account of a strike from the 8th to the 18th of July, 1912. There were 9 fatalities. The cost of the tunnel to sub-grade, exclusive of the venti- lating system, was estimated on the basis of the contract at 18,563,000 Fr. ($3,582,660) or 2282 Fr. per meter ($134.28 per ft.). The stretch between Tecknau and Olten, 11 km. (6.83 mi.) long, is divided into two blocks by a block station in the tunnel, 4434 m. (14,548 ft.) from the north portal. The greatest pos- sible safety is secured for a following train by means of double forward signals of three lights each, electric back signals, warn- ings released by rail contact and axle counters electrically con- nected with the contact fingers of the block signal. In order to facilitate the re-starting of trains which have been stopped by the block signals, the grade was reduced for a stretch of 500 in. (1640 ft.) from 0.75% to 0.5%. For ventilation during opera- tion a circular shaft 5.6 m. (18.4 ft.) diameter and 133 m. (436.3 ft.) deep was sunk in the valley of Zeglingen, 3593 m. (11,787 ft.) from the north portal, just beside the tunnel, and connected with this station. The natural draught of the shaft has to be increased when necessary by two centrifugal exhaust ventila- tors, electrically operated, placed at the upper mouth. The cost of the shaft alone is estimated at 170,000 Fr. ($32,810); that of the total ventilating system at 265,000 Fr. ($51,145). It is estimated that the necessary power for operation will not exceed 180 hp. The cut-off line is to be opened on the 1st of January, 1916. RAILWAY TUNNELS or swirznnnxxn 375 10. The Grenchenberg Tunnel. (No. 3 of Table C.) In order to improve the northern approach to the Bern- Lotschberg-Simplon Line the Bern-Alpine Railway Company built a connecting road about 13 km. (8.07 mi.) long. between the Federal Railway stations Moutier and Lengnau. By this means the distance of 40 km. (24.85 mi.) between the important junction points of Moutier and Biel was to be shortened 16 km. (9.94 mi.) and the summit of the line crossing the Jura made 227 m. (744.7 ft.) lower. The most difficult construction connected with the new line was the Grenchenberg Tunnel, which traverses between the stations of Moutier and Grenchen, the limestone formation of the Graitery and Grenchenberg mountain chains of the Jura and the Tertiary valley Chaluet lying between them. The greatest overlay above the tunnel was 876 in. (2874 ft.). The tunnel is 8565 m. (28,100 ft.) long, single track, and on a tangent except for one curve. 55 m. (180.4 ft.) long and 300 m. (984 ft.) radius on the north opening. \Vith a maximum grade of 1.5% in the open line, the longitudinal profile of the tunnel shows from north to south for 3900 m. (12,795 ft.) a grade of 0.25% up to the summit, which is at an elevation of 545 m. (1788 ft.). and from that point a slope on a 1.3% grade for 4665 m. (15,305 ft.). The net cross-section was 25.5 sq. meters (274.4 sq. ft.). The location of the axis was determined by means of a tying in to a government triangulation, elevation was obtained by means of connection with the government precision levels and controlled by a survey over both the mountain chains. Excavation was carried on from the bottom heading by a top cut, in bad rock by a top heading, enlargement to full arch section and removal of side stopes. For drilling in the bottom heading, four Meyer air-pressure percussion drills were used on a drill carriage; for the com- plete excavation percussion drills. and in the soft molasse. spiral hand drills were used. In the tunnel, transportation was handled by means of air locomotives, and outside by steam loco~ motives. both of 75 cm. (29.5 in.) gage. The necessary com- pressors for the drills (Meyer, 10 atmospheres) and locomotives (Ingersoll. 100-120 atmospheres) were provided at the plants installed at either end of the tunnel. 376 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND The motive power, consisting of an alternating current of 16,000 volts, was distributed to the work by suitable trans- formers. Meyer turbo-ventilators of a maximum capacity of about 3 cubic meters (105.9 cu. ft.) per second served to ventilate the tunnel and carried fresh air by means of conduits 600 mm. (23.62 in.) in diameter. An aerial cableway for bringing stone from a quarry 2 km. (1.24 mi.) distant, work shops, magazines, office buildings, and difierent workingmen’s welfare institutions, such as bar- racks, baths, washrooms, hospitals and schools, completed the equipment. Work was started the beginning of November, 1911, and in October, 1913, on the north side, a daily average progress was reached of 9.74 m. (31.9 ft.), and a very nearly similar average on the south side. Two and seven-tenths kg. per cubic m. (4.55 lbs. per cu. yd.) of blasting powder (Telsit) were used on an average in the bottom heading, and for the total excavation, an average of 0.7 kg. per cubic m. (1.18 lb. per cu. yd.). The highest temperature reached was 200 C. The tunnel was masonry lined for its whole length; the least thickness was 35 cm. (13.78 in.) ; the thickness as a rule shown in the pressure profile was 2.00 m. (6.56 ft.) in the walls and 0.70 m. (2.3 ft.) of hewn stone in the invert. In the sound rock, economizing arches of 4.5 m. (14.8 ft.) span and 2.5 m. (8.2 ft.) width of pier were used. For the arch there was used as follows: in the sound rock, artificial stone blocks 25 by 12 by 6 cm. (9.84 X 4.72 X 2.36 in.), with a guaranteed minimum compressive strength of 230 kg. per sq. cm. (3270 lbs. per sq. in.), laid in slag cement having a compressive strength of 210 kg. per sq. cm. (2987 lbs. per sq. in.) in stretches where there was pressure, cut stone laid in Portland-cement mortar of 380 kg. per sq. cm. (5405 lbs. per sq. in.) compressive strength was used—these compressive strengths to be shown after 28 days. Throughout the marl stretches an invert 30 to 50 cm. (11.8 to 19.7 in.) thick of Portland cement with filling concrete of slag cement was laid. In the wet stretches the arch was covered with a layer of cement mortar 5 cm. (1.97 in.) thick, a coat of RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND 377 asphalt 5 to 7 mm. (0.2 to 0.275 in.) thick and a 6 cm. (2.36 in.) protecting coat of lime sandstone set in mortar. Owing to strikes. earth pressure, inflow of water and mili- tary mobilization, the work exceeded the stipulated time about four months. Notwithstanding, the bottom heading was holed through October 27th, 1914, showing a daily progress of 7.9 m. (25. 9 ft.) on the average. Alignment and elevation were good. A check survey has not yet been made. At the end of March, 1915, the total excavation amounted to 338,436 cubic m. (442,674 cu. yds.). the masonry to 93,204 cubic m. (121,910 cu. yds.), and 1,261,731 days’ work had been required. There were six fatalities. The completion of the tunnel took place on July 24. 1915, and the opening of the line on October 1, 1915. Among the difficulties encountered, the inbreaks of water are particularly notable. These occurred from February to May, 1913, between Km. 1.300 (0.81 mi.) and 1.700 (1.05 mi.) from the south portal, after the heading passed through the Tertiary molasse into the Jura chalk. There was also en- countered on the 7th of February, at Km. 1.488 (0.92 mi.) a water vein discharging about 50 liter-seconds (1.75 sec-ft.) ; at the same time the spring which supplied water for 18 water- power plants and furnished drinking water for the community began to fail and on the 4th of March it stopped flowing entirely. Next in Sequan formation a pocket was encountered at Km. 1.615 (1.0 mi), which reached with many ramifications about 20 m. (65.6 ft.) to the right and 70 m. (229.6 ft.) to the left of the railway axis and about 40 m. (131.2 ft.) above the invert. The water flowing from the tunnel reached 830 liter- seconds (29.3 sec-ft.) and slowly decreased to 500 (17.7 sec-ft). On the north side there appeared springs of 30 to 300 liter- seconds (1 to 10 sec-ft.) in the Varian and principal oolite strata and the total water decreased here in June, 1913. to 215 liter- seconds (7.6 sec-ft). A pumping plant had to be installed to supply the drinking water, by which means the practically pure water from the tunnel was conducted to the existing distribut- ing system. The water power works had to be operated by electricity and the owners indemnified. 378 RAILIVAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND The cost of the tunnel complete, without the ventilating system will probably be 17,500,000 Fr. ($3,377,300), or 2043 Fr. per meter ($120.20 per ft.). Ventilation during operation is to be carried out by the same system employed in the Simplon and Ltitschberg tunnels with a shield. A twin ventilator operated by an electric motor of 70 hp. will force 75 cubic meters per second of air with a pressure of 30 mm. (1.18 in.) of water into the tunnel, so that a wind velocity of 3 meters (9.8 ft.) per second will be reached. The shield will be connected with the signals and will be moved by an electric motor of 15 hp. MISCELLANY. A. Legal Enactments. According to Article 26 of the Statutes of the Swiss Con- federation, legislation regarding the building and operation of railways lies in the power of the Federal authorities. Accordingly, Article 14 of the Statutes concerning the building and operation of railways, of December 25, 187 2, provides that the general and detailed plans of a proposed rail- way shall be submitted to the Federal Council for ratification. The power of ratification of the Federal Council is vested in the Railway Department. Article 9 of the Statutes concerning the Building and Opera- tion of Swiss Secondary Railways, of March 10, 1906, provides concerning tunnels of Secondary Railways as follows: ( 1) Tunnels according to Art. 4 must have a clear profile on curves with a least clearance of 0.20 meter (0.66 ft.) ; that is, considering the elevation of the outer rail, the width of the gage and the extreme projections on the middle and outer side of the cars. (2) Niches must be provided on both sides at uniform intervals on each side of not more than 50 meters (164 ft.). The dimensions of the cross-section in the plans submitted for ratification for Principal Railway tunnels are established by act of the Government. Hence, provisions are made for each case as it comes up with regard to the style and manner of con- struction of the masonry, the quality of the mortar, the thick- RAILWAY TUNNELS OF S\YITZERLAI\'D 379 ness of the arch, etc. In the same manner, the type of masonry to be chosen for any particular locality is subject to the ap- proval of the Board of Supervision. The Federal Railways are compelled by law, the Private Railways by the decree of Concession, to provide for the shutting down of the work on Sunday, except in the face of the headings and where work is urgent. In special cases, for the defense of the country, the installa- tion of mine chambers is required by the Federal Council. In new concessions for railways these mine chambers are to be in- stalled at the expense of the railway company. For the rest, the management is given a free hand in the choice of the type of construction. In the construction of the larger tunnels, a report as to the progress of the work is demanded at stated intervals. An engineer from the Railway Department is charged with the control of the construction according to the plans. B. Conclusions of the International Railway Congress at Bern, 1910. Apropos of Question 4, of the International Railway Con- gress held at Bern, in July, 1910, concerning the construction, ventilation, and the operation of long railway tunnels. notable reports regarding mountain and Alpine tunnels were presented by Mr. Canat, Chief Engineer of the P. L. M., Paris, Dr. Henn- ings, Professor in the Polytechnic School at Zurich and Ru- dulf Heine, Chief Engineer in the Royal and Imperial Railway Bureau at Wien. The various questions are there dealt with in a distinguished and exhaustive manner and we take the lib- erty of referring to this work. They are discussed in detail in Section I and by vote of the meeting the following conclusions were adopted: 1. For long mountain tunnels, particularly those of 5 km. (3.1 mi.) upwards, double-track construction was recom- mended. The locating heading should be driven as a bottom heading. The use of a top cut instead of a separate top heading appears worthy of commendation, but it requires further in— vestigation. 380 RAIIJVAY TUNNELS OF SYVITZERLAND In rock subject to pressure the cross-section of the tunnel should approach as nearly as possible a circular form. For making the tunnel water-tight, spraying with cement grout could be used with great success; but it was recommended that a more economical way be found. 2. Machine drilling should be extended to all parts of tun- nel construction as far as conditions permit. 3. In tunnel construction mechanical traction is to be gen- erally introduced; nevertheless, steam engines must be uncon- ditionally excluded from the workings. 4. Mechanical mucking in the locating heading has not led to a final decision and has to be studied further. 5. Good ventilation in places where construction is going on is an indispensable requirement. For the longer tunnels an air supply of 3 to 6 cubic meters (106 to 212 cu. ft.) per second should be furnished. With regard to very long tunnels with a very high temperature, it would appear that a lower heading as a ventilating conduit would prove a beneficial method of construction. 6. It is necessary to provide for good artificial ventilation in tunnels now in operation that have not sufficient natural ven- tilation. Artificial ventilation increases the safety of operation of the tunnel and in a great degree is an aid to better preser- vation of the superstructure. As the descriptions of the separate construction work have shown. the experience obtained in the long Swiss tunnels built since 1910 confirms these principles in general. We might, how- ever, supplement them by the following remarks: la. Distinguished experts have expressed themselves in favor of the double-tunnel method of construction instead of the two~track method, and, without a doubt, the fortunate com- pletion of the Simplon tunnels is due to this method of construc- tion. Notwithstanding this, the double-tunnel system has not been chosen for any of the tunnels undertaken during the last ten years. From an operative standpoint, the two-track tunnel is superior to the two single-track tunnels. The use of a top out has shown itself advantageous in con- nection with the new system and is used wherever the nature of the rock permits. RAILWAY TUNNELS OF S‘VITZERLAXD 381 Double-track tunnels having a maximum width of 8 m. (26.24 ft.)—such as the Gotthard and the Liitschberg—present, in the case of trains to be operated by electricity. difficulties for the practical installation of the conductors and contacts. The maximum width should be not less than 8.4 m. (27.5 ft.). In regard to the fashioning of the masonry section, it is necessary to take into consideration recent experience and ob- servations concerning rock pressure and stability. 2a. In spite of its many undisputed good qualities, the Brandt hydraulic drill has not been used since the construction of the Simplon tunnels. The remarkable progress in the driv- ing of the headings in the Liitschberg and Hauenstein tunnels was achieved with compressed-air drills (rotary and percussion) irrespective of their use in granite, gneiss, or limestone of vary- ing hardness. The percussion drills were also adaptable for drilling operations at all places where construction was in prog- ress outside the headings. Electric drilling on the Jungfrau Railway was also displaced by air drills. because the compressed air assisted in the ventilation and the air drills needed less repair than those electrically driven. 3a. For transportation inside of the tunnel, compressed-air locomotives were used exclusively for new construction. 4a. The important question of shortening the time consumed in mucking, has lost its significance in those instances where the use of percussion drills is possible in driving the headings, since the set-up of the drills, carried by hand, does not depend on the removal of all the loosened rock. 5a. Neither the side heading proposed by Engineer Chia- puzzi nor the under heading recommended by the Railway Con- gress has been effectively employed in the prosecution of a Swiss tunnel. The practicability of this method is seriously con- tested. The temporary dividing off of a portion of the finished tunnel measuring about 6 sq. meters (64.58 sq. ft.) by means of a light, tight wall and the use of the resulting conduit for the flow of fresh air, presents an easy and practical means for ventilation during construction. That this system did not afford entirely satisfactory ventilation in the various localities of the Liitschberg tunnel was due, not to any fault in the system, but to the circumstance that in this tunnel the masonry lining was 382 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND far behind the driving of the heading and the principal and sec- ondary ventilators provided insufficient service during consid- erable periods of time. 6a. The ventilating system known as “Saccardo”, used many times in Italy and Austria, and for example in the United States in the Alleghany Tunnel of the Virginia Railroad, has an advantage in that it leaves the tunnel free from any permanent fittings. It requires, however, a very great consumption of power and entails a corresponding high cost of operation. Since its installation in the Gotthard Tunnel it has not been in further use in Switzerland, but has been replaced in the Simplon, Ltitschberg and Grenchenberg tunnels by the Sulzer-Locher system with the movable shield, which, if not simpler, is at least considerably cheaper to operate. Simple and cheap to operate is the ventilating shaft, with ventilators, installed in the Hauen- stein Base-Tunnel, and copied after the Severn Tunnels of the English Great Western Railway. Unfortunately, its use is limited to the especially favorable topographical conditions of the overlay. With reference to the deterioration of the rails, observations at the Simplon, Gotthard and old Hauenstein tunnels have shown that neither electric action nor any special chemical composition of the water, with special reference to its content of sulphates or chlorides, is responsible for the more or less serious deterioration of the superstructure. On the other hand, the rapidly progress- ing deterioration of the rails and fastenings, especially in the wet places, is increased in great degree by the warm air of the tunnel. In deep tunnels, careful drainage, water-tightness of the arch and copious ventilation are absolutely necessary for an econom- ical and safe maintenance of the tracks. C. Organization and Cost of Construction. The average daily progress in tunnels built during the last ten years shows a considerable advance in the driving of the headings as well as in the masonry lining. Besides the improve- ments in mechanical arrangements and the method of construc- tion, this is principally due to the perfection of the organiza- tion of the entire construction work. One may well say that, in this connection, the regulations of the now deceased Col- onel Ed. Locher, at the time of the construction of the RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND 383 Simplon tunnels, are typical. Not to underestimate possible difficulties and to leave nothing to chance that may be foreseen are the axioms of all good organization, and also guarantee suc- cess in tunnel construction. To accomplish this the following are principally necessary: (1) Careful preparation of all work, also in relation to geological and geodetic conditions. (2) Plentiful equipment of the outside plants, especially in arrangements for drilling, ventilation, and cooling when necessary. (3) Rigid discipline in the use of blasting powder. (4) The greatest order in carrying on the transportation in and outside of the tunnel. (5) Minute caution in carrying on the work when encoun- tering pressure or water-carrying rock. (6) Greatest possible avoidance of lost time between the difierent kinds of work. (7) Thorough-going arrangements for the health and wel- fare of the workmen. (8) Sharp supervision of the work in detail and as a whole. (9) Choice of the best qualified people for the manage- ment of the various types of work and the pitiless removal of unfit persons. (10) Use of the latest advancements of science and tech- nique in every sphere of engineering construction. Some of these rules lie at the bottom of the epoch-making “scientific management” of F. \V. Taylor, now deceased, and there can be no doubt that the conscious and consistent use of the Taylor System in the construction of tunnels will, in many cases. present great possibilities of improvement. Consideration of the above requirements results not only in shortening the time required for construction and in decreas- ing the cost, but also in lessening the sacrifice of human lives, which unfortunately cannot be entirely avoided even in the prosecution of works of peace. The following small tabulation gives comparative figures for some of the larger Swiss tunnels: 384 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND Av. Daily m Total No. Cost of '13 Progress 155 g Fatalities Actual Tunnel I‘ ‘flu-l ,g/\ +--' w . g +5 ‘x "’ "I 8 5 $2 Co E? ’“ Tunnel E EL’ 5?; ‘5 ‘876,1 TBA Z k5 -~ 5 —-,. .A E“ 11’ E 25?" E< E< £353.": 5» ..- 89 53 c 8r’ 5*’ a; 5 3 7: g ,_ _ Q <5} F' El 5 g 55 o a M ,_ 7.. P's-1 E p C ~ p 7’; 7: 7-1 1:12" H’I" 7—4 <1 ,9 P4 Gotthard ............. .. 2 14,998 1872-81 5.47 4.45 2480 177 11.8 58,518,154 8907 $151,118,151} ( ........ .. 1 19,803 1898-05 8.25 7.51 2676 51 2.57 585000008 2954* Ricken ............... .. 1 8.608 1904.10 5.89 8.58 617 17 1.97 12,867,000 1495 Lo'tschberg .......... .. 2 14,612 1906-12 8.98 7.80 2467 64 4.38 50,071,000 8127 Grenchenberg 1 8,565 1911-15 7.90 (5) 10161 GI 0.701 17,500,0007 20487 .... .. 2 8,134 1912-15 9.85 7.12 1086 9 1.15 18,568,000 2288* "‘ Inclusive of bottom heading II. 1‘ Stlll in course of construction (A) 1 meter = 3.28 ft. I Figured up to the 3lst of March, 1915. § Not yet figured up. (B) 1 km. = .621111i. (C) 1 Fr. = $0.193. As regards the costs of construction they are found—aside from accidents such as inflow of water, pressure stretches, etc.— to depend in large degree on the rate of wages paid. These have risen steadily in the last decade. For an eight-hour work- ing day, wages were paid as follows: In the In the Simplon In the In the Gotthard T. T. I Liitschberg Hauenstein 1880 1908 T. 1910 T. 1913-14 Fri?‘ Fr. Fr. Fr. Miners .- -. . 4.40-4.80 5.502+ 500* 6.10 Carpenters . . _ . . - 5.20-5.60 5.50)‘ 580* 6.50 Train men - .- _ - - 3.40-3.80 4.20* 450* 5.10 Masons . 5.20-5.75 5.15 620* 6.70 That the cost of the finished tunnel has not increased in a like degree is due to the above mentioned improvements in the management of the construction work by which the interest on the investment and the costs of general administration have been decreased. Finally, one should be very cautious in making a critical comparison of the cost of construction from figures in * Average. 7' 1 franc : $0.193. 56¢ livia/.9 Pwvwnmy 5W6: mow {Pm/n 2000 m in M9436. Die Eisenbahn-Tunnels der eiz Wiles Tunnels des chemins de fer en Suisse fiber 2000m La'nge. 1 fl dépassant 2000m de longueur. msn'nnn l I F \ \ msu’nuu .. ms’unn l l e: M0000 3 5 V ' V r ! I 3451.00 a "'1 0M- Hm'nnjl 2W" Situation 2’ . /*|,_d_fé\!_{) \Q % . X e * Tu'rii-lels (vi 7, I.’ ,l i flmmabpm new nor/mate: W Jtanéazbga/Mga ‘W "-i’» _ ""f‘} . h ‘I .49.". ( .T V 1. 61m. Wain-‘time new. W £11550 buzz/ll “L” ( a") .- Znw'i 9464M - @MVI who: W @owflfie M a,‘ my“ 3' ' / Q Q ~ ' ’ I ' a I » ‘ 0 W V ‘ . . fici'mmfipm, vate mam. ubwuaw gauge, I a Jmtgjma m A cram. $4FLM6'5MM mew“, 3+: 614m mum lUl ' /\ / a ll / \ .;. ,7 d K 3000 /\ - / \" / l i 2 2500 2060 1“\ l \e—1 agree i Mi “Mi ‘ rr - J l!’ 1 '1.- ‘ 37" 7'“ 7" \ M‘. l / - - " ' ' ' im mm ,, n w I lug." I257): 125210 / \\ m l \ ‘El-9,55 \ \v/xl \L . IIII . on / \ / \ _ u .. \ / / 1 I000 inn/pica I 1910 g. Schweiz Jrallm Ft... H’ \ \ / ++++-l Id /\ ‘5|, # A] \\/ U" \ " i , . .,' I , 7 7 Mr “*- 722'” 65 ,>7/// ////'7/,7J;5;a07”////#m//WM//fi/”////////7flA--///fi/Z4Wl/fififi/fl/////Wfl”////////// ' [v [In , ‘ - 0705.“ ////////// ~ "#I'" . ////////‘////////////////////1, / \\ 5”“ uukmnm / . _ ‘Tm c’" . m .tt' ‘1"’ 6180” NY ‘I ll ‘ on - "'L‘ll uum -. 55107 ‘J ,5- i I 500 _ .//'/ M, l ' i ' ~ . ‘ .m ,1 2.5%. _ ) animal} l ‘ .. he/i '. , _ .. ‘so i.. mm ‘um-'4'. i- an .10 “5” "mill!!!""Hlllumm ‘ g“ r H,‘- H Ln ' w ‘ 508,0! 7 .. 5 7.’, I “ ' ' 1“ “he ' " I.‘ 5 I .- MI W us’ ‘M'Qgog. 7 5535“. “9 Au," "" m"! a“ n ‘u llllllllllllllllllllll‘ 9 h n ‘51,3: mam. 7 _fiatmw|fe/im 1:095". 11, 513171“. 3mm im Emu/z, MM 5m» wamma 4“ am mu. ju/mwg: Ila/ing nwefim) an‘) bow/ing 1914'. RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SVVITZERLANI) 385 different publications, as they often rest upon quite different bases. In the preceding, the cost is only for what is known as the actual cost of construction, and therefore without interest, general administration, ballast, super-structure, telegraph, sig- nals and all arrangements for the operation of the electric trains. CONCLUSION. The construction of a long tunnel is an undertaking which, more than any other, involves the entire field of engineering in its relations to the branches of modern science. Geology and geodosy, with all their sister sciences, physics, chemistry, statics and dynamics, hydraulics, electricity, political economy and law, government and hygiene, the proper care of sickness and accidents as well as the entire technology of the constructions of machinery and of building materials must be drawn upon in order to prepare and carry out such an undertaking. Fire and water, gases and rock pressure have opposed engi- neers in their struggle to break through the mountains new paths that should unite nations. But the spirit and strength of the men grew with the magnitude of the obstacles; and thanks to the tools which science and experience have placed at their disposal, they have finally come out of the battle victorious. Although the tasks of the engineers undertaken and brought to a successful termination in Switzerland cannot com- pare with the gigantic proportions of the piercing of the Isth- mus of Panama, still they have this in common with the bril- liantly conducted work of Col. Goethals and his staff, that they constitute a triumph of the human spirit and of the organizing genius of their leaders. And even if the harvest of these mighty creations on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean is delayed on account of the most horrible war that history has ever known, we will not relinquish the hope that a day will yet dawn when the frightful wounds inflicted by this bloody struggle on body and property will heal, and the nations of the earth again pass in friendly competition over the paths which have been prepared for them from land to land and from ocean to ocean. In concluding I must not neglect to thank those gentlemen 386 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND who have assisted me with needed information, and in the most courteous manner, in the preparation of this report. They are Messrs. Vogt, Chief Engineer of the General Management and Griinhut, Chief Engineer of the Third District of the Swiss Federal Railways; Custer, Chief Engineer of the Bern-Alpine Railway; Liechty, Director of Operations of the Jungfrau Rail- way; Luder, Chief Engineer of the Solothurn-Miinster Railway; Nivert, Chief Engineer of the P. L. M. Co.; Schucan, Chairman of the Board of Directors, and G. Zollinger, Section Engineer of the Rhaetian Railway, and my co-workers in the Swiss Railway Department. BIBLIOGRAPHY. General Dr. Julius Oetiker, “Die Eisenbahngesetzgebung des Bundes”, Solothurn, 1913. “Geographisches Lexikon der Schweiz”, Neuenburg, 1902-1908. Geschaftsberichte des Schweizer. Eisenbahndepartements, Bern, 1905- 1914. Schweizer. E'isenbahnstatistik,1913. Bern, 1915. Schweizer. Eisenbahndepartement, “Graph. Statist. Verkehrsatlas der Schweiz”, Bern, 1915. Mémoire du Département fédéral des chemins de fer sur la construction du chemin de fer du St. Gothard, Bern, 1888. Ing. Gerolamo Chiapuzzi, “Proposta di un nuovo metodo di esecuzione delle Iunghe gallerie ferroviarie”, Torino, 1904. J. C. Wagner, “Tunnelbau und Gebirgsdruck”, Sehweizer. Bauzeitung, Band XLVI, 1905. Prof. Hennings, “Einspurige und zweispurige Alpentunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, XLVIII, 1906. J. C. Wagner, “Ein- & Zweispurige Alpentunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band XLVIII, 1906. R. Weber, “Ein- & zweispurige Alpentunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band XLVIII, 1906. F. Rothpletz, ‘ ‘Ein- & zweispurige Alpentunnel’ ’, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band XLVIII, 1906. Karl Brandau, “ Die Zweitunnel-Baumethode", Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band XLVIII, 1906. O. Stix, “Studie iiber den Luftwiderstand von Eisenbahnziigen in Tunnel- rijhren”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band XLVIII, 1906. Karl Brandau, “Das Problem langer und tiefliegender Alpentunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Biinde LIII und LIV, 1909. E. Weismann, “Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Gebirgs- und Gesteins- festigkeit”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LIII, 1909. RAILIVAY TUNNELS OF S'WITZIQRLAND 387 Internationaler Eisenbahn-Kongress-Verband, Allgemeiner Bericht iiber die 8. Session, Bern, 1910. I. Band, F'rage IV, “Lange Eisenbahn- tunnel”, Brussel, 1911. (auch englisch erschienen). International Railroad Congress, General report of the 8th Session, Born, 1910. Volume I, Question IV, “Long Railroad Tunnels”, Brussels, 1911. A. Diinzer-Ischer, “Ueber die Abrostungserscheinungen am eisernen Ober- bau des Simplon-Tunnels”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LIX, 1912. Dr. Alb. Heim, “Zur Frage der Gebirgs- und Gesteinsfestigkeit”, Schweiz. Bauzeitung, Band LIX, 1912. Karl Brandau, “Der Einfiuss des Gebirgsdruckes auf einen tief im Erdin- nern liegenden Tunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LIX, 1912. E. VViesman, “Ueber Gebirgsdruck”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LX, 1912. “Ueber die Stabilitat von Tunnelmauerwerk", Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LXIV, 1914. Dr. Carl Mutzner, “Die virtuellen Langen der Eisenbahnen”, Ziirich und Leipzig, 1914. Frederick Winslow Taylor, “The Principles of Scientific Management”, (Deutsche Ausgabe von Dr. jur. Rudolf Roesler, Miinchen und Berlin, 1913). Simplon Tunnel I and II Geschaftsberichte des Schweiz. Eisenbahndepartements, 1898-1906. Chemin de fer Jura-Simplon, Recueil des pieces officielles relatives at percement du Simplon, Berne, 1902. Rapports trimestriels No. 1-31, 1898-1906. Ausziige davon in der Schweiz. Bauzeitung, Ziirich, 1899-1906. M. Rosenmund, “Die Bestimmung der Richtung, der Liinge und der Hijhenverhaltnisse des Simplontunnels”, Bern, 1901. Dott. Giuseppe Volante, “ Condizioni igieniche e sanitarie, ecc.”, Torino, 1906. Daniel Pometta, “Sanitare Einrichtungen und 'arztliche I‘l'rfahrungen beim Bau des Simplontunnels”, Winterthur, 1906. Francis Fox, “The Simplon Tunnel”, London, 1907. “Ueber die geologische Voraussicht beim Simplon-Tunnel”, SCllWClL Bauzeitung, Band XLV, 1905. Dr. C. Schmidt, “Die Geologic des Simplongebirges und des Simplon- Tunnels”, Basel, 1908. D. Pestalozzi, “Die Bauarbeiten am Simplon-Tunnel", Schweizer. Bau- zeitung, Band XXXVIII, 1901; und XXXIX, 1902. Dr. K. Pressel, “Die Bauarbeiten am Simplon-Tunnel”, Schweizer. Bau- zeitung, Band XLVII, 1906. M. Rosenmund, “Die Schlussergebnisse der Absteckung des Simplon-Tun- nels”, Schweizer. Bauzeitnng, Band XLVI, 1905. “Die Ergebnisse der Basismessung (lurch der Simplon-Tunnel’ ’, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LI, 1908. 388 RAILWAY TUNNELS OF SWITZERLAND Karl Brandau, ‘ ‘Das Problem des Baues langer, tiefliegender Alpentunnel und die Erfahrungen beim Bau des Simplon-Tunnels”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LIII und LIV, 1909. Bau des Tunnels II, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band L, 1907; LX, 1912; LXIV, 1914. Generaldirektion S. B. B. Berichte an den Verwaltungsrat iiber den Ausbau des Tunnels II, 1907, 1911-13. F. Rothpletz, “Bergschlage im Simplontunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LXIV, 1914. “Der Ausbau der Druckpartie im Simplon-Tunnel II”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LXV, 1915. Weissenstein Tunnel Geschaftsberichte der Solothurn-Miinster-Bahn, 1904-1914. C. Schmidt, “Ueber die Geologic des Tunnelgebietes Solothurn-Gans- brunnen ’ ’, Solothurn, 1904. August Buxdorf, “Geologische Beschreibung des Weissenstein-Tunnels und seiner Umgebung”, Bern, 1907. Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Bande XLV und XLVI, 1905, XLVII, 1906. W. Luder, “Vom Ban der Weissenstein-Bahn”, Schweizer. ‘Bauzeitung, Band LVIII, 1911. Ricken Tunnel Dr. C. Schmidt, “Geologische Begutachtung des Rickentunnels”, Bern, 1903. Monatsberichte der Generaldirektion, Nr. 151, 1904-1908. Denkschrift: Bodensee-Toggenburg-Ziirichsee, St. Gallen, 1911. Schweizer. Bauzeitung Bande XLIII, 1904, LI und LII, 1908, LX, 1912. Wasserfluh Tunnel Denkschrift: Bodensee-Toggenburg-Ziirichsee, St. Gallen, 1911. Geschaftsberichte der Bodensee-Toggenburg-Bahn, 1905-1910. Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Bande IL, 1907; LIII, 1909; LX, 1912. J'ungfraubahn Tunnel Geschaftsberichte der Jungfraubahn, 1898-1913. Dietler, in R511’s Enzyklopadie des Eisenbahnwesens, II. Auflage, Band 6. Ltitschberg Tunnel Dr. Fr. Volmar, “Bernische Alpenbahnpolitik”, Langnau, 1911. Geschaftsberichte der Berner Alpenbahn-Gesellschaft, 1906-1913. Quartalberichte 1-25 der Berner Alpenbahn-Gesellschaft, 1906-1912. Dr. A. Zollinger, “Der Bau der Liitschbergbahn”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LII, 1908. “Die Katastrophe im Lo'tschberg-Tunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LII, 1908. Dr. F. Biischlin, “Ueber die Absteckung des Liitschberg-Tunnels”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LVIII, 1911. “Zum Durchschlag des Ltitschberg-Tunnels”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LVII, 1911. RAILWAY TUNNELS OF S\VITZERLAND 389 Dr. C. Schmidt, “Le tunnel du Ltitschberg”, Paris, 1911. Ch. Dantin, “Les travaux du chemin de fer des Alpes Bernoises", Paris, Le Génie Civil, tome LVIII, 1911. Tasna Tunnel Gesch'ziftsberichte der Rhatischen Balm, 1909-1913. P. Saluz, “Die neuen Linien der Rhatischen Bahn”, Schweizer. Bauzei- tung, Band LIX, 1912. G. Zollinger, “Notizen iiber den Bau des Tasna Tunnels". Mont d’Or Tunnel “Die Linie Frasne-Vallorbe mit dem Mont d ‘Or-Tunnel", Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LIX, 1912. “Mont d’Or-Tunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LXI, 1913. Maurice I-Ionoré, “La ligne, franco-suisse de Frasne a Vallorbe", Le Génie Civil, tome LXIII, 1913. Hauenstein Basis Tunnel Berichte der Generaldirektion der S. B. B., 1909 und 1911. “Vom Hauenstein-Basistunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung. Band LIV, 1909. Monatsberichte der Generaldirektion der S. B. B., 1912-1915. Julius Berger Tiefbau A. G. Bauprogramm, aufgestellt von Oberingenieur Kolberg. Dolezalek, in Roll’s E'nzyklopadie des Eisenbahnwesens, II. Auflage, Band VI. Grenchenberg Tunnel “Die Linie Miinster-Lengnau der Berner Alpenbahn”, Schweizer. Bau- zeitung, Band LIX, 1912. Gesehaftsberichte der Berner Alpenbahn-Gesellschaft, 1907-1913. Quartalberichte der Berner A]penbahn-Gesellschaft, 1912-1915. Max Custer, “Quellen und Kliifte im Grenchenbergtunnel”, Schweizer. Bauzeitung, Band LXII, 1913. Dolezalek, in Riill’s Enzyklopadie des Eisenbahnwesens, II. Auflage, Band V. Paper No. 86 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES. By J. E. GREINER, M. Am. Soc. C. E'. Baltimore, Md, U. S. A. INTRODUCTORY. American railroad bridges as now constructed are the re- sults of an evolution, during the course of which many types found to be undesirable were abandoned; some types found to be good were maintained and new features and types were intro- duced, until, finally, the 1915 standards represent the culmina- tion, at the end of more than three-quarters of a century of rail- road bridge history. During the first period, extending to 1865, there was no real science of proportioning members and the best that builders could do was to be guided by judgment based on experiment or precedent, and to make all new bridges stronger than before. During the second period, 1865 to 1890, scientific designing became general and the typical American railroad bridge, “a skeleton structure pin-connected at all the principal articulations,” was brought to a fair state of development. The present standards were essentially developed during the third period, 1890 to 1915. As the past history and the status at the end of the second period (1890) has been recordedl, the scope of the present sketch will be confined to the third period, end- ing in 1915, and will embrace an outline of the effects of some of the important influences on the development; a discussion of the characteristics of the present standards and tendencies; and an illustration of features which may be considered typical of the best American practice. 1“American Railroad Bridges”, by Theodore Cooper, Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXI, 1889. AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 391 INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT. Naturally, the trend of improvements in bridge construction has been controlled by a number of definite influences, some of which are still in operation, and will undoubtedly continue long into the future. American railroad bridges, therefore, although substantial, economical and durable, are still in a state of de- velopment, the final culmination of which cannot as yet be fore- told. The most persistent of these influences has been the con- stantly increasing weight of rolling loads. For instance, the heaviest engine in operation on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1865 weighed 91,000 lbs. (41,314 kg.) ; in 1890, the heaviest en- gine weighed 133,000 lbs. (50,382 kg), an increase of 46% in the twenty-five years; at the present time, 1915, the heaviest engine on this road weighs 463,000 lbs. (210,203 kg). an increase of 247 ‘70 during the past twenty-five years. Most of the other rail- roads have had similar experience, and in some instances the increase has been even greater. It has far exceeded anything which was anticipated in the past, and has been the direct cause of the renewal of many bridges which would have been still serviceable under the loads for which they were designed. Per- haps it would have been better engineering if the builders of these bridges had possessed the foresight necessary to anticipate the extent and the effects of these increases, but, unfortunately, engi- neers are not endowed with occult powers; and the‘ fact remains, that while they always built their structures strong enough to carry some increase in loading, the rapidity and extent of this increase, heretofore, were neither fully appreciated nor antici- pated. Locomotives are now so heavy, and take up so much space in length, width and height, that it is no longer impossible to anticipate the limit and to make ample provision therefor. All of the earlier types of patented bridges were tested in service to the full extent of their capacity and endurance and it was observed that while they were good enough for the light loads and traffic of their day, their fiimsiness, due to the inherent defects of their designs, and their action under traffic made them very unsatisfactory structures for heavier loads. They. therefore, became obsolete and were replaced by the improved types of single-intersection, pin-connected trusses, and by riveted. lattice and plate girders, which were evidently much superior 392 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES and which had been developed to such a state of perfection by the year 1890 that engineers believed they had established stan- dards of design which would endure. These more modern bridges have also been tested in service under increasing loads to the full extent of their capacity, as was the case with the earlier bridges, and it has been learned that, while these later bridges were also well adapted to the traffic of their day, their designs embodied features and details which prevented them giving long and satisfactory service under the heavier loads which were con- stantly being placed upon them. The trusses had too many ad- justable members and light bars to shake loose, too many hinged joints to wear away, and too much motion of parts to inspire confidence under the fast speed of heavy engines and trains. The necessity for less looseness and greater stiffness became ap- parent, and it was found that when the flimsy, adjustable brac- ing was replaced with stiff bracing with riveted connections, and the shaky eye-bars were tied together so as to reduce motion, the stiffened structure gave much more satisfactory service. There- fore, the effects of the influence of the constantly increasing loads on railroad bridge development is evidenced by the elimination of adjustable members and short span trusses, and by the gen- eral stability and solidity of construction which are the essential characteristics of present standards. Another influence in American bridge development has been the introduction of new materials of construction. In the old abandoned types, wrought iron rods or links were used generally for tension, and wood or cast iron for compression members. The substitution of wrought iron for the cast iron and wood enabled the construction of the improved types which were standard in 1890, and which had details and connections far superior to any- thing which could be obtained by the use of cast iron or wood. Since 1890, rolled structural steel has entirely supplanted wrought iron in metal bridge work, and on account of its greater strength and economy it has had an influence on the construction of longer lengths of spans, both in girders and in trusses, than were attempted with wrought iron. The standard structural steel, at the present time, has an ultimate strength averaging about 60,000 lbs. (27,240 kg); and the longest simple span so far constructed of it is 620 ft. (189.1 m.). This span is in the AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 393 Kentucky and Indiana Terminal Railroad Company’s bridge across the Ohio River at Louisville, built in 1912. Alloys and special steels, with much greater strength than standard structural steel, are now used in long span trusses for the purpose of keeping the dimensions and weights of members within the limits of commercial and economical production. For instance, nickel steel was used in the construction of 668-ft. (203.7 n1.) spans of the Municipal Bridge at St. Louis, built in 1912. Nickel steel eye-bars and so-called silicon steel compression members will be used in the Ohio River Bridge at Metropolis, the longest span being 725 ft. (221.1 m.); high carbon steel is being used in the 977.5-ft. (298.1 m.) span of the Hell Gate Bridge; and Mayarl' steel, which contains nickel, and is made from the Mayari ore from the north coast of Cuba, is being used in the construction of a large bridge which is to span the Missis- sippi River at Memphis. These alloys and special steels have not, as yet, exerted any material influence on the development of railroad bridges, except, perhaps, in the direction of greater span lengths than can be economically, or even practically, con- structed of the standard structural steel. A material which has come into general use during the past few years is reinforced concrete. It has had a very decided effect on bridge development, since it has influenced the adoption of a new type of short-span bridge having a ballasted deck and a solidity of construction with an economy impossible to be ob- tained by the use of any other available material. Another influence on bridge development is the improve- ment in tools and machinery, especially in pneumatic tools and self-propelling erection derricks. Pneumatic drills, reamers and riveters are now generally used in erection work in place of the old-time hand tools, and as a consequence, field-riveted connec- tions are no longer avoided, as was the case in 1890, since they can now be easily and quickly made. By the use of self-pro- pelling erecting derricks, plate girders and bridge members of a weight far beyond what was formerly practicable can now be handled and erected with safety, facility and economy. While there are some other influences which have had an effect on American railroad bridge development, it will be seen that those mentioned, viz., increasing rolling loads, introduction 394 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES of new materials, and improvements in tools and machinery, encouraged development always in the direction of greater stability and solidity of construction. They indicated the essen- tial requirements and the means for accomplishment. And, while engineers have now established generally recognized stan- dards of good practice and have developed what are considered permanent structures, admirably adapted to existing conditions, it remains for the future to determine whether or not these stan- dards will endure. PRESENT STANDARDS AND TENDENCIES. The development of American railroad bridges did not take place spasmodically, with long intermissions of inactivity, but was a gradual process, requiring rather a long time to establish characteristics which could be considered decided improvements on what had preceded. These distinctive features have, hereto- fore, become clearly defined at the ends of twenty-five-year periods. Therefore, in order to accentuate the effects of the various influences which have been working and to define the present status of bridge development in a comprehensible man- ner, the main characteristics which were prominent at the be- ginning of the third period will be described, for the purpose of comparison with the dominating characteristics of the standards at the end of this period. At the beginning of the period (1890), pile and framed timber trestles were being constructed on main lines. Plate I. The design differed in no material respect from the earliest types, except as to number and dimensions of timbers, the floor deck being composed of cross-ties resting on groups of timber joists. In suitable locations, they were economical, easy to maintain under their light traffic and regarded as all-sufficient for the purpose. Howe truss bridges were also being built on main lines of some roads. They gave good service and were amply strong for the traffic of their day, could be constructed expeditiously by the railroad company’s forces, and be maintained in good con- dition on about the interest of the cost of an iron bridge. On other roads, combination bridges, with all the tension members of wrought iron, and all, or most, of the compression members AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 395 of wood, were used. They were cheaper than all-iron bridges, and more durable than Howe trusses. I-beam bridges composed of groups of from two to four beams under each rail, the beams being held together by means of cast iron separators bolted between the webs, and with cross- ties resting directly on the upper flanges of the beams, were com- monly used for spans having a length of from 10 to 20 ft. (3.05 to 6.1 m.). Plate I. Plat-e girders were acceptable for spans up to 65 ft. (19.8 m.), which was about the limit for economical con- struction and handling, although some few roads constructed girders of a greater length. Single or double intersection riveted low truss bridges, or latticed girders, as they were called, were used for spans between 65 ft. (19.8 m.) and 100 ft. (30.5 m.), and in some cases up to 120 ft. (36.6 m.) ; but the longer spans were not acceptable to many engineers on account of the inability to ship the trusses in one piece and the necessity of so much field riveting of important connections, and the increased risks and cost of erection. For spans over 100 ft. (30.5 1n.) the practice, with very few exceptions, was to construct trusses of the pin- connected type. Plates II and IV. This typical American rail- road bridge, as defined by Mr. Theodore Cooperi’, was a skeleton structure, pin-connected at all the principal articulations; its principal characteristics, in addition to the pin-connections, being the minimum ambiguity of strains, the concentration of parts, facility of manufacture, perfection of length and fitting of all the members, a minimum of riveting and mechanical work in the field, and the readiness with which the individual members can be assembled during erection. Typical American railway viaductsg, with 30 ft. (9.15 m.) towers and 30 ft. (9.15 m.) or 60 ft. (18.3 m.) free spans were regarded favorably. Movable bridges were of the swing type, revolving in a horizontal plane on a center pier. Plate VII. Lateral bracing for truss bridges, viaducts and in many through plate girders had adjustable rods for the tension members and the counters in truss bridges were also made adjustable. ‘Wrought iron was still used for built-up 2“American Railroad Bridges”, by Theodore Cooper, Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXI, 1889. 3 “The American Railroad Viaduct”, by J. E. Greiner, Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXV. 396 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES members, but eye-bars and wide web-plates of girders were gen- erally made of soft steel. Bridge piers and abutments were generally of cut stone masonry construction, and arches were of cut stone work through- out or had their rings made of brickwork. The arch was then recognized (as it is now) as the very best type of railroad bridge, but cut stone work was very expensive in first cost as compared with steel, and as a consequence relatively few arch bridges were being built. Plates II and XII. Nearly every railroad in America constructed its bridges in accordance with specifications peculiar to the individual road; consequently, there were practically as many kinds of bridge specifications as there were important railroads. The makers desired to be thought original, and therefore displayed their ingenuity in those parts of bridge specifications that gave them the most leeway, viz., in the permissible working stresses, column formulas, grades of steel, impacts and in the typical engines used as a basis for proportioning. In these numerous specifications every conceivable kind of typical locomotives was specified, some with practically the same total weight, but with a different dis- tribution of loads on the wheels and a different wheel spacing. ,‘ ‘(There were no generally recognized standards for loading, impact fallowances, permissible working stresses, or for the quality of r’material used and methods of testing same. Contracts were based ‘' on a total price for the completed work, and as the total price depended largely on the amount of material which entered into the construction, successful competition frequently depended upon a design which gave the lightest possible structure. At the close of this period (1915) open deck framed timber trestles are seldom built except on light traffic or branch lines or as temporary expedients, with the expectation of replacing them with permanent structures in a short time. In many sections good timbers can no longer be obtained except at excessive cost; the general upkeep is expensive and they are an undesirable type for heavy loading. Some roads now build wooden trestles of a different type, inasmuch as they have ballasted decks on solid timber flooring and are constructed of creosoted timbers. Plate I. These modern types are more durable and easier to maintain than the old open-deck structures and represent the best practice AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 397 for timber trestle construction, but they cannot as yet be con- sidered as general standards. Some western railroads are re- placing timber trestles with a type made of reinforced concrete with ballasted decks. Plates I and XIV. This is a distinctive type as compared with the trestles of 1890. Howe truss bridges and combination bridges are no longer constructed, except in very isolated cases or on unimportant branches. They are ill- suited for heavy loading and good timbers are difficult to obtain. I-beam bridges as now constructed are generally encased in concrete. Plate 1. Open decks with wooden cross-ties are avoided, stone ballast on concrete being used as a substitute; and on some roads short spans are reinforced concrete gir- ders or slabs. Plate girders are being built and shipped in one piece in spans up to 120 ft. (36.6 m.), and, in some cases, of even longer length; the ability of the railroad com- panies which handle them being still the governing condition. Shipping conditions require a limit in the depth of these girders to about 10 ft. (3.05 m.), and for this depth they are now more economical than riveted trusses of the same depth for spans between 100 ft. (30.5 m.) and 120 ft. (36.6 m.). The standard practice in regard to riveted trusses is to use them for spans between 120 ft. (36.6 m.) and 200 ft. (61. m.), although much longer spans are built. Plate III. The pin-connected truss bridges may still be considered typical of American practice, but only for spans greater than 200 ft. (61.0 m.). Plate V. Many of the characteristics which were so favorable to the con- struction of this type in 1890 are no longer peculiar to it, since the improvements in tools and machinery and in methods of handling and doing the work now enable the construction of riveted bridges having practically all the good characteristics of pin-connected structures, with the exception of the number of rivets, and this is no longer an objectionable feature. Riveted trusses have the additional favorable characteristic in the har- monious working of the various sections and parts of members, a condition which is not always obtained in the pin-connected type. The superiority of the riveted truss, which for a long time has been recognized in Europe, is now quite generally con- ceded by American railway bridge engineers, except for spans of such lengths as to require riveted connections to be too cumber- 398 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES some for practical and effective construction. The typical American railway viaduct, with its steel towers, is still considered a good type when all bracing is stiff (Plate VI) ; but concrete piers, in a number of cases, have been constructed in preference to the steel towers, since they are less expensive to maintain, and, in favorable locations, are not much more expensive in first cost. Plate XV. Swing bridges, revolving in a horizontal plane, are still being constructed (Plate VIII) ; but there are several patented types of bascule bridges, revolving in vertical planes, which in recent years have been exploited by commercial agents to such an extent that there are a number of them now being built in places where the swing bridge would have been just as adaptable and far more economical, and where there is no apparent reason for their construction, aside from their novelty and the impres- sions of the arguments which the patentee’s agents have had on the minds of the bridge engineers who recommend their use. There are, of course, locations where navigation interests prac- tically require the construction of this type of movable bridge, but as a general rule they are unsightly and uneconomical as compared with a properly constructed swing bridge. Another recent type of movable bridge is hauled up and down with wire ropes and counterbalanced by masses of concrete suspended over the tracks from steel cables. These are special types designed to compete with bascule bridges, and there are some locations and conditions which are particularly favorable to their construction. While a number of these types have been constructed, they are special types and are not in what can be called general use. Plates IX, X and XI. All lateral bracing is now made of stiff members with riveted connections. Adjustable members, even for counters, are pref- erably avoided; and metal bridges are made entirely of steel, wrought iron having for a number of years past been an un- commercial product for bridge construction. Open decks, with cross-ties resting directly on top flanges of beams or girders, while still used to a considerable extent, are undesirable for short spans under the present heavy traffic; the preference being for a solid ballasted deck, so as to maintain a continuous ballasted road bed. Plate I. AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 399 Monolithic concrete masonry with a few rods imbedded for tying the mass has practically replaced cut stone work for piers and abutments; and reinforced concrete arches are replacing short span steel bridges and stone arches, since the cost of this type of bridge, in locations suitable for its construction, is but little more than the cost of a steel bridge with a solid floor, and in many cases the cost may be even less. They can be easily and expeditiously constructed, even under traffic, and are very sub- stantial ; but whether or not these reinforced concrete arches will be as durable as cut stone work is a question for the future to decide. Plates III, V and XIII. In 1894 Mr. Theodore Cooper suggested a standard typical loading designed to meet all the various requirements at that time, but arranged in such a manner that the stresses produced by this loading would be directly proportional to the weights of engines. This suggested loading consisted of two consolida- tion engines, with their tenders, coupled together and followed by a train load reduced to an equivalent uniform load in pounds per lin. ft. The different loadings were designated as E-25, E-30, E-35, E-40, etc.,4 the numerals representing the weights in thousand pounds on each driver axle. The weight on the forward truck of the locomotive was 50%, that on each tender axle 65% and the uniform train load 10% of the weight on one driver axle. The wheel spacing was the same for each class of loading, regardless of the weight. This loading, on account of its sim- plicity, has now become a general standard. At the beginning of the third period, wrought iron plates and shapes were commercial products and were largely used in bridge work, steel being considered less reliable and less econom- ical on account of special workmanship required, except for eye- bars and for long span structures. A few years later, when com- mercial structural steel had entirely replaced wrought iron, there were two grades in general use; one known as soft steel, with an ultimate strength of from 52,000 lbs. to 60,000 lbs. ; and the other as medium steel, ranging from 60,000 lbs. to 68,000 lbs. The medium steel when used was proportioned for a 10% higher working stress than that permitted for soft steel. The manufac- " “Train Loading for Railroad Bridges”, by Theodore Cooper, Trans- actions American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXXI, 1894. 400 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES turers gave bridge engineers precisely the same steel, whether they specified soft or medium, the soft being rolled near its upper limit and the medium near its lower limit. The author in 1901 specified only one grade, viz, 60,000-lb. steel with a variation of 5000 lb. each way.5 This grade of steel is now the general standard in railroad bridge construction. In 1903 the American Railway Engineering Association adopted general specifications for steel railway bridges covering loads, impacts, unit stresses for propor- tioning parts, details and quality of material“; and this was the first successful attempt at the standardization of American rail- road bridge specifications. These specifications are now recog- nized as standard, and are generally used not only as the basis for the design of new metal bridges, but also as a basis for deter- mining the strcngth of bridges constructed under other specifi- cations. Contracts for bridges are now generally based on unit prices for the actual amount of material used in the construc- tion. Successful competition, therefore, on the part of bridge builders, depends more upon efficiency in methods of construction than upon the actual quantities of materials which are used. Attention has been called to the fact that, until recently, the rapidity and extent of rolling load increases were neither fully appreciated nor anticipated in the construction of bridges. It is very fortunate for many existing bridges that the stresses pro- duced by these modern, heavy locomotives are not directly pro- portional to their weights, when compared with the standard typical loading now generally used as a basis for proportioning members. For instance, a 24-wheel articulated engine weighing 616,000 lb. (279,600 kg.) is 2.74 times as heavy as Cooper ’s E-50, weighing 225,000 lb. (102,150 kg), but the strains produced are only from 15% to 33% greater. A 16-wheel articulated engine weighing 493,000 lb. (223,820 kg.) is 2.19 times as heavy as the E-50 class, but the strains produced are from 26% to 34% greater. A 20-wheel articulated engine weighing 478,000 lb. (217,000 kg), 2.12 times as much, produces strains from 1% to 14% greater. The above increases in strains refer to spans under 100 ft. (30.5 m.). They will generally be less for longer spans. 5 General Specifications for Bridges, B. 80 O. R. R., 1901. 6See Manual of Recommended Practice American Railway Engi- neering Association, 1911. AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 401 Many bridges were built in 1890 to carry a loading equivalent to Cooper’s E30, and in 1900, or 10 years later, a majority of bridges were built for a loading equivalent to Cooper ’s E-35 or E-40. At the present time they are being built for E50 and E60, and locomotives, such as the Atlantic, Prairie, Consolida- tion, 12-V7heel Pacific, Mikado and the Decapods, now in general service on easy grade roads, are equivalent to Cooper ’s E-55 to E60, and Decapod and Articulated types in use on heavy grades are equivalent to Cooper ’s E-65 to E-70. The prevailing practice among the majority of railroad com- panies is to design their bridges for Cooper’s E-60 standard loading with the American Railway Engineering Association ’s standard specifications as a basis. Structures designed in accord- ance with these standards will carry an overload of 50% in reg- ular service at unrestricted speed, and a much greater overload occasionally, or even regularly, at restricted speed, without im- pairing their safety. This 50% overload means that these bridges are sufficiently strong to carry Cooper’s E-90 loading, and the modern actual service types of locomotives equivalent in their effects are given in the following table.7 Full Regular Service Traffic Capacity for E-GO Bridges Based on an Overload of 50%. Aver. Pctge. XVheel Axle of Locomotives Weight Base Load Increase ° Cooper’s E-90 . - - - 405,000 23.00 90,000 50.0 ” Atlantic 336,000 31.79 98,800 57.0 Prairie . . - 427,600 34.25 99,100 75.0 Consolidation .. - 411,000 26.50 90,700 58.0 12-\Vhcel . - 413,500 27.08 87,600 58.0 Decapod -. - 449,400 29.83 79,500 68.0 Pacific . .- 450,000 35.20 98,000 67.0 Mikado . . 473,000 35.00 93,500 55.0 12-Wheel Articulated- 523,800 30.66 87,100 56.0 10 Coupled 515,800 43.50 86,000 43.0 20-WVheel Articulated. 754,800 59.80 85,000 58.0 16~Wheel Articulated .- 662,500 40.17 75,400 34.0 24-\Vhee1 Articulated 834,000 65.92 74,400 35.0 12-Wheel Electric - 552,000 38.50 94,600 84.0 16-\Vheel Electric - . 619,200 44.22 77,400 94.0 7“Rolling Loads on Bridges”, by J. E. Greiner, Bulletin No. 139, American Railway Engineering Association. 402 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES These are the increases in rolling loads anticipated by those railroad companies which build what are known as E-60 bridges; and an examination of the weights of locomotives in the table, with wheel bases as they exist today, will undoubtedly suggest a strong feeling of the physically impossible, unless all present standards of road bed, gauge of track, side and overhead clear- ances are abandoned and the railroads are practically recon- structed. Those railroads, therefore, which are making provision for the physically impossible in the way of rolling loads are surely building strong enough to take care of whatever is possible in this respect, and they should have no fear that their bridges will not carry all the loads which can ever pass over them. \Vhen we consider that even if such excessively heavy types of locomo- tives are constructed and placed in operation, without changing standard gauge or clearances and without reconstructing our rail- ways, their operation would most assuredly be confined to high grade divisions, and they would not be regularly operated on low grade divisions. If such is the case, then those conservative roads which are designing their bridges for Cooper ’s E-50 class of loading, which bridges are capable of carrying E-7 5 without any restrictions whatever (and even E-90 under restricted speed), are anticipating all possible future increases in rolling loads, and at a saving of from 12% to 15% of the cost of R60 bridges. As there are practically no roads which at the present time build lighter bridges than E-50, it appears that all American railways, at the present time, are profiting by past experience with short-lived railroad bridges and are fully anticipating all possible increases in rolling loads which can be operated over their tracks until their entire lines are reconstructed; and if the next quarter of a century will again record the full life of an American railway bridge it will not be because the increase in the weight of rolling stock has not been anticipated, as has been the case in the past. 8 The Atlantic type applies to spans under 15 ft.; for greater spans the weight of this class of engine would run over 90 per cent in excess of the heaviest type now in service. 9Percentages of increase in column 5 represent the approximate increase in weight of locomotives and driving axle loads in excess of the maximum weights now in actual service. AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 403 In regard to present tendencies, it may be stated that the introduction of new grades of structural steel and the improve- ments in machinery and in methods of construction are still influences to be considered in future developments. There is a tendency toward the use of alloys with high ultimate strength in the long span bridges, and when these new materials inspire general confidence in their uniformity and reliability for lighter work and their production commercially becomes less expensive, they may gradually replace the present standard structural steel, just as the latter has superseded wrought iron. This, in turn, may require some different types of metal bridges to be designed, so as to take advantage of the greater strength of the metal without sacrificing stiffness in the structure as a whole; or perhaps the present quality of stiffness in metal structures will give place to more elasticity. Another tendency is toward the use of reinforced concrete construction in preference to steel work wherever the conditions are suitable for this type of bridge, and toward continuous ballasted roadbeds over all bridges. There is also a tendency toward the construction of movable bridges revolving in vertical planes instead of in horizontal planes. These tendencies indicate that the evolution of the American railroad bridges has not as yet reached its final stage, but is still in progress under influences which will continue to direct its trend toward meeting changes in physical and economic con- ditions. In conclusion, it may be stated that the recent improvements in American railway bridge practice embrace the substitution of solid-ballasted decks for open decks on short-span, beam-girder bridges and for trestles; of plate girders for short-span, riveted trusses; of riveted trusses for short-span, pin-connected trusses; of stiff bracing and counters for adjustable members; and of concrete and reinforced concrete masonry for cut stone work. ‘Vhile a few years ago the dominating characteristics of Amer- ican railroad bridge construction were lightness, flimsiness and cheapness, the characteristics of the present day standards are stability, solidity and permanence. These characteristics are illustrated on the plates appended hereto. 404 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES APPENDIX. In order to illustrate the present types of good bridge construction; and the improvements which have been made during the past quarter of a century, the following sketches and photographs are appended hereto. Plate 1. This illustrates the open-deck, framed trestle construction and I-beam spans such as were in general use during 1890; and ballasted-deck, timber trestles, reinforced concrete trestles, bal- lasted-deck I-beam spans, and ballasted-deck plate girders, which are considered the best types at the present time. The sketch of the ballasted-deck timber trestle has been reproduced from the standard of the Seaboard Air Line Railroad; the reinforced concrete trestle is standard on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad; and the ballasted-deck plate girders and I-beams are standard on the B. & O. Railroad. Plate II. This illustrates 153-ft. (46.7 m.) through, pin-connected truss spans, resting on stone masonry, built over the Juniata River at Lewiston, Pa., for the Pennsylvania Railroad, and is typical of the pin-connected bridges which were standard in 1890. Observe the light rods and bracing, and compare with Plate III. Plate III. This illustrates 152-ft. (46.4 m.) double-track, through, riveted-truss spans, resting on concrete masonry piers, built over the Scioto River at Glenjean, Ohio, in 1910. This -is typical of the present standard stiff riveted-truss bridges, and should be compared with the pin-connected truss of about the same span length shown on Plate II. Plate IV. This illustrates 400-ft. (129.1 m.) single-track, through, connected spans built over the Missouri River at Sioux City in 1888. The adjustable type of lateral bracing is clearly shown on the photograph. Plate V. This illustrates a part of the Kentucky & Indiana Termi- nal Railroad Company ’s bridge, resting on concrete piers, across the Ohio River at Louisville, Ky.; the spans with the curved top chords being 620 ft. (189.1 m.) long. This bridge was built in 1912. Plate VI. This illustrates a double-track viaduct near Ludlow, Ky, built in 1906. This is typical of the present standard viaducts with steel towers. Note the stiff bracing in the towers. In 1890 this bracing was generally of light adjustable rods. In favorable locations, plate-girder viaducts are frequently constructed with concrete piers in place of the steel towers, in which case the spans are somewhat longer and are of uniform length. AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 40:) Plate VII. This illustrates a type of movable bridge revolving hori- zontally on a center pier, which was the standard type of mov- able bridge in 1890. It was built by the Baltimore & Ohio Rail- road across the Calumet River, about 1899. Plate VIII. This illustrates a double-track through swing-bridge over the Columbia River, at Vancouver, Wash, built in 1907. Plate IX. This illustrates a double-track Scherzer rolling-lift bas- cule built over the Cuyuhoga River by the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1911. Plate X. This illustrates a Strauss trunnion bascule bridge over the Calumet River, Chicago, built by the Chicago and Western Indi- ana Railroad in 1910. Plate XI. This illustrates the Willamette River Bridge at Portland, Oregon, which is typical of the American vertical lift bridges. Plate XII. This is a good stone arch bridge built by the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad over the Brandywine River at Wilmington, Del., in 1910. This is typical of the stone arch bridge which was a standard in 1890. It is a handsome and substantial structure, and there are very few like it being built at the present time, as concrete is considerably cheaper and more expeditiously con- structed. Plate XIII. This is a concrete arch bridge over the Delaware River, at Yardley, Pa., built by the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad in 1914. The concrete in this arch bridge is reinforced with rods merely for the purpose of preventing temperature cracks. It is typical of the present first-class concrete arch construction, and it should be compared with the cut-stone arch construction which was typical of the 1890 standard shown on Plate XII. Plate XIV. This illustrates a reinforced-concrete slab bridge cross- ing a boulevard, constructed in 1914 by the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad. This is typical of 1915 reinforced-con- crete construction. Plate XV. This illustrates a riveted-truss span with concrete abut- ments and piers and a plate-girder viaduct, where concrete piers are used instead of metal towers. It was built in 1914 by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad and is typical of 1915 construction. Plate XVI. This illustrates the erection of a truss bridge by means of a gantry traveler; a method of erection which was standard in 1890. Plate XVII. This illustrates the erection of a truss bridge by means of two derrick cars, and may be considered typical of 1915 meth- ods of truss erection. Plate XVIII. This illustrates the erection of a plate girder by means. of derrick cars, and is typical of 1915 erection methods. 406 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES —i x ' hai-xv hi 1 to! W ‘ Mu MP"; 1 "III anon AIL‘);— _ _.L_Zl_ ' 0P0’ Dre/r! 5mm 5mm: new .541. t A!) 1750 0:0 Pu ft 61000? or A9115 MIR/(AN R792 807179 588555 544 “no 0:- T. emf: r . / 1' flarrurtozi'zmldcujwm A915 ,_ . ‘ c" "' m L‘ a: ‘9" - 4' man/5515150 5m: vim-AM - PLATEI Plate I. 4— Plate II. 153-Pt. Span Pin-Connected Trusses. Typical of 1890 Construction. 407 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 833533 53 ,3 $398. .2625. “6333 53m .Pmfimfi .HHH 3.3m" 408 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES Iva'l‘vlvmar - _- l n‘ ‘,4 Y!) Q1’. . A'Q‘Q'A"! .10 uzifivflfiuvu O .rzvfée 0.! 0 0 Q .0 0 0 9M 1 I > _ . Q o .51. lfiomvuousiiiii !. m... 0‘. 0 ~ .5 ammo. ova .w l "o '0 ~1 f. 2 I4 .4 0.0.6 90 o a 0 add. ‘ . .20.!0 03.0 0,066" . Plate IV. 400-Pt. Span Pin-Comlected Truss. Typical of ‘1890 Construction. AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 409 Plate V. 620-Ft. Span Pin-Connected Trusses. Typical of 1915 Construction. Plate VI. Viaduct with Steel Towers. Typical of 1915 Construction. 410 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 1"’ ‘— W.’ I 1 , I .u: ' 4.921721"! asllflll '5 , Plate VII. Swing Bridge. Typical 01' 1890 Construction. AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGE S Q ._4 l . t. '7 I ‘a ‘f. I'_ l {g V ‘:2. I" 411 Plate VIII. Swing Bridge. Typical of 1915 Construction. 412 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES Plate IX. Rolling Lift Bascule Bridge. Typical of 1915 Construction‘. Plate 1. Trunnion Bsscule Bridge. Typical of 1915 Construction. AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 413 ‘w.- 'n if‘ln' ‘I 3' ' ‘ \ "I: Q Plate XI. Vertical Lift Bridge. Typical of 1915 Construction. , i; F‘ a, Plate XII. Stone Arch Bridge. Typical 01' 1890 Construction. 414 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 5:52:80 22 .8 222a .825 :65. 32250 .EN 32a AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 4155 Plate XIV. Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridge. Typical of 1915 Construction. Plate XV. Concrete Masonry and Viaduct. Typical of 1915 Construction. 416 AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES Plate XVI. Gantry Traveler. Typical of 1890.. Plate XVII. Derrick Oar. Typical of 1915. DISCUSSION: AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 417 Plate XVIII. Derrick Car. Typical of 1915. DISCUSSION Prof. C. Derleth. Jr.,* M. Am. Soc. C. 1., expressed the opinion that Prof. more and more, where cost will permit, masonry bridges will be used Derlelh' where short spans are possible. There may be the alternation to girder bridges encased in concrete—a reinforced-concrete structure in which the reinforcement is of structural shapes instead of bars or rods. As the paper points out, with spans exceeding 150 ft... the truss type of bridge becomes the desirable one; but the tendency will be to make the floor system as solid as possible, and of a ballasted type with reinforced- concrete covering, where economy and other features make that possible and desirable. The paper has pointed out repeatedly that the tendency now is to stiff members, eliminating altogether rods and bars as tension members; but in long spans, where mass gives inertia, it would seem that there are certain places where the joints should be left free, as in pin types. There should be certain important places where the joints are movable, notably at the top and bottom of the end post, in order that there may be a read- justment to take out as far as possible secondary strains and kinks. Prof. Derleth believes it a wrong tendency to propose completely con- tinuous spans for long-span work unless the piers are on rock, so that there will be no unequal settlement. As the spans grow longer. it would seem clear that carbon steel will in a short time be replaced by the alloy steels, just as steel took the place of wrought iron. Finally, in regard to computations, more and more they should be left to experts who practically do that and nothing else—always in consulta- * Dean, College of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley. Calif. 418 DISCUSSION: AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES Prof. Derleth. Prof. Wing. tion, of course, with the so-called consulting engineers, who are the first conceivers of the proposition. Computations should eliminate the unneces- sary detail of the past, and we should try to state our moving loads in the simplest of forms, leaving the factor of safety to take care of irregu- larities, particularly as we are uncertain as to what will be the maximum loads during the life of the structure, and because the secondary stresses are an important feature. We should also design the longer spans to get rigidity, but not at the expense of elasticity. The life of a structure will depend upon the avoidance of vibration; so that while we should attempt to make joints solid in the shorter spans, there should be some places where there would be give, to avoid the undesirable features of a con_ tinuous span. Prof. Chas. B. Wingfi M. Am. Soc. C. E., felt that the papers of the Congress, being statements and compilations of present facts, bringing the subjects down to date, do not readily lend themselves to discussion. It appeared to him that Mr. Greiner’s paper clearly brought out the changes in railroad bridges during the past 25 years, and the reasons therefor. The great bulk of the bridge work of the country is in short-span bridges. The long-span bridges will take care of themselves, as they have to be made the subject of special design. The economy that we get in bridge maintenance must come in a careful study of the shorter span bridges, and therefore the tendencies that are pointed out in this paper are exceedingly interesting. Prof. Wing believes that in the western part of this country there is still great merit in the wooden ballast deck type of trestle bridge, some- times of creosoted timber. If protected from water, it needs no creosote. Many such are used on the Southern Pacific Company ’s lines; and they will probably outlast the steel ones if they are protected from water. The only thing to be renewed is the asphalt coating, and sometimes some guard rails; but these bridges ought to last a great many years, and at a much less cost than steel bridges. A great expense with steel bridges is in keeping them painted properly. There must be some inaccessible parts, no matter how designed, and we do not know what is going to take place in those inaccessible parts. We have had to renew our steel structures because the increasing engine loads had made them obsolete. Now we are coming, we hope, to the point of building steel structures to take care of all loads, and which will last their full life. Great attention should be paid to the small details of short-span bridges, especially of steel structures, to see that they are so designed and so erected that the main parts can live their lives, and the bridge not be discarded because some little detail has given out. Mr. Hood. Mr. William H00d,* M. Am. Soc. C. E., wished to correct a misunder- standing regarding ballasted deck trestles. The paper indicates on Plate I, 1 Professor of Structural Engrg, Stanford University, Calif. * Chief Engineer, Southern Pacific 00., San Francisco, Calif. DISCUSSION: AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 419 as well as on page 396, that ballasted deck trestles are of solid timber floor- ing and constructed of creosoted timber. This was true at one time, but, so far as he was aware, that type has not been built for many years-— with the Southern Pacific Company, not for 20 years, more or less. The type was replaced with the use of creosoted timber stringers, spaced suitably and floored over with creosoted plank, on which the ballasted track was laid. This continued until, perhaps, 1898, at which time Mr. Bernard Bienenfeld, M. Am. Soc. C. E., suggested to Mr. Hood that the use of untreated timber obviously would be cheaper for the stringers and flooring; would be very much stronger, and could be protected from moisture by an asphalt roof; and would be thoroughly protected from the sun, which in a good deal of this western country destroys timber almost as much as decay. Since this suggestion, which was promptly adopted, all the ballasted deck trestles on the Southern Pacific. lines, including those on the Lucin cut-off, have been built, accordingly, of untreated stringers, suitably spaced, floored over with untreated plank, and then covered with asphalt roofing, with, however, creosoted guard rails, which merely restrain the ballast, and with creosoted caps. Mr. C. I‘. Loweth,* M. Am. Soc. C. E., said that on the road with which he is connected, the practice is to use a solid line of stringers. His recollection is that they came to that because their trestle spans were 15 ft. 9 in. centers, and in replacing an old-fashioned trestle by a new kind, it was desired to have the new correspond in length with the old; and as it seemed to be about as cheap, it was thought the advantage in having the equal span length was enough to overcome the additional cost that was in the stringers. He noted Mr. Hood’s statement that the stringers are not treated on the Southern Pacific Company’s trestles. On the Chicago, Milwaukee 8: St. Paul it had been the desire to treat them, but they felt justified in using cedar piles. They have had 25 years’ life out of white cedar piles, but they are now using Idaho red cedar, and although they do not know how long they will last, they think that they will get as long a life as will justify the expense. Mr. Loweth thought there is a tendency sometimes to blame the early designers of iron bridges, because they did not look far enough ahead and made their bridges too light. While that may be true, he thought it a question whether they did not build as wisely as we do today. There is a great deal of evolution going on in railroad bridges. Bridges are being taken down, not because they are too light but because we Want to change them to double track, because the stream has changed, or because the grade has changed; and, if the bridges had been made very much heavier and had to be removed at this time for those reasons, there would be a larger loss connected with them. Mr. Loweth has to do with about 130 miles of bridges, and, of course, every year the question of renewal comes up. The problem is not * Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway, Chicago, 111. M1‘. Hood. Mr. Loweth. 420 DISCUSSION: AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES Mr. Loweth. Mr. Wagner. so much one of engineering as of finances. There is a limited amount of money. What shall be done with it”? Shall some bridges and trestles be replaced with first-class construction in kind°.2 There are very few engi- neers who are able to say: “We will build everything that we have to build, only along the most permanent lines and in the strongest fashion.” Of course, it goes without saying that every bridge has to be strong enough to carry its load. But such bridges can still be built strong enough if they are built of treated or untreated timber, as well as if they were built of concrete or steel. That is not true of bridges of the longer spans, but, as Professor Wing stated, by far the majority of American bridges are of short spans; the longer ones are few and far between. He wished to take exception to the statement in the paper that the open-deck trestle is justifiable only on light traffic and branch lines. Mr. Samuel T. Wagneni M. Am. Soc. C. E'., wrote that the changes in the conditions during the past 25 years in the history of American bridge building have come about gradually but none the less surely, and the manner in which the author presents them makes them appear startling. Probably the most remarkable change is that of the increased weight of the locomotive as afiecting not only the sections of the bridge but also the arrangement of its details to say nothing of the abso- lute change of type for spans of various length. Some years ago we thought that the limit of the total weight of locomotives had been reached, at least approximately, because there ap- peared to be no more available cross-section between the outside lines of the locomotive and the safe clearance lines. Then the idea of the Mallet engine was introduced, and now it seems to be almost possible to believe that the weights might be increased by what years ago seemed almost impossible, viz, the increased cross-section of the locomo- tive and its encircling clearance line. In 1904 there was a most interesting discussion of the subject of the increase of engine loading for bridges before the American Society of Civil Engineers (Trans. Vol. LIV, page 78) and it seemed then as if a Cooper E-7O engine was about as far ahead as the mechanical engineers could see, and the author of the paper stated that for general purposes on large railroads it would be unwise to use any heavier loading than a Cooper E-50 engine. Now we are informed that a large bridge has been designed using an 13-90 loading. When will it end? The changes in the details of metal bridges have been most marked and probably in them has been the greatest improvement as afiecting the life of the structure. Short-span pin-connected bridges have been almost entirely replaced by riveted connected trusses or plate girders. No detail has received more attention than the floor, that portion of the structure which receives the direct impact from the train. Before 1890 the floor of railroad bridges had been sadly neglected from the point I Chief Engineer, P. & R. Ry., Philadelphia, Penna. DISCUSSION: AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES 421 0f maintenance and no part of the bridge suffers more from increase in train loading. Even with all the improvements which have been made, the design of the floor is now receiving much thought in the direction of obtaining greater rigidity and reducing the cost of maintenance. In short-span bridges the use of solid floors of steel or reinforced concrete is increasing. It is a distinct advantage, from an operating standpoint. to have standard ties and ballast in place of special timbers on a bridge. and while from a purely financial point of view it is difficult to show any warrant for the increased cost, yet there are many places where such construction is advisable. The use of a solid floor is of distinct advantage, as far as permanency and rigidity of the structure are con- cerned. The changes in the uses of the materials of construction have been most marked. It was possible to obtain wrought iron for structures in 1890, but in the 1893 edition of the Carnegie Steel Company’s Pocket Book the note “Our product will hereafter be exclusively steel” occurred for the first time. Carbon steel is the best material for structures of ordinary size, although its rate of corrosion, specially under unfavorable conditions, is so much more rapid than wrought iron as to sometimes make one wish he could get wrought iron as a commercial product. Specifications have been drawn for nickel steel and structures built in which large percentages of this material have been used. On account of its cost it has no value for spans of ordinary length. Probably nothing has contributed so much to the uniform and satis- factory quality of carbon steel as the practically unanimous adoption of a single grade of steel having an ultimate tensile strength of 60,000 pounds per square inch. This grade is used in practically all ordinary structures. The increasing use of reinforced concrete in recent years has been remarkable, but probably it has been less used for railroad bridges than for other purposes. In railroad work its use has generally been for short-span slabs or in floors. The writer feels from experience that under the conditions usually existing in a railroad bridge all designs of reinforced concrete should be thoroughly protected by water-proofing in order to prevent the corrosion or electrolysis of the steel. Probably no single material in railroad work has increased in use more than concrete. Its use for mass work, such as for abutments, piers and arches has been proceeding in leaps and bounds. It is as good as most building stones as far as strength is concerned and is generally cheaper than stone masonry. Its monolithic character makes it much to be preferred for most structures, except where real architectural beauty is concerned, in which case nothing can excel properly prepared natural stone. It is true that in recent years the methods which have been adopted to present a pleasing surface and the architectural care which has been given to the design have resulted in concrete work that is beyond criticism for engineering structures. Mr. ‘Vagn er. Paper No. 87 TRACK AND ROADBED By GEORGE H. PEGRAM, M. Am. Soc. C. E. Chief Engineer, Interborough Rapid Transit (Jo. New York, N. Y., U. S. A. It is with some temerity that one presents a paper on a subject which is being so thoroughly studied and concerning which such a mass of published data exists, and it is only done with the idea that the individual views of engineers, presented in discussion, may bring forth some new points and may lead to a better understanding of existing data. The writer ’s experience for the last seventeen years has been with the rapid transit railroads of New York City. The uniform character of the traffic and its great volume have made it pos- sible to study some parts of the problem, however, especially rail wear, under favorable conditions. His previous experience on several steam railways, and particularly as Chief Engineer of the Union Pacific System (1893-98), might justify a criticism of steam railroad conditions. The American Railway Engineering Association is making a systematic study of this subject, and in its standardization of the forms of reports is laying a foundation for a more scientific treatment than it has yet received. A special committee of that Association and a committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers is conducting a series of tests to determine stresses in tracks, from which much is expected. The essential features of the track of the modern railroad, consisting of metal rails supported on wooden cross ties as a runway for wheels having internal flanges, existed in the coal roads of England prior to the application of steam to railroad 7:10-15 /. TRA CK DATA 0F STEAM RAIL/9011054915 ._ HrAvIssr 61101112 115111557 511011115 RAIL. 11110711 5 0011 RE ' ~ - P05511022. P11210117. “WEST w 0 01 3001 A112 771: P1172; 011 612055 555. BALIAsT. NAME 01' RA11.R0A0. W w 1111221 101111;“;f ” H 1111 mm 5m“ USED‘ 56m, 11m 11m 10m 0510 071011. 11011: 1111111012 110111151? 02701 M10111: SUE 11510111. BASE‘ KW‘. _ 86mm 6010011: 8111. 1111111111 11111111111 5211155. 11,1111 How hum; 5125 mm," 11,110, "mm - ' " 271040’ 34'-a' 204500‘ 3510' 29150‘ 100’ 531' 20' 1" 50111111. 211.c1 T111110 11111. 71101021‘ . 12' 1 E 1110.- - - ’ EMT-"OR 6'0 I23030/(6. 10.511611129160116. 10.66811. 112W‘ MM mama“ 6H “'75 .71111. 6 2.5401 YES‘ scmv. m'ous‘ CARD PROCESS» "”"”“"° '8 STONE‘ 305"- . ¢ . - 11 - . 1 - . - - . . . 235000 33-511 210000 26-0 100 51 24 / 11111111000 71916-0 12" o 11 . - . B "Mam" E 10111-9011’- 1014711. 95340121 292511 490111. 197111. a”- 53-76 51011., 4 254111 mum“ mm 5mm" c5010. UNTREATEO‘ '1'“ mm" mm 6W“ 50510 . 0 1 4 - - - . - . . . . 6RAYEL. - 250000 35-5' 05 5a‘ 011. .55-70 20 ,4,’ 7-7 fol/100 - 01011111 5111111 12' . T . CANADIAN PAC/Fla "7130“ M795". mm‘ In“ 55“- Isozéo ‘660M. 4 207“. 5110010511 15 P114755 501/1115. VARIOUS. 6511711111 41100117 Gnmarsa mumomw 167016 $35,532:? 305% ' 1 . r .- . ' a i- . - 1 . 1 .. ‘. 203000 35-2 353100 115-4 27250 85 5,,s _ 24 . 01010-0 0111111. 12 0mm” “my/‘mm 12040001 1071911 160310110. 15101711. 1237010 422111. " “F .wcn. 0”- 55 76 51011. 4 2.22111 Y“ 5W"- 0‘ "- 1221 1011141111 {8 51111111. .30511. 0116450. MILW‘UKEE a; ‘ 75000‘ 77550‘ 100' my‘ 6~. GH 24* 4 /‘ 01111150110001; 71;; 4110 Sou“: 11111010000. 211.61, 012 CREO$0TE MBODL 71181616‘ 6 12' 51. P401. 24 050110 12640121 40. 0111 ' 1521111 .01011. 2.51111. 1111111 011 1111 c0111; ' 5017111100 1111111511511 1741 1051211111 R‘ "L- .50511. I . 1 ‘ 257.50 100‘ .55" 26“ /' 114120111001: “"5". WILLNWSECI'PD 7.- 9 'x 6 10' (11241151.. 12' cl'mw Nam mm 1305012. 49612. “m 114001 0 H‘ ‘6”; .660111. 4 2.54111 5"°”‘‘’" W‘ PM“ 5°”“5' 501711000. “0 mm m‘ m'” “3 To 2, 6mm’ $’°"‘-'- 505”: O , . I . .. i 0 . - - . - - I . DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA& 268000 34-10 312500 3.6-2 3106.; 105 6 28 / 01m. 7x9ra/Zxd-6 69051150570115. 1? 130750110. 1091711 l4/680K61 10.71911. 14110111 5210 521111 0'” m“, .7110. 6 2.54111. 5””“9‘” T" 7”“ 5”“ P1115. “"5" Pp‘mss- 00019110001011 ,/8 12151120601121.5050. o , ,, a , .. ' a t . 65" 14115017111000 7755. Y F011: ' - ' ' - 259130 35-0 053050 90-0 35600 100 6 24 1;, "1°" 1 719 110-6 R001. 11 - . . . -.7 1 A H 120 0T£50 . 0 . ERIE‘ [1755111111 mun- :197255/0; 27,452”, 15250154 49.6110 ARA" 1.22401 0” 65 6 .610111. I 2.5001 éf,,,:571‘§’01,,§0,,§& ‘SQUARE @515,“ L“"T‘D“0"”C“°’°"%701.2191259/11. ,6 ORAYEL. 27.911. _ i I - ' . 1 276000’ 3511 20500 100 0' 24' 1 1111111 0111. 01111111111; 9 1019-0- 12 GRAND TRUNK "5300“ m L,“ MM” ‘2” WA. 520,“ 0.11. .63276 16,0“. 4 154m 0111701005175 J01111rx Soume'. _ FED 0“. 2M CL” 157, 7111,7101“ l9 GRAVE!“ "305,‘ o ' a . ' 763050 3512' 29050 90 53 _ 241 ' I‘ 011 Trurco A110 501117000 11411011000. R20 0111 TREATED 111711 1111. CL . 7719 'x 616' 57'0"’- I?“ Iu'mw's CENTRAL‘ 3055701» [(1 71011 [3160“. 44.6110 U” A 14.7911 0'H' ‘6576 .610111. 4 254211, T115 11110 011 Cunvzs. sol/"5' 501711000. 9111: TREAYIO-RUEPING. I "M 79°17"- 20 5M6‘ 505111, GRAVEL. . ' . . ' 1 . ' 0 - - I- - - 1 - New Yon/r (21172.11 1! 272000 .36-6 204000 35-0 30500 105 I 6 _ , 36 11 _ 7,573,066 ,4 To 22 ’ 111195011 Rlvgg 17349014‘ 1117511, "mu-w 1111.111“ 1:11.111 1:0 1111 02"“ X15110, 0-”~ 52 79 3,4,, 5 132-2,.“ 5110010512 71: Purrs. SQUARE. Ymow P1115. Cneosorso. Jmjmwl 20 57011115. m.‘ 0 1 1- 0 1 - ' g .. 1- . . . . . New You 1121111112110 200000 20-2 251500 34-54 26900 100 24 3 511.1111. 71910-0 12 1111171701110. 9090010 0.5051. 114100170. 10.50; 1221-01-12. 40. 011” “A 1011111 a“ 21011, 4 0,121.1 YES- gzgjzym N-C-PINE- “505"” 111. 110.11 70 TRAP Pom 405,, ‘ v ' 320000’ 3513' 30000 100' 511' 24' 1" 11111111111111. 7'1071010' 61H" (mm- 12" 1101171151111 P101170. M5280“ mm.‘ mm“ mm 1101.0. my, ‘ 011. .6 2175 ‘MM. 4 254M _Y5.1_ 50111112. 5mm,” Cnrasorso. mmhmh l9 6522f“ 505,, 270000 3510' 279 750' 352 20500‘ 90' 5g 27 [-5 r 71910-0 0R£60N 511001111115. ,9‘ 9,9,,‘ mu,“ 1,111,111 mm, mom,‘ 4,“, AMA. mm 0.11. 03:76 M6,, 4 258“ Yes. JOUARE. 005001111712. PART 8017115771250. 11,, mm“, 16 6411121" 103,, . I a ,,- . I 293 250’ 3512;’ 330000 36141‘ 33150 100' 517 ,_ 261' 1' 11111011000 71772193104 10' PENNSYLVANIA: Gym“ m "I" M333’. HM,“ ,mmm 19”‘ P5. MM 0.H. 0.83 .675”. 4 film Yrs. SQUARE. sonwom 651171111Anew/76125050750Jmwmmw 16 T121111 Rom. ‘254". ' - . ' 1 J" _. . - .. .. . - .1 269000 311-9 20250 05 5,. 0.11. 59112 24 g 7,9,816 5111111. ,1 OUR/16055661110105. I27, 1mm 1,) 597“ Ianonv, .10 9”, A56!‘- [QM 3555“ 13.55 ‘MOM 4 2220‘ 145- SQUARE- o'm- UNTREATED' 1731770175911 20 grate-L‘ .305111. 310050’ 3512" 100‘ '0' 24- ‘ 1' ' OAK. 0 11 031040; 67012‘ R0“ “mm 144 790112. 10. 71911. 49.4111. 4'2“- 1524111 0"" '62‘75 .11/011. “ 2.54211 Y“- SQW’E' P1115. “"50"”- 15212051241111. '20 PM" 1520501 ' i . . 1 u ‘ I - n .7.‘ - - . - n 5411 P5020. 10511110515581 265400 “'0 Y5 90” 90 _ 51f _ 77 0 . 01110111111115. , 71010-0 60111151. 9 5111711115. 12049011111110.0711. 15120111. 44.611.‘ "1 140111 0"" ‘55 '75 00011. 4 2.22111 5"°”“"””E mm 50”" 1211111101111. BURM’T’Z‘D' 17111201110111. '6 01011111 5111111. .22911. 205000’ 340' 26500“ 90‘ 5,1" 24- 1' P1111 7' 9' 0'0' ' 2M‘- - . I X ' LAO. SEABOARD 141R LINE. 129mm” :11 “a I “n my Mu‘ ARA-14. w“ 0.H. .62175 MOM 4 254“ 011TuR1101/r51no Cum/es. 50111125. OAK. UNTREATED. ,7,“ 9mm,- 20 632.21%?‘ . . I‘ 1- 7- - - 1 . - 210000’ .3512" 435500 156-?" 27590 90' g 55 0.11. .05-20 29' 7110100 00014115701110. 0 Sol/MFR" PWF" 9111111111. 11171011 "mm 17211711 12430111 4490"“ ‘ 1429111 19.155. .5525 .757111. 4 2.22111 7'“ 5mm" “5”” PM BURNETT’ZED' 17515112431111 '8 511a .2030, 240000’ 200' 410000‘ 56'6' 27500' 90' 53' 24' 1' 1111111011 1111111111150 071071010‘ 6pm‘ 12' ' ' . ' ~ - ‘ 11,475. Fm“ L'NES- 1099110110 7.92511. 1997701101227” mm 4411115“ 11511 a”- “59:76 .01011. 4 254111 Y” 50”“ RED 0111. caravan-11111501211011“. 15212011211111 2” 0111011. .30511 - ‘ LAG. - . 206117‘ 3512' 270000’ 55-‘0~ 20500 90' " 0.11. 55.70 27' 11’ 040 73191010" 5mm 6W“; 0' Um" f-Z‘Mcimm‘ 1129900110. 10.71911 12021016. 1007111. 1293012. 44.01. ARM/1.29111 915055105 .09011. 4 2.22111 Y“ 5”“ fjgf- } BURNETTIZED- 11112291211111 '° G’Zfl’fjljffm" .2051‘ o f a u . 341000 420000 100' 535 211' . 1’ 120-1090' 111115111111. 12' 111 CHESAPEAKE & 0 0. “556/4K6“ 1943mm‘ 496,6 ARM 6111. m0”: 4 227m 7050115 51175111: 5004175. WHITE OAK. l/NTREATED. Im'mb’m. l6 5“ 6_ J05”, 71191.5 2. 7121102014 711 OF ELEC TIP/C IPA/11111 Y5 19/5 HEAYIEST CAR. Hay/1:7 . Rm “516'” 80175. AR, m PM,“ 5%?" 611055 WES. EAuAsr. NAME 0’ RAIN"! w" m WEIGHT - OPMHHRTH 6.1120011 SPIIcE U550 9611511’ 0 if! 105111110 Sect/011. Hem 1mm 0R ' ' Nu118£11 111 Wm?“ “WM “PM mm”, 601m"- m- 1111111111. 0111117111 5P''‘“- KIND. How T221710 5125. ‘Hum K1110. M2,”, 8051011 EIMmIRYCa '75800. 7""- m‘”. 55' A5 as 5 I 35' 011 051 2" 4 a?‘ 511 11710 5W" 11 P1 ‘1”5°‘°1"7322‘1"1'1"11‘°1’1“1“15“ 626w,”- 10 711 111 11 27”. 57110111. 2.13411. 828015. 42210. ' ' 11171111005011 ' .01011. 2.22111. 0”‘0‘ ’ W‘" 511111. "w "" ,gufl‘ollkflwjofljl 4:6,,“ 15212011245011 ‘ °‘ ' 0511117111 4 - " - fbuoA J011115701v11 & 100000‘ 0'~10' 12500 90' 5' 35' ‘ 52 31 6mm 6;, 6;‘ 810. 6 61012115111111 R.R. ‘45400111 2.00.111. 5070110 39710 45'“ 1m 111 “~55 .01511 6 190m 0” Cums‘ 5”“ 0111111111. Umm‘“ 15212011215411 '7 6M“ .15211. 07000’ 7-‘0" 10075’ 05' 511' 33' 011. 75:90 26‘ 5’" Wmre' 0111. 0111111710 111611713‘ 67017‘ HUDSONGMANMTTANR'R‘ 3949010, 2111411 2027172 471m A'S'C'E' 13111111105811. 8:55. .50265 .660“. 4 71?” YES‘ SCREW‘ YELLOW P1115. CR£050TED._ .152/1203171/0111. 22 emu“ 570"" 157103515 1 o 0 - . . OnAvn. 124000 7‘-2'- 15500 ' 45 33 24' z‘ . 5011110110. 63183010‘ 51111111. 0‘ “Mo's mum" ‘SYSTEM' 50290111. 2.105111. 7050/0 34.7110. 11751111005111 .61011. 4 L90“, 0” cum“ 0”": 5°”“E- M111: 0111. p‘” C“°’°"°"°"‘”m““ 1571203121101 “4'7 gum. 103,1 INDIE; I I INTERBOROUOH R1010 112000’ 6'-8‘ 15570 100' 53 53' _ 24- 5" 1m 1“, “6,0,0. 5. 71111511001111 5004011 2.0311. 7200114 499110 "RI 11111111001111 0"‘ 7590 .01011. 4 mm 912/WERE‘ PW“- SWM’E- 1211011 PINE. Umfmp- 111.111.1111.. '8 7”” R°"" .12111. , I . I I 1 I ' -. 4 140000 5-2' 17500 100 0 60 34 1 w11111c1011. 71.01947- L'm'm- 6 1.110 , ARA- 6 . . . “MSW” [tum/6 Rrca 63560/(0 1.57511. 794012. 49.610 A‘ 112401 1028011 .86411. 2540, 0” CUM“ 5mm” 17111756 12110001111. UNmEATfl?‘ 1711. 2011271111 30 C,,,,'11,§‘§;5,,,_ 1571075111 50000. 416-‘ 6250' 91' 7' 26“ I; W Sorrwooo. (1111054150 WHEN 77:5 ARE 6 11031610’ 6" NE” Yo“ 5”“ Rm 22700114 1.37211. 2050114 45.212. T'PA'L' 177001 0'” '70‘90 .0600. 6 256“ NO- 50”“5- 1111101111011. 111 0 --~ ' "7 °'"-"“'~ 6mm’ 5m" .1624. 120000’ 6'710' 15000‘ 60‘ 5” 33' 314' 5' WHITE OAK 6' 8' 610' CR 51110510 I: 6" 111 A. c . ‘ . . ' " " “ "' 0 omflmpfca 544001111 2.00411. 001011 39.711. 5- f 27111111111111 .90/111. 6 190111. N" 5”" 01111111111. C"’°°"""”“' 11212051211111. '7 694m. 152-. 75' 4; ' 35 27“ 5" 0'10'1010' 7~ PAcIrIc [mm/c R1160. 3M“ 5,. m. ‘656,, 4 my“, ALL 71“ PWED- 5011*“ RED'YWD- UNTREATEQ 1111011111111. 70 MW“ .1700. I I - 1, i .- 75000 514 10500 90’ .511 30' 1 30' . 611011510" - 51‘ a‘ P1114 11 P! T 11 ° 1 0512 IARA DRAM Ca 34050,,‘ ,6?“ 476M‘ 446 14.5(£. . 1 n . 0.11. .68 In” 6 7.7?“ No. 51111511. Ymow PINE. CREOSOTED. ‘Jmm‘zml 16 T1142 120111. mm,“ . 1 u ' I 1 11 __I 1 56000 6-/ 7750 80 " 53 24 /' LONG LEAF ' 62838-0‘ 6‘ Mac SmwczRr 6011.1 26330,,‘ L555“ 3,90,, 59 m 115.05. [.71.], WI,“ 0.11. .59-72 ‘6,0,, 4 Hm No. 501111111. mm” PM. 10 011105015. Mm,“ 17 01011119111112. ml ' -' " ' ' " ' " ' ' ' -' ' TkAP Rocx 6' T1111: AvsIvu R»: 0N1.’ “000 4 6 5500 '75 9 6? . 3? ’ T , 101v0 L£AF , 61017 0 . D E C . [9976“ H72". 249m 620m 611101.312. YEA/68”“ OH. .70 195 5,3“ 6 254M .0 501115 E. 75117. 50114125. YELLOW PINE.’ 10 Cncosore. hawk?!“ IIM'JI CONCRETE‘ J52! ' ‘ . 49000 010' 0000' 00' . 33' 0.11. 4059 24' :1‘ “M 0'0‘ 910' 12' U11101v7k4c11011 11101 . . . ‘ Jlfllckmmo'léflllla ‘ " Ca M‘ 21790Ka 1829112724121 3971a A'j'cf 5 1005011 8505. 35105 .61011. 1.90011. Fm 03:12,,” P: 611 .0105. ' 117.101.7112. '7 6"“m' 30511 1105111110701 0101110010 00000’ 6'-6' 10000 00' 5' 33‘ 52' a” ' 01111111111. 7'1 971510‘ 6'1012' ANNAPOLIS FLECTRIC RP. 36370,“ 195m 45402.1L 59 7x6 456-5- 7711111 111051111 ,61311, 6 7.22011. To ‘50” EXTENT’ ‘SQUARE W107: 0.111. UNTREATED- 17111 1711101011 / 7 6R‘ "5‘- 15mm ' I a I ,, - I 110117112111 01110 7114010118: 60000 6'0 10000. 95 7 60 24' 1' (1111101157211 175 4'1 7-‘0' 6' 11011760 51520“ 1.02911. 4540111 47.1K6. T‘RA’L- 11701111201111 O'H- 5” '65 .91011. 4 2.54111. N°- 6"” ‘11125 1141215411. 20 60"‘"7" .15211. SUPER/MPOSED CROSS SECTIONS. __ a-‘o' l. 6"6 ' 2.438”. 1.98/0». I‘J‘Qk' 2‘2’ _ 2'2’ _ 2‘45‘6' P- "Q‘ " 0.400». | assam. 1 " 4 p v /2'_ fi/oifi' ] V RIRBQA“, 7 ; 8 l‘Ja-uun 0.5720?" - V —_-- '.\~{ rn-v—~\m-,‘~‘i f 5v“: c.‘ ">1" ,_ . :0 g . 344335; ",3?" -. l l 1': CHNHD/HN PflC/F/C RX /’ I / _L 6''6‘ _] v’ _ /a=0' ' l 6-‘6' ' T .4881 m, _| ,By/ _ . - 3.048 m. 'l /. 98m. ~ PW‘ 1-3' 10' 2‘11' 2=7~v¢' __ 2-‘4 :e-_ ' - 1 any 0.681/n25. - aaasm. 0.80601. , 0.7/0.. '‘ I I. ' ’/ ‘TEL-‘gm: 0.42», l 7"5'“ "’i"‘,§"6 '7" \'¢_“'~o ' *l'fi ‘___ "— \r? £533.‘! . . ' ‘W 3}???" 0"‘ y i A‘ v,‘ I I- s‘: \ Q 0‘ ‘fr?! 4 .‘ ' '~ '0”. {Q ’ 1 #233’: n .- ’:\'-'-.; 'Y b .1 v 6- Q . . "' “1' ‘ 4 I" a‘ 1, " it?” “'7 ‘A // v- e »: - ~ .- a . , . . /,"’/. is? 2301/" i‘ I ’ . ' . [IQ/E R R 1%“, T NEW YORK CE/VJRHL a! HQSON R/VER R._RL ' , ,. . , l. 9,0. v 6:6‘ I “IF/(o 7:6" _L 6-‘6' .] yd z-w/z' 1 Egg," era/4' awn‘ l we,“ i ‘in’? I 2386"’ ‘ T "95”" ‘l . '- u. . ana-‘Mr -'1' ' 117%‘ r 2=4' ' ‘ - 7”” m“ 0'60: 2. I 0.724," Elm... 0.502,". _ U. .g) M!!!“ ‘CM‘O'N‘ 79 um a W. ' ail-:5??? _. - V‘ ..Q. d _ _ ___MW 1, _. QQSTON (Sf Mfl/NE RAR. / I / l /’/ ‘ fifiy ‘V- 6‘6' ' 1°’ _,,__ 916%‘ _L 6*6' _ L9“ 1.9.91,” ‘___—1 9, fly’ ’‘ 2.31.51». / 1 ASd/m. l / 216' _ 2L9 ' ‘ /.'/03/". 2:4’ ' - . /vflyy l $0’ T‘ ""‘ 0.557", . _oisyamff" 0.7/am‘. “1 I I ~ 7'- a 'n a 1 : ..';'. uh‘, r.» v; 51113‘6?61{Q'3€ v v'daqgnr-gm-ev‘zgyhv u v o s ‘ ":i v ‘6"’! v‘ v 9:’ "'3‘4“7 "2 "0".‘ .n‘ \ i’: :13‘. " I,‘ 'qat‘zg'm'lfi ‘Iii-v’ - ' , "2"?‘ 51g .' :.:c’ (v, \ ‘ a . Q" ' "2:" 0 m2». .a. 1,.“- _~ /\~ cI-wtn MAJ-NJ)’ 10 oz , 'Ai'anow m or 711. / / V \/ w‘? y ‘ _ . . 101 ' _ a _ _~_ _________ 7=0' ‘________,l j‘) - 95”!“ J4 69"; ___-__ ‘ ..J /5/''/ '_‘_“_ """'—"' 5.042," ' ' ‘ _ ’." 2.1.34" - ‘5' 04 " 8”" . / /-'/0'7 _.e=//'v _ /2' _ 11101/4' ' “214/47 ., . ; Fousssm. , ocean. use-T 0.57 m'l‘ 0.7/am _ 10' . ! cm: 0: arm: at: I L219 ___—‘,1 a7," ‘fin-31¢".- G \ - ‘:0?! ‘ii; ‘ . ’‘ snags? ‘mega, I71"): ' 1‘, ’ v‘e; ‘ o . g ‘ _ Q \ ‘ A‘ :Q“ ‘Q: A .4.\)‘~|\ '. ‘ ' '4' ‘ ‘ ' "§ \ '00 vi ‘>3 —$.~'-22~‘$.':L- .:I:-.'.';:»E.-‘é:.;.-- =.~. sag-$3.» ‘v ,. .,- 2.3: '\\, v .\/ *r/ “-‘ // r ‘» \ ._ a“. SLOPE ,w'pxn roar Q, l/ RE/V/VSYLVHN/H ' R. R. | M6‘ l 6%" _______* 2.6810: l-SG/m. . ' 21552; _2'—4'/_¢' _i I 457 . . 'i“ 0.7/6m i F61‘ ‘Z ‘0.45%.’. ' I 04 g y". ‘'1 Q \ v .1 I \. ai'-‘~‘r:a‘vf-’:§i§' ' ‘+215 ' . '_’~v,~0_!,-~"4;_ .% “ I"\ .\ ly‘“ “' 0n" ‘- Q s‘ "‘-~ 0\.\\ ‘P’, N . ¢'II~A\ I '4.‘ _\.sop. .1 00:0 _¢1.. .-, -.'r/ ‘ Y'» \\:I'/\' ‘ '7’ \‘ . , . ,, l‘ [0'0 ——-~ ;»_-——_'—>L-_~~-_.____.' 6.6 \ilg/12/ ‘ p ’ logo/- I 7;o- ‘IO. 0 m A _ 7 I N i, _ I new”! 0gb’ I’ ___‘ " .1046 m. ' ’;" 2.1341». ’‘ s‘? _g_ 5L5‘ _ ____‘2-/'_A_~_6___/=7~'/4" ,2=4>~'¢'___* l" 1.0.0 M 0.635,". 5|“. 0.502;?‘ 0. 7mm. ' \(m l i r l I ‘3555' ‘A ; 7'0! Q.‘ 'w' ~, 'Av.~-- v V. \'I~’_' ‘b-Lfgmfiatlig; :; “$31: " .‘Mit' ‘. .. ‘Q; "obi-:51 ‘be-5% ” 'ffi‘t’za-z'» ‘ms-be " _ I‘ '- “'v,‘."".<:;_. _ . “Maggy” '5“ ya’. ‘ ;‘=;~ 1» n v a'“ "o = “i '\'. . \‘n r.‘ . .{Q ~ p‘. ~:..‘ Q55 #39:“ .3023‘! 4' k ‘ {15.6%} I / “‘ / "I 1G \ ~ A‘ 1 Err/aw MD mud a! 01m Gal/(AWN) 6r r0011. cam/now. r ROCK lSLfl/VD LINES. ___.E‘Ulllififlol. [Wu/N /0-'0" 8 (FR/70: LEVEL __QUEEN a? Rssci/vf‘jsovurs l s=e~ ~‘‘‘‘" " ‘T‘ " Asa/m. " h" ' ' ,7_#‘__‘_,___7 rim, , IO-‘O' /._ _V , _ . Moog“ ___"v 6'6" ___“ __v/"7%',1_ 2:474‘, . ,4 - I 3.048 m ! A9810" 0.50.2»,y 0. 710,“ i 1 ' ’ 6" "7%: .. 2-‘4/4' . - ' SLOPL J'IN 0591..-... r CHIC/760. M/L WHUKEE 6r ST sscrrcw Mm an!» or am GWIRNIO Br LDCIL ca/vo/rlolvs. Pfll/l-iL :0- ‘ I . _ - 5L?’ ___M________ a “___ 1 _>__ g__ _W_ 6-6 i y ._ , 716' 1 a-‘o‘ __________,1 2.4.58 111 ' ' 1.98/1” ‘ ' _ ‘f 2.286," ' ' I ' ‘T’ "“ 2.453»- H6‘ 2=0' 6' F740‘ 2:474’ . - -. - - .~ - .- ' - - v- - - ' .-. . . ‘ _ _.u-L- >-.L.__ r. ’2---20~&{5 / ' ' ' ‘4*- -.k-‘ 0.45 m 0.6mm lcwpqwh 0.7/am , imm- 0.6/Um |n1n£"0.52£“ "‘ *ifiéflwéfififl 58906; (131.: , . . IC'I ‘ l l 4.’ (ax! - -r “ah-"=43? \v 'ge'uzlszfo‘in‘aflunlin _ » 1” ~»;- 1'.“ mama-Mm '/),<<\\/ n: _QOU THE RN PfiC/F/C CO. .rl'" ‘ _cn./04v__w CROSS $EC770NS 0F STONE BHLLHST ROHDBEDS FOR STE/4M Rfl/LROHDS "/9/5. . 515 [ ANQ i I I I A (7. l 2 éMALLJ “ll 41_ l l 1___J TR/ICK fl/VD RQflQQLQ. swig’ .. .. ‘ "” 3:‘ ii; {I O_ H. P/E'G/Pfi/V/ Plate 1. mlfiTD/V, éQLT/MORE d'flMVfi/DOL/S [ifCTR/C RR 8:0- _ 2.4380’. FDA/DH. JOHNSTOW/V <3’ GlOl/ERSV/LLL' R R 6"0' ' 2.438 I. ‘ i wax BOSTON ELEVHTED Rfl/LWHY CO. 2-‘2' ' 145/41, 1 _ 3:441 ' I i ‘meant’? ‘£7,607, "‘ 0.715,". "I § . l J 3 I;.-.. 9 ’ t|n9‘-4 8 I. " c'rn Cancun Inca . _.. .... . . "'1’."""'-‘F‘¢ \' H I’ t" ' », - F‘glig'lzhm . ' 2* ' ' QPR/NG TRHCK, QUBWFIY. l/VTfRBOROUGH RFlP/D TRflMS/T comm/w NY I ~as" 0‘W-'_ __ b53001. r51!”— ‘FRI ‘Ir: f5? CZMINT MR YIII co/vou/r CONQTRUCT/ON. ALE W YORK Rfl/l. W17 Y3 COMP/WV)? '\ um "YEMEN? 4. ,.m,,,,._. W2- ",- a‘ G. 4 I 12‘; - -__-__¥-. ar-‘o~ I- ‘.6'7201 . 6:6‘ \' £98,": A-—-,§ TI‘. Block _ 71117!’ __ ~~ _ “,4 7*7: M121" Z“'"”' l I‘% Spaced l-‘IO'CJbC. ,& m 0/ 776? a‘ P) __T.'__._ _ ,_____ _ ' 5M of any '\ 9 TIP Block ‘ “ a 7m 2%‘- e-z- r- °' w BERGEN TUNNEL. uzpscv CITY N. u. __D§LHWHR£, LflClMWfiW/Vfl 6r WISTERN R. R. '0 u m?‘ MIMI? BITWIIH TI'KKJ .wg-zzég. “2v 7'9 __ "_ Z-JGZM. 157464' 2‘496' ~ "‘ 0.7mm’. r " " " mc/r/c EL £0 TR/C Rglgwfly Q0. I I ,l I’ , I a-o- ’ 8-0' __ - ' "_ 2.4aam. 2-‘38m. 21/7 ' F107;‘ 117%" 2mm" . " 0.6432,». 0.5721‘ 0.502;“ omen. ' a ‘:8‘0' rm I 419%" l I‘ ‘ '" 1.455,... '1 l ' l-clnnvr 5 1 CEDYl/Vr PLHJT'R {J_$‘~a ' fillu'laLolflc V _- r— ‘ ‘“ ~ ~, "’ . "__ " M‘ ;' 7 '—T . _“—' - 1 . ' ~ sn/vo Gus/won ‘U ' ~ ‘- _~_ . _-.r _ _ = _ A ‘ ._ I I _ ' , .. ‘=,_ _- '-~ _. ' -. . -.- v» -\~.-_—_,~_J- \;~'.* ‘~ . -‘ >:', *1.“ WWW Mr M ww- - ‘. .. .- -. ‘1%; ml . ‘ I: _ _-_~.',-_.I.\.-,|_-;\: __-| a’ .\ ' u. . _ . no‘ .‘ at.» . I't-‘L-I ‘ . I xx in"; \§£:b\\k;.. _ ‘2:... 1' 3 I + ' w > , - v I ,, .A‘ ~' l" \‘4/ x I ' '/ I’ ,1’ /' ' '- / /' mu" M -' STREET TRHCK QQSZQALZZZIE Vfl TED Rfl/L WHY CQ; G‘- ;3 a onwgfvih '9 “9'11"” 1" “a I'W’Uii ‘V‘ . . .1 $11» 3s'~=.'.‘.'.§v!¢::_.;a3w:' ‘.a.={=-":32~3;§33,-Q ,_ ‘ 5N wia'é'gg 'gwma arm? egg-m“ ' - 4. .l“e}_.‘ 1%...‘ . O)f:‘.I~L_J' JTHNDHRD TRHCK_ suawnx INTERBOROUGH RflP/D TRHNS/T COMP/4N)’, N ).’ TROLL EY M cou/vsmucig/v. TH/RD AVE/V05 "RH/.1. WHY COMP/4W N. Y. 'r - ~g c --'=-.;- 5, . , a.‘ -‘ -. [x11 31?; -‘- ,'4-; “ 3; 4' I'nJYBN 3 - Wax-a - mwwsgfi I~ '> * "Ii-.1; ‘LJ', '1' '1-‘T‘~‘-‘ J {152 PLHQQQW" sm/vno RHCK HT \S‘TTON 0R NEW SUBWHYS, NEW YORK C/T)’. moss SECTIONS or ROHDBEDS fv/a ELECTRIC Rfl/LWHYS - A915. LEGEND . 6 RH VE L 8171. L HST 6 TME COW/PETE OTHER MflTER/flLS AS‘ SHOWN KIND NOTED. I‘ILT AND way/ii J m TRHCK fl/IVD ROHDBED. 6.50. H. P/jG/QHM. Plate II. TRACK AND ROADBED 423 transportation, and strangely, of the same gauge that is in com- men use in the United States today. The design is admirably adapted to the conditions of service. The frequent fastenings of the rails preserve the gauge and secure temporary alignment of the parts of a broken rail; the cross ties form a platform upon which derailed wheels may run, and the rails and ties together form an elastic medium to dis- tribute the weight of moving loads over the roadbed. The details of roadway are of course varied to suit differ- ent conditions; as for instance, in a snow country the roadway is made as much as possible in embankment, and cuttings are made wide enough to permit the track to be cleared. There are varia- tions in practice, however, under like conditions, which are largely due to our limitations of knowledge and experience, and which a general discussion of the subject will help to remove. In this, as in everything else, progress will depend largely upon the individual, and such studies and experiments as Doctor Dudley and others have made are very necessary. The improvements in the past decade have been in the more extended use of open-hearth high-carbon steel rails and in the rapidly increasing use of treated ties. The introduction of screw spikes has also taken place, but to what an extent it is an improve- ment. time is required to determine. Their extended use in Europe has been largely in different kinds of timber and under lighter loads. In order to illustrate the present, best American practice, data have been obtained from engineers of the various roads, from which Plate I, showing cross sections of the roadbeds, and Table 1, giving the details of track and roadbed, have been prepared. Several of the cross sections show sod; and if grass and other growths are to be maintained, proper conditions must be provided. Probably no greater improvement can be made in our roadbeds than studied and persistent efforts to secure the growth of grasses and vines. This requires gentle slopes, rounded cor- ners, proper drainage, and above all, permanent support for the toe of the slope. Ditches in a cutting are often cleaned out and the toe of the slope removed, regardless of the fact that the whole face of the slope will move to restore the equilibrium. 424 TRACK AND ROADBED ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. \Vhile electric railways are mainly street-car lines, they extend into the rural districts, and steam railroads are being electrified near large cities, so that it seems proper to include them in this paper. The cross sections of the roadbed are shown on Plate II and the details of construction are given in Table 2. The underground electric-conduit construction is in such limited use that it will not be discussed except to call attention to a defect in most of those which have been built, namely, fail- ure to properly brace the track rail against the pull of the tie rod connecting it with the slot rail, by a lug or brace on the yoke. The track rails are generally fastened to the yokes with bolts, the heads of which project over the flanges of the rail and which become loose and yield to the pull of the tie rod, allowing the slot to be closed through the expansion or swelling of the street pavement. Electric railway construction, in cities where the streets are paved, requires the use of girder-section rails. While bolted splice plates are generally used, welded joints seem to be now preferred. A joint made by welding the edges of the splice bars to the head and base of the rail promises well. While a welded joint costs about twice that of a bolted joint, the better riding of the track, greater durability of the rails, and in cities like New York, saving in repairs of paving made necessary by loose joints, justify the use of the welded joint. Special forms of track are sometimes used in tunnels and subways. The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad has a short tie construction in its Hoboken Tunnel. The ties are imbedded in concrete, which comes to the top of the ties, and are held in place by wooden wedges. At the new stations of the New York Subway similar short ties are used, but they are fastened to the concrete, which comes to the top of the tie, with bolts set in the concrete. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company uses the spring track, shown in Plate II, in the East River Tunnels and at points where it is necessary to lessen the vibration, caused by the trains, to adjacent buildings. The small clearances in the tunnels fur- TRACK AND ROADBED 425 ther required a fixed location of the track. In this track the ends of the ties, of the usual cross-tie construction, are supported on concrete benches located sufficiently outside of the rails to permit deflection of the ties. The space under and between the ties is filled with broken stone, to permit drainage and to prevent the accumulation of rubbish. This track has been in use nine years with good results. CROSS TIES AND FASTENINGS. Cross ties, as the largest item of track expense, merit special consideration, particularly as the conditions attending their use are so rapidly changing. The hardwood untreated cross tie probably makes the best track that can be devised. Its superiority over the steel and con- crete ties consists in elasticity, facility of making fastenings, resistance to displacement in the ballast, insulation of electric currents and especially toughness against destruction by derailed wheels. Its superiority over the treated tie of equally good material is in greater hardness, strength and toughness. It is, therefore, not surprising that untreated ties are often used in places where economy alone would seem to dictate the use of treated ties. Steel and iron ties cannot be said to be used in the United States, except in an experimental way, but we are interested in their development and will appreciate any discussion of their merits by those who have had experience in their use. We have reached the time when, generally, we must preserve our ties by treatment. The investigations of the Forestry Service of the United States Department of Agriculture are furnishing valuable data for our guidance, in addition to the work of the engineering societies. Time is still needed to reach definite con- clusions regarding many details—for instance, the relative effic- iency of different treatments under various climatic conditions; the comparative efficiency of screw spikes in different kinds of timber, as against cut spikes; etc. The present conclusions point to the following as desirable: 1. The use of sawed cross ties treated with creosote or zinc chloride. The sawed tie gives the most uniform support for the 426 TRACK AND ROADBED rails and the best bearing for the tie plates. The amount of sap- wood need not be restricted, because the sap is most susceptible to treatment. This will lead to the greatest conservation of the timber supply. 2. The process of treatment should not heat the wood above 110° C. Ties which are overheated are made brittle. 3. Tie-plates should be used on all treated ties, and 011 soft wood ties whether treated or not. 4. The tie-plate should have a flat bottom, so as not to cut into the tie and allow the entrance of water. It may be desir- able to use corrugations or ribs on top of the tie plate to give distribution of pressure lengthwise of the tie. In such cases, screw-spikes should be used on account of the length required. 5. When screw spikes are used, the head of the screw spike should be supported by a boss on the tie-plate sufficiently high to prevent the spike from bearing on top of the rail flange. Time and experience are still wanting to prove the merits of screw spikes as compared with cut spikes. 6. Where cut spikes are used in treated timber, they should be driven in bored holes 7/16 inch by 4 inches. The interior of the holes should be treated before driving the spikes. and preferably when the ties are treated. Timber is rendered short- fibred or brittle by treatment, and unless the spike is driven in a bored hole, it will break up the fibres. 7. It is believed that cut spikes should be driven into hard- wood untreated ties without previous boring, because the fibres are deflected rather than broken; and while the material around the spike is injured, the compression induced by the spike will tend to preserve the pressure. 8. The use of the tie-plates facilitates tilting the rail normal to the coning of the wheel of the car, if desired, by making it with a beveled rail seat or by dressing the bearing on the ties to a bevel. While the tilted rail has not been used in the United States, there are indications that it might be used to advantage, par- ticularly in view of the observations of Mr. James E. Howard, United States Engineer Physicist, that transverse fractures occur on the gauge side of rails. (See Report to Interstate Commerce Commission of accident on the Lehigh Valley Railroad at Man- TRACK AND ROADBED 427 chester. N. Y., on Aug. 25, 1911, and report of August 15, 1913, on the Louisville & Nashville wreck near I-Iaymill, Ala, Oct. 1, 1912.) .0. The present tendency is to the use of the four-bolt joint, but it is believed that the six-bolt joint will ultimately prove better. It is essential, in either case, that the bolts shall be made of steel, of good quality, with high elastic limit. 10. Anti-creepers should be used on all tracks having one- way traffic, particularly on grades. RAILS. It has been claimed that the railroad track has not been as scientifically studied and analyzed as other engineering problems. It has not been susceptible of very exact analysis because of the great variety of physical conditions and the economic limitations. The attention now being given to this subject by the railroads, engineering societies, the Government and the manufacturers gives promise of better results in the future. The rail presents the most serious problem. The responsi- bility for loss of life through wrecks that may be caused by broken rails makes us timid in treating the problem in a broad, economic way. \Vith the increase of wheel loads and speeds, we naturally increase the weights of the rails. “Then the rail breaks, we cover our doubts as to the quality obtainable by further increase in weight. There are, however, reasons, aside from economy. why the rails should be made of small section. The small rail will distribute the lead over a poor roadbed with less proportionate stress, because of its greater flexibility, and it can be made of better quality. This was brought forcibly to the writer’s attention on the Union Pacific Railroad in 1801 during the replacement of the old English 56-lb. rails with 75-lb. Ameri- can rails, where it was necessary to begin the replacement of the 7 5-lb. rails before the 56-lb. rails had been completely removed. These 56-lb. rails were carrying passenger engines having a weight of 38,000 lbs. per axle, while the heaviest axle load now running on the present 90-lb. rails is 56,500 lbs, from which it will be seen that the 56-lb. rail was subjected to stresses 50 per- cent greater than the present 90-lb. rail. 428 TRACK AND ROADBED The Report of the American Railway Engineering Associa- tion (Proceedings of the Year 1914) states: “The average per- formance of the heavy sections (85 lb. to 100 lb.) is not as good as that of the lighter sections (7 2 lb. to 80 lb.) ”. In Technologic Paper N o. 38 of the United States Bureau of Standards (1914) it is stated: “One of the most important fac- tors in the determination of the grain size of the rolled piece is the amount of reduction in the rolls. A comparison of the results given in Table 23 shows that for two rails finished at practically the same temperature, the one having the smaller cross section is very much finer grained. The average grain size of the 90-lb. and 100-lb. rails is 24,000 per square inch, while that of the 72-lb. rails is 42,800 per square inch”. And on page 61 of the same paper: “With uniform mill practice the rails of 100-lb. section will be finished at some 10 to 20 degrees hotter than 90-lb. rails and 50 degrees hotter than 7 5-lb. rails.” It is essential that standard sections shall be generally used. This will not only conduce to economy in manufacture but will permit better comparisons of service to be made. This object would not seem to be accomplished by having standard A, B and C sections of rail of the same weight as one society now proposes, and yet the writer recalls an experience which would justify such practice. For example, the New York subway was originally laid with A.S.C.E. 100-lb. rails and it was desirable to continue the use of such an accepted standard. It was found, however, that the sharp corner of the rail wore off so rapidly and cut into the wheels so badly that it was necessary to increase the radius of the corner from standard of 5/ 16 inch to 1/2 inch; and thus a new section was born. To have a section universally used, consideration must be given to what seems to be the extreme requirements of some of the users. It is, of course, necessary to accept the dictation of the mills as to desirable shapes to roll. The admirable report on rail failure statistics‘; for the year ending October 31, 1912, published in the Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association for the year 1914, furnishes the best data we now have. Attention is called in this report to the fact that consideration is not given by the roads replying as to the differences in wheel loads, speed, tonnage over TRACK AND ROADBED 429 the rails, and it might be added, the character of the roadbed. These elements are, of course, essential to enable conclusions to be drawn. On the New York City rapid transit lines, rails of various kinds have been tried and careful records kept of their service. The rails are of 90-lb. and 100-lb. sections. While the wheel loads are only half of those on the steam railroads, the uniform character of the roadbed and the facilities for exactly measuring the tonnage carried permit exact deductions to be drawn. This experience clearly confirms one of the conclusions of the A.R.E.A. Report above referred to, viz., “The wide variations of results must be due, to a large extent, to a lack of uniformity in the per- formance of difierent mills, and also to a lack of uniformity in the product of any individual mill”. The averages of all rails used on the New York rapid transit lines show that the open hearth 100-lb. rail with carbon 0.75 to 0.85 and phosphorus 0.02 to 0.04. gives twice the service against wear with only one half the number of breakages, in the same length of time, as the Bessemer rails having carbon 0.50 to 0.60 and phosphorus 0.10. Still there have been Bessemer rails that gave practically the same service as the open-hearth rails. In two lots of open-hearth steel rails, rolled under the same specifica- tions, by the same mill, in the same year, the breakages, from one lot were five times the number from the other lot. A paper by Mr. O. 0. Dixon, read October, 1914, before the New York Railroad Club, gives data on the wear of rails in the New York Subway. It is believed that more attention should be given by the railroads to securing better wearing rails. It seems probable that the carbon content of open-hearth rails can be increased 0.10, or specified 0.72 to 0.85, with advantage, inasmuch as the phosphorus content can be made considerably less than 0.04. While the higher carbon may cause slightly more breakages, we must consider where the line should be drawn, and by improved mill operation, extend it as much as possible. The objections made to this are, that there is a higher percentage of failures in the high-carbon rails and that transverse fractures are more often found in the high-carbon rails. As Mr. Howard has pointed out, these fractures always occur on the gauge side of the rails after {30 TRACK AND ROADBED they have been in service, and this is confirmed by other observ- ers. In view of this, it may be wise to lay our rails normal to the coning of the wheel rather than normal to the axle, as at present, and thus get a more central pressure on the head. In the matter of inspection, it would seem best to make the chemical determination from borings from the finished rails; and instead of taking test specimens for physical tests from three ingots of the heat, as at present, it would be better to test the top of the “A” rail of each ingot, and if this fails, test a speci- men from the bottom end of the “A” rail for the acceptance of the “B” rail, etc. This will add to the cost of production, but would seem to be a wise insurance against breakage in the track. In the United States Technologic Paper No. 38, previously alluded to, reasons are given for finishing the rails at a lower temperature to secure a finer grain structure, which would be practically accomplished by specifying a less shrinkage allowance. In a paper on the “Effect of Finishing Temperatures of Rails on Their Physical Properties and Micro-structure”, by Mr. W. R. Shimer, read at the New York meeting of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, February, 1915, and giving the results of experiments made at the Bethlehem Steel Works on re-heating blooms, it is shown that when rails are rolled from blooms charged hot into a re-heating furnace and brought up to about the original ingot rolling temperature before rolling into rails, “no appreciable difference in grain was found to indicate that the size or structure was governed by the difference in fin- ishing temperatures”. The Lackawanna Steel Co. has introduced a de-seaming proc- ess, which consists in milling about 1/8 inch from the top and bottom of the ingot during the rolling into rails. A small lot of steel rails rolled from ingots poured with the big end up have been tried in the New York Subway, and have had no failures and appeared to be of a more homogeneous structure. It is thus apparent that the mills are alive to the necessity of producing better rails, and it is certainly in the mills that improvements must be made. Our rails will probably cost more, but the railroads can well afford to pay for longer wear and greater safety. TRACK AND ROADBED 131 Careful experiments are new in progress, by engineering societies, on track deflection. It is apparent that the general deflection of the roadbed under a locomotive causes tension in the base of the rail, which, combined with the local efiects of wheel loads, would require the base of the rail to be made pro- portionately larger than the head. The recent increase in the base of rail to prevent the flange breaks due to transverse stress would also tend to meet the requirements for this longitudinal stress. Dr. P. H. Dudley ’s Stremmatograph records yield valuable information as to the stresses in rails due to track depression, and show the manner in which the stresses are affected by the distri- bution of wheel loads and speed. Unless the use of vanadium steel, which has not yet had a service trial, justifies its increased cost of 30 percent, it may be stated that open-hearth high-carbon steel now holds the field against the metal alloyed steels. Rolled manganese-steel rails, used in places of rapid wear, will give about five times the service of open hearth steel, but in electric railway service it has proved more susceptible to cor- rugation and breakage. The fractures, however, are of a pro- gressive nature and are generally discovered by inspection before ultimate failure. The present specified composition of man- ganese-steel rails is: Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.00 to 1.40% Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 to 15% Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Xot over 10% Conductor, or “third”, rails are now obtainable at about the price of running rails, which have a conductivity less than one-seventh that of copper. The results of tests of 36 heats of open-hearth 100-lb. con- ductor rails recently rolled were as follows: Carbon Manganese Sulphur Phos. Sil. Minimum . . . . . . . . . .060 .05 .028 .007 .005 Maximum . . . . . . . . . .190 .015 .023 .015 Average . . . . . . . . . . .074 .18 .033 .014 .009 Ratio to copper: Minimum, 6.20. Maximum, 6.68. Average, 6.68. Such rails are too soft to handle conveniently or to give the proper wear, and experiments show that the carbon content 432 TRACK AND ROADBED can be made 0.15 and still keep the ratio of conductivity below 7. The literature on this subject is so voluminous that aside from the Proceedings of engineering societies, reference is only made to the following publications of special interest: “Conservation of Cross Ties by Means of Protection from Mechanical Wear”, J. W. Kendrick, Am. Ry. Engineering & Maintenance of Way Assn., March, 1915. “Report of Accident on the Wabash R. R. near West Lebanon, Ind., March 7, 1912”, Interstate Commerce Commission, Aug., 1912. “Experiments on the Strength of Treated Timber”, W. Kendrick Hatt, PhD., Circular No. 39, July 20, 1906, U. S. Forest Service. “Experiments with Railway Cross Ties”, H. B. Eastman, Circular No. 146, April 25, 1908, U. S. Forest Service. “Cross Tie Forms and Rail Fastenings, with Special Reference to Treated Timbers”, Herman Von Schrenk, Bulletin No. 50, 1904, U. S. Forest Service. “Service Tests of Ties”, Howard F. Weiss and Carlile P. Winslow, Circular No. 209, December, 1912, U. S. Forest Service. “Prolonging the Life of Cross Ties”, Howard F. Weiss, Bulletin No. 118. Nov. 9, 1912, U. S. Forest Service. “Experiments in the Preservation Treatment of Red Oak and Hard Maple Cross Ties”, Bulletin No. 126, May 26, 1913, U. S. Forest Service. “On the Finishing Temperatures and Properties of Rails”, Dr. G. K. Burgess, et al., Paper No. 38, U. S. Bureau of Standards (1914). “Report of Accident on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad near Hays Mill, Ala., Oct. 1, 1912”, Interstate Commerce Commission, 1913. “Unit Fibre Strains in Rails from Moving Wheels, Recorded and Elucidated by the Stremmatograph”, Dr. P. H. Dudley.‘ “Typical Rail Failures”, F. A. Weymouth, New England R. R. Club, Nov. 10, 1914. “Distinctive Features of Track Equipment of the New York Sub- ways”, 0. 0. Dixon, New York R. R. Club, Oct. 16, 1914. “Electric Railway Track Construction”, R. M. Hannaford, Canadian Railway Club, Feb., 1913. “Rail Sections as One Element in Steam and Electric Traction”, P. H. Dudley, General Electric Review, Nov., 1914. “Report of Accident on the Line of the Lehigh Valley R. R. near Manchester, N. Y., Aug. 25, 1911”, United States Interstate Commerce Commission, 1912. “Report of Accident on the Great Northern Railway near Sharon, N. D., Dec. 30, 1911”, U. S. Interstate Commerce Commission. “Effect of Finishing Temperatures of Rails on Their Physical Prop- erties and l\'Iicro-structure”, W. R. Shimer, Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, March, 1915. DISCUSSION: TRACK AND ROADBED 433 DISCUSSION Mr. Charles Whiting Bakerfi‘ Mem. Am. Soc. M. E., noted that the author introduces the question of its being worth while to tilt the rail. It appeared to him to be worth pointing out that the rail and the wheel are one machine, and that we cannot consider what the rail should be without considering at the same time what the wheel actually is. He referred to a. very remarkable paper which was read some years ago by the Nestor of the profession, Don G. Whittemore, in which it was shown that the actual wheel rolling on the actual rail is a cylinder rolling on a flat surface, and not a cone. If we take a section, we find that, instead of the standard contour of the new wheel, we have quite a variety of shapes, some worn with hollow treads and some that are cylinders; and the rail has to adjust itself to those conditions. A rail after it has been in the track a little while is worn off apparently level on the top. It is worth considering whether the elimination of the refinements mentioned—coning the wheel, etc—might not result in better wear. In that case there would be no necessity for tilting the rail. Mr. Arnold Stucki,** Mem. Am. Soc. M. 16., said that undoubtedly the wood tie is the most economical in certain sections of the country where timber is axailable and steel is hard to get; but there are localities where these conditions are just reversed. Several roads have had this experience. He thought it unfortunate that Mr. H. T. Porter, Chief Engineer of the Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad, was not present to speak of his expe- rience with steel ties, for his entire road is equipped with them. Mr. W. A. Cattellji‘ M. Am. Soc. C. E, stated that the principal trouble with steel ties is that no satisfactory means have yet been devised of fastening the rail to the tie. The adoption of the steel tie is not so much a matter of the relative cost and durability of the steel and wood, but of the efficiency of the fastening. If a satisfactory fastening could be developed, steel ties would soon come into more general use. Mr. William H00d,1§: M. Am. Soc. C. E, wrote concerning the top finish of a roadbed in cuts or fills, preparatory to track laying and sub- sequent ballasting, supposedly on account of future drainage, that Figs. 1 and 2—single track cut on tangent and on curve—show half width of cut as 9 feet, the corresponding half width of bank being 8 feet, which are ordinary and normal suitable construction, to be varied from according to climate and according to the importance of the railroad. Both of these figures show an irregular line in general underneath the finished line marked “profile or formation grade”; this irregular line being illustrative of the ordinary shape of a cut or fill roadbed as graded by ordinary appliances, ready for finishing to surface ready for track laying. meme Chief, Engineering News, New York, N. Y. ** Consulting Engineer, Pittsburgh. Pa. i Consulting Engineer, San Francisco, Calif. iChief Engineer, Southern Pacific Co., San Francisco, Calif. Mr. Baker. Mr. Stucki. Mr. Cattell. Mr. Hood. 1581’? CIEISIGVOH (INV XOVHL :NOISSIIOSIG 'POOH .JN 21-0’ 9"0' ‘ 210" 110" T 110” 22.0’ '1‘ 4L6’ l 4L6‘ ‘ 4L0] T 4L0’ Q0 Q“ 60 \9 {)0 ~ \ 0' I I I 3‘ a a 7 x9: 8-0 .. o In '- £Profi/e_ar Forma fiog__6mde Cut Slope ordinarily varies from ‘lid to l%=l, per material. Irregular‘ Line illustrate; )fiape of madbed ready for fiflljhlng. Pig. 1. Single Track Out on Tangent. ' 5 ffizflle or fbrmafioir Grade Cut §lope ordmarily varies from {I to lg! I, per material. Irregular Line illustrate; shape of roadbed ready ibr f|'ni;hin5>,. Pig. 2. Single Track Cut on Curve. DISCUSSION: TRACK AND ROADBED 435 The material then put on and smoothed to formation grade on tangents, and to transverse slope on curves, is the most suitable material readily at hand. If possibly the adjacent cuts contained material as good as ballast, or partially as good as ballast, this material would be used. In no case is the top of the resulting smooth surface ready for track— laying to be considered waterproof and capable of shedding water, regardless of the shape that it may be put into. Hence, it may be considered that the only practical utility of such smooth surface is for (1) convenience of track laying and first running surface and (2) for ensuring uniform depth of ballast under the ties. On banks this condition is not permanent, and whatever the shape they are top-finished to. it soon disappears after settlement and is corrected by track raising with more ballast. The dimensions of ditches should be determined by climatic requirements and are located either on both sides or only on one side of the cut; or in some instances there are no ditches at all. Excessive half widths of cuts in mountainous regions, steep transverse slope canyons, etc., give a cost of construction which is best appreciated by those who have had experience and profited by it. In close work of this sort, where benched line to hold the ballast is required on the lower side, the difference between 9 and 11 feet half width can readily double an already heavy cost of grading. Mr. N. A. Eckart,* M. Am. Soc. C. 13., felt that inasmuch as electric railways have been included in the scope of this paper a brief descrip- tion of the track and roadbed construction of the San Francisco Municipal Railways may be of interest to the visiting members, most of whom have doubtless had occasion to ride over the Municipal Road to the Exposition. The standard construction of the Municipal Railways. briefly sum- marized to correspond with the column headings of Table 2 of the paper, is as follows: Heaviest Car, weight 50,000 pounds; wheel base, motor truck 1 ft. 10 in. Heaviest Vv'heel Load, 6250 pounds. Rail: 106 pounds per yard in straight track, 129 pounds per yard on curved track, 70 pounds in open track construction. The 106- and 129-pound rail are grooved girder sections, 9 in. deep; standard lengths are 60 and 62 feet, and 30 and 32 feet respectively; the TU-pound rail is the A. S. C. E. section, 4% in. deep, and 33 feet standard length. All rails are of open hearth steel, purchased under the Standard Specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials; the carbon content of the girder rail being as per Class “A”. °’ Assistant Engineer in charge of Municipal Railway Construction, San Fran- (nse0.(¥di£ Mr. Hood. Mr. Eckart. 436 DISCUSSION: TRACK AND ROADBED Mr. Eckart. Splice bars for the girder rail are 36 inches in length with twelve 1-inch bolts, and for the “T” rail are 34 inches in length with six 3A-inch bolts. Shoulder tie plates are used throughout, and square spikes. Crossties are split California redwood, untreated, and are 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 feet long, spaced 2 feet on centers. Ballast is crushed rock 8 inches deep under the ties. Briefly the method of construction in paved streets is as follows: The track trench is excavated between lines 2 feet outside of the outer rails. The pavement, when of asphalt on concrete base, is broken by means of a 2500-pound pile-driving hammer, with an 8- to 10-foot drop, the pile-driving rig being so mounted that the hammer may be swung back and forth across the Width of the trench as it progresses along the line. Following this the asphalt surface is easily separated from the con- crete base, loaded by hand into trucks, and hauled away. The shattered concrete is then thrown to one side and a small steam shovel, generally of one-half yard capacity and of the merry-go-round type, is used for completing the excavation to subgrade, which is 231/; inches below the finished rail surface. The bottom of the trench is then flushed with water and rolled with a 5- to 7-ton roller; in clayey material flushing is omitted, and in sand rolling is omitted. Upon the subgrade thus prepared 6 inches of broken rock ballast is spread, or, where available, the broken concrete paving base, crushed to size, is used. This is then covered with sufficient sand to fill the voids, which is flushed into the interstices with water from a fire hose. Following this the sub-ballast is rolled with a 5- to 7-t0n roller. The ties and rails are then laid, additional ballast is then added and the rails tamped up the remaining 2 inches to grade. The space between the ties is filled with broken rock, except that pockets are left under the rail, and for a width of 12 inches on either side, into which concrete is poured to form a foundation for the header blocks. These basalt header blocks are laid adjacent to the rails on a 1 to 3 dry sand and cement bed. The pavement base, where asphalt surface is used, is then poured to the re- quired grade between these blocks, after which 1 to 1 cement grout is poured between the block joints, using a strip of canvas weighted with sand along the outer edges of the blocks to retain the grout until it is set. The asphalt paving, consisting generally of a 11/_>-inch thickness of binder and a 115-inch thickness of asphalt topping, is then laid, after about 7 days. When the track work has been thus completed and before cars are operated, all joints are gone over with a Vixen plane and brought to a perfect surface. The rails, as in nearly all paved track construction, are laid with close joints, except that in special work 1/8-inch joints are speci- fied. The city has about ‘)4 of a mile of double track operated jointly with the Ocean Shore Railroad Company. This track is constructed under the same specifications, except that the rail is 141-pound section with flange- ways for M. C. B. wheels. Freight cars of 100,000 pounds capacity are regularly handled over this piece of road, and so far no trouble has been experienced either in the track or in the adjacent header blocks and pav- DISCUSSION: TRACK AND ROADBED $3‘— ing. There has been no pumping up of the header blocks, a common annoyance where a sufficient foundation is not provided for the blocks and care is not taken to keep water from penetrating the paving base. The Municipal lines cross a number of cable tracks and in a few in- stances trouble has been caused by the expansion of the rails closing the cable slots. To prevent this condition, which had been anticipated, struts were riveted to the under side of the rail bearing on the cable yokes and concrete blocks carrying the cable construction. Where the electric tracks are laid downhill from the cable crossing, these struts are gener- ally omitted; in one instance, however, where two cable tracks were crossed a block apart on a grade, the struts at the foot of the grade have held and the expansion has forced the rail joints, tie rods and all up the hill through the concrete paving base with sufficient force to partially close the cable slot at the top of the hill. Standard slot widths are ‘Zr inch and the cable grips are 1/1 inch, allowing 14 inch leeway. The remedy quickly applied was to restore the slot to its original width by burning with oxy-acetylene. The author has not included in his paper any reference to the important subject of track special work. San Francisco has been installing through- out solid manganese special work, of double-web construction 9 inches deep, with flange bearing risers at intersections. These risers reduce the noise at crossings and increase the life of the special work materially, due to the reduction of shock. They have given rise to no trouble except where used in conjunction with the Ocean Shore tracks. Here a number of chipped wheel flanges in the 100,000-pound freight cars have been re— ported, but this Mr. Eckart believes to be due to taking these crossings at too high a speed. The city has developed a standard specification for track special work covering the character of material, design, and limits of tolerance. All similar pieces are interchangeable in any and all layouts and the fishing sections are ground so that standard joint plates may be used throughout. This feature of interchangeability is very valuable in reducing the number of spares to be carried and facilitates maintenance. The author refers to the use of manganese-steel rails. It would seem that where manganese rails are used, special attention should be paid to the bonding of these rails, inasmuch as the conductivity is only about one-fourth that of open-hearth steel rail and about one-fortieth that of copper, thus requiring a much larger area of contact for the bonds in order to keep the current density in the rails at the point of bond contact within reasonable limits. Compressed terminal bonds are not suitable for use in the manganese castings, owing to the practical impossibility of drill- ing the necessary holes, to overcome which difficulty resort has been made to casting plugs in the rail, which plugs must be quite large to prevent excessive current density. In the city’s standard construction all bonding is carried clear around the manganese special work by copper cables, no attempt being made to bond the manganese. In addition to avoiding bond- ing trouble in the casting, it renders replacement of special work less dif- Mr. Eckart. 438 DISCUSSION: TRACK AND ROADBED Mr. Eckart. ficult. It would seem that with the use of any length of manganese rolled rail, it would be necessary to supplement the bonding of the rails with additional copper to secure sufficient capacity in the return circuit in order to decrease liability to electrolysis, which will occur whenever the potential gradient is excessive. Paper No. 88 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING. By ('IIARLES HANSEL. M. Am. Soc. f‘. E. New York, N. Y., U. S. A. The International Engineering Congress held at Glasgow in September. 1901. was the last Congress which considered the subject assigned to the writer. During the deliberations at Glasgow, a paper by Mr. I. A. Timmis. M. Inst. C. E.. entitled “Modern Practice in Railway Signaling” was read. The sub- ject of Signals and Interlocking was treated broadly under two headings: First, the ‘Westinghouse High-Pressure (Electro- Pneumatie) System; second, the Low-Pressure Pneumatic. The intricacies of signaling and interlocking call for a vast number of parts; and. perhaps. no other branch of rail- way operation requires the accuracy of design. construction. in- stallation and maintenance as is required by the various forms. styles and installations of block signal, power interlocking and manual interlocking. The writer assumes that this Congress is not particularly interested in listening to a discourse on the principles and de- tails of track circuits. automatic signals, power interlocking, and the like; but prefers. rather to be directed to the most 1m- portant developments which have occurred in the art of sig- naling and interlocking since the. last paper on this subject, which was printed in the Proceedings of the Congress at Glas- gow in 1901. After the practicable development of the automatic block system as installed on steam-operated railroads, came the de- velopment of track circuit methods, which provided for the use of the track circuit: thus the automatic block. On elec- trically-operated railroads, without such development the large 440 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING terminals and stretches of outlying track now operated elec- trically would still have to be operated by steam. It is a matter of universal knowledge, that the track cir- cuit as installed and used on steam railways for many years is the controlling factor in automatic block signaling and that, without such rail circuit, our present knowledge of the art of signaling is insufficient to provide an automatic block system of equal merit. The installation and maintenance of the rail circuit on steam railroads is simple and inexpensive so long as the pro- pulsion power of trains is the steam locomotive. The operation of trains by electric power by means of motor cars or motors requires the uninterrupted use of the rail for propulsion pur- poses; therefore, the problem of dividing the track into blocks —as is easily done where the motive power is self-contained and does not require a return current through the rails—at once becomes difficult, since it is necessary to employ two dif- ferent currents using the same path; 1. e., the rail or rails. The propulsion current must not be impeded, whereas the block signal rail circuit must be impeded so as to divide the track into blocks. Thus, while the impedance bond is necessary in order to cut off the block circuit, there must be no impedance ofiered to the propulsion circuit. Since the majority of electric lines are operated on the direct-current principle, it was necessary to perfect a method of employing alternating current for signal track circuit where both track rails must be retained for propulsion purposes. To accomplish a rail circuit for block working on electric lines, impedance bonds are installed, for the same relative purpose as the ordinary insulated joints on steam-operated roads. These impedance bonds are now designed on simple and practi- cal lines; although, when the subject was first broached to the electrical experts, it was not believed to be practicable by reason of the supposed necessity of design, which would pro- vide an apparatus of such bulk and cost as to make it impracticable. The development of the A. C. signal track circuit was accomplished primarily for the purpose of installing auto- SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 411 matic block signals on suburban electric railways; and the first reported notice of the satisfactory development of the A. O. track circuit appears in the notice to the stockholders of the Pneumatic Signal Company, November, 1902. At that time, the very important development of the New York Cen- tral Terminals at 42nd Street, New York, and the Pennsylvania Terminals in New York City, as now planned and operated, had not been contemplated; and, indeed, it would not have been practicable to operate such terminals by electric propul- sion without the use of the A. C. track circuit, or rather the principles used and developed by the A. C. track circuit, in association with the impedance bond. Thus, the development of the A. C. signal track circuit marks an epoch in safe and economic railway operation. UPPER QUADRANT SEMAPHORE SIGNAL. As is well known, the art of signaling was first developed to a satisfactory stage in England, and the practices of English railways in respect to signaling and interlocking were gen- erally adopted in the United States. As we look back upon the principles and the designs which govern the manufacture. installation and operation of the earlier signaling devices. we may Well wonder why principles were adopted which now seem obviously incorrect and expensive. The first semaphore signal indicated “safety” by the posi- tion of the arm below the horizontal. “Danger” was indicated by the horizontal position of the arm. In order to insure the signal arm going to the horizontal position in case of the break- ing of connections between the operating power and the signal. it was necessary to counter-weight the arm; and this counter- weight must be sufficient to overcome, not only the weight of the arm itself, but also any accumulation of ice and snow. Since the weight of ice and snow accumulating on an arm is considerable, it follows that the counter-weight necessary to insure the moving of the signal arm to the horizontal position is considerably greater than would be required if it were not necessary to provide for the conditions attendant upon ice and snow and weight of signal arm. With the excessive counter- 4412 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING weight necessary to insure the movement of the signal to “danger” in case a connection broke, the power necessary to clear the signal is unduly augmented. It is obvious that, if the indication for a clear signal is given by moving the arm above the horizontal, the necessity of the counter-weight will disappear and any accumulation of ice or snow on the signal arm would tend toward safety by causing the signal arm to fall from the upper quadrant to the horizontal position, or below. Thus, if the indication of safety is given by moving the signal arm to a position above the horizontal rather than below, as was, and is, the English practice, we not only secure a safer signal, but we materially reduce the cost of operating same; especially when the signal is automatic and operated by mechanical power. All of the modern installations now being made in the United States have the upper quadrant semaphore signal. The earlier installations of this form of signal were on the Great Northern Railway in Minnesota, in 1907; on the Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington Railroad at Media, Pa., in 1906; on the Washington Terminal at Washington, D. C. (where there are 201 semaphore signals), in 1907 ; on the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad near Clathe, Kansas, in 1909; and on the Nickel Plate, at Griffith, Ind., in 1909. The three-position automatic semaphore followed closely the perfection of the upper quadrant. While the indication above the horizontal for “clear” was not necessarily a part of the development of the three-position signal, the upper quad- rant lends itself more satisfactorily to the three-position indi- cation; and, while, in the opinion of many signal engineers, the development of the three-position indication is a very import- ant step in the advancement of railway signaling, it does not mark an epoch as clearly as does the development of the upper quadrant indication. The writer contended for years for the upper quadrant indication for the semaphore and took frequent occasion to pub- lish papers on the subject in the technical press. It is inter- esting to note that in an editorial comment on one of these articles in which the writer urged the adoption of the upper SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 44:3 quadrant, the editor tookoccasion to express the opinion that it was not likely that the railroads would adopt the drastic suggestion of showing a clear signal by the indication above the horizontal rather than below, as was then the general practice. AUTOMA TIC TRAIN CONTROL. The development and installation of automatic semaphore signal systems, while providing a visual system of signaling almost perfect in its operation, does not compel discipline nor provide against the failure of the trainmen to observe and act upon the indication of such semaphore signals. In the opinion of the writer, the next important development of the railway operation will be the perfecting of a suitable system of auto- matic train control. ' To appreciate the influences that guide the actions of a locomotive driver, one must study the conditions from the cab of the locomotive; and it is probable that, if more people were familiar with these conditions, there would not be such a de- sire for speed at the expense of safety. It is not likely that any argument of this character will change the temperament of a nation, and we must, therefore, view the conditions as they exist,‘ and endeavor to guard against the involuntary or inexplicable acts of the locomotive driver, who, while possess- ing keen intelligence and a desire to do his duty to the public and his employer, occasionally fails for reasons that, in many cases, he cannot himself explain. Accidents have occurred, with horrifying results, where the railroads were equipped with as good a system of visual signals as is known to the art; and it was clearly proven that these signals were operative and indicated the exact condition of the block they governed. These accidents demonstrate that the locomotive driver must be protected against the time when he shall fail from mental or physical inability or from inat- tention ; and it can hardly be expected that any human being will always do that which he ought to do. It is possible to provide for the automatic control of trains by means of apparatus beyond the reach of the locomotive 444 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING driver, fixed at predetermined points on the permanent way so as to apply the air brakes in case the train attempts to pass when the signal is at “danger”. Any such device should be considered in relation to the carrying of traffic safely without unnecessary interruption. No devices should be encouraged which would tend to remove the responsibility from the loco- motive driver of observing visual or other signals, and it should only become automatically operative when the locomo- tive driver becomes, as it were, “dc-energized”, physically or mentally, or both. He should retain the control of his train at all times so long as he is “energized” and fit mentally and physically to perform the function of his post. He should be able to pass a signal at “danger”, provided, however, there is no obstruction in the block or section of track it governs; or, in case he has a permissive card authorizing him to proceed by signal under control; or whenever he knows a signal is at “danger” because it is out of order; and there may be other conditions which might make it necessary for him to pass a signal at “danger” in order to protect his train. He should be able to hold the apparatus from operating automatically; but, in case he does so hold the apparatus from operating, such act should be recorded, as to time and frequency, in such a manner as to make a secret record beyond his control. It is entirely practicable to give all of these results with- out interfering with the proper and independent action of the locomotive driver so long as he is competent to act. Such de- vices may be so arranged in connection with the locomotive as not to inconvenience the driver, and still provide against the time when he may fail to do that which he ought to do. There is, of course, a great diversity of opinion as to how far we should attempt to carry the automatic control of a train, and it may be that, in the opinion of some of the operating officials, it would only be necessary to automatically shut off the steam and give an audible signal in the cab; whereas, others might desire all of the functions above indicated. ‘ In any case, the automatic control should be used as an auxiliary to fixed signals and be governed by the condition of the block; in which case, it would protect the train against a false in- SIGNALS INTERLOCKING 1145 7 dication of the signal, which sometimes shows “clear’ when it should be at “danger”. By using the automatic control system as an auxiliary in the manner described, the equipment of each locomotive and block increases the unit of safety; and, even though only one lOCOTllOtlVG be so equipped, we shall have taken a permanent forward step which will insure the control of that train just as surely as if all the locomotives were fitted; and all additional locomotives so equipped would add to the percentage of pro- tection. It is evidently not necessary to have a definite per- centage of all the locomotives equipped before we can secure the benefit of the apparatus, as in the case of the air-brake system. Assuming that a railway thoroughly equipped with a sema- phore block system has also added the proposed system of auto- matic control: the locomotive driver, instead of feeling that he is relieved from the responsibility of observing the visual signals as closely as heretofore, finds that he must use greater vigilance, because a record is made of every time he passes a home signal at “danger”; and, with the knowledge that such record will be in the hands of his superior each day, he will certainly hesitate to sacrifice safety to speed. The failure of the automatic control system is not by any means as serious as the failure of the visual system, because it is only an auxiliary; and, as the engineer has to depend upon the indication given him by the visual system to advance or stop, there is nothing in the automatic control which author- izes him to advance. Many engineers have been opposed to automatic block signals for the reason that there is no record of the failure to observe signals, as in the case of the manually-operated sig- nals; and, consequently, it is impossible to discipline the en- ginemen. The automatic control of trains, with the apparatus making a secret and permanent record, would remove the ob- jection to the automatic block system, and make it more com- plete and perfect than any other system now known. The automatic control of trains will be found especially valuable when fog occurs, as it will provide an audible signal 446 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING in the cab, and control the train as well. This will obviate the necessity of torpedo signals, in England. Very little progress was made in England in the develop- ment of automatic control of trains until within recent years, except as an adjunct for safer working during fog. During the last few years, however, a number of accidents have occurred which have been entirely due to drivers over-winning the sig- nals, thereby directing attention to the need of an auxiliary to the visual signal system. A number of such auxiliary signals have been given a more or less extended trial by the Board of Trade officers who have more or less interested themselves in the matter, and they have said: “Our recommendation is that Railway Companies should be urged to carry out combined experiments with diiferent systems of (lab Sig‘ naling and Automatic Control with the object of supplementing the present system of semaphore signaling”. There are at the present time two systems which have been extensively tried and adopted to a limited extent in England. The first is the Western System; the second, the Raven System. The former was first tried on an extensive scale on the Great Western Railway. It was inspected by the Board of Trade, and other provisional sanction was obtained for it to be used for a period of six months as a substitute for the semaphore dis- tant signal. As a result of this test, the Board of Trade gave their full sanction of the apparatus, and the distant signals were permanently removed. When we consider the extreme conservativeness of the in- spectors of the Board of Trade, we must conclude that the ap- paratus was at least more perfect than the distant signal sys- tem which it displaced. With the exception of the subways, where the automatic control of trains is in successful operation, there are. in the United States, no installations of automatic control of trains. None of the Continental railways is equipped with automatic control, though many experimental installations ‘have been made. Signal engineers and railway operating oii‘icials, gener- ally, do not feel. that the cab signal or automatic train con- SIGNALS AND IXTERLOCKING 4&7 trol should necessarily supplant the visual or roadside signal as now installed under the general term “automatic block sig- nals”. but rather that these wayside signals should be supple- mented by the cab signal and automatic control. In railway signaling, there are recognized, well-established protective rules, to which appeal is made when measuring the utility or capacity of a signal system for promoting safety. A large proportion of the inventions offered to provide an automatic stop are practically useless; another class of such inventions discloses the fact that their authors are entirely un- familiar with the conditions to be met and the engineering rules to be observed. In the art of signaling, the protective value of a proposed invention is determined in the first place upon whether or not the mode of action and the fundamental designs of the device satisfy certain engineering rules. In the gradual development of the art of signaling, the requirements have become exacting, and have resulted in plac- ing the question of the “survival of the fittest” authoritatively upon a scientific basis. Railway operating officials, as also the Federal Govern- ment of the United States, now realize that it is practicable to provide a system of automatic train control. and the Railway Signal Association of the United States has promulgated a set of specifications, as follows: REQUJ SITES OF INSTALLATION. Note. These requisites are drawn for application in con- nection with a properly-installed block-signal or interlocking system. 1. The apparatus so constructed that the failure of any essential part will cause the application of the brakes. 2. The apparatus so constructed that it will automatically control the train in the event of failure by enginemen to observe signals or speed regulations. 3. The apparatus so constructed that it will control the train in the event of a failure of fixed signals to give proper indications. 448 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 4. The apparatus so constructed that proper operative re- lations between those parts along the roadway and those on the train will be assured under all conditions of speed, weather wear, oscillation and shock. 5. The train apparatus so constructed as to prevent the release of the brakes, after automatic application has been made, until the train has been brought to a stop, or the speed of the train has been reduced to a predetermined rate. 6. The train apparatus so constructed that when operated it will make an application of the brakes sufficient to stop or control the train within a predetermined distance. 7. The apparatus so constructed as not to interfere with the application of the brakes by the engineman’s brake valve or the efficiency of the air-brake system. 8. The apparatus so constructed as to be operative when the engine is running forward or backward. 9. The apparatus so constructed that when two or more engines are coupled together, or a pusher is being used, the apparatus can be made effective on the engine only from which the brakes are controlled. 10. The apparatus so constructed as to be operative on trains moving only with the current of traffic. 11. The apparatus so constructed as to conform to the American Railway Association standard of clearances of rolling equipment and structures. 12. The apparatus so constructed as not to constitute a source of danger to employees or passengers, either in its in- stallation or operation. 13. The apparatus so constructed as not to interfere with the means used for operating fixed signals. Adjuncts. The following may be used: (A) Cab Signal. A signal located in the engine cab indi- cating a condition affecting the movement of the train and so constructed that the failure of any part directly controlling the signal will cause it to give the “stop” indication. DISCUSSION: SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 449 (B) Detonating Signal Apparatus. An apparatus located along the roadway and so constructed as to give an audible signal by means of a torpedo or other explosive cartridge. (C) Speed Indicator. (D) Recording Device. An apparatus located on the train and so constructed as to make a record of the operations of the automatic applications of the brakes and of the speeds of train, and such other records as may be desirable. The perfecting of a system of cab signaling and automatic control of trains is a duty which should not be left to the un- assisted efforts of the individual. Governing powers have laid down rules and specifications for the ideal,—a goal for someone to achieve. This is not suf- ficient. The public interests demand that more speedy progress be made; and it seems reasonable to expect that the govern- ing powers should join with the railroads, and offer such in- centive as will stimulate practical work. and hasten the day when the traveling public will be more fully protected by the cab signal coordinated with the wayside signal and also the automatic control of trains. DISCUSSION Mr. H. J. Kennedy said that he had noticed that the upper quadrant signals are used in some places and he wanted to know if the absence of sleet here is the reason why the Southern Pacific Co. uses the lower quadrant type. He wished to ask why an automatic stop was not placed at the point of the last wreck on the Northwestern Pacific Railway. Mr. L. M. Perrinf'“ Assoc. A. I. E. E., said that the wreck on the Northwestern Pacific Railway could have been prevented by the use of an automatic stop, but that the diversified traffic precluded an automatic stop at this point at present. On the Brooklyn Subway a system of cab signals has been installed instead of the fixed signals. According to the latest Interstate Commerce Commission report 50% of the railways have block signal control, 15% automatic and 35% manual. Mr. Paul J. 0st,** in answer to Mr. Kennedy’s question as to why automatic stops were not used on the Northwestern Pacific, said so many kinds of equipment are in use there, that an automatic stop is out of the * Senior Signal Engineer, Div. of Valuation, Interstate Commerce Comm., San Francisco, Calif. ** Electrical Engineer, San Francisco, Calif. Mr. Kennedy. Perrin. Mr. 450 DISCUSSION: SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 0st. Mr. Kennedy. Mr. 0st. Mr. . question. Steam, electric and narrow-gauge equipment are run over the same roadbed, and they all have difierent clearances. The upper quadrant has the advantage of three positions, which the lower quadrant does not havez—horizontal, denoting danger; inclined at 45 degrees upward, for caution; and vertical, to denote a clear track. The caution signal may be displayed by the semaphore arm that displays the danger signal; thus the one arm may be made to do the duty of both the distant and home signal. To the best of his knowledge the three positions in the lower quadrant are not as clearly defined as those in the upper quadrant. Mr. H. J. Kennedy recalled that some years ago semaphore blades were constructed so that there were three positions in the lower quad- rant—horizontal showing red, or danger; 45 degrees downward showing green, or caution; and clear down, white or proceed. Mr. Paul J'. 031:, in reply, stated that the proceed of the lower quad- rant is not as clear as the proceed of the upper quadrant. Mr. H. H. Simn10ns* wished to state that the Chicago & Eastern 11- linois have automatic stops working on their main line between Peoria and Danville, and this is a steam operated road. Simmons. * Ghica go, Ill. Paper N o. 89 RAILWAY TERMINALS. By B. F. CRESSON. JR. M. Am. Soc. (I. ll, Menl. A. I. M. E., M. Inst. C. 1‘). Chief Engineer, Board of Commerce and Navigation, State of New .lersx _v Trenton, N. J., U. S. A. This paper will deal principally with railway freight termi- nals. The question of railway terminals may be discussed from many view-points: from the general organization of the terminal system, its general layout and methods of operation, down to the minute details of track layouts. The theories on which assembly and classification yards, dis- tribution yards, local delivery yards and their operation are based are very much the same throughout the country. It is true that each city and each terminal point has its own peculiar physical limitations, and the details of laying out a terminal sys- tem and its operation are largely controlled by local conditions. The precise methods of operation employed are not, in the judg- ment of the writer, of as great interest and importance as the general theory of terminal operation in this country. In approaching a great center of industry and population, the railroads have generally planned their terminal layouts to provide for assembly, classification and holding yards outside of the congested district, for inter-communication with other rail- roads by belt lines or direct switching, and for distributing and receiving freight stations located at strategic points within the terminal district; and this latter includes facilities for the trans- fer of commodities between rail and water carriers, where this is part of the business of the terminal district. The writer, therefore, has prepared a series of maps showing six of the important railroad and terminal centers of the United 452 RAILWAY TERMINALS States; these include New York, which is the principal manu- facturing district of the country as well as the principal port for foreign commerce; Chicago, Bufialo and Cleveland, which are Lake Ports; St. Louis, which is distinctly a River Port; and New Orleans, which, while it is one hundred miles from the Gulf of Mexico, still may be considered a Gulf Port. On these maps the railroads are brought out prominently in order to show the terminal arrangements; and street systems and other details usually found on maps of these cities have been largely omitted. Before entering into a detailed statement of the terminal situation at these cities, it might be proper to discuss the rela-. tion of the railroad terminals to the railroad systems, and of the railroad terminals to the general economic conditions at these localities. Unquestionably the most expensive parts of railroad sys- tems are their terminals, both as to physical construction and as to operation, and this is especially so in the vicinity of and within large cities. Thg capacity of a railroad for doing business is measured largely by the capacity of its terminals. It is usually a compar- atively simple and inexpensive matter to add additional tracks to a railroad line. There are places, of course, where the con- tour of the country renders this expensive, and although most of the principal rivers are followed on both banks by railroad lines, yet it is almost always possible, with a reasonable expendi- ture, to increase the rail facilities by adding additional tracks. It is sometimes necessary to make a detour to accomplish these additional tracks, and it is sometimes necessary to enter into a general reorganization; but taking it as a general proposition, increasing the facilities of a railroad by adding additional tracks is not a difficult or expensive matter. When, however, it comes to increasing the terminal facili- ties within large cities and terminal districts, the problem is a far more difficult one. There is the greater expense of right-of- way, the greater difficulty of separating the rail traffic from the vehicular and street traffic of the city, and the necessity of avoid- ing grade crossings with other lines. The most advantageous RAILWAY TERMINALS 453 locations for terminal facilities are already taken up by the rail- roads and transportation systems which have foreseen the growth of the territory and the importance of advantageous locations, and have pre-empted the most available of them. The time has passed when the railroads are allowed to cut rates against each other, the tariffs having been fixed by the Interstate Commerce Commission. In the past the railroads have been able to hold out inducements to shippers by granting special privileges in the matter of switching and spotting of cars, in re- bates and in other ways. This now cannot lawfully be done, nor can special privileges in the way of rebates be made by any car- rier, but equal services must be extended to all. The competi- tion for business, therefore, between the railroads at important points is now limited to the competition for the best terminal facilities, in order that the shipper may most conveniently and quickly deliver and receive his freight at the freight stations, and in order that the quickest freight movement may be provided. This competition by the railroads for terminal facilities is in many ways advantageous to the communities, for it is through this competition that quicker deliveries can be made and that a shipper may receive or deliver his freight from the freight station with greater ease and consequently less cost, but there is another feature of this competition which may not be considered to be to the public advantage. In many places the railroads, in order to provide better ter- minal facilities than their rivals, have done so at seemingly un- warranted expense, not only in the installation but also in the operation of their terminals. This expense in many cases is out of proportion to the services rendered, but with a great railroad system it is possible to absorb these heavy terminal costs by dis- tributing them over the great mileage of their systems. The railroad companies have been seeking from the Inter- state Commerce Commission the right to increase their rates, and as an argument in support of this contention, they state that higher rates are necessary in order to take care of the higher cost of doing business. There seems but little doubt that the costs to the railroads have become higher, but perhaps these in- creased costs are due largely to increased terminal costs. and 454: RAILWVAY TERMINALS this, to a large extent, may be due to the rivalries which exist between the railroads to create more convenient terminal arrange- ments so as to draw business to their lines. This means that the public is asked to pay for the expensive individual terminal ar- rangements that the rivalries of the railroad companies have created. A mere glance at the maps contained in this report will show the extent to which the individual railroads have gone to create a multiplicity of private terminal facilities. The solution of this difficulty appears to be in the reduction of individual railroad terminal installation and in the establish- ment of joint facilities in large cities through which to handle the business of all the railroads within the terminal district. In New York Harbor, for instance, there are nine separate and individual railroads with their tide-water terminals in the New Jersey portion of the harbor. Each of these railroads per- forms its individual lighterage service and each of them has established its individual freight terminals, throughout the harbor. This individual railroad operation in New York necessitates the movement of cars, lightly loaded, the duplication of services and high rentals for individual terminal stations, all of which adds to the cost of the freight movement; but the fact that com- petition is restricted to these terminal services has caused the more progressive and far-sighted railroad companies to secure all they have been able of the available locations, with a view of not only serving their own immediate and growing needs, but also of preventing their competitors and rivals from securing additional facilities through which to compete with them. The rivalries of the railroads have made it difficult to ar- range for the establishment of joint terminal systems and have made it necessary, particularly in New York, to devote much valuable land, especially on the waterfront, to railroad business, where it is much needed for other purposes and for shipping. The growth of business and the present expense of individual terminal services, will, it seems, necessitate the organization and operation of a more economical and efficient joint terminal ser- vice. RAIL‘YAY TERMINALS 455 Chicago, appreciating this difficulty, has been striving to efiect a better freight terminal system; Buffalo is now under- taking a system of joint railroad operation. In St. Louis and in Cleveland they see the necessity for some less expensive joint operation. New Orleans, probably in advance of any city in this coun- try, has progressed far in perfecting its terminal organization. The water-front is largely operated as a joint public utility, and in addition the belt line railroad is publicly operated at cheap rates, where all the railroads are served on an equal basis. San Francisco has done much in establishing a public belt line; Philadelphia is working for this and for joint railroad services. as are Boston and Baltimore and many of the other cities. There seems to be a realization in this country at this time of the necessity of discarding the costly individual private ter- minal operations in large cities, and of substituting therefor a joint terminal system under a certain degree of public supervis- ion through which the shippers can be properly served with the sacrifice of a minimum amount of valuable property, and with a cutting down of the costs to the carriers as well as to the shippers. The following more or less detailed descriptions of the ter- minal situations at the cities above mentioned will serve to indi- cate the amount of individual operation that has grown up, and will also serve to show, particularly in the case of Chicago and of New York, the necessity of abandoning this expensive individ- ual operation in favor of a more economic joint terminal system. NEXV YORK TERMINAL SITUATION. The terminal situation at New York is quite different from that of any of the other large cities in the country. The port of New York is divided by water into five principal sub-divisions: The Borough of the Bronx in New York City on the mainland to the north; the Boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens in New York City on the mainland to the east; the Borough of Richmond or Staten Island in New York to the south; the Borough of Man- hattan, separated from the mainland by the Harlem River, the East River and the Hudson River in the central portion of the 456 RAILWAY TERMINALS harbor; and the New Jersey district, comprising many munici- palities on the mainland to the west. The principal railroads from the south, the west and the northwest have their tide-water terminals in the New Jersey dis- trict without physical connections for freight service to the New York portion of the harbor. The Borough of Manhattan has rail connection only with the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, the Borough of the Bronx only with the New York Central and the Hudson River Railroad, and the New Haven Railroad, the Boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens only with the Long Island Railroad, and the Borough of Richmond only with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. This refers of course to freight service. In the New Jersey district are the terminals of the Central Railroad Company of New Jersey; the Delaware and Hudson Railroad; the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad; the Pennsylvania Railroad; the Lehigh Valley; the Erie Railroad; the New York, Ontario and Western Railroad; the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad; the West Shore Railroad, including the New York Central lines west of Buffalo; and of these railroads in New Jersey, all have physical connections with each other. On account of these tide-water terminals in New Jersey, a great part of the best of the water-front in the New Jersey por- tion of New York Harbor is occupied as railroad terminals for lighterage of freight to and from the other portions of the har- bor; and in an examination made during July, 1913, it was found that there were 71 foreign steamship lines with regular sailings to foreign ports located in the New York portion of the harbor, while only 6 were located in the New Jersey portion of the har- bor. This is, of course, an unnatural state of affairs and one that is only made possible by the free lighterage services which the railroads perform throughout the harbor. There is no general terminal organization in New York Har- bor, although there are four terminal companies which perform certain local service. Each of the railroads conducts its own separate lighterage system, and the rivalries of the railroads, which are very keen at the port of New York, have created a great number of individual RAILWAY TERMINALS 457 terminals to which the services performed are only done at great expense. It will be interesting perhaps to quote from the New Jersey Harbor Commission ’s Fourth Preliminary Report, of which the writer was the principal author, the following concerning the railroad and steamship situation in New York Harbor. “New York Harbor is the great point of trans-shipment between rail and water carriers, and this separation of the rail- road terminals and the steamship terminals by bodies of water, necessitates a large amount of lighterage which is expensive and wasteful. “Method of Conducting Railroad Business. “The railroad business on the New Jersey side of the har- bor may be divided into three classes: 1. Shipment and receipt of freight to and from Manhattan Island and the other boroughs in New York. 2. Shipment and receipt of freight to and from ships. 3. The transfer of railroad cars between the railroads ter- minating in New Jersey and the railroads terminating in New York. “Considering first the business with Manhattan, practically no freight is sent on to Manhattan Island for trans-shipment, but all freight sent there is for consumption or fabrication on the Island itself. “The statement is frequently made that New York Har- bor may be divided into three classes: applies to the Hudson River water-front in lower Manhattan, and probably nowhere is there greater congestion at terminals than in this district. It has been possible to get high rentals for piers in this district and it has been the policy of the City of New York to execute long term leases, many of them to railroad companies, which return to the city a large revenue. A large portion of the food supply of Manhattan is brought to the piers on the West Side, by the railroad companies from New Jersey, and owing to ' the congestion and generally inadequate terminal arrangements, there is a very considerable waste of food products and perish- able materials. “This business is of the first importance to the City of New York and to Manhattan Island. Various plans for relief have 458 RAILWAY TERMINALS been proposed, various commissions have been organized, and have reported plans for relief, and a very general study has been made, to provide a plan whereby delays in the handling of per- ishable freight could be reduced, and better terminal arrange- ments could be had that would tend to decrease the terminal costs, and at the same time to better the quality of the food product as received by the consumer and to decrease its costs. “A considerable amount of freight is brought from the New Jersey railroads to Manhattan for fabrication. Manhattan has grown as the business and financial center of the country, and generally in the plans proposed, it has not been the purpose to draw manufacturing to the island but rather to encourage it to settle in the outlying boroughs. The large amount of manu- facturing which is now done on Manhattan and the large popu- lation on the East Side, skilled in certain light manufacturing, make it necessary to provide for a considerable amount of manu- facturing to be done on Manhattan; and in any plan for reorgan- ization, it is necessary to provide for the economical receipt and distribution of raw materials and for sending out the finished product. The occupation of the westerly Manhattan water-front is shown in the following table taken from a paper presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers, February 21, 1912, en- titlec “The Problem of the Lower West Side Manhattan \Yater- front of the Port of New York”, by B. F. Cresson, J r., M. Am. Soc. C. E. “BUSINESS INTERESTS USING THE NEW YORK \VATER-FRONT. From north side of From north side of Pier new 1 to 125 Pier new 1 to north ft. south of Pier side of 30th St., new 48, 11,780 20,658 ft.:3.91 feet:2.23 miles miles Transatlantic steamships . - 1.4% 17.5% Coastwise steamships . - - 15.6% 23.3% Railroads - . . . - .. - . - 47.9% 30.8% Hudson River boats - - . - - 5.3% 3.0% Sound steamers . . .- .. - 10.0% 5.7% Ferries - . .. .- 9.5% 7.8% Open wharfage - - -- _ 4.3% 3.9% Miscellaneous, coal, ice, etc. -. 5.8% 6.9% Recreation piers . 0.2% 0.1 % RAIIAVAY TERMINALS 459 “The above table shows the large amount of water-front which is given over to the railroad companies for their present use, and as the business with the railroads in Manhattan is in- creasing at the rate of from four to eight per cent per annum it is only a question of time when either better methods must be employed and a more economic use made of the water-front, or else the railroad occupation must be extended; this can only be done by excluding the steamship business more and more; the railroad business with Manhattan is of greater importance to the city than is the steamship business. “The method of conducting the railroad business is usually as follows and this applies to freight: “Trains are brought from the west and south to the railroad yards on the New Jersey shore where the freight is separated for the various terminals in and about the harbor. Cars containing freight for individual terminals are placed on car floats and towed across the river into the slips between the piers, awaiting the calling of the consignee. A certain time for storage must be allowed in order to give the consignee time to arrange for taking the freight away, but if the freight is not removed within a cer- tain time the railroad companies send it to storage and charge the consignee with the expenses attendant thereto. The inbound freight to Manhattan is therefore handled on the piers. ' “The outbound freight for the New Jersey railroads is de- livered to the bulkheads and bulkhead sheds in Manhattan by truck during-the day, but principally in the afternoon; the trains on the floats are not usually sent out until the evening and the truckman naturally wishes to hold his truck until he can have it fully loaded. Usually the same time of delivery at destination can be made, if the truck is on line at the bulkhead any time in the day prior to 4:30 P. M. ; and the railroad company usually receives freight from all trucks which are on line waiting to make delivery, at or before 4:30 P. M.; there may be some exceptions to this but it is the usual practice. “\Vhile the congestion of freight on the piers and bulkheads is also very great, it is this congestion of trucks and the delays incident thereto that cause the excessive terminal costs. It has been stated that it costs a merchant in Manhattan more to get his freight to and from the railroad piers than the amount he 460 RAILWAY TERMINALS pays to the railroad companies for transporting that freight from the piers to almost any part of the country. “The freight in the bulkhead sheds is loaded onto the cars standing on the car floats in the slips. An effort is made to do as much classification of freight on the car-floats as possible, and as many cars are usually brought over as can be accommodated in the slips, in order that as many points of destination may be pro- vided for as possible. The car-floats are towed across the river in the afternoon and evening on a regular schedule and the cars are then taken to the classification yards where any re-classifica- tion is done that is necessary, and trains are made up to go out on a regular evening schedule. “The competition between the railroads, which at one time existed as to rates, has been eliminated; practically the only competition remaining is at the terminals where inducements are made to encourage shipment by providing better facilities for the receipt and distribution of freight, and by making more rapid delivery at destination. “The railroad cars crossing the river on floats for this busi- ness are loaded only to an average of about eight tons each, and some idea of the amount of waterfront on Manhattan which is used in this manner, can be gotten when it is known that 1500 to 2000 railroad cars on car-floats occupy this waterfront every day. “The business which the railroad companies do with the ships is conducted in another manner from that described above. Practically all of the freight passing between the railroads and the ships is unloaded from cars at the railroad yards in New J ersey on to lighters which are then towed alongside of the ships and the freight loaded directly into the ships, or the lighters are placed alongside of steamship piers where the freight is dis- charged to the piers for storage until such time as it can be loaded into the ships. In the case of inbound freight the reverse process is employed. In no case, as far as can be observed, is it the general practice to take railroad cars on floats alongside of ships for direct loading and unloading, except in the banana trade, where it is done to a limited extent. “ The transfer of railroad cars between the New Jersey rail- roads and the New England railroads is done by car-floats, and RAILWAY TERMINALS 461 as referred to in Appendix “E” which is a general description of the business layout of the harbor, a number of cars are trans- ferred on car-floats to the terminal companies operating in the harbor. “There are some features in the railroad situation in New York Harbor which are of special interest to the business commu- nity. In the first place, there is a “Differential” rate against New York and favoring neighboring seaports—this is a matter which concerns the port as a whole; and secondly, there is the system of “free lighterage” about the harbor, which concerns the various districts in the harbor.” Quoting still from this report concerning the plans proposed for the organization of terminal facilities about New York Har- bor the following appears: “There have been plans proposed from time to time in the past, for extensive terminal improvements in New York Harbor. It may be said that the facilities in the harbor have been a growth along lines of least resistance, rather than along the lines of a carefully thought out plan of general harbor development. “As it has been stated before, many of the piers in New York Harbor were laid out at the time when the principal busi- ness was carried on by sailing ships, by canal boats and small steam and sailing craft, and there has not been any direct con- nection made between the shipping piers and the railroads, for the direct transfer of cargo. “As long as there was plenty of room for the construction of additional piers whenever they were required, the situation was comparatively simple as regards providing berths, but when, in certain sections of the harbor great congestion developed, and when applications accumulated for steamship and railroad inter- ests for accommodations in a particular section of the harbor, signifying their willingness to pay high rentals, then the situa- tion became difficult. “The real difficulty in the situation lies in the fact that by reason of the lack of any modern terminal arrangements, there is conducted on the river side of West Street and the Marginal Way, all of the business, all of the trans-shipment, and all of the freight handling that is carried on at the principal terminals for 462 RAILWAY TERMINALS the transatlantic passenger service, the principal terminals of the coastwise steamship business, the principal terminals of the New Jersey railroad systems (which latter have established a floating railroad yard in this water-front at which practically all of the food supply of Manhattan is discharged) and the princi- pal terminals of the New England Steamship Companies and the Hudson River steamboat companies. In addition to these there are the ferry terminals of the New Jersey railroads; two for the Pennsylvania Railroad, two for the Central Railroad Company of New Jersey, two for the Erie Railroad, three for the Lacka- wanna Railroad, and two for the West Shore Railroad. “All of this business is jammed together on this water-front and on the water-front side of this street, with but little relation between the piers, with no facilities for handling freight except hand trucks, and with no place to handle freight except on the piers, in the bulkhead sheds, and on the Marginal \Vay. “The solution of the problem toward which practically all of the plans advocated have aimed, is to provide a means whereby the railroad cars of the New Jersey roads could be discharged and loaded. back from the water-front. Various methods of accom- plishing this have been proposed, but the majority of them have advocated a marginal railroad along West Street and the Mar- ginal \Vay on the surface, as a subway, or as an elevated struct- ure, to deliver cars into terminals on the easterly side of West Street. “A plan advocated by Hon. Calvin Tomkins, when Commis— sioner of Docks, City of New York, proposed the establishment of a general classification yard on the Hackensack meadows west of the Palisades to which all the New Jersey railroads would have access. From this yard by tunnels for standard rolling stock, a connection was made under the Palisades and the Hudson River to a marginal elevated railroad along the Marginal \Vay, extend- ing from the 60th Street Yard of the New York Central Railroad as far south as Courtlandt Street, the tunnels to cross the river opposite 57th Street and connect with the elevated structure at about 39th Street. “From this elevated railroad structure sidings were contem- plated leading to terminal buildings on the easterly side of West Street, where trucks could receive and deliver freight with much RAILIVAY TERMINALS 463 less congestion than now exists at the terminals on the water front. “By means of this elevated railroad structure the unpopular surface tracks of the New York Central Railroad would be elim- inated, and that railroad would have access to and the same rights on the structure as the New Jersey railroads. The pur- pose of this marginal railroad, which was to be built as a city enterprise, was to establish better terminal facilities on the prac- tically unused lands on the easterly side of ‘Vest Street and by attracting business to these terminals to join in the operation of this general terminal system and gradually give up their ter- minals on the water-front. By releasing this water-front from railroad occupation it could be devoted to steamship purposes. “At the present time the easterly side of \Vest Street is prac- tically unused and the buildings are mostly one-, two- and three- story structures and devoted to lodging houses and cheap shops. The westerly side of this street, however, is probably the most intensively used of any section of the city. The easterly side of \Vest Street is now cut off from the water-front by the Marginal \Vay and by connecting it by means of the elevated railroad with the rails of the New Jersey railroad systems, a considerable por- tion of the business now done on the river side of the street could be transferred to the easterly side. “By this means the business which the railroads do with the Island which does not require the water-front, could be separated _ from the business which the ships do with the Island, which does require the water-front. “The New York Central Railroad agreed to construct an ele- vated railroad at its own expense to take the place of its surface tracks, thus indicating the practicability of its operation. A private corporation has made an offer to construct tunnels under the Hudson River from a joint railroad yard in New Jersey to a subway along the Marginal Way, using the overhead space in the Marginal Way for storage, warehousing and factory ‘purposes. “Practically all of these plans contemplate joint operation and a general terminal system of some sort in New Jersey, and the adoption of such a plan would have a very important bear- ing upon the situation on the New Jersey shore opposite Man- hattan. This frontage is now extensively used for loading rail- 464 RAILWAY TERMINALS road cars on to car-floats for transfer to Manhattan by water. If this transfer could be made by an all-rail connection through tunnels or over bridges the extensive railroad occupation on the New Jersey side that now exists would be relieved, and it would be possible to rescue some of this water-front and develop it for the purposes of modern marine commerce, which would be splen- didly served by reason of the existing railroad connection. All efforts to bring about joint operation of the railroads on the west- erly side of Manhattan have so far failed, and the city authori- ties have also failed to come to any decision on a plan. Applica- tions for accommodations here cannot be granted and carriers must either seek accommodations in some other part of the har- bor or accept facilities which our neighboring ports are willing to give practically free of charge. The law of supply and de- mand will encourage the railroad companies having extensive holdings in New Jersey to reorganize and put to better use their valuable frontage to attract commerce which is willing to pay high rentals for accommodations in New York Harbor.” There have been various plans for belt line railroads pro- posed, and among them the plan proposed _by Mr. Irving T. Bush, President of the Bush Terminal Company, is of great interest. This plan is described in the above mentioned report as follows: “The Bush plan contemplates a general clearing house for railroad business to be located on the “Jersey Flats” between Greenville and Constable Point; to receive their freight in any form or classification, for any railroad or destination, and to classify and assemble in a yard located there, freight for any railroad or any destination. From this yard a four-track rail- road is projected extending back of Newark and the Oranges, back of Paterson, and coming near the Hudson River somewhere above Tenafly. This railroad is planned to make connections with all of the New Jersey railroads back from the congested dis- trict, and the railroad itself would constitute a valuable indus- trial line. “Under this general plan it would be possible to establish a general freight station, for instance on Staten Island, where freight could be received for any railroad and for any point on any railroad, and this freight could be shipped out each day. Similar terminals could be established in all other parts of the RAIL'WAY TERMINALS 465 harbor and mixed freight delivered at them could be floated to this clearing house yard on the “Jersey Flats” for separation and classification. In connection with this there could also be established a general lighterage service for railroad freight with ships and also a land delivery system. The possibilities of such a plan as contemplated by Mr. Bush are difficult to appreciate.” The map prepared will give some idea of the great number of individual terminals and freight yards about New York Har- bor and even its cursory inspection would lead one to believe that much wasted movement could be saved through a joint ter- minal organization and much property now used by individual railroads might be saved for more advantageous purposes. There is probably no portion in the United States where favorably located lands are so much in demand, and a general terminal organization in New York will release not only a valu- able portion of the water-front, but also lands back from the water-front. CHICAG O RAILROAD SITUATION. Chicago is the terminus of 24 trunk lines, one not being open yet for passenger service. Several of these have more than one branch. The Chicago and Northwestern has four; the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Illinois Central and the Wabash each have two; the New York Central and Pennsylvania have two each, under different names. Six passenger terminals, each with freight houses ad— jacent, accommodate these trunk lines. Two railroads, the Balti- more & Ohio, Chicago Terminal Railroad and the Chicago and Western Indiana Railroad, located almost entirely within the city limits, give many of the lines their entrance to freight houses and passenger terminals. The former brings four rail- roads to the Grand Central Station; the latter brings seven to the Dearborn Station and operates a suburban service of its own. All depend on the Baltimore and Ohio, Chicago Terminal Railroad and Chicago and Western Indiana Railroad to reach their down- town freight houses. The Union Passenger Station west of the river is used by five trunk lines without a terminal railroad. The freight houses are within a mile of the station. 466 RAILWAY TERMINALS The Central Station on the lake front at 12th Street accom- modates three lines, the freight houses being about 11,4 miles farther in on the lake front near the mouth of the river. The La Salle Street Station, with freight houses near by, is used by three lines. The Chicago and Northwestern occupies a separate terminal station, freight houses being located to the north, east and west within a mile of the station. The accompanying map shows 118 yards of various sizes used for freight purposes, of which 26 are receiving or break-up yards. This includes the Chicago Clearing Yard, connecting the inner two belt lines. In addition, the hatched portion of the map shows an area almost covered with smaller yards, freight houses and passenger stations belonging to the various lines. Freight interchange is effected by means of five belt lines, three in or near the city limits, one about 25 or 30 miles out, and another, as yet incomplete, a little beyond. There are also about a dozen small independent railroads in or near the city which perform transfer service. The Chicago River, with its many slips and canals, the Calu- met River and Indiana Harbor are used as terminals for water- borne traffic. The only comprehensive system of interchange of rail and water traffic is provided by the Chicago River and In- diana Railway. The water-front, except street ends, parks, etc., is controlled by railroads, steamship lines, grain, coal and lumber companies, etc. Belt and Terminal Railroads. The Belt Railway of Chicago is the inner line running from South Chicago to Cragin and connecting with all trunk lines for freight transfer. Under the same management is the Chicago and Western Indiana Railroad, a line with one branch, operating a suburban service and giving seven other railroads entrance to the Dearborn Station and neighboring freight houses. The C. & W. I. R. R. and Belt Railway has some ten yards, including the Chicago Clearing Yard. The Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad line is four or five miles farther out and also connects all trunk lines. It has a regular fast freight schedule. There is a live-stock yard at West Ham- mond, an icing yard at Blue Island, a large yard at Gibson, and RAIL‘VAY TERMINALS 461- smaller yards. It is linked with the Belt Railway through the Chicago Clearing Yard. The Baltimore and Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad parallels the I. H. B. R. R. south of the city, and uses the same line to the west, with an extension toward Mayfair from Franklin Park. It has branches north and south from Blue Island. The former again branches west to Forest Park with a large loop, and east to the Grand Central Station, serving the railroads which use that terminal. There are some eight yards. The Elgin, J oliet and Eastern Railway extends from \Vau— kegan, \Yis, through Joliet to Porter, Ind., a distance of 130 miles, with branches to Aurora, South \Vilmington and South Chicago. The road is for freight service only, has icing facilities at J oliet and docks at \Vaukegan and South Chicago. It con- nects all trunk lines. The Chicago, Milwaukee and Cary Railway has a belt line which is projected to extend from Milwaukee to Gary. At present about 120 miles are operated between Rockford via De Kalb and Joliet to Delmar on the Chicago. Terre Haute and Southeastern Railway and connect most of the railroads south and west of Chicago. Independent Connecting Railroads. These connect with all lines either directly or by the Belt Railways. The Chicago Junction Railroad operates 145 miles of track around the stock yards and eastward to the I. C. R. R. on the lake-front, connecting with many lines directly. The Chicago River and Indiana Railroad furnishes a good rail and water transfer system. It has 50 miles of track, in- cluding a 500-car yard on the South Fork near the stock yards, a water-front terminal warehouse and an 8-car transfer barge plying between it and warehouses at Lake and Fulton Streets. The Chicago Heights Terminal Transfer Co. has 38 miles of switching track near Chicago Heights. The Chicago and Illinois Western R. R., projected to J oliet, operates 17 miles of track between Willow Springs and Haw- thorne, connecting with 17 railroads. The Pullman Railroad operates 17 miles of track near Pull- man and connects directly with seven railroads. 468 RAILWAY TERMINALS The Chicago, West Pullman and Southern Railroad oper- ates 28 miles of track about Pullman and Irondale, connecting with 13 railroads. The Chicago Short Line Co. operates 15% miles of track near South Chicago, connecting with eight railroads directly. The Illinois Northern Railway runs from Elsdon to 26th Street and Western Avenue, one mile, connecting with sixteen railroads. The Chicago and Calumet River Railroad operates 3% miles of track near Hegewisch connecting with eleven railroads. The Manufacturers’ Junction Railroad extends along the I. C. tracks near Hawthorne, from 16th to 34th Streets, 1% miles, and connects with five railroads. The Calumet, Hammond and Southeastern Railroad op- erates eight miles of track at South Chicago and connects with two railroads. Freight Tunnels in Business District. About 60 miles of tunnels exist under the streets, connect- ing directly with warehouses, wholesale establishments, etc., with public stations for receiving freight and with the freight houses of some of the trunk lines. The cars are small, the service being intended as a substitute for trucking. Owing to lack of con- nection with a clearing yard or union package freight clearing house, the operations at present are confined to incidental downtown business. “The Chicago tunnel has several objects, which, if the plans of its builders had matured would have made the tunnel property today a unique and immensely useful auxiliary trans- portation and transmission plant”. (Arnold Report, p. 103.) Trunk Lines. These are mentioned after the belt and terminal lines for convenience, as many of them depend on the latter for their entrance to the city. From the east, The Baltimore and Ohio R. R. runs along the lake shore, and formerly continued as far as the old I. C. R. R. station near the mouth of the river, using the I. C. R. R. tracks. The present entrance over the B. & O. C. T. re- quires a diversion of seven or eight miles. The old line, now a spur, has three yards. There is a freight house at Illinois RAILWAY TERMINALS 4691 and Kingsbury Street, and others near the passenger terminal, the Grand Central Station. The Pere Marquette Railroad comes in over the B. & O. S. W. and reaches the Grand Central Station and its freight houses by way of South Chicago and 63rd Street. The Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway, the prin- cipal N. Y. C. line to Chicago, is the oldest line from the east and has a direct entrance to its terminal, the La Salle Street Station, and the freight houses near by. There are eight or nine yards. The Michigan Central R. R. joins the Illinois Central at Kensington, has its passenger terminal with that road at 12th Street on the lake-front and its freight houses near the mouth of the river. It has a couple of large yards, also, an extension to the steel manufacturing district of J oliet west of Chicago. The Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway follows the I. C. R. R. line from Kankakee to Chicago and uses the lake-front station. The Pennsylvania main line to Chicago is the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway, which has a direct entrance to the Union Passenger Station. It has four yards. The other Pennsylvania line, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad (Pan Handle) enters the same station at the other end after a detour of three or four miles. It also has four yards. The two roads are joined by the two small Pennsylvania lines, the Englewood Connecting Railway at 58th Street and the South Chicago and Southern, which has several lines through the industrial district around the Calumet River. The \Vabash Railroad has lines from both east and west; both reach the Dearborn Station and Wabash freight houses by the C. & W. I. R. R. It has two yards. The New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad (Nickel Plate) passing through Hammond, joins the L. S. & M. S. Rail- way at Grand Crossing and follows it to the La Salle St. Ter- minal Station, near which it has freight houses. There is one large yard. The Erie Railroad comes in from Hammond to its freight houses and the Dearborn Station over the C. & W.I.R.R. It. has two yards. 470 RAILWAY TERMINALS The Chesapeake and Ohio of Indiana follows the same course as the Erie from Hammond, where it has a yard. The Grand Trunk Western Railway coming from the east enters at the southwest corner of the city and running eastward four miles connects with the C. & W.I.R.R. at 47th Street, using it to reach its freight houses and the Dearborn Station. It has a couple of yards. From the south: The Chicago, Indiana and Southern Rail- way (N.Y.C.) connects with the LS. & MS. Railway at Indiana Harbor. The Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway (Monon Route) uses the C. & W.I.R.R. from Hammond to its freight houses and the Dearborn Station. It has a couple of yards near Hammond. The Chicago, Terre Haute and Southeastern Railway has not yet established a passenger service but will come into the Grand Central Station via the B. & O.C.T.R.R. through Chi- cago Heights. The Chicago and Eastern Illinois, which has a receiving yard south of Dolton, enters from that point over the C. & W. I. R. R. and uses the Dearborn Station. The freight houses are near it. The Illinois Central Railroad has two separate branches from the south and west. The southern branch reaches the lake shore at 50th Street and continues to 12th Street, its passenger terminal, and its freight houses at South Water Street. There is a yard between the two, and three yards farther out. This line has three branches in the city: one from Kensington to Blue Island, one from Kensington to the State line near Hammond and one from Brookdale to South Chicago. The western branch, with a yard at Hawthorn, joins the other line at 16th Street on the lake front. It has a branch to Forest Park. The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway, entering through Blue Island, connects with the LS. & MS. Railway at Englewood and follows that line to its freight houses and the La Salle Street Station. There are four yards and branches to Brainerd Junction and South Chicago. The Chicago and Alton Railroad follows the south bank of RAILYVAY TERMINALS 471 the Illinois and Michigan Canal and of the South Branch to a junction with the P.F.\V. & C. Railway, along which it goes to its freight houses and the Union Station. It has four yards. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa. Fe Railway is nearly par- allel and close to the C. & A. R. R. It joins the C. & \Y. I. R. R. at 16th Street and reaches the Dearborn Station and its freight houses. It has yards at Corwith and 18th Street. The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad has yards at Hawthorn and \Yestern Avenue. It joins the P.F.\Y. & C. Railway at 16th Street, and uses the Union Station. The freight houses extend as far west as 16th and Jefferson Streets. There is a loop along the south branch of the river, with spurs between the many canals or slips on which the lumber yards and industries of that district are located. The Chicago Great Western Railroad joins the B. & O.C. T.R.R. at Forest Park and uses that line to its freight houses and the Grand Central Station. Its Chicago transfer yard is on the B. & O.C.T.R.R. west of the Belt Railway. The Chicago and Northwestern Railway has four branches. That from the west, the oldest railroad in Chicago, runs across the city and along the north side of the river to its mouth. The branches from the northwest and north join at Mayfair and Clybourn Junction and meet the first near the new passenger station located on an extension to the south. The branches are all connected by cross lines in or near the city. There is a very large yard at Proviso and seven others. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul has two important branches and a short branch. The former join at Pacific Junc- tion and have a cross line to the short branch. There are four large yards. The passenger terminal is the Union Station and the freight houses are north and west of that station, except one at 15th and Jefferson Streets. There are four large yards. The Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie (Wiscon- sin Central) joins the B. & O.C.T.R.R. at Forest Park and uses it to the Grand Central Station. It has a large freight terminal at 12th and Canal Streets and a yard at Kolze. Rail and Water Connections. Chicago has three harbors in use, the Chicago River, the Calumet River and the Indiana Harbor Canal. In the Chicago 472 RAILIVAY TERMINALS River 20 lines of steamers, with 84 vessels, have their terminals. Each line has its dock or warehouse for local city freight. The vessels go to the Chicago River and Indiana Railroad Company’s dock on the South Fork to receive and deliver freight carried by the western railroads. There are also two lighterage companies, operating three lighters which handled about 200,000 tons in 1911. They connect about 25 industries having docks on the Chicago River with the railroads. Grain Elevators. On the Chicago and Calumet Rivers 23 of these, with a capacity of 32,300,000 bushels, shipped by water in 1911, 78,850,000 bushels, the receipts by water being small. General Merchandise. A terminal warehouse at the mouth of the Chicago River occupies 1350 feet of dock, and handles through and local freight by rail, water and lighterage. Lumber. Twenty-six companies received 1,475,000 tons by water in 1911, with no shipments by water. 16 yards located on the river neither receive nor ship by water. BUFFALO RAILROAD SITUATION. The 15 trunk lines enter in three groups. From the east, in a strip 11/4 miles wide, come the NYC. & H.R.R.R., the West Shore R.R., the D.L. & W.R.R., the Erie RR, and the L.V.R.R. From the south, in a strip 1A1 mile wide, come the LS. & M.S.Ry., the NYC. & St.L.R.R., the P.R.R., Bufialo Division, the Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railway, the Buffalo and Susquehanna Railroad, and the Erie Railroad (Buffalo Di- vision). From Canada on the west, across the International Bridge, come the Grand Trunk Railway, the Wabash Railroad and the Michigan Central Railroad, over whose tracks the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo and the Pere Marquette (freight only) reach Buffalo. The Buffalo and Alleghany Valley Division of the Penn- sylvania Railroad enters from the southeast. Passenger Terminals. There are three: the Union Station is used by 10 lines, the NYC. & H.R.R.R., the LS. & M.S.Ry., the B. & S.R.R., the BR. & P.Ry., the P.R.R., the West Shore R.R., the M.C.R.R., RAILWAY TERMINALS $73 the Grand Trunk Ry.-—which also uses the L.V.RR. Station— the D.L. & YVRR. and the South Buffalo RR. (passenger ser- vice suspended at present). The Erie Station is the terminal of the Erie Railroad, VVa- bash Railroad and the New York Central and St. Louis Rail- road. The Lehigh Valley Station accommodates the Lehigh Val- ley Railroad and the Grand Trunk Railway. North of Buffalo, at North Tonawanda, is a secondary rail- road center where the three Niagara Falls branches of the NY. C. & H.R.R.R., the Erie RR, and the L.V.R.R., which leave their trunk lines in different parts of the district, meet and join the Lockport and the B. & T. Branches of the New York Central. An area measuring about 5% miles by 3 miles in the center of Buffalo is free from railroads and is encircled by the New York Central Belt Line, connecting all railroads. South of this for about 1% miles to Buffalo Creek is a network of yards which reaches from the water-front eastward to Lancaster; nearly all the large yards and many of the rail and water con- nections are here, with extensions along the river and harbor. Terminal Railroads. The Terminal Railroad of Buffalo, a NYC. line, connects the eastern group of Lancaster with the southern group at Blasdell. The Buffalo Creek Railroad is a switching road operating 31 miles of track along Buffalo Creek and giving access to an important part of the harbor, which extends 2%, miles up that waterway. The Connecting Terminal Railroad is a Pennsylvania line to the water-front which has terminal warehouses. The South Bufialo Railroad operates 62 miles of track south of Buffalo Creek for freight service only at present. Rail and Water Connections. Grain Elevators. Buffalo has 20 of these, total capacity 19,300,000 bushels. The transfer capacity from vessels to cars is probably 5,000,000 bushels per 24: hours. Coal Trestles and. Docks. Those of the P.R.R., D.L. & W. R.R., L.V.R.R., BR. & P.Ry., Erie R.R., Philadelphia and Read- 17$ RAILWAY TERMINALS ing Ry, and \Villiams have a capacity in pockets of 39,500 tons and can ship 25,000 tons per day. Iron Ore Docks—Inner Harbor Terminals. The Lehigh Valley, N.Y.L.E. & W. and Buffalo ore docks receive about 3,000.000 tons annually. Outer Harbor Terminals. The Pennsylvania Railroad and Buffalo and Susquehanna docks on their joint canal, with the Lackawanna Steel Co.’s canal and docks, handle and store about 8,000,000 tons of ore per year. Lumber. The inner docks on the City Ship Canal and Ohio Basin (Barge Canal System) handle about 250,000 tons of lum- ber per year. There are other lumber docks on the Erie Basin. Package Freight. Terminal warehouses are maintained by eleven railroads and steamship companies. CLEVELAND RAILROAD SITUATION. Cleveland is on a high plateau above Lake Erie and is divided into almost equal parts by the Cuyahoga River. The river occupies a valley of moderate width, which it crosses four times; it is navigable to the city limits. The Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Ry. (NYC) and the New York, Chicago and St. Louis RR. (Nickel Plate) pass through the city. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the Erie Railroad, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Ry. (Big Four), the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad, and the Pennsylvania system have lines terminating there. The roads enter radially from all directions on the land side. Four of the seven lines have separate passenger terminals—the L. S. & M. S. Ry, the BER. and the C.C.C. & St.L.Ry. using the Union Station on the lake front. Most of the freight houses are in the valley and near the mouth of the river, but some are located near the lake front to the eastward. The principal belt railroad is the Cleveland Short Line, which connects all railroads and has large freight yards. It is mostly used for through freight. The Newburgh and South Shore Ry. operates 45 miles of track and connects with four trunk lines and the belt railroad. It has a small passenger business, transfers freight between lines and handles much material for steel and wire manufacture. RAILWAY TERMINALS {7.3 The Cuyahoga Valley Ry. and the River Terminal Ry. are small lines connected with ore docks. The “Silver Plate” connects the LS. & MSRy. and the P.R.R. with industries near the lake. The Lake Erie Terminal Railroad, the Lake Erie and Pittsburgh Railroad and the Euclid RR. are small outlying lines. Rail and Water Connections. There are many water-front terminals with railroad con- nections. Of these the P. R. R. owns thirteen, including a very large ore dock. It operates three and leases the others to private industries, etc. The B. & O.R.R. owns seven—five of which are leased to others and two are operated by itself. The Erie RR. owns five, of which it operates three and leases two to private concerns. The W. & L.E.R.R. owns one, leased. The C.C.C. & St.L.Ry. owns four, all leased to private concerns. Steamship companies operate two of which one is leased from the C.C.C. & St.L.Ry. and the other is owned. The City of Cleveland owns two, both leased. There are also seventeen privately owned and operated water-front terminals with railroad connections. Improvements Under Way. The city has filled 53 acres on the lake-front to be used for a. Union Station and yards. Work is progressing on the straightening of the river to make room for freight yards. The City Council has voted on a fill for the lake-front for piers and yards. a. tunnel to connect this with the railroads, and the vacation of streets for a large, high-level yard near the middle of the city. ST. LOUIS RAILROAD SITUATION. The trunk lines entering St. Louis are 20 in number. All use the Union Passenger Station, those from the west connect- ing with the Terminal Association tracks a short distance west of the station and those from the east using the Eads Bridge and the tunnel, both belonging to the Association. The railroads which have lines on both sides of the river are: Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R.R. St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern Ry. \Vabash R.R. 476 RAILWAY TERMINALS The railroads having lines terminating at East St. Louis are: Baltimore & Ohio, Southwestern RR. Chicago and Alton RR. Chicago & Eastern Illinois RR. (with C.C.C. 86 St.L.). Chicago, Peoria & St. Louis RR. Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. Illinois Central RR. Louisville & Nashville RR. Louisville, Henderson and St. Louis Ry. (with L. & N. RR). Mobile and Ohio RR. Southern Ry. St. Louis, Southwestern Ry. (with Iron Mountain). Toledo, St. Louis & Western RR. Vandalia RR. (Pennsylvania system). The lines from the west: Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. St. Louis & San Francisco RR. (Frisco). Missouri, Kansas & Texas Ry. (with GE. & Q.R.R.). Missouri Pacific Ry. The Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis and its associated lines have an extensive system of transfer railways for freight and passenger service. The Terminal Railroad Asso- ciation operates the Union Station, Eads Bridge, St. Louis and East St. Louis Terminals. The associated companies are the St. Louis Merchants’ Bridge Terminal Ry. Co., operating the Merchants’ Bridge and terminals at St. Louis, Madison and Granite City; the Wiggins Ferry Co., operating the St. Louis Transfer Ry. and East St. Louis Connecting Ry. with car ferries and wagon ferries, and the Interstate Car Transfer Co. operat- ing car ferries for carload freight. Smaller lines about the city are: The Manufacturers Ry. Co., with 21 miles of track near the water-front in the southern part of the city, connecting with the Iron Mountain and Belt Railroads and performing a transfer‘ service. RAILWAY TERMINALS 4.7 7 The Municipal Railroad is owned by the City and operated by the Waterworks Department. It extends about 7% miles parallel to the river in the northern portion of the city. Though new little used, it is considered of great importance as part of a future municipal transfer railroad made possible by expiring franchises. On the East St. Louis side, the St. Louis & O’Fallon Ry. has 8.7 miles of line, and connects with the belt and two trunk lines. The St. Louis, Troy and Eastern is a freight line with 26 miles of track, making connections at Edwardsville, For- mosa Junction and East St. Louis with four lines and the belt line. The Illinois Terminal Railroad (outside the limits of the map) has a line 21 miles long acting as a belt from Alton to Formosa Junction, crossing and connecting with 13 railroads. The Missouri and Illinois Bridge and Belt Railroad has a bridge over the Mississippi and 3 miles of track at Alton, 23 miles above St. Louis. Freight Houses and Freight Yards. The roads terminating in East St. Louis have a group of freight houses and stub-track yards along the river front. Across the ends of these runs the transfer line of the Wiggins Ferry Co.; the Southern Ry. has larger yards parallel with the river. Farther back lie the National Stock Yards and the large railroad yards. On the St. Louis side the freight houses are near the river north of the bridge. The Burlington has a great yard farther north. There is also a group of freight houses around the ter- minal tracks leading to the Union Station. The M0. Pacific and Frisco lines have yards in this vicinity. Rail and Water Connections. There are fewer of these than in former times. Grain elevators on the St. Louis water-front and floating elevators are now no longer operated. The same is true of elevated con- veyors and inclined tramways for transfer. Tipples for trans- ferring coal to barges are used; they are of the car-on-end dumping type. 478 RAILWAY TERMINALS NEW ORLEANS RAILROAD SITUATION. The eleven railroads terminating at New Orleans are: East of the Mississippi River: Illinois Central R. R. & Yazoo and Mississippi Valley R. R. Louisiana Railway & Navigation Co. Louisiana Southern Ry. (Frisco Lines) Louisville & Nashville R. R. New Orleans & Northeastern R. R. (Queen & Crescent) New Orleans Great Northern R. R. (with Queen & Crescent) New Orleans, Texas & Mexico R. R. (Frisco Lines) West of the Mississippi River: Morgan’s Louisiana & Texas R. R. (Southern Pacific connection) New Orleans, Southern & Grand Isle Ry. Texas & Pacific R. R. Of these the New Orleans & Northeastern Railroad, New Orleans, Texas & Mexico R. R., New Orleans Great Northern R. R. and Louisiana Ry. & Navigation Co. use the passenger terminals of the New Orleans Terminal Co. The Illinois Central, Morgan’s Louisiana & Texas R. R., the Texas & Pacific R. R. and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. use one terminal. The Louisville and Nashville has its own station, as have also the small lines, the Louisiana South- ern and the New Orleans Southern and Grand Isle. Transfer Railroads. The New Orleans Terminal Railroad operates 26 miles of main track and 37 miles of side tracks and yards, a passenger terminal, a water-front freight terminal and a grain elevator. It is not connected with ferry lines nor with the Public Belt Railroad. The Illinois Central R. R. has a belt line along a large portion of the water-front. The public belt line connects the publicly owned wharves with the railroads. It extends along the whole river-front. The line is owned and operated by the municipality. RAILM'AY TERMINALS 479 Rail and Water Connections. These are very extensive and efficient. The State owns most of the water-front, nearly six miles of public wharves, with 311’; miles of sheds served by the Public Belt R. R. In addition there are the Port Chalmette Terminals of the New Orleans Terminal R. R., the Stuyvesant Docks and Southport terminals of the Illinois Central R. R. and the \Vestwego ter- minals of the Texas 8: Pacific R. R. across the river. All of these except Southport have grain elevators. At Gretna on the west river bank the Southern Pacific has large terminals with cargo conveying machinery. Private stevedores have machin- ery for unloading bananas, coffee, etc. There are three private coal-handling plants. There is no public lighterage system. In the preparation of this paper acknowledgement is made of the valuable assistance rendered by E. J. Murphy, assistant in the office of the Board of Commerce and Navigation, State of New J ersey. in the preparation of maps and details; to Mr. Bion J. Arnold. Consulting Engineer, for details concerning the situa- tion in Chicago; to Mr. Harry C. Gahn, for information con- cerning the situation in Cleveland; to Mr. James F. Coleman, Consulting Engineer, for information concerning the situation in New Orleans; to Mr. G. H. Kimball, Consulting Engineer, for information concerning the situation at Buffalo; to Mr. Charles C. Butts, Prin. Ass’t Engineer. Department of Public Utilities, City of St. Louis, for information concerning the situ- ation at that city; and Mr. A. J. County, Special Assistant to the President of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co., for informa— tion concerning the situation at New York. Certain statistics and information in this paper are taken from House of Representatives Document—63rd Congress, 1st Session, Document No. 226, entitled “\Vater Terminal and Transfer Facilities”. 480 RAILWAY TERMINALS 741-1 HOQOOOQCDUII-POON) 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 107 108 109 110 111 112 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 2'7 28 29 30 31 32 REFERENCES. New York Harbor Railroad Map. Baltimore 82; Ohio RR. Cranford Yard—Receives and delivers C.R.R. of N.J. & L.V.R.R. freight. Arlington Yard—Classification. St. George Yard—Delivery for New York freight. VVallabout Basin—Freight Pier. Pier 7, North River, Freight Pier. Piers 21 and 22, North River, Freight Piers. Terminal Building, 27th St. Freight Pier, King St. Freight Pier, Baltic St. Freight House, Joralemon St. Freight Pier, Bridge St. Central RR. of New Jersey. Elizabeth Yard—used also for Perth Amboy freight. Holding Yard for Newark. Passenger and Classification yard car float, transfer, lighterage to N. Y. Bayonne Yard—Coal and Mdse. Yard for coal shipments, Elizabethport Docks. Bronx Yard—car float terminal Freight Piers 10 and 11, North River. Freight Pier 39, North River. Hamburg Place, yard delivery. Plank Road, yard delivery. River St. freight station. Alling St. yard. South St. yard. South Broad St. yard. Delaware, Lackawanna 8: Western RR. Passenger Terminal—small freight yard. Import and N. Y. Transfer Yard. _ Export, Heavy Material, Holding Yard for N. Y. Secaucus Yard—General freight west bound, gravity coal classifica- tion east bound. Harrison Yard—Newark 86 Orange Freight. Nesbitt St. Freight Yard—fed from Harrison Yard. Broad St. Freight Yard—fed from Harrison Yard. Freight Pier 13, North River. Freight Pier 41, North River. Freight Pier 68, North River. Freight Pier 80, North River. Freight Pier 26, East River. Harlem Transfer. ‘ \ M I“? _ ‘b a,“ <:- - I Yzlliamsbnr l I I' ~ ,1 u ill . amuica Q S Weodhav c P‘ , ._ 1 s‘ a ’ A *7 siNcwYorls l 5' Jill‘) 171331 pu/ ADC I'M/4 RHQQ NEW JERSEY HARBOR COMMISSION MAP OF NEW YORK HARBOR .\___" ARLI'A JV BA. Commissioners: - J. Spencer SmilhPresident. EARwcmJaScmL-zy Richard CJenkinson . Bf. G’csSQ'l-Jt,Qaidhgin¢cr. W-L. Saunders. I EJ.Murplzy,Dranglmn. '_l_o l ‘SM? 9 I e m,“ I’... I I an” ‘I... I...’ :W in" '10 xvi“ .' .[I I , H .-'._ . ..._. i I 1..-, . ; - A Q‘ 4' ' \ a‘ ‘ J ' ‘ . I l.‘ s . ‘ . a bl. . l 1* 1-_- .: _qm—‘I—h-K’ 6 . . \ If _ I x 1 ~.. . Ame * r N ‘ F‘ i '2' (mflficFX " ‘f ' 1“ a x‘ / | r I _.... .. __ _J \' Q It c (- / I I G 5 ‘ff-F,’ e,/' l s. ‘.‘i _ “ “1 " .. "/ *3 - Z J 5' a V. I ‘I I I In. a a o l 4* t i-\~\-;\ l _ . I QR-*§§‘.\. // . :l - M | L c s ‘ \ |/. I.‘ t . / 1: ,_ I ' I i ‘. Frsnklinl'nk {- --— , _. _ 0| * ___-___. \ ""H .' e . l k g I'd-5.3, I u * HIM I U \ ‘HI-‘I; . n x l ' i c. I , '\ 5 1"’ Jinn’ A . ‘ \ I - Gait-WOO fiacesrmfrfixqt , ,_ \g ' ---‘$ “:15- ."'"‘.'i.‘-.._..._.._“'.'i_ I 1 (ram JL' ‘\fgfifiu; _ I k ' ----_-...-.__... E \K I. h " \ l: ‘ill '\ ' a I y N \. 1' . I - 1r 6| | \ \ I; 1;.“ . r 3. .. | 1 a ..‘w \ s; ‘l I + \ - r I “'H'" ‘2% “lI---._f‘_'_s_I-co , x wo¢w~wr.1v-..—¢1v , A'r c_""*';$.v\ _ _ '~--_. 0 I \. F“ ("- - -— - — - I‘ .1. "Mfr-‘54.3% f‘: 1"‘- I I I ‘I a‘ I Ix 194:?550'9 F— w Haifiil‘rur-H "' \- L M d i I [I I.“ .1 '--..__“_____=_{ ‘Magoo ‘ | \ I‘ n 1;‘- ‘ Ifhhli I _ L 5*“ ' "-.I Bulimia‘, 5'“ ___ ,l's'osl kw: , I} I E; . - v‘ \ ""r “ ,.. ' In ‘a, "in... l "i ___-ELIE“? I I, :10 m I‘. I I‘ i: 1‘ \ - u - -u ‘Mk .I 1 l ' - I‘ i A‘ -\ ""1 ‘i - ' [- --.- k \‘r "u. l "— \' ‘It ‘I l l I} h __1 ‘*5. "I: I I‘ Broadvltfi'i'i‘wq‘. "E i F. (‘L .1!‘ I» “I I ll;- kl.“ “*8 , \ ‘k _ k \ " g. \‘ ,._$'_‘,.£;-E-:-—':-/ It": I" c I ' w "it I i“? L ' " Ii'r'r l" h"" - 3's IQPIFI -( i ' £‘J :‘ i a» I -~ - 1.. a‘ a “i. a a H.‘ , -.-,»--_..'.: - . ‘ \ . “i‘ ‘it- '1' ,1 r: -,» 5:1- ‘'I ‘mg-“7 I‘. ' . yd???“ ‘ it .2; ~ _ - '1' "*1. "is ' ' in if ' C I.‘ '‘v.] ‘ fa-"ff-fi- / J ‘ ‘ . -‘ Elk h ‘\3 i ..u' IMF?" .3 '3 m E -!' 4 . - ~ ' \. é firm In}? . \ ' ..AG‘_"i-{_'>_-.I::‘,>-,. - i E‘: ‘a w - t it. 1“ cl V .t m‘, . v .r_ :\ q \ ‘ "u k I: u R n .-. "—---~_ 1.13 l L> 6uriB¢{,a-'-"" was.“ -.iiininncfieq’zffn3131-1233:: \EHBLA! . a’. .' - I - _ \ IL = "g i H- \ '. Y t ‘l5 ‘ i, ' - - . Qt‘..- , H,;gmo,,&,ks,_k~;l.k_~_.._.., ; =ummzr :03‘: I irk _ I. I . p ms ‘33 5 55100;; 1;‘ 1‘, m 1. .,-- . tale-ii =1? ' iiiéls. '3: '~' "' I’ I g5}?! ;~-"\;|._‘-'..'3 ‘Q3 Il\ I’ .f- " '\ e‘illn"“""' ' “"11: l- .E a , “:5 I E ‘v g1 i _ , .a- a. . I - e mm- .-- -L.— - ‘F “Mr-Lab... -— -- - \I\ _r- “fig? rem" rvn rlzg‘rfiéflih {331' 1t |;-}lI—-l——‘u-.HQ_.Q_,6_§_‘ 51 5 {Also ‘Q 3’, .0“: all) x i ' H .? ==~ - n '- . ‘I \ fi / gas“ ‘ “1212:! mifi ' Chicago Umcfl ‘S-amfgr a: #2:! ; I’ I \y ‘1'? an}; (rinsing {in ‘~‘1 I\ w \ . U /.*' . L's‘ \21, i ‘A . .. \». r q _"‘r 1 . ‘ all—“Ls:- ; Bmnuil‘tkwr'g 4» m- ¢-~ .. a.) . .. _ 1 . 440mm cmvq j w! \ \ § \ ‘f 35' - Q _ - ‘g - \ ‘t? 1' \ \‘h'hfl Hugh?!’ ‘(*1 I‘, . L * \ \9 .1, l \ c o .' = .~' T I‘ 5 “ I 'E‘ ‘i a. .\ Y r I \\ \ t M. \ \ INDIANA \ St‘, \\ ii \ m5 ‘E ‘.l-_ \L .\'o— is: s 01' 4' ‘Erna ‘Q ER: 3 5L . ,azaq If; “nil-nu 1| ‘3 Plate II. \ \ 35;! Yin] .... .... ‘J.’ ‘HA LEI!’ __Lm . u-a- ~,\ .:.R\ . - a‘ ‘ \ Dollar: ‘1' “I- ° I?‘ _ I,‘ \.~__\__\___\__‘ [ ‘l I Kn! ‘Q’ \L} \ H g PA—fl—A€:§a\b—A_l}J—'H _ x---l-—-¢—- A_‘-::‘\l \z | PMJ' \Q-o Q“. \--.. ' M-rfiémifnqfird' t’ ‘e I‘ \ ‘ " IR?!‘ \\ . ‘\‘ / \un-l [ t2?‘ \ *- JE.“ \\‘ \_'\ ‘ . I “*0 ‘ =9 ‘ .fl-A 4‘ \:a-\ \— ' \ I‘ ‘qxfiiA % \ a \ 111"): Jr 4' - F" \\ ‘Flt " e] "‘ INDIANA Q . . .,_ j '_ STEEL v ‘ ' \ '° \l ' Nae-_- . l . . c0 M PANY ‘In’? \_ | n .0‘, 'UF-Lu-w-m-o- ' --o \ \\ ~ \ \I: l u " \ I ‘Iifilv‘ c. -' \n s,» ~ ' a. “an; ‘I '7 : I I1. w. -»1 .0 |=< '. fink-“=— m ‘\I In ‘E "I " '— 79 \r' “I "9 INK * ~<= ' s.» = ‘a t-~~ s '1 I- ~ . -- i‘ \E; T‘ 'Fqtgfi N.‘ '51 b-SUH 02' i. I N‘ *- “Imam-___ \f I N?” m! ' . huh‘ ‘I " " \‘> s" -' ‘SQ- _ -._ \‘3 ‘R ' 5:‘ ‘f’? \l I 2215 ' \\".\ : ' m‘ ‘k ‘ : \ r ' ( _. t I Thou-lion JL. ‘3'; i D‘: Ei'lh'l! i .. ‘5 : zh: ‘iii?! “ — : - ‘3 : ..=- it?“ ‘_ . \\ 1 4:0 83;; E '4" I ‘I . J z ‘rug \Bermcc “53* 4 = s‘ ‘*5’- l ‘K 9- \ B ll , I \ : 2:‘ I.“ 5 x \ um I \ ‘z; 1 “IX X .. ' \ I \ \- - I -‘ I'dumI'NDrMfi-Llh " . \ J E x \t . U-L”~' 'nvr ____‘. A [,‘’A''4 l TOMA m? Tumiv . -l_ ___£'4‘Qzln RAN¢~) (.Llo u, _- ~‘_/V‘l Idaylly"_) *L4__ _Cilvu\:/ /Wr I \ Bnwmlntvllla x \ \\.-\ / / / 0 ‘f’, $ 1 I I" \ I \ H Viva/#1?“ Q If 0/9’ o w/v‘A l f rt!" “1-! "' E O t’; I’ 7775' ANN1_L_JY-‘2-'""’ :l 9 Lf/1fiiihjAcamflfl cl ' I L1] 0 ; Lnncuhr . “‘—_..~+*Inlg ,' a __ * v / * * I‘ ‘ " “_ + #- -——- ‘ " I Q w, . 6'4"’ Flt/Ni’ '7- / ,...___‘_—-l- ‘ fl‘fl‘mwww". uonuvurmmnrco r’ 148,7." urnLo '" (a uzvzufifl 5 3 1A’, ofifwl‘s: "5"‘ NM” Atlli “H” v M NM?“ '5‘ o [I o l’|""0l o I :1 Ian Mn’ 0. f b ‘p ‘ I’ ‘pk ‘b ‘l\ ‘P ‘'1 ‘1' 6\ Q 4 o l w‘ 3 r" r" (F x ’ ‘RF “ é‘. \‘ ("o 7 - ‘F - r» i; ‘u 9 ‘4 ~ ‘- A at‘ ‘l " Qt"i \ i ‘tSJJ/cudznvme , fi- 1 e ' ? M‘ ’ r 0! +0 0 ‘Q I I ‘I: ~\_ ‘4 a * k \_ \ /0/\ "5N3 . 14/7‘ 1 o \.~ ~._ v Q Ebcnczcr “I!” v ‘)4 A U!‘ \ ‘76 4'_"~1=\u““__'9_145,4 a ‘ $ 9 : k _ __‘ ~~~~~ -J 41:- (I t \ \ ‘-~~F~'Z_4;.rr 0 "‘ - | '\, .~'»prmg,m<><‘>£"~~’-'€’_~'_£9_~1)~ '1' '~"..-‘_..i _ u I -- 3/ , A \ 0% - \ . ’ e ‘ \ [ha / \ ‘\ ' mo Swap? / \N \ ‘ \ {L A It’ E E R-I L~ -\ / \ I .‘ / v \\ a / ‘ .u \ Rohnd / E \\ u‘: / _ ‘\Jarmson Road *$_“~—- » \\ i} \f x \ 5 _- \ “ \lc .\ ‘ + 0 ‘ ‘ §~ \@ \‘ (L f‘ E \(3 \ \\ \l O. ‘ Q ‘ \ ‘ I“ Q‘ \i“ \| ("A ‘s. I 9K4“ WW; - i ‘,1 g” 4'; Mafia \ | \ -\ y 1:,‘ . 1“ \_ \ "RAM 59.."3. V5, \, \ \\ Us? Aurora D ' \ $54; 5‘ “1. 0mm Pub '\ "0 ‘ . \~' \ “ v. s \_ \ bréhwbmg \_ \\ . 1‘ \\‘-’.~ \ C Plate 111. - . :3 _I'r- L, ‘- :5 : f '-----—--l . 2;- z I v- | / . / ~' / CLEVELAND 4,,’ MILES /6 ,5?’ ""1 _J» ‘ 1- K ‘A Q '’ ~.\ \1\ j l H"/ . ’/ ’ \ N" ' of’ \, k’ \ E é?" {a . ..... _._Q_"..wm_....._6' / P’ z 3‘ - .. I : <3 v’ P’, -. : Kg‘ I .g ' \ ' I Z I‘! I: o" \' . 4 1 5'3 v \ \l ‘,/ g H I t‘, I 7. u l a )1 . I I F .. / ‘ . I / Z / L \ I L_v'--‘-! s ' I L‘ {a E g I I’ "“" \ w’ ' t. \<\ 2' v / l I ,= / __ .._- ‘ . g 1‘ ,Ho/’ ' / '. x/ f I, , . x/ \ ’,.-+~f_vflfili'¥:fle_o 4+3’ Lo'f’l_~$__k. z+___* “kg o I \ I’ \\ / ‘>- “-~--_t-." ~- I 1- v “ "Ht"- C’ '7 " i ‘' : \ C’ I I : ' s I (In "mu \~_-____—-‘ / z E I‘ 1 AQ- - ~ 2 ' \a i...‘..'Y_I.!.'.!"_L1] a, O \'.- r-n.~ _..__ __ _ I O I Q9 : a ' _- g Q! 4 P k: ,9 ! ¥ ..5 ' 3|! k 3 m", 'Vié I M ' i J “= :4 N ‘I! ‘N ___-.- ___. a" v ' lifiissdl . Kinloch , a nr : Ker-gluon r‘ _ ‘P (.t I . a- 373“{_ ,57-L00, ,)>_ b 6:‘, & N 0‘ of ,‘I ‘M 'i‘ "n ' ,.-'/ A a?) / Olivefle% *- - I‘. i _. 1 i ‘I. z ;/ \ Delmar \ . K 40 I -- _ mjfl‘fl' 4s : ' _ "':\“ a, Pro:.p':it\ _ , N “26¢; ‘ \ I 9 'j-fzi't' + ‘AM’, a “'0" .‘ I“ - ,¢ - ,/ gr‘ ' 5.51:“ . . \ i \ 'ij‘l'kxr \ ..-" g’; (.W'fi‘ ‘ L K O ' l 3 ‘ - _./" 5 Q4": .’ 1.1"" M a no /"' .' ‘l? i ‘ii.’ ' "xi : . 5"." . ./ L 41- \ - / i i‘ i “if \ '1 \' / 'I. g g 1' a i I‘ t _ i \ l . e u z W“ I \ ‘. a" \ . . hog‘: ‘/ Mellcnbock f ' Normandy Hgishl. ‘I’ it‘. ‘ ran I I: 4 '16‘? / A K B #(o /' *1 ‘it. i‘ '"~ 1” ‘K, 0 ’ 1? _ U I” V a i . 2:‘ ‘123?: I//¢ A?’ Q I 1* e \ \ e .a/ ~. e. at?’ - e" \4 I, .. ,e :3,‘ e o 4.» e \gk; ‘ I \r/ r‘; fi ‘lb flat‘ - 4s‘ a” 1, 7 4," - ' V/ ' , + Folracklagd a". a; ,- 0 ‘I’, i/ 0% V/Jfi ,/,vkl A9 ' I w .1 r. o I," if . , I A.” '- 3}‘ - I a“? ' "‘ Cl f ' 1 ' . l o ' I 6 old 7|)“ e i", ‘Y x W J:. I I1“; I,‘ a... . i . . 4\ \~~_ wk’ : . - ‘\I '17,"'. r; Io r e ,v / ~_“--/ ‘4;, ‘ U kYar 5 MIA‘, M ‘it?’ ‘- S _ égwfifoil ‘ \a J_-- ‘ ' Cascyvlllc \ In’? " \‘QL e . l _ .- I Q” ' v e . , I I e e . . . . l I . . i . .. - * "Imhunion up’ ' _ e. .7" _ xv?- esle‘es .J-fec'l. J/ i / \r 4,.‘ mow-u“. ,_ I,” , ..h/ . ‘i /“-/ _ owgr6rovt. . _ i J. '_./_ \ewfi’qh "I a Q,‘ ti,‘ ' ' /’ "i 0 II ‘ : . '71 K I j’ . "I I\' ! ‘I I Mcniq;-\‘ ‘ ' i v. . *_‘:Uq‘ / / 1, ‘I- ‘ $ /-' . I‘ a/ ,,,/ . ' / l k /' -‘ Webster,‘ old - - ‘\ Grove7 Qrchlrd/ ‘ . 4'. -9,. i Klrkwood h Iii-c ' . / (F 8/ ./i “w! / \ /" p ' / /- Q5! M‘ F16‘, co_/ /. / I‘. l N a’ / / .S/i‘v'. (I t ‘ '/ \ - -\ ou/ls/ I \ \S‘r/L' “3&9 . gsQ-0*\*w \ r“; \ a. Y’ \ / ‘l . \E’K \ I ‘a I \s "3: i’. t’ P l P Q, K‘gmro ‘.0 “mu-xv. Plate V. e/ *7- ~ ‘I’ ‘new! -"" ‘ '44: w \ ~ I““/' 7 ' + ‘- f I’ I - _ _\ ' \ f"- 1' . s ‘ 3,4). -' \ \ -\ ,/ - _ "' \ \ a ‘x 9’ I /\ \ '~' ’ / ' ’ r C \ Y 4’! ' :- t s7 v - ~41: u. cw ”/ ' ' 1*‘ \\. -r Is‘ v , / “ \r ‘ \\,./', ‘\Io-sf ~‘ i’ Jff ' ' i I f, __q-“"‘~ ,- : anon I ' I‘ .--¢ ‘ ‘ '3' Barracks ' ' I? ‘ .-l "\ v / ' 1 ’ ~ /- i / g e. 4/ ' -~ : x,‘ ,1 [.1 In .0“ him’ ' ‘4.x . R T P 0 _'"--____\ \Mq‘hr.‘ W5} If! End In I. - I I Mr'fnebury - - "I .Spamslr For} ‘ME-___‘ _ I I I _ I, I :- I I /i'-‘__"-\$—:*_,,_+fl__+-p-* Z‘ l I, . I F I I I a E I .= I‘ I“ . :- l f : + . I ; a‘ d’ N W q! t: a: 1‘ SI 5‘ -' l ; qt’ m I ‘w’ I ‘\- i I. if Q: L h '13:“ r ‘a O ' 2 3 . b," \‘2: , ..- ‘ ' _ Q] —,d" M I L E s a: a‘: “if - \l r "D, f \l ‘i ‘f’. I I ‘I. ‘kl t“ "I" I 4 ‘a’ q: {H "a ‘Q: I": Fri-" \II *‘I LEH.’ \u kl, HVL" \l *I 5,,’ In w i" I + t a,’ I l L5.'' '1' L a" :1 $1 "if, I 4%! lWI i," II a" ‘an’ I"3| “If. ‘Ii’.- 3; EJ In" -.--'---. §l ’, -..__ _ . I, _‘l- _ H‘ \ I ___-":1; H‘--_._+-...____ 5Ill ‘,1? “___-H ‘___-H". ' ‘ha-___.“ - 0| I I a"; \H‘ ___-_-+ l/ ‘I I f _"“"-+-._____ / \ll 1 + . c‘: "fir-l.‘ h‘h‘m , +'''''‘''---_,+ /‘ - i ,I I . ‘Y’! "-HH::“;‘-__:‘:Hj% , HQH+~H+ li/l II ‘I’... I! 0 x r Y4?"“351/£-c-€”r.¢ ' _""'"'- +~,('/ / l' ,' a *. a 00 a 7;}‘_§§-_‘":_~f‘.4.;_q_£ .SHREV/saunx / *HQfiU/Mfi \ I I}, I’ . ' I I.- ‘-- I ___-I- ' ' \ m‘ “’PPm--::-_...__.__,;/ 7A’: \ .. i N . :-:i ((8)1754: Ill"'__-:__--.,~_>'h,cpfig.rco- /\ of ‘HEW I‘ I I’ - In MES—‘wind ‘ 3“ n- 5}’ *‘JE-Trzvsw \ Hula.‘- I V "I to) I \ . 1'. i. h I I . 'h _ I’. ~._____ I" a \ ‘ ‘I- ‘v II I 4'08 : a a n it {/6- n - ' I . W \ a o r I", I \ a ‘I: F ‘I i E ‘R ; \a ‘U $5 Ill : \ " 2 \- " 1% I II ‘J; , l ‘*- ‘ n- E \ ' a‘ W a S "‘ , ' \ _‘Ilu \ x ' \ L‘E \ 41." . q M \ ‘H \- '.' "I' ‘a E \_ _i r< I k '- I 'r' 514 \,_§ \__:, kE " a": ._ a; E - "'-'-‘\ q 1 \ v" N. I, k‘! ‘- . #2)‘ . . ' v , . I x‘ I, . ._ . I , \’l' N I *g} ‘I f *i' A; . k v z . . -, I . b :3 i=5 HMJGPaQWM . ‘Q r i ‘\‘i :i“ . Mam’fimi'r i i. In 25:. \! .,//" fl' {lemma \\ \ s ' Was/wc 0 ‘12M f Q1 "if? I-T Irv: ’ -‘ -—- -_._—_—.-_ __Ei' Avonou: --|--I!B="'=""='°-If--n llfllllvfiffl&Ili-a’gflu’n“lf =5 ====néw- a...“ ’_-"--Ih- - ’ g==n|===n=m==nlfl==="==: I l I "“'-"-==;1:,“__"“’*»n.-“ I?’ 1 ‘___-___.‘ .“'Q ‘If Hm.‘ -\.‘. ailgit {I . c‘ \"k ‘7* "a? --"""=“' . A. v _ . . Q‘ Hand-0'” -6£§:fu:€$ ‘I l- ‘p %\’‘I\ - {I ‘Pxh 44,. - r - - ‘ <5'‘'~~\‘l J - P j: I . 07¢’; lava» \. ‘~-..-1' ' J *2}"'-§~ "c 4; u‘!- ‘H- L- A142 - "f! A’?! J0 u-n __- h ‘ m” 1% AM-Es wmz: A...’ -_..--—- P 3"‘... '\ -.—__'I___J'I-':-—IPF' Aclrx‘éru _ ‘-;_.|__h»- __.-n-I-"'-. lc) - \\ 8 \ rm - , . wm'mDLm-Hsmm J _L;; 4nnl‘f RAILWAY TERMINALS 481 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 4O 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 Brooklyn Freight House. Wallabout Freight Pier. Erie R. R. N.Y.S. 86 \V. Terminal—coal delivery. Weehawken Yard, holding and lighterage for New York. Passenger Yard—transfer, lighterage, grain elevator. Coach Yard. Main Yard—classification—engine terminal. Coalburg—east bound—coal empties from N.Y.S. & W. Terminal. Little Ferry—General freight yard N.Y.S. & W. Interchange with W.S.R.R. General freight yard for Newark. Harrison—stock yards. Athenia—cattle quarantine. Freight Pier 21, North River. Freight Pier 39, North River. Freight yard, W. 28th St., Manhattan. Freight Pier 80, North River. Freight Pier 89, North River. Freight Pier 121, North River. Harlem Terminal, Park Av. and 135th St., Manhattan. Freight Pier 7, East River. Lehigh Valley RR. Jersey City Terminal—transfer and lighterage to N. Y. National Stores—warehouses, grain elevator. Public Delivery Yard, 27th St, Manhattan. Public Delivery Yard and Freight Pier, 149th St. Public Delivery Yard, E. 124th St., Manhattan. Slaughter house and freight station, E. 43rd 8t. Freight Pier 44, East River. ' Freight Pier 5, Wallabout Basin. Freight Pier 3, North River. Freight Pier 34, North River. Grand St. freight yard, Jersey City. Greenville freight yard, Jersey City. Oak Island Yards and transfer. Hamburg Place freight station, Newark. Poinier St. freight yard, Newark. W. Elizabeth freight yard. Irvington freight yard. South Plainfield freight yard. Perth Amboy freight yard. Perth Amboy freight and coal piers. New York Central 8: Hudson River R.R. West Shore Yard—passenger terminal classification, lighterage and transfer to New York, grain elevator. 482 RAILWAY TERMINALS 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 113 114 115 144th St. Docks. 60th St. Yard classification, transfer bridges, lighterage, stock yards, . grain elevator. 30th St. Yard—Piers, teamtracks, milk yard, market facilities, freight houses. 42nd St. Ferry, 43rd St. Freight Pier. Freight Pier 31, North River. Freight Pier 23, North River. Freight Pier 16 and 17, North River. Freight Pier 4, East River. Freight Pier 34, East River. St. Johns Park, freight house, track delivery. Wallabout Basin, freight house. Port Morris Yard, piers, transfer to N.Y.N.H. 80 H., power house. Mott Haven Yard—passenger cars—small freight yard. New Durham Yard—classification—principal holding yard. Hoboken freight house. Newark Av. freight yard, Jersey City. New York, New Haven & Hartford RR. Harlem River Yard—lighterage, transfer bridges, local freight house, L.C.L. & bulk, produce house, with stalls, transfer between har- bor lines. Oak Point Yard—car float, transfer eastbound and westbound—20% of eastbound classification here. West Chester Yard—Classification of 80% of eastbound freight— L.C.L. transfer platform. Van Nest Yard—storage and empties. Freight Pier 39, East River. Freight Pier 45, East River. Freight Pier 50, East River. Freight Pier 70, East River. Freight Pier Foot of N. First St., Greenpoint. Pennsylvania RR. Hudson St. Branch, local industries. Freight Piers 1, 3, 4 and 5, North River. Freight Piers 27, 28 and 29, North River. Freight Piers 77 and 78, North River. Freight Piers N. 4th and N. 5th Sts., Brooklyn. Freight Piers 2, Wallabout Basin. Freight Piers at 125th St. and Harlem River, Manhattan, lighterage. Sunnyside Passenger Yard. Waverly Yard—Jersey City and New York freight classification, transfer, L.C.L. delivery. Greenville Yard—through yard, classification of New England freight-. Meadows Yard, classification for Harsimus Cove yard. RAILWAY TERMINALS 483 116 117 118 119 120 l—‘H HocoooQcncnm-color— 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3O 31 32 33 34 35 Harsimus Cove Yard—transfer bridges, lighterage, local freight, Jersey City, stock yards. Jersey City Yard—Passenger terminal, transfer bridges, team tracks. Bay Ridge Terminal. South Amboy coal piers. Philadelphia & Reading RR. Port Reading Terminal. Chicago Railroad Map. Location of Down-Town Freight Houses. C.G.\V.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. B. & ORR, Inbound and Outbound. C.R.I. & P.Ry., Inbound and Outbound. L.S. & l\/I.S.Ry., Inbound and Outbound. N.Y.C. & St.L.RR, Inbound and Outbound. Erie RR, Inbound and Outbound. G.T.W.Ry., Inbound. Wabash RR, Outbound. OI. & L.Ry., Inbound and Outbound. C. & E.I.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. \Vabash RR, Inbound. G.T.VV.Ry., Inbound and Outbound. A.T. & S.F.Ry., Outbound. A.T. & S.F.Ry., Inbound. OB. & Q.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. OB. & Q.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. C. & N.W.R., Outbound. C.M. & St.P.R.R., Outbound. M.St.P. & S.S.M.Ry., Inbound and Outbound. B. & ORR, Inbound and Outbound. C. & A.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. OB. & Q.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. C.M. 8: St.P.R.R., Inbound. C.M. & St.P.R.R., Inbound. C.M. & St.P.R.R., Outbound. C.M. & St.P.R.R., Outbound. O. & N.W.Ry., Inbound. O. &- N.W.Ry., Inbound. O. & N.W.Ry., Outbound. C. & N.W.Ry., Outbound. I.C.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. M.O.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. P.M.R.R., Inbound and Outbound. P.C.C. & St.L.Ry., Inbound. P.C.C. & St.L.Ry., Inbound. 484 RAILWAY TERMINALS 36 37 38 39 4O U‘IIPOJNJH P.C.C. 85 St.L.Ry., Outbound. P.F.W'. 8a C.Ry., Inbound. P.F.W. 86 C.Ry., Inbound. P.F.W. 85 C.Ry., Outbound. P.F.W. 85 C.Ry., Outbound. Location of Passenger Terminals. Dearborn Station, terminus of Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. Chesapeake 86 Ohio Ry. of Indiana. Chicago 86 Eastern Illinois RR. ' Chicago 85 Western Indiana RR. Chicago, Indianapolis 85 Louisville RR. Erie RR. Grand Trunk Western Ry. Wabash RR. Grand Central Station, terminus of Baltimore 85 Ohio Southwestern RR. Chicago Great Western RR. Minneapolis, St. Paul 86 Sault Ste. Marie Ry. Pere Marquette RR. Union Passenger Station, terminus of Chicago 85 Alton RR. Chicago, Burlington 86 Quincy RR. Chicago, Milwaukee 85 St. Paul RR. Pennsylvania System. % Louis R.R. Central Station, terminus of Illinois Central R.R. Michigan Central R.R. Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago 8: St. Louis Ry. La Salle St. Station, terminus of Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Ry. (N.Y.C.) New York, Chicago 85 St. Louis RR. Chicago, Rock Island 8: Pacific Ry. Chicago 85 Northwestern Station, terminus of Chicago 85 Northwestern Ry. Cleveland Railroad Map. Baltimore 87 Ohio R.R. Columbus Road Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound Lake Dock. Lake Warehouse. Seneca St. Freight House, Outbound. South Brooklyn Passenger and Freight Station, Inbound and Out- bound. Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne 85 Chicago Ry. Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. RAILWAY TERMINALS CDOOQO'D 11 12 13 13A 26 27 28 29 3O 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 25 38 39 40 41 42 43 Willow Passenger and Freight station, Outbound and Inbound. Seneca St. Dock. Brooklyn Team Tracks. Factory St. Team Tracks. Merwin St. Team Tracks. Newburgh Freight Station. Brooklyn Passenger and Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Passenger Station, Cleveland. Parma Station. Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago 8r. St. Louis Ry. Central Flats Freight Station, Outbound. Front St. Freight Station, Inbound. Oil Freight Station, Outbound. Linndale Passenger and Freight Station, with team track. Spring St. Team Track. Central Flats Team Track. Gordon Avenue Team Tracks. Scott Team Tracks, Inbound. Swiss St. Team Tracks Wall Team Tracks. West 41st St. Team Tracks. Union Passenger Station. Cleveland Short Line. Schaaf Road Team Tracks. Erie RR. Passenger Station (with C.C.C. & St.L.Ry.). Coal Unloader. Dock, Elm St. Freight Station, Lake Transfer Station. Newburgh Freight and Passenger Station. Scranton Road Freight Station, Lumber Dock. Willson Avenue Passenger Station and Freight Station. Ore Docks. Broadway Team Tracks. Columbus Road Team Tracks. Forest Street Team Tracks. River Bed Team Track-s. Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Ry. Union Passenger Station. Central Way Freight Station, Outbound. Detroit Av. Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. E. 105th St. Passenger Station and Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. " Front St. Freight Station, Inbound. Pier Freight Station, Inbound. Pier Freight Station, Outbound. 486 RAILWAY TERMINALS 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 25 74 75 76 77 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 Wason St. Freight Station, Outbound. Wason St. Freight Station, Inbound. West Park Passenger Station and Freight Station. Ice House. Collingwood Passenger and Freight Station. Davenport Av. Team Tracks. East 67th St. Team Tracks. Willow St. Team Tracks. Newburgh &: South Shore Ry. Broadway Passenger Station and Team Tracks. Cleveland Passenger Station. Cuyahoga Av. Passenger Station. East 71st St. Passenger Station and Team Tracks. Campbell Road Team Tracks. East 91st St. Team Tracks. Harvard Av. Team Tracks. Independence Road Team Tracks. Seneca St. Team Tracks. New York, Chicago 8: St. Louis Ry. East 9th St. Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. East 79th St. Station, Inbound and Outbound. West 25th St. Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Broadway Passenger Station. Euclid Av. Passenger Station. W. 25th St. Passenger Station. Crosby Av. Team Tracks. East 89th St. Team Tracks. Ivanhoe Road Team Tracks. Mayfield Team Tracks. Pear Av. Team Tracks. West 42nd St. Team Tracks. West 110th St. Team Tracks. Pennsylvania R.R. Union Passenger Station. Cleveland Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Pier and Lake Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Pier No. 1, Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Piers No. 2 and 3, Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Euclid Av. Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Newburgh Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Wason St. Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Woodland Av. Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. Euclid Av. Passenger Station. Newburgh Passenger Station. Woodland Av. Passenger Station. Keiper St. Team Track. DISCUSSION: RAILWAY TERMINALS 487 Wheeling and Lake Erie RR. 85 Coal Dock. 86 Commercial Road Freight Station, Inbound. 87 Commercial Road Freight Station, Outbound. 88 East 93rd St. Passenger and Freight Station, Inbound and Outbound. 89 Broadway Passenger Station. 90 Miles Av. Passenger Station. 91 Ontario St. Passenger Station. 92 Ore Dock. 93 Broadway Team Tracks. 94 Brooklyn Team Tracks. 95 Jones Road Team Track. 96 Ridge Road Team Track. 97 West 3rd St. Team Track. Steamship Lines. 98 Anchor Line. Canadian Lake Line. 99 Detroit and Cleveland Navigation Co. 100 Inland Line, Ltd. 100 Merchants’ Montreal Line. 98 Mutual Transit Co. 98 Northern Steamship Co. 100 Star Cole Lines. DISCUSSION Mr. J’. Spencer Smith* (by letter) expressed the belief that Mr. Mr- Cresson has pointed out what is the crux in the railroad situation of the Smith‘ United States when he refers to the regulation of rates between points by the Interstate Commerce Commission and the freedom given to railroads in competing with one another at terminal points. The writer takes it for granted that the reason the Interstate Commerce Commission has been given the power to regulate rates is so that the best interests of the country may be served, as well as that the stockholders of the railroads may receive protection from ruinous competition. He believes it to be very generally accepted today that railroads are quasi-public institutions and that their primary interest is to serve the people as a whole. If this is the case, then it seems that it would be in line with the Interstate Commerce Commission’s duties if they were to compel the railroads serving large centers to form terminal operating companies which would handle the business of the roads terminating at these centers. A striking example of how the Union Operating Company promotes the commercial welfare of a community is shown in Montreal. Not many years ago the railroads terminating in Montreal did their own switching and each one handled its own business; whereas today, so far as the business of the port of Montreal is concerned, the railroads turn * President, Board of Commerce and Navigation, State of New Jersey. 488 DISCUSSION: RAILWAY TERMINALS Mr. Smith. Mr. Tomkins. Mr. Williams. over their business to the Harbor Commission and the Harbor Commission in turn operates the terminal railroad. This arrangement has proved to be most satisfactory to the shippers as well as the railroad companies. Mr. Calvin T0mkins,* Assoc. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter), said that Mr. B. F. Cresson’s interesting experience as port engineer alternately in the service of New York City and the State of New Jersey, situated as they are on both sides of the great international port of New York, pecu- liarly qualifies him to discuss the problem of railway terminals. Nowhere is this problem more complicated or urgent than at the principal port of the country. Mr. Cresson has very clearly stated in his text and shown graphically by the maps which accompany it the universality of the principle that the railroads which converge at a city should be fused into one connected, administrative terminal unit, so that every factory and warehouse in any part of the city shall have ready access to all routes leading to and from it. If the city is also a port, the marine traffic should be articulated with the rail traffic at the water front through the instrumentality of a mar- ginal railroad behind the docks, over which traffic should move with as little obstruction as does the water-borne traffic in front of the docks. The cities have heretofore neglected their terminal responsibilities, and especially is this true of the ports. The railroads were originally obliged to create their own terminals, and incidentally terminal abuses crept in. The resulting unrelated, private and unsocial terminal systems are breaking down as a consequence of their inherent defects, and the problem which now arises is not so much that of physical organization—since the general principles involved are common to most cities, as Mr. Cresson has shown— but rather to determine how the railroads can let. go and the public take hold without prejudice to the fundamental interests of either, or of the shippers and receivers of freight. Mr. James J. Hill has truly said that the railroad system of the country is breaking down at its constricted outgrown city terminals. When the war stops and general business revives, the need for a change of policy involving the substitution of co-operation for competition will quickly become obvious. Mr. Riley Williamsf (by letter) said that there are no features of the many functions of the modern railroad so vitally essential to successful management as adequate and scientifically planned terminals combined with competent and efficient terminal supervision. In the past the lack of provision for the expansion of existing terminals has resulted in a serious burden to the majority of our American railroads; and while the railroads of this country are laboring under difficulties at prac- tically all important terminal points, the situation seems most accentuated and serious at points along the Atlantic seaboard. * New York City, N. Y. ‘tFormerly Terminal and Lighterage Agent for the Delaware 85 Lackawanna Railroad Company at the Port of New York. DISCUSSION: RAILXVAY TERMINALS 489 At no other locality have conditions become so acute as at the port of New York. There terminal facilities have been provided looking to the requirements of each individual road only, and without any regard to some general and comprehensive plan of port and terminal development looking toward the growing necessities of the port considered as a whole. There are nine trunk lines reaching the port of New York from the South and from the West passing in and out through the New Jersey gate- way. The freight brought to and taken from the port of New York by these nine trunk lines aggregates more than 35,000,000 tons per annum. The major part of this vast tonnage breaks bulk on the Jersey side of the Hudson River, and, consequently, must be carried to ultimate destination for points in the harbor by means of water transportation. This method of joint rail and water terminal distribution, which in no small measure is subject to weather conditions and to the limitations of floating equipment, is, naturally, more or less “sluggish” in movement, and highly expensive, necessitating, as it does, several handlings of the cargo itself, to say nothing of the numerous and complicated yard move- ments entailed in effecting deliveries from rail to water carriers, and vice versa. In this confused terminal situation there are approximately seventy railroad stations scattered in and about New York, Brooklyn, Staten Island and New Jersey. Practically all of these stations are dependent on water transportation from and to rail terminals. There are, approximately, seventy-five steamship lines with regular sailings, to which freight must be delivered subject to “holding periods” (ranging from 5 to 60 days, as per current rules) in yards and on piers on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River, thus unquestionably creat- ing the most costly and confused aggregation of dissimilar units of ter- minal operation to be found any place on this continent; indeed, there is no other point where the railroads perform the amount of unremunera- tive service that they do at the port of New York. This latter, however, has not been entirely due to the prevailing physical conditions. In no small degree it has been the result of competition between the rail car- riers, dating back many years; and the practices growing out of such competition have now become so firmly intrenched as to make it a diffi- cult, if not an impossible, problem to introduce necessary adjustment features under the existing supervision of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Another serious situation existing at the port of New York, unlike any other large center throughout the country, is the lack of belt-line railroad facilities where traffic can pass from one line to another, and in some instances traffic originating near the port in New Jersey or passing from one line to another is carried as far as 80 miles each way inland for in- terchange. However, there are many very heavy traffic centers throughout the United States where the enormous growth of our cities, with their ever- widening limits, during the past half century has outstripped the develop- Mr. Williams. 490 DISCUSSION: RAILWAY TERMINALS Mr. Williams. ment of railroad terminal facilities, and property adjacent to the tracks has been in such great demand for commercial and industrial purposes, and has so increased in value, as to render its use for railroad terminal facilities impractical, even where physical conditions are satisfactory. Terminal enlargements throughout the country, at best, are now ex- tremely expensive, so that it is difficult to justify their cost for a ter- minal improvement, and the future development of terminal facilities must therefore be provided largely by cheaper operation, cheaper land and the development of modern facilities. At each of the large terminals there should be provided a system of warehouses where equipment can be quickly unloaded on arrival, instead of congesting yards and creating heavy terminal expense. How can one justify the wisdom of running traffic from Chicago and from St. Louis at a speed which will effect an 80-hour delivery at the port of New York, and then have this same traffic stand in terminals from 10 to 60 days, congesting yards, to say nothing of the loss in time to equipment‘? Our commercial development for the past 25 years has been phenome- nal; it will continue and the situation thus created must be met by pro- viding better and more scientific terminal facilities. During these 25 years, generally speaking, terminal facilities have only been added as they were actually required, by a hand-to-mouth method, while tracks, motive power and car equipment have been provided in anticipation of the coming needs. American railroads have been developed to a high standard of efficiency in every respect, excepting in their terminals, which, in many cases, have been sadly neglected, but at no other point has the situation become so serious as at the port of New York. Paper No. 90 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT. By GEORGE R. HENDERSON, Mem. Am. Soc. M. E. Consulting Engineer of The Baldwin Locomotive Works Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A. ___-__— Within recent years there have been four distinct lines of advancement followed in steam locomotives, which may be grouped into size, type, details and adjuncts; and that we may better present the effect of the changes for each of these groups, they will be taken up separately and discussed in the order mentioned. SIZE AND TYPES. As the first two classifications are so intimately connected, it will be advisable to consider them at the same time. The important changes which have been brought about in these groups, have occurred mostly within the last ten or fifteen years. \Vhile increase in weight has been going on steadily for a long time, in fact, ever since the locomotive was first given to the use of man, yet the advances in this direction were gradual, and it is only recently that really enormous locomotives have been constructed, and that the increases in size and weight have so rapidly developed into the dimensions of the present day. What can be done in the future is still in doubt; but with the limits to which rolling stock is now con- fined, due to the heights of bridges and tunnels, and the side clearances of these and _also of station platforms, rock cuts, signals, etc., it is hard to see how anything much further can be accomplished, except in the direction of length. The reason for the great increase in size, which has re- cently come about, is not hard to find. The advent of large capacity freight cars has resulted in a train that could be more easily handled with a large tonnage than was possible 492 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT in the old cars of smaller capacity, as the operation of the brakes depends more upon the length of the train and the number of units than the individual braking capacity of each car. Instead of thirty tons capacity, which was originally the maximum equipment in use about ten years ago, we now have cars of fifty tons as a very large proportion of the make-up of ordinary freight trains, and even gondolas of one hundred tons capacity are being developed and tried. In regard to passenger equipment, the introduction of the steel car has added very considerably to the weight which must be hauled; and besides, the increase in traffic due to the natural growth of the population, which has, for the United States, amounted to 20% in the last ten years, calls for large additions to side tracks, motive power and other provisions for increasing movement of persons and freight. The fact that a large train can be handled as a rule much more cheaply per ton than a small train, calls for efiorts in this direction, as under the present operating conditions, it is essential that every economy be observed in railroad work. All this, of course, means that we must have heavier track and bridges; but when we are able to increase the length of the locomotive at the same time that we increase its weight, the strain is much less upon the track and bridges than if the increase of load were obtained by varying only the other dimensions. That this latter policy has been followed as far as possible, is shown by the fact that while a few years ago, 25 tons was thought to be a large weight on one pair of drivers, we now have 30 and 35 tons in the same cases per driving axle. This allowance per pound of rail per yard is much greater in America than in Europe. The lengthening of the locomotive, however, brings about a new condition; in the first place, this means the lengthening of the boiler so as to require longer fiues, combustion chambers, long fire boxes and long smoke boxes. The wheel base must naturally follow the lengthening of the boiler, and this calls for the addition of trailing trucks, where formerly a front truck and one set of driving wheels were used. Thus, we have the old American 4-4-0 type converted to the Atlantic, or 4-4-2, type; the old 10-wheel, or 460, type converted to the Pacific, RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 493 Per 6.6/72‘ 01‘ 5/‘arf/ng Trad/re Fame 01‘ Var/bus 5p860/5 or 4-6-2, type and the Consolidation, or 2-8-0, type converted to the Mikado, or 2-8-2, type. This lengthening of the boiler has an advantage, not for increasing the adhesion of the engine, and its ultimate tractive force, but for increasing the steaming capacity, whereby a greater tractive force can be maintained at a higher speed, and wig/jam Mus/742774 redz/cf/m m Tmcf/z/e Farce W/ _//76‘/_’6056 10 5,0660’ far M/Zrm/a and £00- aa/m’af/w? Types of LOCOITIOf/Véé. 40 20 30 40 .50 5peed m MI/65 per HON/1' Pig. 1. 0 /0 this is shown in Diagram No. 1, where the available tractive force at a given speed, or the available speed at a given tractive force, is considerably increased by the adoption of the rear truck and the large boiler, which it is possible to use with this extended wheel base. In the diagram, consider a Consolidation locomotive which, at 25 miles per hour, can exert a tractive force of 43% of its 494 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT starting tractive force. Now, if we have a Mikado engine of the same adhesive weight, size .of cylinders, etc., but with the correspondingly larger boiler, we can exert the same percent- age of the total tractive force at 35 miles instead of 25 miles per hour, or we can exert 60% of the rated tractive force at 25 miles per hour instead of 43%. These are shown at the points a, c and b, respectively, on the diagram, and the black area covers the portion of the diagram where an increase in either the tractive force or the speed or both can be obtained, without any corresponding decreases either in the speed or tractive force. As a forcible example of how these types with trailing trucks have come into general use, let us consider some of the features of locomotives ordered in 1902 and then in 1913. In the first year mentioned, the heaviest Atlantic type had a total weight of 178,000 lbs. (81 tonnes), and the heaviest Consoli- dation, 270,000 lbs. (122 tonnes). In this year, only 37 Pacific type locomotives, the heaviest being 230,000 lbs. (104 tonnes), and only 15 Mikados of 285,000 lbs. (130 tonnes) were ordered. Eleven years later, we find that while the weight of the heaviest Consolidation locomotive remained the same, yet the heaviest Atlantic type had increased to 240,000 lbs. (109 tonnes), and that there were actually 431 Pacific type loco- motives ordered, the heaviest weighing 290,000 lbs. (132 tonnes), and 804 Mikados, the heaviest weighing 344,000 lbs. (156 tonnes). This increase in weight and in the number of engines of the new types is truly remarkable, and shows what the desire for a heavier train load and increased economy will efiiect. In addition, there have been quite a number of 210-2 locomotives built in recent years, with weight greater than the Mikado locomotives above mentioned. Among the interesting engines with a single pair of cylin- ders and a single set of driving mechanism recently constructed, may be noted the American, or 4-4-0 type, of the Philadelphia & Reading Railway, shown by Figure No. 2 and which has 120,000 lbs. (55 tonnes) on driving wheels with a total weight of engine and tender of about 157 tons (143 tonnes). The cylinders are 21"x24” (533x609 mm.) and the generating heating surface 1517 sq. ft. (141 sq. metres), with 86 sq. ft. RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 495 Radio: ‘ i'l" \\-§'a!\ '$\L’\ Fig. 2. American Type (4-4-0) Locomotive; Phila. 8: Reading Ry. Pig. 3. Atlantic Type (4-4-2) Locomotive; Pennsylvania B. B. Fig. 4. Pacific Type (4-6-2) Locomotive; Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. 496 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT Pig. 5. Pacific Type (4-6-2) Four-Cylinder Balanced Compound; A. '1'. a S. I‘. Ry, . . Mikado Type (2-8-2) Locomotive; Illinois Central R. B. Fig. 7. 2-10-2 ‘Type Locomotive; Baltimore 8: Ohio R. B. 1'! 0‘ G} RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 497 (8 sq. metres) of grate area to burn anthracite coal. This locomotive, as also practically all modern engines of large size, is equipped with the Schmidt superheater. Figure No. 3 shows the heavy Atlantic type locomotive of the Pennsylvania Railroad with 144,000 lbs. (60 tonnes) adhesive weight and a total weight of engine and tender of about 200 tons (180 tonnes). The Pacific, or 4-6-2 type is illustrated by a Chesapeake & Ohio locomotive in Figure No. 4, with 180,000 lbs. (82 tonnes) on drivers, and a total weight of engine and tender of 221 tons (200 tonnes). This engine has nearly 3800 sq. ft. (353 sq. metres) of heating surface, in addition to which, the super- heater furnishes nearly 900 sq. ft. (84 sq. metres) more. Figure No. 5 shows the same general type of engine, but provided with four cylinders, making this engine what is known as a “balanced compound”: the high-pressure cylinders being inside the frames, and set with the corresponding sides opposite to the cranks of the outside cylinders, thereby dis- pensing with a large amount of counterbalance, produce a very steady running machine. The cylinders in this case are 171/2” and 29” x 28” (444 and 736 x 711 mm.) stroke, the steam gen- erating surface being about 3450 sq. ft. (320 sq. metres). The Mikado, or 2-8-2 type of engine illustrated by Figure N o. 6 was built for the Illinois Central Railroad, and while not the heaviest of this type, illustrates the adaptation of the long boiler and wide firebox, made possible by use of the trailing truck. The 2-10-2 type is shown in Figure No. 7, and represents an engine with nearly 340,000 lbs. (154 tonnes) on the driving wheels; the total weight of engine and tender being 292 tons (265 tonnes). This engine has an exceptionally large boiler with nearly 5600 sq. ft. (520 sq. metres) of heating surface and over 1300 sq. ft. (120 sq. metres) of superheated surface in addition; the cylinders being 30” x 32” (762 x 813 mm.), giving a tractive force of 84,000 lbs. (38,000 kilos). This probably represents the limit to which we can proceed in placing multiple driving axles in one frame, as the restric- tions of curvature would be such that where more wheels are needed, we must either use an articulated locomotive, or special 498 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT arrangements in driving axles and rods, which allow the wheels to shift laterally and adjust themselves to the curvature of the track. The type of articulated locomotive most commonly in use is that due to M. A. Mallet of Paris, and by means of this arrangement we are enabled to apply twelve, sixteen or twenty driving wheels to a single locomotive. In this type of loco- motive, the boiler is secured rigidly to the rear of the H. P. set of cylinders and frames, and the front cylinders and frames support the front end of the boiler, but are arranged in a truck, Fig. 8. Articulated frame connection of Mallet Locomotive, showing cast steel cylinder saddle, radius bar and frames. so that they can swivel and swing cross-wise of the engine at the same time, the boiler support having a sliding surface for this purpose. The L. P. cylinders are located on the front, or swivel section, and therefore it is necessary to transmit only receiver pressure through the swivel or flexible pipe, which greatly reduces the expense and difficulty in maintaining the flexible joints. Figure No. 8 shows the method of connecting the frames and the receiver pipe at the H. P. cylinder, so that the desired amount of flexibility will be obtained, and by placing the ball joint of the pipe immediately over the center pin, we secure RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 499 Fig. 9. Mallet Articulated Compound Type (2-6-6-2) Locomotive; Norfolk 8: Western Ry. Fig. 10. Mallet Articulated Compound Type (2-8-8'2) Locomotive; Virginian Ry. Fig. 11. Triplex Compound (2-8-8-8-2) Locomotive; Erie R. B. 500 RECENT LOCOMOTlVE DEVELOPMENT the minimum amount of motion and also practically no exten- sion or compression of the receiver pipe, due to the movement of the engine in rounding curves. This type of engine was originally introduced for heavy pusher service, but it became so popular with some companies that numbers of them have been put into regular road service operating over an entire division. With such an engine, it is advisable to have a power reverse gear, as two valve motions must be operated by the engineer in reversing the engine. Figure No. 9 shows a 2-6-6-2 Mallet locomotive of the Nor- folk 85 Western, with 337,000 lbs. (152 tonnes) adhesive weight and 281 tons (255 tonnes) engine and tender. The water heat- ing surface is over 5000 sq. ft. (465 sq. metres), with nearly 1000 sq. ft. (93 sq. metres) superheater surface additional. Figure No. 10 shows a 2882 locomotive, used on the Virginian Railway. This engine has nearly 480,000 lbs. (220 tonnes) on the driving wheels with a total weight of engine and tender of not quite 375 tons (340 tonnes), showing that less than two-thirds of the weight of the machine as a whole is available for adhesion. There has recently been built for the Erie Railroad a loco- motive, which is really an extension of the Mallet idea, and was proposed by the writer in order to obtain a still greater trac- tive force without seriously increasing the length or weight of the engine and its tender. This is illustrated in Figure No. 11, and it will be seen that it is of the 2-8-8-8-2 type, being a Triplex Compound of about 755,000 lbs. (340 tonnes) adhesive weight and about 425 tons (385 tonnes) total for the machine com- plete. With this engine, we have 90% of the total weight on the drivers, and are able to obtain a tractive force at the cir- cumference of the wheels, when starting, of 160,000 lbs. (72,500 kilos), or, as compared with the 2-10-2 type locomotive shown in Figure No. 7, we have practically double the tractive force with 45% increase in weight. In this locomotive, there are six cylinders, all of the same size, that is, 36” in diameter x 32” (914x813 mm.) stroke. The middle cylinders, with their frames, are fastened rigidly to the boiler, and are operated under high pressure. The ex- haust from the high pressure cylinders is taken to the two front RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 50]. low pressure and the two rear low pressure cylinders which, with their frames and steam pipes, are flexibly connected simi- lar to the Mallet arrangement shown in Figure No. 8, thus giving a compound ratio of 2. While the steam from the front pair of cylinders passes through the smoke box and stack in the usual manner, that from the rear cylinders passes through a feed water heater and finally up an escape pipe at the back of the tank. There are about 6900 sq. ft. (640 sq. metres) of water heating surface and nearly 1600 sq. ft. (150 sq. metres) of superheating surface. This engine is little longer or heavier than a Mallet of the same unit weight on driving wheels with its tender, the dead weight of the tender reducing the capacity of the train; in this case, the tender exerts nearly one-half as much tractive force as the two sections under the boiler, and so adds to the pulling power of the engine, and increases enormously the amount of train which can be handled with a single locomotive. While this engine has not been in service for a great length of time, yet its many advantages seem to point to it as a method of operating economy which may, for a while at least, avoid the expensive installation of electric locomotives for handling heavy freight traffic. DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION. Cast steel is probably more closely connected with the de— velopment of the large locomotive than any other single item entering into its construction, and the possibility of being able to obtain large steel castings has taken much work from the blacksmith shop, and placed it in the steel foundry. Before the success of large steel castings, the main frames of American locomotives, for example, were made of hammered iron, en- tailing a great deal of heavy work in the blacksmith shop in hammering out the different sections and welding them to- gether. The almost universal substitution, however, of cast steel for forging in locomotive frames and in the various cross braces, guide yokes and other parts, which had been formerly made of bar iron or steel, forged and finished to suit, has, in a great measure, reduced the importance of the blacksmith shop 502 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT in the manufacture of locomotives. This has become true to a large extent in connection with front and rear trucks and, as an example of the latter, may be illustrated the new trailing truck recently introduced by the Pennsylvania Railroad and which can be seen very clearly in Figure No. 3, and which is largely constructed of steel castings. Alloy steels, and steels submitted to a final heat treatment after having been forged in the smith shop, have been intro- duced to some extent, more particularly in high speed and large locomotives, where it is important to decrease the weight of the individual parts. Piston rods and axles have been made with a central hole or core running from end to end, which re- duces the weight, and assists in the process of heat treatment. It is probable that the full benefit of the higher elastic limit of such steels has not been taken advantage of, as in many cases the working stresses are maintained at the same figures as were used for ordinary carbon steel; but there is no doubt that as our familiarity with, and our confidence in, special steels in- crease, the various parts will be made still lighter by the use of higher working fibre stresses, and thus follow along the lines of European practice. The reduction of weight in the reciprocating parts such as pistons, piston rods, cross heads and connecting rods, is of great importance on high speed locomotives which have a heavy load per driving axle, and by the intelligent introduction of proper metals and designs, it is possible to so reduce the effect of the counterbalance that a much larger static weight can be permitted to operate on rails and bridges of a given weight and strength. This is illustrated also in the E60 locomotive of the Pennsylvania Railroad, shown in Figure No. 3, in which the weight on two pairs of driving wheels is 133,000 lbs. (60 tonnes); but as the dynamic augment per wheel, due to the counterbalance, at a speed of 70 miles (112 kilom.) per hour is less than 30% of the static weight on drivers, the effect on the track is not more injurious than many passenger locomotives which have considerably less weight per axle. The Walschaerts valve gear has almost entirely superseded the Stephenson, which was formerly used, particularly in America. The reason for this change has been more in order RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 503 to make the gear accessible, to obviate the eccentrics which had reached enormous size due to the large driving axles which were necessary, and to give opportunity to provide substantial cross braces between the frames, than to improve the motion of the valve itself. Other valve gears have also been introduced recently, which are really different varieties of the Walschaerts or the Hackworth gears, but most of these are radial gears in: which the lead is constant for varying percentages of cut-off, and it is considered by many that the actual motion of the valve is not as satisfactory as with the increasing lead due to the Stephenson gear. It has been reported, for instance, that engines with the Walschaerts valve motion will not start a train as rapidly as those fitted with the Stephenson gear; but the consequential advantages are so great that it is felt that this objection to the motion of the valve can be overlooked. Piston valves have become so common that it is hardly necessary to dwell upon the fact that they have been almost entirely introduced within the last fifteen years. In many 10- calities, the cylindrical type of tender is adhered to, one of the great features of this style being the ease with which the brake rigging and trucks can be inspected. When we come to consider the changes that have taken place in the boiler, we find that the most notable one is that of size, as not only has the diameter increased to 100 in. (2.54 m.) in some cases, but the fiues have also increased in length to 24 ft. (7.315 m.) and even, in some cases, to 25 ft. (7.620 m.). This has naturally led to improved methods of construction, such as the one-piece dome, drawn by hydraulic power from a single sheet, the introduction of the combustion chamber and several types of fire box with hot air flue, bridge walls, etc. Flexible staybolts are also being very generally used, in some cases not only in the “breaking zone”, but for the complete equipment of fire box staybolts. These staybolts are of sev- eral diiferent varieties, namely, those in which a portion is formed like a ball resting in a socket, others in which there is a hinge or knuckle joint in the bolt and still others which are formed of laminated sections, in order to permit bending with less stress in the bolt material. 504 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT ADJUNCTS AND SPECIALTIES. The development of the locomotive, in the direction of increased weight and size, has brought about the addition of a number of special features, the necessity for which, a short time ago, would not even have been dreamed of. Many years ago, there were a few engines fitted with the power reversing mechanism, but these were soon abandoned as unnecessary with the small locomotives existing at that time. The articu- lated locomotive, however, with its two or three valve gears, has caused the return to the power reverse apparatus, and even large locomotives with a single set of driving wheels are often now so equipped. Some of these power reversing mechanisms are operated by compressed air and some by steam, and there are difierent methods of locking the piston in place after it has assumed its position, as designated and controlled by the hand lever in the cab. One method is to use a cylinder of oil, which can pass freely from one end of the cylinder to the other when the mechanism is in motion, but which is locked by closing the ports when the desired position has been assumed. In another type, there is no oil cylinder; but any movement of the gear from the desired position opens the valve, and brings the pis- ton back to the point at which it is intended to rest. Figure No. 12 shows such a reverse gear detached from the boiler, and these gears are powerful enough to move even the three, or rather the six, sets of valve motion used on the Triplex loco- motive. It is probable that no adjuncts which have been applied to the large locomotives have been as valuable as the super- heater, which gives an economy in the consumption of coal and water, or an increased output, depending upon which is de- sired. It is necessary to reduce the steam generating surface when the superheater is applied, and if the amount of coal burned be reduced in proportion to the reduction in this heat- ing surface, there will be a saving of approximately 25% in fuel for the same output of work. If it is desired, however, to burn the same amount of coal in the fire box as with a non-super- heater locomotive of the same size, then the capacity of the en- gine will be increased 30% or more, and of course any com- RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 505 bination between these two values can be obtained. This shows at once that we not only get more work out of a pound of coal, but that we also save the fireman’s efforts, as it is not neces- sary for him to shovel as much fuel into the fire box, for the same power, as with the saturated steam locomotive. The arrangement of the superheater is so well known that it is not necessary to describe it in detail. As a general state- ment, it may be said that the superheating surface is in the neighborhood of 20% of the generating surface, and that the equivalent heating surface has often been taken as the steam generating surface plus one and one-half times the area of the superheating surface. With the proportions of a type of super- heater frequently used, an amount of superheat from 150 to 250 degrees Fahr. (85 to 140 degrees Cent.) can be obtained above the saturated temperature, the corresponding volume of steam being increased about 16% for each 100 degrees Fahr. (55 degrees Cent.) of superheat. With large locomotives, the superheater does not always sufficiently relieve the fireman of severe work, as it has been demonstrated that an ordinary man cannot keep up, for any length of time, a supply of coal in the fire box greater than from 5000 to 6000 lbs. (2300 to 2700 kilos.) per hour. There have been several methods introduced for lightening his work, such as automatic fire door openers, pneumatic grate shakers and coal pushers. The first of these can be seen in Figure No. 13, and is so arranged that a pressure of the foot when ready to throw coal into the fire box causes the door to open by air pressure, and the release of the pedal allows the door to close. With large fire boxes, the shaking of grates has become quite a laborious operation, and steam or air cylinders have been substituted for manual labor to operate the grates. The movement required by the fireman is practically the same, that is, a small lever is operated, but as this controls a valve, the steam or air under pressure does the actual work of shaking the grate. When the fuel in the tender is partly exhausted, it is nec- essary for the fireman to go back several steps for each shovel- ful. This has, at times, been obviated by placing a second man on the tender to pull forward the coal as the supply has been 506 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT swkwsstmefi kwnbfiEéhobmtfisQ \gkm. .EQQSU .86 be \ beeehwtsegooQ \EQ 3&5“. .3 an.“ 8!! mm g. mun \ s-..“ _\ M //i l v n . .= _ W -i- m / Aj I -. A . .. A / A / 1 2 ill 1_ .0 , // kewototsfime mmi m. 7 ~ \ A .w // . EQQQRQ Q0 . x \ . / \ .. s. .e A. , s a. ..... -u . l \ . . -_ y l. | t \, \. \\m\~\\ \\ M I I T \\~ A. so . .. .- .. /~n __ l - i on \ _ \ n \\ \ ll 8 a a... a a _.1 :mm. mm 8/ a 2 > :El . i ||l. /' . iil l -FQEJlZ: if - kmnqfioxfig \ i . x no on. s - mv . @Qmsfixgbgg we okbsbbbknsb . mw. 2% w“ 3Q mfiabetsmwmm . om hmfiwssg 865.5695 QM . Ti 1 saw 90w EWO sue SEQ \@ Emqm. . on \w\ %% . 9 ./ / _. mm. Q . . .. .. MN St mésx W e . 2 Av _ . . . but 39 Q a SE .0 . H .. . we UQQBEQG . . R. 3b . Q . u 9 Q 1 Wabash . k. 06 . 8 be.‘ 9 \ \.w\ H . b“. N QSGQEQQ mm. . 3 \ _ 8 run 586: . . H maseywmassomuwsmmon . H M \Weesewwmwst & //// _ \\ went . .. . R 58:86 . . we - N fur. t\\ Ruxbw . mm. Q \3 mvésqnbwqm. : mm . \SQBEBSQ. . . R. bfwm. .Qb mév MM. kmmmmmtow W mm on #n Rembfibem. . % \vgwkwxmw $2658 8 3C . . .AQ o no \RCQWMWDAMMNNWK . . ms. QQRQEBMEQ . g . R Q . . s v n . . we kmkmw \S g Q . . l . tmsmwbtg t. RGERSSQQ. 8 es QWQQQ b on on \Q»... 59662 is 8.. cbQbom‘tQeQ w . stokes . he 9m. stem. M“ wwmmooei es 83.25836 . . e g . . \ - R . . / @NMQE . . . . we whim es been . M Show‘ Cg _ B L \ QQNNQQQQQQkSSDQ n‘ \kfibxofiqbfiggb we. kmfitimb \ QQEQWQQER _ 63g mxfibgbw R§QQQ m5 Komw mmlkmkmm \QxSQQ \mtQfiwQm RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 507 reduced; but the pneumatic coal pusher shown in Figure No. 14 has obviated the necessity for that labor, and as this device is under the control of the fireman, the coal can be pushed for- ward whenever it is desirable to decrease the distance from the fire door to the coal pile. This apparatus is shown in the quiescent and in the active positions for which it is intended to do the work. Even these devices are not always sufficient, and therefore a stoker or mechanical fireman has been developed, which actually takes the coal from the tender and deposits it on the grate. There are two principal varieties of stokers ; one which distributes the coal on top of the fire, similar to the usual method of hand firing, and the other by which it is fed under- neath. Figure No. 13 shows some of the piping and arrange- ments of the Street stoker, which is of the former type; but many engines have been equipped with the Crawford stoker, which pushes the coal forward underneath the burning surface, and so gives a partial coking effect before the fuel itself be- comes ignited. With such mechanisms, it is possible to deliver from five to eight tons of coal per hour, which is greater than has so far been found necessary to supply fuel even to the largest locomotives. Another method of reducing or practically eliminating the labor of the fireman, is to burn fuel oil instead of coal, and in some localities this has the advantage of also decreasing the cost of operation. This method was first introduced in Russia in the Caspian district oil fields, and has in this country been very largely followed in California and Texas, where the price of oil was cheap and the cost of coal excessively high. When oil is used as fuel, it is blown into the fire box by means of a steam jet which atomizes it to such an extent that it burns practically like a gas. With the proper attention, steam can be maintained without smoke, except once or twice an hour when it is necessary to “sand” the fiues, in order to clean out the carbon deposits. In addition to the saving in cost where oil is cheaper than coal, it has been found possible to generate greater quantities of steam in the same fire box, so that while we normally assume that each sq. ft. (sq. metre) of heating surface in a coal burning locomotive will produce 12 508 RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT lbs. ( 60 kilos.) of steam per hour, it is possible to reach 18 lbs. (90 kilos.) of steam per sq. ft. (sq. metre) of heating surface per hour in an oil burning locomotive. This fuel is ideal for large locomotives, as it requires prac- tically no handling, and the quantity can be regulated to a nicety; but on the other hand, in many sections of the country the cost will be prohibitive, and if it were used to any great extent, the price would no doubt be even further increased, so Hg. 13. Piping and arrangement of Street Stoker. that it is not likely that it will ever become a competitor of coal for general service. I The burning of coal dust under steam boilers is very at- tractive, but has not yet proceeded far enough to state the possibilities of satisfactorily using coal dust in a locomotive. For heating furnaces and for steel making, it produces ad- mirable results, but it will no doubt require considerable ex- perimenting before it is satisfactorily burned in a locomotive fire box. It probably will be necessary to depart from our con- RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 509 ventional ideas of locomotive fire box construction in order to satisfactorily burn powdered coal; but the field for this is so great that we believe it is only a question of time, and that a short one, when it will be found to respond satisfactorily to locomotive requirements. This, like fuel oil, would reduce the all Hefldefsofl mg. Fig. 14. Pneumatic Coal Pushing Device for Tender. labor of the fireman to a very small amount, and it is certainly a method that is greatly to be desired, especially with the large locomotives now being constructed, and which will, no doubt, be constructed during the coming decade. The internal combustion engine has been applied to loco- motives to a limited extent. With small units in which trans~ 510 DISCUSSION: RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT Eaton. Mr. Stillman. mission can be treated like an automobile, with change gears and chain transmission, the results have been fairly satisfactory, but the application to large locomotives, which must generate and use from 1000 to 2500 horsepower, is a very difficult prob- lem, especially as the tractive force at low speeds must be great in order to produce satisfactory traffic characteristics, and much experimental work will be necessary before this can be accomplished. DISCUSSION Mr. G. M. Eaton,* Mem. A. I. E. E., said that he had great confidence in the future of steel submitted to a final heat treatment; that he looked for a great increase in the use of such steel for reciprocating parts; that while the present price was high it would decrease with the use of newer methods of manufacture. Referring to the author ’s statement that the use of the 5288-82 type recently built for the Erie Railroad might result in such operating econ- omy as to defer the installation of expensive electric locomotives for handling heavy freight, he said that he could not help a feeling of satis- faction at this recognition of the electric locomotive. In service electric locomotives have solved problems that steam locomotives have failed to solve as satisfactorily. Electrification is expensive, and if some alternative is cheaper, then electrification is an expensive luxury. In some cases, however, it is be- coming an expensive necessity. The Mallet locomotive shown in Fig. 9 was replaced by an electric locomotive on the Bluefield Division of the Norfolk & Western Railway. Three of these Mallet locomotives (840 tons) were used to haul a load of 3000 tons in winter and 3300 tons in summer up a 2% grade at a speed of 7 miles per hour. The same train of 3300 tons is now hauled by two electric locomotives (540 tons) up the same grade at 14 miles per hour, winter and summer. Mr. Howard Stillman,H Mem. Am. Soc. M. E., in response to the statement that the Newport News Company was using oil as a fuel success- fully without an atomizing device, using 200 lb. per sq. in. pressure, and the question whether this could be used on locomotives, said that it was a question of the ultimate cost of the power necessary to atomize the oil. Oil must be atomized by some power. The Southern Pacific Company used steam because of its cheapness and simplicity. In response to questions by Mr. Stucki, Mr. Stillman said that his ex- perience in attempting to lighten up reciprocating parts by the use of alloy steel had been a very expensive one. He did not wish to criticize the principle, but the subject was very new and the methods as yet somewhat crude. * Engr., Railway Division, Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co., East Pittsburgh, Pa. ** Engr. of Tests, Southern Pacific 00., San Francisco, Calif. DISCUSSION: RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 511 That in utilizing the weight of the tender to increase the tractive power, as in the 2-8-8-8-2 type, the cost of the machine was very great, and it was a question of whether or not the power developed would pay for the cost. Also in the use of the two-unit Mallet type, both units are tied up during repair to one unit, and that the net economy must be considered. That the superheater was all that was claimed for it; it had gotten beyond the stage of uncertainty and had come to stay. He could verify Mr. Henderson’s figures. Mr. F. J’. Cole,* Mem. Am. Soc. M. E. (by letter), said that locomotives of the weights and power in daily use at the present time would have been considered impracticable 15 or 16 years ago. The increase in weight and capacity of locomotives in the United States has advanced much more rapidly than would have been imagined possible a few years ago. This rapid advance is largely due to the improvements which have taken place in the strength of track and bridges and to the general use of freight cars of 50 tons capacity or over making the economical use of such locomotives practicable. With the restrictions imposed by the height and width, it was inevita- ble that the increase should take place in the third dimension, namely, length. Had it not been for the great improvements in appliances which have come into general use in recent years, such as superheaters, stokers, outside valve gear, etc., it would not be possible at the present time to operate such large units. The application of superheaters to locomotives has reduced the amount of coal burned, as compared to similar work with saturated steam. Mechanical stokers, by increasing the amount of coal which may be fed per hour into a locomotive firebox, have done much toward promoting the economical use of large locomotives. The Mallet articulated locomotive, since the first large one of its type was built in this country by the American Locomotive Company for the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1904, has been taken up enthusiastically by American railroad managers, not only for the economical hauling of freights on long, heavy grades, but for road service as well. One large road has in general service one hundred 2-6-6-2 class. This type of locomotive, as originally designed by Anatole Mallet, was intended for narrow-gauge military roads, which could be laid following the undulations of the surface of the ground with sharp curvature and the minimum amount of grading. The inherent advantages of this type con- sist of distribution of power between two engines, flexibility, and greater tractive power without increase in individual axle loads. It is adapted to the heaviest freight service in the world, and performs satisfactorily the exacting requirements of American railroad operation. The Mallet is naturally a compound proposition, since the engines are generally employed for heavy grades, which if operated with simple engines would use steam wastefully on account of the long cut-offs and *Chief Consulting Engineer, American Locomotive 00., Schenectady, N. Y. Mr. Stillman. Mr. Cole. 512 DISCUSSION: RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT Mr. Cole. comparatively short range of expansion. The low-pressure cylinders are supplied with steam by means of a swinging receiver pipe provided with ball joints at the back end, which with steam of comparatively low pres- sure are easily maintained and give no trouble in actual service. In addi- tion to this the advantage of dividing the power into two engines is of considerable advantage in surmounting heavy grades, for the reason that when one engine slips the other will usually hold and keep the slack of the train up until the pressure in the receiver increases or decreases; for the engines, if they slip at all, are apt to slip alternately, and rarely, if ever, at the same time. Furthermore, there is no direct sequence of the operation of the cranks on the forward and back engines, thus tending to make the power more uniform during one revolution. Regarding the triplex compound type, it is probable that the steaming capacity is the determining factor in the successful operation in an en- gine of this kind. It is possible to conceive of a situation where by rea- son of slow speed requirements an engine of this description can be used successfully; for instance, in pusher service the amount of horsepower really required is much smaller than if the engine were operated in road service. Under these conditions, by reason of its much greater tractive power, it is possible that an engine of this kind could be operated suc- cessfully. For general purposes it is, of course, a question whether a boiler of sufficient size can be made to supply the increased amount of steam nec- essary to operate two additional cylinders, especially when half the steam which is ordinarily used for exhaust purposes in producing a vacuum in the steam chest is diverted to a feed-water heater and blown out through the auxiliary stack at the back of the tank. Mr. Henderson has shown how the steaming capacity is improved by using a trailing truck, com- paring a 2-8-0 with a 2-8-2 type. The reason, apart from the construction permitting a deeper firebox, is that the adhesive weight has become a smaller percentage of the total; therefore, the boiler of the 2-8-2 type is larger and its capacity for generating steam is greater. Using such a large percentage of total weight of engine on the drivers and adding to this most of the tender weight, necessarily increases the available ad- hesive weight without any increase in boiler capacity; therefore, the use of such a design is limited to very slow speeds and relatively small horsepower requirements. In connection with the general use of the Walschaert valve gear in the United States, it is interesting to note that the principal advantages of this gear are greater accessibility and, what is much more important, lower maintenance cost, the principal maintenance item consisting of an occasional renewal of pins and bushings. It is probable that the Stephen- son motion, when new, gives a slightly better distribution, in which the essential features of a successful gear are naturally obtained without any great difficulty. This is of but little actual importance, however. If care is taken in designing the Walschaert valve motion, as for instance in seeing that at least the same percentage of maximum cut-off is obtained DISCUSSION: RECENT LOCOMOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 513 necessary for starting trains easily, and if the lead (which is constant on the Walschaert gear) is so adjusted as to be suitable for the service, it has been abundantly proved that the Walschaert valve motion will start and operate a train as rapidly and as economically as one fitted with the Stephenson gear. One of the principal difficulties with Stephenson gear was the maintenance and wear of eccentrics, which in many instances was so excessive that the motion was very soon distorted and required con- stant adjustment and re-setting. On the other hand, many large railroads require that the Walschaert gear be fitted up without adjustments, and any changes required must be by a blacksmith; that is, it requires up- setting or lengthening in a forge before the adjustment can be changed. Crude oil burned in a locomotive firebox to generate steam is a very wasteful practice compared with the amount required for the same horse- power if burned in the cylinders. As yet, no design has been produced which will give the steam locomotive ’s characteristics of flexibility at all speeds, simplicity, great starting power and economy in construction. The problem from an engineering point of view still remains to be solved. Mr. Cole. Paper No. 91 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER. By ARNOLD STUCKI, Mem. Am. Soc. M. E. President, Engineers’ Society of Western Pennsylvania Consulting Engineer Pittsburgh, Pa., U. S. A. This paper will briefly deal with the car equipment used by the railroads of the United States of America and Canada. It will principally point out the improvements made in this direc- tion during the last decade. Since practically all the railroads in the United States are private roads, and since all but one system in Canada are operated by private companies, a healthy competition exists be- tween the different lines. However, the rates for all the traffic are regulated by the respective governments, hence, the competi- tion has mainly centred itself on improvements in the rolling stock, and this is the reason why a most phenomenal advance- ment in the construction of all cars, passenger as well as freight, took place. The specific objects in these improvements are numerous and may be grouped as follows: Safety and comfort of passengers Strength and efficiency of construction Efficiency in handling freight Efficiency in moving trains Protection of freight Safety and Comfort of Passengers. The desire to improve the conditions as to safety and the great efforts of various leading roads have brought about an evolution hardly dreamed of ten years ago. This was accom- plished by the use of steel instead of wood in the construction of our passenger train cars, which renders them fireproof from ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POVYER 515 outside and from inside. and in case of a wreck prevents the splintering of the material, previously found so disastrous. This holds true for all kinds of passenger train cars, Mail, Bag- gage and the Pullman sleeping cars included. Regarding com- fort. equally as much has been accomplished. and the lighting. heating and ventilating systems have been brought up to such a state of efficiency as to provide perfect comfort to the traveling public. Strength and Efficiency of Construction. This object has led to the use of steel in the construction of freight cars, and has induced a most careful distribution of metal so as to get a strong, still least expensive, car. Efliciency in Handling Freight. Especially in the handling of bulky freight, such as coal, ore, cinders, etc., great progress has been made by the various roads. With this in view, the respective cars have been made self clearing and the door-operating mechanisms designed to work quickly and safely. As a striking example may be men- tioned the up-to-date ore car, which has been developed to such a degree that the loads are dropped and the doors brought back in approximately one tenth the time required ten years ago. Besides all that, it takes fewer men per car, reducing the cost of handling enormously. Aside from this, it naturally increases the capacity of the ore docks in the same proportion and allows the cars to be in actual service a greater portion of the time. Under this heading we may also mention the coal-car un- loading machines at the various docks, the special warehouse facilities and the Rules of Interchange adopted by the various roads, so that a carload shipment can proceed to destination without unloading. Efficiency in Moving Trains. With this point in view, the railroads have increased the capacity of their freight cars step by step, so that the 50-ton car is no more the latest standard. For heavy compact freight, 70-ton cars with 6~in. by 11-in. (15.24 x 27.94 cm.) journals are now being used. This not only lessens train resistance but it also makes it possible to reduce the percentage of dead weight to paying load. The time for a hundred-ton standard car is no doubt fast approaching. 516 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER For the same reason the tonnage in each train has grad- ually been increased, so that a train of one hundred 50-ton loads is not uncommon on coal roads. Protection of Freight. Great efforts have been put forth in this direction. For all house cars an absolutely weatherproof construction has been considered most essential and has led to a number of improved roof constructions. The leakage of grain is more and more overcome by proper application of the lining and will eventually entirely disappear with the use of steel-sheathed cars. For perishable freight, such as fruit and vegetables, a weather-proof, still thoroughly ventilated car, has been brought out by roads engaged in this particular business. Many efforts have been made to get a reliable box-car door, one that is tight when closed and easily operated, one that will not get out of order and cannot be “picked” by intruders. The saving effected by these different methods of protecting the freight amounts to hundreds of thousands of dollars every year. MASTER CAR BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION. It is well known that this great progress is, to a very large extent, due to the Master Car Builders’ Association, a mutual organization of the railroads on this continent. It revises from time to time the rules of interchange, so as to expedite the movements of the through traffic; and it estab- lishes standard designs and specifications for materials, details and constructions which have been thoroughly tried out, and the adoption of which is considered beneficial to all. So far the following standards have been adopted: Adjusting height of couplers, Air-brake and train air signal instructions, Air-brake appliances, Air-brake hose couplings and gaskets, dimensions of, Air-brake defect card, Air-brake hose gaskets, specifications for, Air-brake hose, specifications for, Air-brake hose, woven and combination woven and wrapped, specifications for, Air-brake tests, code of, ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POIVER 517 Air—brakes, general arrangement and details, Air-brakes, cleaning and testing of, Arch bars, column and journal-box bolts, Automatic coupler, Automatic coupler, specifications for, Axles, design of, Axles, steel, specifications for, Bolt heads, Brake beams, Brake chain, Brake head, Brake-head gage, Brake shoe, Brake-shoe gage, Brake shoes, specifications for, Brake staff, height of, Brake-staff carrier iron, Car sills, uniformity of section of, Catalogues, Center plates, Cleaning and testing air brakes, Code of air-brake tests, Contour and limit gages for automatic coupler, Coupler, automatic, specifications for, Coupler butt, Coupler shank, Coupler head, Couplers, height of, Coupler yokes, Couplings, air-hose, dimensions of, Diameter of steel and steel-tired wheels. Distance between backs of flanges, Door fixtures, side, Drop-test machine, Dust guards, dimensions of, End for hopper-door operating shaft, Flooring, Followers, Form of wheel tread and flange, Front and back coupler stop, Gage for worn couplers, Gage, limiting outline, for brake beams, Gages for coupler and yoke, Gaskets, air-hose, dimensions of, Guard arm, Guard rail and frog wing gage, Height of brake stafi, 518 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER Height of couplers, Height of couplers, adjustment of, Hose, air-brake, specifications for, Hose couplings, dimensions of, Hose gaskets, dimensions of, Hose label, air-brake, Journal bearing and wedge gages, Journal bearings, Journal-box lids, J ournal-box wedges, Journal boxes and contained parts, Key slot for coupler butt, Knuckle coupler, Knuckle pivot pin testing machine, Knuckle pivot pin, Knuckle pivot pins, specifications for, Knuckle throw, Knuckles, separate, specifications for, Label, air-brake, location of on hose, Label for air-brake hose, Lettering and marking of cars, Lever pin hole gage, Limit gages for inspecting second-hand wheels for remounting, Lining, Loading rules, Location of label on air-brake hose, Lock lift, Lock set, Nuts, Packing rings, air-hose couplings, Pamphlets, Passenger-car journal boxes and contained parts, Passenger-car pedestals, Pedestals, passenger-car, Pipe unions, Reports, Roofing, Rules for loading materials, Safety appliances, Screw threads, Side clearance couplers, Side-door fixtures, Siding, flooring, roofing and lining, Signal-lamp socket, Sills, car, uniformity of section of, Sills, splicing of, Spacing between center sills, ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POlVER 519 Spacing between coupler horn and bufl’er beam, Specification paper, Specifications and tests of brake beams, Specifications for air-brake hose, Specifications for automatic couplers, Specifications for brake shoes, Specifications for knuckle pivot pins, Specifications for separate knuckles, Specifications for tank cars, Specifications for woven and comb. woven and wrapped air- brake hose, Splicing of sills, Square bolt heads, Steam and air connections for passenger cars, Striking horn, Tank cars, specifications for, Temporary standard coupler-head, Terms and gaging points for wheel and track, Testing and cleaning air-brakes, Testing machine for knuckle pivot pins, Uniformity of section of car sills, Wheel-check gage, Wheel circumference measure for cast-iron wheels, Wheel-defect gage, Wheel-flange thickness gage for new wheels, Yoke rivets. Great care is being exercised that nothing is made standard without first being thoroughly tried out for a number of years. During this period the prospective standard is listed under “Recommended Practice”. At the present time we find the following items in this class: Air and steam connections for passenger cars, Air-brake appliances, Air-brakes, general arrangements and details, Area of bearing surface of lock on coupler wall, Area of lock bearing surface on tail of coupler knuckle, Axle drop test, Axles, iron, specifications for, Bolsters, cast and pressed, gages for, Bolsters, cast steel, specifications for, Box-car end, design and strength, Brake-beam details, Branding steel wheels, Center sill, minimum design requirements, Chain, specifications for, 0 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER Check chains, Circumference measure for steel and steel-tired wheels, Classification of cars, Collection of salt-water drippings, Couplings, steam-hose, specifications for, Couplers, uncoupling arrangements for, Design and strength of box-car ends, Dimensions, inside, of box cars, Dimensions, limiting, for cast-steel truck sides, Door fixtures, end, Electric-train lighting, specifications for, End-door fixtures, End-door seal records, Examination of car inspectors, rules for, Fastening for tires, steel-tired wheels, Flange and tread, steel and steel-tired wheels, Framing for box cars, Gage for measuring thickness of rim of steel wheels, Gage, plane, for solid steel wheels, Gage, rotundity, for solid steel wheels, Gages for cast-steel truck sides, Gages for cast- and pressed-steel bolsters, Gages, limit for round iron, Heat-treated knuckle pivot pins, specifications for, Height and width of cars, Height of floors, refrigerator cars, Helical springs, specifications for, High-speed foundation brake-gear for pass. service, Hose couplings, steam, specifications for, Hose, steam, specifications for, Ice tanks, refrigerator cars, capacity of, Inside dimensions of box cars, Inspectors car, rules for examination of, Iron bars, wrought, refined, specifications for, Knuckle pivot pins, heat-treated, specifications for, Limit gages for round iron, Limiting dimensions for cast-steel truck sides, Lining for outside framed cars, Lumber specifications, Mounting tires, Mounting wheels, Pipe, welded, specifications for, Placard boards for house cars, Plane gage for solid steel wheels, Platform safety chains, Refined wrought-iron bars, specifications for, Rotundity gage for solid steel wheels, ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER 521 Rounding corners of doors, door jambs, etc., of stock cars, Rules for examination of car inspectors, Safety chains for steel and wooden freight cars, Safety chains, temporary, Salt-water drippings, collection of, Seal records of box car end doors, Sizes and dimensions for solid steel wheels, Specifications for cast~iron wheels, Specifications for cast-steel bolsters, Specifications for cast-steel truck sides, Specifications for chain, Specifications for electric-train lighting, Specifications for heat-treated knuckle pivot pins, Specifications for helical springs, Specifications for iron axles, Specifications for lumber, Specifications for refined wrought-iron bars, Specifications for solid wrought-steel wheels, Specifications for welded pipe, Springs and spring caps, Springs, helical, specifications for, Stake pockets, longitudinal spacing of, Stake pockets, permanent, Stake pockets, temporary, Steam and air connections for passenger cars, Steam-hose couplings, Steam hose, specifications for, Steel tires, minimum thickness for, Strength and design of ends of box cars, Tire fastening for steel-tired wheels, Tires, mounting of, Tires, steel, minimum thickness of, Train lighting, electric, specifications for, Tread and flange for steel and steel-tired wheels, Truck sides, cast-steel gages for, Truck sides, cast-steel, limiting dimensions, Truck sides, cast-steel, specifications for, Uncoupling arrangements for couplers, Welded pipe, specifications for, Wheel circumference measure for steel and steel-tired wheels, Wheels, cast-iron, designs of, Wheels, cast-iron, specifications for, Wheels, mounting of, Wheels, solid steel, sizes and dimensions for, Wheels, solid wrought steel, specifications for, Width and height of cars, Wrought-iron bars, refined, specifications for. 522 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POW'ER Even after a standard has been adopted as such, the prog- ress in this specific item is not entirely checked, and as soon as something else has proven to possess sufficient merit, the orig— inal standard is revised or dropped. For this same reason the railroads as a whole do not favor one standard design for each kind of car. It is true, this would reduce the first cost considerably and would simplify a great many other things, but it also would at once discourage further progress, the result of which is, as we know, stagnation. A good deal of equipment also runs in special service, the conditions of which vary in the different parts of the country, hence, the railroads so far have considered it preferable to standardize detail parts only. By this they have in view details common to all cars, specifications of material, certain cross sec- tions of rolled steel, so as to facilitate subsequent repairs, etc., and it is this wholesome combination of conservative standard- ization and progressive spirit which undoubtedly is responsible for the utmost efficiency of our railroads. DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL PARTS. There are a large number of firms and specialists engaged in the manufacture and improvement of detail parts which, in the aggregate, help greatly in making the rolling stock so effi- cient. The car companies themselves come, in a sense, under this heading, inasmuch as they make a specialty of building cars. They equip themselves with the most improved special machinery, and great credit is due them for the development of the steel-car designs of today and for the speed and accuracy of their work. The air-brake companies now have perfected their devices so that a train running at sixty miles per hour can be stopped within a thousand feet, and the electro-pneumatic brake has already established itself on the subway trains and the passen- ger equipment of our foremost railroads. We undoubtedly will have to look for a similar ultimate solution in the handling of our ever increasing freight trains, as only in this way can a simultaneous application throughout the whole train be hoped for. ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER 523 The coupler manufacturers year by year have improved this detail, and the couplers now operate successfully under the most unfavorable conditions and without it ever being necessary for the operator to go between the cars. All makes are inter- changeable with one another as far as the coupling is concerned, but the construction varies widely. The M. C. B. Association is now working on one standard freight-coupler construction, combining the best features of the different existing makes, at the same time allowing sufficient surplus strength to take care of the future requirements for some time to come. In lighting passenger trains, oil, ordinary gas and car- buretor systems are fast giving way to electricity. Here three methods have been used, namely, a separate steam-driven dynamo in the baggage car, storage batteries or an axle-driven dynamo for each car. The latter is now mostly used, being very economical, especially since an overproduction of current during the run can be stored up for use in yards and on sidings. Acetylene has not been used to any great extent and most likely will not be until safer methods of handling it have been devised. Many manufacturers make a specialty of body bolsters, truck bolsters, truck sides, transoms and sometimes of the com- plete truck, which enables them to procure special machines so as to manufacture with more speed, more accuracy and less cost, at the same time turning out a superior product. Of late a great deal of cast steel is being used in the construction of the articles mentioned. The manufacturers of draft-gears deserve a great deal of credit for their untiring efforts in procuring a device which will absorb a large proportion of the shock and which will stand the severe service of today. Spring gears have almost entirely given way to the friction gears, inasmuch as the capacity required is often above 200,000 lbs. Many firms have for years worked on the problem of assist- ing the truck in swivelling freely on the curves, so as to save the wheel flanges, rails and power, and they have in this en- deavor brought out frictionless side bearings which, in their latest designs, now fully meet this task. Brake beams, journal boxes and hundreds of other details and adopted standards are now being manufactured by indi— 524 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POW'ER vidual companies, who concentrate their energies in specific lines and have equipped their shops especially for such details. This way they can produce a better article for less money, and, besides that, assist materially in a systematic, quick and em- cient way of building cars. The wheels are cast of iron or steel or are rolled or forged of medium-high-carbon open-hearth material. By far the great- est number are of cast iron, chilled, and by using special mix- tures and live material, good results have been obtained even under the heavy capacity cars. None the less, the strife for utmost safety and the ever increasing severity of the service conditions call more and more for rolled or forged wheels. PASSENGER-TRAIN CARS. Farsighted railroad officials for years have realized the dan- ger of wooden passenger equipment, both as to fire and the splintering of the timber in wrecks, and they have realized right along that the passengers as well as the postal clerks and their own employees should be protected. With this in view the Erie Railroad, in 1904, had two all- steel passenger-train cars built. One was a baggage car as shown in Fig. 1, while the other one was for express. The underframes consisted of two fish-bellied centre and two light side sills, the latter in connection with the cave members and the steel side plates formed an effective truss. At the doors these top and bottom members were reinforced to compensate for cutting the side sheets. The roof was built with the usual upper deck and covered with sheet steel, while the lining was made of boards. Shortly after the cars went into service, this wooden lining was replaced by fireproof composite boards so as to make them safer against fire and still to protect them against noise and all abnormal temperatures, and in 1907 both were converted into postal cars. They have been running in that service ever since. The next step was taken by the Southern Railway, who, in 1906, had a lot of special passenger cars built with a view of protecting the passengers against collisions. For this reason the car sides below the window sills were made of steel, while everything above that line was built of wood, as heretofore, :u ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE PO‘VER .55 wmsmmsm 2.5 Fig. 2 (Upper). Fig. 3 (Lower). Southern Ry. Passenger Car. Pennsylvania Steel Passenger Car. 939 s () (~71. ~r 1‘ Fl IQ .\, HHMOd HALLOW NVHJ. HEIHLO )IOO-LS BNI'I'IOH ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POlVER 527 except the posts and carlines, which were bent angle irons. The underframe consisted of two pressed and reinforced fish-bellied centre sills and the floor of a 1/g-in. (3.175 mm.) steel plate. On top of this sheet were two thin courses of wood with a thin layer of paper felt between them. and a final cover of linoleum on top of all, making a strong and easy floor. Such a steel con- struction below the window sill was used to get a car which would be well able to resist shocks in collisions. See Fig. 2 and Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., July 1906. In the following three cases of all-steel cars, the centre sills were made of straight rolled I-beams reinforced by truss rods: The Southern Pacific built such a passenger car in the latter part of 1906. The roof was made without an upper deck, which soon assumed the name of arch-type roof. The outside sheath- ing was all-steel and the inside finish was wood. The floor was exceptionally strong, consisting of the following materials, be- ginning at the bottom: A light steel plate, a layer of mineral wool, regular tongue and groove floor boards, a thin steel plate, a. thin layer of asbestos and %-in. (9.525 mm.) linoleum. See Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., January 1907. The same road in the forepart of 1907 built a similar all- steel postal car. The centre sills again were trussed, the roof an arch type, but the lining was now made of asbestos. The floor was also changed, consisting of two corrugated steel sheets with two layers of hair felt between them and a monolithic cement floor laid on top of the upper sheet. See Am. Engr. 8: R. R. Jour., July 1907. During the same time the Pullman Company built their first steel sleeping car. The centre sills were also trussed and the car sides from the windows down were formed of 1A-in. (6.35 mm.) steel sheets. In this way a load-carrying girder of about 30-in. (.762 m.) depth was obtained. The top chord of this girder was a continuous flat bar, extending the whole length of the car, with the posts ofiset to get a smooth outside appearance. The bottom chord of this girder consisted of an angle-iron side sill. The floor construction was made double, the false floor below and the regular corrugated floor sheet in- closing a space which was filled with deadening material. The top of the corrugated sheet was finally covered with monolithic 528 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER cement. The lining also being metal and two thicknesses of as- bestos board having been inserted between it and the sheathing all the way up and from end to end of car rendered it immune against fire, noise or weather and made a safe car to resist collisions. The name given this first steel sleeper was “James- town” and it was exhibited at the Jamestown Exposition. See Am. Eng. & R. R. Jour., April 1907. After a period of experiments, study and developments, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company brought out their present standard steel passenger-car design and ordered two hundred of them to be built. The first one was completed and put into service in 1908. Now more than two thousand are in existence. The car combines safety against wrecks and protection against noise, heat and cold. It is fireproof from inside and from outside, resembles the standard wooden coaches as to upper deck, and measures 7 0 ft. 5% in. (21.482 111.) over the body. The underframe consists of two 18-in. (45.72 cm.) channels with top and bottom cover plates, forming a strong box-girder centre construction, which is well able to take the end shocks. The side sills are heavy angles, which, in connection with the lower sheathing and the continuous belt rail form a strong girder about 30 in. (76.2 cm.) deep. The belt rail is of a special section, so as to have the proper shape to form the window sills and to be rivetted to the outside of the sheathing without spoiling the appearance of the car. In this way the offsetting of the posts is avoided. Another specific feature consists in the subdivision of the underframe into three nearly equal parts by two deep cross bearers, so as to increase the carrying capacity and to reduce the deflection of the car as a whole, without the use of addi tional material. With this arrangement the load is carried by the side truss to the outside of the deep cross bearers and end sills, and through these members to the centre sill, which in turn transmits the load to the centre-plate located about half way beween end sill and cross bearer. The usual body bolster is therefore dispensed with and a light side-bearing support takes its place, and the long span with its annoying deflection is also overcome. thereby avoiding one source of leaky roofs at the eaves. ROLLING s'roox OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER 539 The head lining is of composite board and the side lining of thin steel sheets. insulated by pasting asbestos boards to their hidden surface. The floor is formed of corrugated steel with plastic cement filled in on top. Some distance below, an asbestos board supported by a galvanized-steel sheet forms a sub-floor. The ventilating and heating systems are the same as on their standard wooden passenger cars. taking air in at the top of the car and bringing it between the two floors along the side of the car, where it is heated by steam. The air. with doors and windows closed and with the ventilators on the roof wide open, can be completely changed in four minutes. The whole car is designed so that it can roll over without danger of collapse. and care was taken that the centre line of the draft-rigging came within the cross-sectional area of the centre sill instead of underneath, as is the practice now on wooden cars. See Figs. 3 and 4. Actually the same construction and the same size of cars are being used by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company for their Baggage, Mail and Dining Cars; and whenever side doors are required, they are located near the deep cross bearers. where the bending moment in the side truss is a minimum. In this way no special reinforcements are required to make up for the cutting of belt rail and the sheets. Their suburban cars are of similar construction but have a lighter centre sill and are considerably shorter. The trucks and roof constructions are arranged so as to admit electrical equipment whenever this method of locomotion is adopted. A mail car of similar construction and built for the Chesa- peake & Ohio Railway is shown in Fig. 5. It is of steel through- out. except the floor. It has fish-bellied centre sills, a rolled channel with flanges downward for the cave member, and the belt rail consists of a flat bar on the outside of the steel sheath- ing. The interior of the car is made to suit the requirements of the Post Office Department and is clearly shown in Fig. 6. Since the “Jamestown” sleeping car was built, many im- provements have been made by the Pullman Company in their present standard sleeping car, as shown in Fig. 7. Fish-belly centre sills have taken the place of the trussed sills; Z-bar 530 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POYVER l1 .Wlrmofl 3001:; IODOEIF ZOE-Hum §......\_A.M..l.,_._...._ ,/..'.6K......_... “a... 1......” Pig. 4. Cross Section of Pennsylvania Steel Passenger Car. 531 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER ..50 SEE 030 Q oxwoamwwaO .m .wrm .. i. .. A...) . t ..I; 5 .2; : . "main Inn-hfqlfitfidnn... l4.‘ .. .1 'vvv— 532 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER side sills, 14.3-in. side sheets and an angle-iron belt rail form the side truss; and the interior lining and fixtures are made of pressed steel, grained and finished. In the beginning of the current year the Erie Railroad had a lot of suburban cars built in which the load-carrying side truss differs completely from the heretofore adopted forms. It is made up of a series of panels, pressed of steel sheets and shaped to form a compression member along the eaves, window (a? 11 llllillllh Marl Pig. 6. Interior of Chesapeake 8: Ohio Mail Car. openings, posts between and diagonal braces below. so that in connection with a light, continuous channel side sill from end to end of car as tension member, the side truss is complete, even before the side sheets and the lining are applied. This is another way to avoid excessive motion in the roof joints along the eaves and forms a deep, efficient truss. This car has twelve such panels on each side, measuring 61 ft. 4% in. (18.71 In.) over corner posts, but any number can be used. to suit the length of the car desired. Trucks and the roof con- ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER 533 struction will admit electrical equipment. For further details see By. Age Gaz., June 11, 1915. During the past year the Union Pacific has added a large number of steel passenger-train cars to its equipment. They were of the arch-roof type, practically of steel throughout, ex- cept the diners and the Baggage Buffet cars, which had wood lining. Otherwise, the designs were substantially alike, con- sisting of I-beams for centre sills, angles for floor supports, side sills. belt rails, cave members, posts, and using rolled channels for carlines. These cars are insulated with three-ply hair felt and the floor is built up of three layers of various compositions. with galvanized iron at the bottom. The head lining is agasote. See Fig. 8. On Dec. 31, 1914, according to a statement of the Special Committee on Relations of Railway Operation to Legislation, there were in service in the United States alone 12,900 steel, 5700 steel undcrframe and 43,512 wooden passenger-train cars. FLAT CARS. The accompanying 9 and 10 illustrate the typical flat car of today. All the sills are of the fish-belly type, pressed and reinforced at top and bottom to suit the strength required. If less capacity is wanted, the side sills are sometimes made straight, preferably of rolled channels. At times the sills, in- stead of being pressed, are built up of plates and angles. \Ve now have cars of 40. 80 and even 100 tons capacity. This means that such a load is carried only if somewhat distributed on the car; if concentrated at the centre, two thirds of these loads only are allowed. On this kind of car a cross sectional area of 24 sq. in. (154.83 sq. cm.) is recommended, regardless of capacity, so as to take care of end shocks properly. The centre sills are now preferably made to pass beyond the body bolsters, and in the majority of cases, these sills extend from end to end of car. This means an interrupted body bolster built in between the sills. A 100-ton capacity flat car for the Pittsburgh & Lake Eric R. R. Co. has been described in the Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., March 1912. 534 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER 5.6 mfiaogm 33m 5:53pm .s .wfl ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POHIERI Oi Oi . ..I‘QAIM. . 9"". '..-a—”‘ ..M - .',‘..'d' id ‘2;. “"‘w M »--'-""‘ I Q ‘~. 0...,‘- it‘. ‘2%.. o" o ‘,4.- b. .61. ‘01:20: , S {2 _l -< \9 '1 >4 K i‘ I >1 ,4 I4 ___. 1, a , ‘If u,‘,7 ,1; vrf: W7 ' ‘1 '' vvvvyrwi‘v - ,r—) '\ \~ V~“v+l"l'yfi_l_¢ _— v — — — — — — ~ — — — — _ i - _ - — — — — _ ~ — — — _ _ — ~ -—-~— _ -- —- O O O Q _________________ ___! O O J — — — - — _ — * F 9 — — ——i q! ___— I'ig. 8. Cross Section of Union Pacific Steel Passenger Car. ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER .HnO firm .a .mi We? .5 a .1. 3§==§§E§ 15.5.5:- C- 5.2.. *.*.m ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POYVER 537 GONDOLA CARS. The all-wood gondola cars are disappearing fast and steel is now used more and more. In certain cases, however, wood floors and sides are very useful, and for this reason many com- posite cars will always be found in our trains, and year by year new ones are being built. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company’s Class GR car, Fig. 11, is possibly the most typical example of this kind. It is of 50 tons capacity, has all four sills fish-bellied, pressed, some- times built up, and properly reinforced at top and bottom; and since the same rules govern in regard to leading as on flat cars, l f‘ T’)? :7 T? I‘ ‘ “7\ n i a ‘ '1 J. 1 Si l I JL-__L SECTION AT CROSS BEARER i SECTION THROUGH CENTER OF CAR 0 oo o "' O C) O 0 O LOO SECTlON A'T BOLSTEFZ END VlEW Fig. 10. Cross Section of Flat Car. only two thirds of the capacity is carried when concentrated near the centre. The ends are made to drop, accommodating long material. Quite often composite cars are made with steel side frames by simply adding top angles and diagonal braces. In this way we get an effective truss to carry the load, so that the centre sills can be straight members. See Am. Engr. & R. R. J our., May 1907. When built of steel the car as shown in Fig. 12 no doubt represents the average gondola of this country. It is the Pennsylvania Railroad Company’s Class GS car. The centre 538 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER 56 22.55 283.5‘ 8.68 .2255 2 4E .20 2856 8:358 42:55 3 .3." .. I! . infra-m .. 1 II?! .5: ‘Ar-<2 Dow :WN llllllll 5 $5 rwzz ma .2 A. ‘mm is: < .5 Wm 27.“: ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIYE POIVER 539 sills are of fish-belly shape of moderate depth, inasmuch as the sides are constructed as girders which will carry the load. It is, of course, important to connect the stakes well at the deep cross bearers so as to keep the sides in line and to retain their maximum carrying strength. The car in question is sometimes equipped with small hoppers and drop doors, sometimes with drop ends, sometimes with both. Many railroads, however, prefer the drop doors flush, so as to have a perfectly flat floor when the doors are closed. In Fig. 13 a 90-ton gondola is shown which is equipped with six-wheel trucks. A very useful modification in the gondola car is the feat- ure of dropping the whole floor either from end to end or between the trucks, getting a self-clearing side-dump car, besides having a flat-bottom gondola car when the floor is up. On account of these various features this type is commonly known as general-service car. In Fig. 14 the doors are raised by chains and locked by letting the operating shaft creep under the end of the doors, so as to relieve the operating device of undue strains under the load. Fig. 15 shows a general-service car where the doors are raised and locked by an offset operating shaft. HOPPER CARS. By far the most effective car for handling coal and bulky freight is shown in Fig. 16, known as a hopper car. This form is practically standard on every coal road. It will be noticed that the doors open away from the lading instead of sliding along the same, which was found troublesome in freezing weather. This car is self clearing. The centre sills do not carry much of the load; their main function is to take the end shock. The body of the car is well braced in the centre, inasmuch as the cross hood extends from side to side and forms a rigid backbone for the car in all directions. The sides are deep, hence, form eflicient members for carrying the load; and in order to keep them straight and vertical, a substantial angle bar along the top edge has been found essential. 540 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTI‘VE POWER 83285 $95.24 Hon-Tom .MH .mrH 'sw‘d.‘ \, . \i J .Li L a?!‘ ‘..Iii' | x . , time? I!‘ I . u . 541 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTH’E POWER mmmhm .tenm M52326 mniefio fit» .80 335m. H3266 u_u 04m .3" .mrm ZmmIFEOZ R 542 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWE . .w .355 mfififiuao 3:6 5:5 .30 32.3w 13230 5 rm .. A. .. . a. .i . .... . .......h. . . .. l . . . ..r I.‘ l. 2k 95393551.! I'll.‘ IIIIIil-IIII .582: . P ad 5v ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POIVER 543 In several cases the hoppers have been turned around so as to swing the doors from side or centre sills. This led to various designs of ballast, coke and dumping cars. A very useful dump car on this order has been used to good advantage by the Union Railroad in handling cinders and furnace refuse material. The car has two long doors, each one of which is held up at each corner by a chain support. When the load is to be dumped between the tracks, the central edges are dropped by a winding shaft arrangement, and if the load is wanted outside of the tracks, the outside chain supports are dropped. The car empties the load quickly and completely, which ac- counts for the great savings made in handling such material. See Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., February 1909. COKE CARS. The same longitudinal arrangement of the doors led to a coke car shown in the Railroad Gazette of July 17, 1903. Here the doors, instead of dropping, swing out from the side, and the car was so arranged that in order to obtain the full 50-ton capacity with coke, the car was heaped, but whenever used for coal, was only loaded to the top of specially located cross ties. The car now often used in carrying coke is a long, deep hopper car with four separate hoppers provided with hori- zontal drop doors, which leave, when dropped, a series of unob- structed downward openings. This car is illustrated in Fig. 16A. Since the sides are made very deep to hold the load, the upper part of them is sometimes made of netting or expanded metal, so as to keep the dead weight down without impairing strength. See American Engineer and Railroad Journal, August 1907. BOX CARS. When the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1862 built a num- ber of all-steel box cars with wooden underframes, our older railroad friends hardly dreamed that these small and not alto- gether successful vehicles would be the pioneers in an industry of such tremendous magnitude. 544 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POW’ER ..30 Hoaaoum :ohém 6H .3.“ 545 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER ..HmO @300 .ddH .mrm .ammwmwmh .57. .Fflfiflwmz. 546 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER .50 Mom Susanna-“D. "omen .5 .wrm awn >556 253.751; he: 25:: .flkjfiv wwwmwmw .miH NH ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE PO\\'ER 547 From that date on, for over thirty years. wood was en- tirely used on our equipment—still the capacity of cars was steadily increased. the trains got longer and the end shocks more destructive. so that the wooden sills could not stand up in service any longer. This brought about steel underframes. Here, as a rule, fish-bellied centre sills were used to carry part of the load and to resist the end shocks. while the side sills consisted of angles or Z-bars. The body bolsters were usually built in between the sills, and a great many of this type of car were built from 1900 on. This car, besides forming a stepping stone to an all-steel box car, also forms an economical means of strengthening and using up thousands of existing all-wood box cars. A fair example of this kind of car is shown in Fig. 17. Further efforts along this line have brought about spas- modic cases where the body, or the frame at least. was made of steel, in order to assist the underframe in carrying the load. Already in November 1900 the Santa Fe Railroad had three all-steel box cars built. The underframe consisted of six 10~in. (25.4 cm.) channels; the sides were of flanged-steel panels; the floor, the door and lining were of wood, and the carlines and the roof were of steel. See Ry. & Engng. Rev., May 4, 1901. The Railroad Gazette of June 14, 1901, published a design of box car where the framing was of pressed steel. designed to carry load. The sheathing was left off and double wooden lining used instead. The floor was made of wood but the underframe and roof were of steel. The Norfolk & ‘Western in 1902 built a box car with a steel underframe, steel posts and braces, but wooden sheathing and wooden lining. (See Railroad Gazette April 18, 1902.) A car of this type is shown in Fig. 18. Besides having a steel frame, it is also ventilated for the transportation of fruit and other perishable freight. Since 1908 the Union Railroad and the Bessemer & Lake Erie have made experiments with an all-steel car with steel floor, doors and roof and without any lining. This car was used in various ways, and, contrary to expectations, no damage resulted from sweating of the steel or other climatic condi- 548 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER ..50 Mom oauuh Hooam floudflaflob. .2" .ME EL: .. iien ..r .= :2 33.53:? .oomoN fizz-“lee 955.44% .. . .éfirrrwfiw . 549 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER 45:5 3055 Be 32h :58 SE :6 non $03.5. .3 .Ha F W... a. v u s - | s v s > ..n ngjiiilnozdldiniifll . r a . . . hill... 41:14.15...) . a j . 2:5: :4. 2.: M... ._ . 1241.: wmmfl M Mm _ . ,. a ‘v f - . .f \. . .o . .~__ :11: 5,. . . z ' . .2111; r : . . , . . 550 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER .50 Mom £52m 33m 333% .cm . (2:31! ; mmQ ..|||||l <2 <>A 2mm ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE PO‘VER 551 tions. The car is shown in Fig. 19 and in the Railway Age Gazette, March 22, 1912. After a six-years’ trial the Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad Company ordered one hundred of such cars. It may be mentioned that this is the same railroad that ordered the first lot of one thousand steel hopper cars in 1897. In the beginning of 1907 the Union Pacific built two sample all-steel box cars with the sheathing left off and the lining, frame, roof, floor and doors made of steel, and in the early part of 1910 another similar sample car was built. These three cars had centre sills formed of a single I-beam projecting Fig. 21. Cross Section of Pressed Steel Frame Box Car. through the body bolsters, and the draft sills were offset and attached to the projecting part of the I-beam centre sills. See Railway Age Gazette, Feb. 11, 1910. After many such spasmodic trials and experiments the Pennsylvania Railroad Company designed and built a lot of cars which up to this time have been their standard car. (See Figs. 20 and 21). It is of the steel-frame type with wooden floor and lining and no sheathing. The centre sills are of the fish-belly construction, reinforced on top and bottom, and two deep cross bearers divide the whole construction into actually three equal parts. These cross bearers, in conjunction with the end sills, transmit the load from the side sills to the centre 552 ROLLING STOCK OTHER. THAN MOTIVE POWER .50 EEoES=< wish 33m 333% .mm .mrm 1'1 3 . . .nlntbikl‘i ... mmdmc $5.54 . <4. 553 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER .30 mom $53M 63m 8.5333 .mm .urm .: i add s LP‘! ! .(m-l as: g ‘I as: :3 eoew~_ as: & a . e 554 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIX’E POWER 458A 23 Sci 532.» 5E, .30 $223 .3 .mi #2 .h .. ‘lilliiu' 52854;...‘- . . . .w .; . . . . e3~$~62< .. . ‘252.; E! 1.‘ Scam. <_z<>‘_.rmzzmm .i. a») . . at 4!. slur ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE PO‘VER 555 sills at the points where the bending moment is a minimum, and from there on it is transmitted to the centre plates by the centre sills themselves. In other words, the same principle has been followed as on their passenger car constructions. The side sills are rolled angles and the posts and braces are of U section, made of pressed steel, which in combination with the side sill and the cave angle forms a light but effective truss. The roof is of steel, supported by trough-shaped, pressed- steel carlines. At the eaves provision has been made for ven- tilation, without, however, allowing the rain and snow to enter. The doors are also made of steel. This same construction is I SECTION THRQJGH Pos'rg, SHEA'THING, Lmms AND amuse s‘rmés 1 likewise used for stock, automobile and refrigerator cars with comparatively few modifications. The stock cars use slats instead of a solid lining. The automobile cars have wide double sliding doors at the side of the car, and one end is made of swinging doors, as is clearly shown in Fig. 22. The roof construction at the eaves is also slightly different from that on the box car. The refrigerator cars naturally vary as to size of doors and inside insulation. A similar car is shown in Fig. 28. However, rolled steel is used instead of pressed steel. The side and centre sills con- sist of channels 8 and 15 inches (20.32 and 38.1 cm.) respect- 556 ROLLING srocx OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER ively. Posts, braces and eave members are of Z-bar section. The Canadian Pacific and the Grand Trunk Railroads use this form of box car very extensively. Figs. 24 and 25 represent the Pennsylvania Railroad Com- pany’s latest design of box car—their class X-25. It is similar to the steel-frame car above described, but is provided with a steel sheathing. This will give the car a plain appearance from the outside and will make it absolutely weatherproof. The sheathing consists of ten steel panels per side of car, each one being provided with a flange at the top and the bot- , . - “All a‘ A» \ ' 51 I an" wiflt°fifiizimnnw~ '3 . airflow-7°15 - ~ - ' Fig. 26. Ore Gar. tom, which flanges in turn are rivetted to the side sill and the eave angle. Each panel has one side edge pressed up to form a post, while the other side is flat. This post extends inwardly and the flat edge of the adjoining sheet is made to cover the indentation. The diagonal members have been left off, as the steel sheets themselves will act as braces. ORE CARS. The ore trade in this country is fast increasing in impor- tance, and to handle this commodity efliciently and quickly has ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POXVER 557 been for years the aim of those engaged in this business. This led to a constant improvement in the ore car. Figs. 26 and 27 show a car where the floor is formed of two large longitudinal doors meeting in the centre. The side sills are made to take the end shocks and the centre sills are left oooooooooooooooooOoo O O O O O O o O | O o O O O O O O o O O O O O .J , r- 'Wl Fig. 27. Cross Section of Ore Car. off. The doors are closed by swinging them on sliding pivots by means of operating shafts and levers. In this way the height of doors is the same whether closed or open. They are locked by separately operated spring hooks, which grip the in- side edges and hold them tight together until the hooks are tripped. All angles of the sides and ends are very steep, and 558 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER when the doors are open, nothing remains to prevent an almost instantaneous discharge. There are other similar designs of ore cars used with equally astonishing results. This undoubtedly is due to the fact that the essential underlying conditions are the same in every case, namely, steep angles of the sides and ends and large, quick-opening doors, with no obstruction whatsoever left. The operating mechanism does, however, difier greatly. TANK CARS. The tank car shown in Fig. 28 is a fair representation of this kind of equipment. The car body consists principally of the centre sills and bolsters, and the side sills and the floors are usually left off. The standard minimum cross-sectional area of the centre sills is 30 sq. in. (193.5 sq. cm.), so as to stand the end shocks safely. The sills themselves are not de- signed to carry any load. The tanks are self-sustaining and rest on the bolsters. The fastening between the tank and frame is preferably made midway between the trucks by rivetting or keying, which will give the tanks a chance to expand or contract independently of the car frame. This is the more im- portant since some heavy oils at times have to be heated to make them flow. A great deal of attention has been given this matter by the railroads through their M. C. B. Association and no expense was considered too great to make this line of trans- portation absolutely safe. For this reason, that Association adopted standard tank- car specifications, which rigidly define the tank, their fixtures and also the most important details of the car itself. TRUCKS. Fig. 29 shows the Well-known Pullman truck made in cast steel. This truck has been used for decades past and this fact alone will prove its merit. One of the main features of the Pennsylvania all-steel passenger cars is a low centre sill, so as to get the centre of the draft-gear well within the cross section of said sills. For this reason another design of truck was necessary. Fig. 30 shows a four-wheel construction, which was designed for the 559 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER .HmD snap“ .wm .mrm 560 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER lighter passenger-train equipment. Another decided con- structive feature is the fact that the wheel pieces, in addition to the previous functions, also take the place of the equalizers. This is accomplished by locating the helical springs on top of the journal boxes. Here valuable space in a vertical direction was gained by making the wheel pieces of two channels with Fig. 29 (Upper). Pullman Truck. Fig. 30 (Center). Pennsylvania Four-Wheel Truck. Hg. 31 (Lower). Pennsylvania Six-Wheel Passenger Truck. flanges turned inside, but spaced far enough apart to let the springs extend between their webs. For all its heavier all-steel passenger-train cars the Pennsylvania Railroad Company has designed a six-wheel truck on the same principles as its four-wheel truck. Here the centre plate is directly above the centre axle, and owing ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTH’E POWER 561 to the small clearances vertically, the cross girders which con- nect the two truck bolsters had to be spread sufficiently, so as to let them extend upwardly without interfering with the centre sills. Fig. 31 shows this truck quite clearly. The trucks for freight cars, aside from some experimental cases, have not been changed a great deal. The well-known arch-bar truck still holds its own. It is true, cast steel in various forms has been used to replace the rolled arch bars. This naturally reduces the number of detail pieces. One type _ .. BATHTUB BDLSTEH Fig. 32 (Upper). Cast-Steel Truck Bolster. Fig. 33 (Center). Trussed Truck Bolster. I‘ig. 34 (Lower). Pressed-Steel Truck Bolster. of such cast steel designs combines the two rolled arch bars and still uses the bottom tie bar and the standard journal boxes. Another type goes further by doing away with the tie bar and journal-box bolts, using pedestals instead. In this case the M. C. B. standard boxes cannot be used. Still another type of cast-steel design combines the journal boxes and the truck side-frame into one single casting. The bolsters in all these variations of the arch-bar truck are made either of cast steel, rolled or pressed material. 569 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER Fig. 32 shows a typical design made of a steel casting. It, as a rule, is strong and stiff. The design shown is of an I cross section, but in a great many cases it is made of a box section. Fig. 33 shows a trussed bolster. It is very strong and slightly resilient. Fig. 34 represents a pressed-steel type of truck bolster. This form is very reliable, strong and stiff. The phenomenal increase in the capacity of freight cars has induced the Norfolk & Western Railroad Company to de- sign and use a six-wheel freight truck, a photograph of which is shown in Fig. 35. Here a four-pronged solid spider casting transmits the load from the centre plate to all four groups of Fig. 35. Six-Wheel Freight Truck. springs. These springs in turn rest on the truck sides. Pos- sibly the greatest novelty of this truck is the fact that these truck sides are also acting as equalizers. Each pair of them is kept from spreading and from closing in by the just men- tioned spider casting. These trucks are used in connection with the 90-ton Gondola car shown on a previous page. In coming to a close, it may be stated that the tremendous- progress made in all these car constructions during the last ten years must certainly be acknowledged. Great sums of money have been spent in doing so. Aside from this the public will appreciate, especially, that part of this expense Went into passenger equipment for the safety and the comfort of the traveling public without the companies obtaining therefrom any direct revenue. ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POW'ER C)! O? 00 The author wishes to extend thanks to the car companies and the railroads, who so kindly furnished him some photo- graphs, and especially to the Pressed Steel Car Company for the many blue prints put at his disposal. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Passenger Cars in General. N. Y. C. Automobile Baggage Car—Amer. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Dec. 1905. Cent. R. R. of N. J. Horse Car (60 ft.)——Ry. & Engrg. Rev., Oct. 8, 1904. Southern Pacific Hospital Car—Ry. Age, Nov. 3, 1905. N. Y. Cent. Elec. Suburban Steel Cars—R. R. Gaz., Nov. 3, 1905. Construction of a Pass. Car—C. F. Rydberg, Ry. & Engng. Rev., Dec. 2, 1905. So. Ry. Steel Pass. Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., July 1906. Southern Pacific Hospital Car—Eng. News, Jan. 11, 1906. Can. Pac. Private Car—R. R. Gaz., Jan. 18, 1907. Harriman Steel Pass. Car—Amer. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Jan. 1907. Long Island R. R. Steel Pass. Cars— Amer. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Feb. 1907. N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R. Steel Pass. Cars—Amer. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Mar. 1907. Penna. R. R. Steel Pass. Cars—Ry. Age, June 7, 1907. Penna. R. R. Steel Pass. Cars—R. R. Gaz. June 14, 1907. Steel Pass. Equipment—C. E. Barba and M. Singer, Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., June 1907. Southern Pacific Steel Coach—Ry. Age, Jan. 11, 1907. Penna. R. R. All-Steel Pass. Cars—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., June 1907. All-Steel Pass. Cars—Am. Engr. 80 R. R. Jour., July 1907. Hudson Companies’ All-Steel Pass. Cars—Am. Eng. 8: R. R. Jour., Oct. 1907. Canadian Northern Comb. Parlor, Sleeping and Din. Car—R. R. Gaz., May 3, 1907. Steel Cars for Pass. Train Equip—Eng. News, Sept. 3, 1908. Southern Pacific New Design Std. Steel Coach—R. R. Age Gaz., June 12, 1908. Erie Steel Underframe for Pass. Cars—R. R. Age Gaz., Oct. 1, 1909. Use of Steel in Pass. Car Cons—John McE. Ames, Pro. Cent. Ry. Club, Mar. 12, 1909. Long Island R. R. All-Steel Sub. Cars—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Jan. 1909. Cent. R. R. of N. J. Coach with Steel Underframes—R. R. Age Gaz., July 9, 1909. St. Paul New Pass. Equip—R. R. Age Gaz., Oct. 1, 1909. Double Open Diag. Truss for Steel Pass. Cars—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Nov. 1909. Penna. Steel Motor Coaches—Ry. Age Gaz., Aug. 11, 1911. Composite Steel Pass. Equipment—~Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Jan. 1911. 564 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER C. M. & St. P. Steel Pass. Train Equip—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., June 1911. Burlington Women ’s Parlor Car—Ry. Age Gaz., Sept. 15, 1911. N. Y. Westchester & .Boston New Type Steel Pass. Car—Ry. Age Gaz., June 14, 1912. Treatment and Finish of Pass. Car Concrete Floors—Ry. Mas. Mech., Dec. 1912. N. Y. Cent. Steel Coaches—Ry. Age Gaz., Feb. 21, 1913. N. Y. Cent. Steel Coaches—Am. Engr., Feb. 1913. Steel Pass. Car Design—Papers read before A. S. M. E., Ry. Age Gaz., April 11, 1913. Steel Pass. Car and Existing Pass. Equip—Ry. & Engrg. Rev., Oct. 25, 1913. Steel Pass. Cars—A. Copony, Ry. Mas. Mech., Nov. 1912. Steel Pass. Car Design—Jour. Am. Soc. of Mech. Engrs, May 1913. Steel Pass. Car Design—Jour. Am. Soc. of Mech. Engrs, June 1913. Ill. Cent. Express Refrigerator Cars—Ry. Rev., June 6, 1914. Steel Pass. Cars—F. M. Brinckerhoif, Ry. Rev., June 6, 1914. Steel Pass. Cars—F. M. Brinckerhoif, Ry. Age Gaz., Mar. 13, 1914. New Haven Steel Coach—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed), April 1914. Can. Pac. Steel Coach—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), May 1914. Can. Pac. Steel Pass. Car—Ry. Rev., May 2, 1914. Santa. Fe Steel Coaches—Rwy. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed), Jan. 1915. Grand Trunk Sub. Coaches—Rwy. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed), April 1915. Burlington Dining Cars—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.) , Feb. 1914. Grand Trunk Steel-Frame Pass. Equip—Ry. Age Gaz., Apr. 2, 1915. Steel Cars on Long Island—El. Ry. Jour., Mar. 20, 1915. Union Pacific Pass. Equip—Ry. Age Gaz., June 25, 1915. Erie All-Steel Pass. Car—Ry. Age Gaz., June 11, 1915. Mail and. Postal Cars. Santa Fe Steel-Underframe Postal Car—R. R. Gaz., June 16, 1905. Harriman Lines Std. All-Steel 60-ft. Postal Car—R. R. Gaz., June 22, 1906. Santa Fe Steel Underframe Postal Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour.. Oct. 1906. Penna. All-Steel Postal Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., April 1907. Proposed Specifications for Postal Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., Nov. 24, 1911. Tentative Specifications for Steel Postal Cars—Ry. & Engng. Rev., Nov. 25, 1911. Proposed Specifications for Steel Postal Cars—Ry. & Engng. Rev., Dec. 23, 1911. Proposed Specifications for Postal Cars—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Dec. 1911. Mo. Pac. Postal Cars—Ry. & Engng. Rev., Mar. 2, 1912. Heat Transmission Tests on Steel Mail Car Section—Ry. Age Gaz., June 26, 1914. Wabash 60-ft. Steel Postal Car—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.) , Nov. 1913. Northern Pac. Ry. Postal Car—Ry. & Loco. Engng., Jan. 1915. ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER U] O‘; Q! Sleeping Cars. Pullman All-Steel Sleeping Car— R. R. Gaz., April 19, 1907. Pullman New Steel Sleeping Car—Ry. Age. Gaz., April 29, 1910. Pullman All-Steel Cars—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Oct. 1910. Baggage and Express Cars. N. Y. C. Baggage Cars for Automobiles—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Dec. 1905. Cent. R. R. of N. J. Spec. Bagg. Car for Scenery—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), Nov. 1913. Long Island Short Steel Bagg. Car—Ry. Age Gaz., Sept. 4, 1914. Long Island Steel Bagg. Car—Rwy. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), Oct. 1914. C. R. R. of N. J. Steel Bagg. and Mail Cars—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), Mar. 1915. C. R. R. of N. J. Steel Bagg. and Mail Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., Feb. 19, 1915. Freight Cars in General. C. M. & St. P. 50-ton Coal Car—Master Mechanic, Feb. 1904. Lawson Dump Car—R. R. Gaz., Mar. 11, 1904. Lawson Dump Car—Amer. Engr. & R. R. Jour., April 1904. Rock Island Comb. Stock and Drop Bottom Car—R. R. Gaz., Nov. 3, 1905. D. & H. Composite Coal Car—Ry. Age, Aug. 4, 1905. Hart Convertible Ballast and Freight Car—Eng. News, July 6, 1905. End Shocks—Proc. Ry. Club of Pittsburgh, Sept. 1905. P. R. R. Std. Freight Cars—Ry. & Engng. Rev., June 17, 1905. Steel in Car Construction—Proc. W. Ry. Club, Mar. 15, 1904. Steel Car Design—A. Stucki, R. R. Gaz., June 17, 24, July 8, 22, 29, 1904. Design of Steel Underframe—Fritz B. Ernst, Ry. Age, June 17, 1904. Comb. Stock and Drop-Bottom Dump Car—R. R. Gaz., April 18, 1906. Des. of Steel Cars as to Repairs—A. Stucki, Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Jan. 1906. A. C. L. Phosphate Car—R. R. Gaz., June 8, 1906. B. & M. Auto and Horse Car—Ry. & Loco. Engng., Sept. 1906. B. & O. Maint. and Repair of Steel Freight Cars—Am. Engr. 8: R. R. Jour., May 1907. B. & 0. New Clearance Measuring Car—Eng. News, June 13, 1907. Middletown Car Works Steel Dump Cars—Ry. Age, Dec. 28, 1906. A. T. & S. F. 35-ton Steel U. F. Stock and Coke Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Nov. 1906. Santa Fe Reinforcing Light Wooden Cars—R. R. Age Gaz., June 12, 1908. Structural Steel in Frt. Cars—G. A. Ackerlind, Ry. & Engng. Rev., June 13, 1908. C. & O. Cars for the Virginia Coal Business—R. R. Age Gaz., June 12, 1908. Clark All-Steel Box Car—Iron Age, Sept. 24, 1908. Air-Operated Spreader Car for Rwy. and Other Work—Eng. News, Sept. 17, 1908. 566 ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER P. R. R. Maintenance and Repair of Freight Cars—Am. Engr. 80 R. R. Jour., Mar. 1909. General Service Freight Equipment Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Nov. 1908. D. & I. R. Ore Car (Summer ’s Design)——R. R. Age Gaz., Jan. 29, 1909. Pgh. Plate Glass Co. Steel Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., June 1909. Vir. Ry. Coal Cars and Coal Trains—Eng. News, Jan. 13, 1910. Steel in Frt. Car Constr.—C. A. Seley, Jour. Fr. Inst., April 1910. Steel Car Cons—C. R. Harris, Ry. Mas-Mech., April 1910. Stresses Dev. by Collisions of Frt. Cars—Pro. N. Y. R. R. Club, April 15, 1910. Heating Cars Containing Perishable Frt.—Ry. Age Gaz., Aug. 18, 1911. Penna. Clearance Car—Ry. Age Gaz., Mar. 31, 1911. Clark Quick-Dumping Steel Ore Car—Eng. News, Dec. 1, 1910. Freight Car Truck Experiments—Ry. Age Gaz., Mar. 24, 1911. New Box Stock Refrig. Cars—Rwy. Age Gaz., Oct. 4, 1912. Fish-Belly Center Girders for Cars—A. E. Heifelfinger, Am. Engr., Mar. 1912. Erie Track Insp. Car—Ry. Age Gaz., June 21, 1912. Car Roof Problem—Ry. 8a Engng. Rev., May 31, 1913. Improved Methods of Frt. Car Cons—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), Aug. 1913. Freight-Car Truck Experiments—Prof. Endsley, Am. Engr., Jan. 1913. Penna. R. R. Steel Freight-Car Equip—Ry. & Engng. Rev., Nov. 2, 1912. Freight Car Troubles—J. C. Fritts, Pro. Cent. Ry. Club, Sept. 12, 1913. Dairy Refrig. Cars—Rwy. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.) , June 1914. Freight Car Design and Cons—W. M. Bosworth, Rwy. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), June 1914. Grand Trunk Freight Cars—Ry. & Engng. Rev., Nov. 29, 1913. Grand Trunk Cars—Ry. Mas. Mech., Jan. 1914. Lehigh Valley High Cap. Well Car—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.) , Feb. 1914. Important Features in Refrig. Car Design—Ry. Age Gaz., Jan. 30, 1914. Can. Pas. Structural-Steel Trucks—-—Ry. Mas. Mech., March 1914. Nor. Pac. Stock Car—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), April 1914. N. Y. Cent. Steel Underframes—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), October 1914. Some Exper. to Deter. Stresses in Truck Side Frames—Ry. Club of Pgh., Feb. 1915. ' B. R. & P. Outfit Car—Ry. Age Gaz., June 18, 1915. Flat Oars. P. & L. E. 75-ton Steel Flat Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Sept. 1905. Steel Flat Cars for Heavy Loads—Eng. News, May 24, 1906. C. M. & St. P. Very Heavy Cap. Flat Car—Ry. & Engng. Rev., April 28, 1906. L. S. 8: M. S. 75-ton Steel Flat Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., June 1907. Eric R. R. Special 75-ton Flat Car—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), ‘July 1913. ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER 567 Gondola Cars. B. & O. Steel Underframe Gondola—R. R. Gaz., April 14, 1905. N. Y. C. Steel Underframe Gondola—Ry. Age, June 23, 1905. Newburgh & So. Shore Gondola—R. R. Gaz., Dec. 21, 1906. Frisco Lines Gen ’1 Ser. Gon. Car—R. R. Gaz., March 25, 1906. Wabash R. R. Steel Frame 50-ton Gon. Car—Eng. News, June 13, 1907. Ralston Gen. Ser. Car—R. R. Age Gaz., Aug. 28, 1908. Virg. Std. 50-ton Gond. Coal Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Nov. 1908. Virg. 50-ton Steel Gond. Car—Am. Engr. 8: R. R. Jour., Oct. 1909. Norfolk & West. 50-ton Steel Gond. Car—Am. Engr. 8: R. R. Jour., Sept. 1909. Gen. Service Steel Gond. Cars—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., June 1909. Cent. R. R. of N. J. 50-ton Low-Side Gond.—Am. Engr., April 1913. Norfolk & Western 90-ton High-Side Gond. Car—Ry. Age Gaz., Jan. 3, 1913. Hopper Cars. Summer ’s Gravity Dump Car—R. R. Gaz., June 24, 1904. B. & S. Dump Car—Ry. & Loco. Engng., Oct. 1905. L. S. & M. S. 50-ton Steel Twin-Hopper Gond. Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Nov. 1905. New Types of Goodwin Car—Ry. & Engng. Rev., June 9, 1906. Mon. Conn. 100-ton Hopper Car—Am. Eng. & R. R. Jour., April 1906. Del. & Hudson Composite Hopper Car—Am. Engr. 8.: R. R. Jour., May 1907. Summer ’s Dump Car Amer. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Feb. 1909. Coke Cars. Cambria Steel Coke Car—R. R. Gaz., June 17, 1904. C. L. S. & E. 100,000-lb. Coke Car—R. R. Gaz., Aug. 19, 1904. Vanderbilt Steel Coke Car—Ry. Age, Feb. 5, 1904. P. & L. E. Steel Triple-Hopper Bottom Coke Can—Am. Eng. & R. R. Jour. Aug. 1907. P. R. R. 4-Hopper Steel Coke Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., May 1909. Box Cars. 50-ton Steel-Underframe Box Car, Ill. River Packet Co.—R. R. Gaz., Jan. 1,1904. Penn. Box Car for Automobiles—Ry. & Loco. Engng., March 1906. Rock Island Std. 80,000-lb. Box Car—R. R. Gaz., June 8, 1906. Union Pac. AllsSteel 50-ton Box Cars—R. R. Gaz., Feb. 22, 1907. N. Y. Cent. Lines Std. 40-ton Box Car—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., Mar. 1907. Union Pac. All-Steel Box Cars—Am. Engr. & R. R. Jour., April 1907. San Ant. & Aransas Pass. Fruit and Vegetable Cars—R. R. Age Gaz., Jan. 29, 1909. Union Pac. Steel Box Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., Feb. 11, 1910. Can. Pac. Steel-Frame Box Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., Mar. 10, 1911. 568 DISCUSSION: ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIVE POWER Mr. Passeck. Leakage of Grain from Box Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., Nov. 24, 1911. B. 86 L. E. All-Steel Box Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., Mar. 22, 1912. Defective Box Cars and Damaged Frt.—Ry. Age Gaz., April 12, 1912. C. M. & St. P. Auto Car—Ry. Age Gaz., Mar. 15, 1912. Cent. R. R. of N. J. Ice Car—Ry. Age Gaz., June 7, 1912. Grand Trunk Steel Box Car with Hopper—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed.), June 1913. Can. Pac. Box Car for Grain and Coal—Ry. Age Gaz., July 11, 1913. Frisco Steel-Frame Box Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., Oct. 3, 1913. N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R., A Strong Box-Car End—Am. Engr., Jan. 1913. Rock Island Grain-Tight Single-Sheathed Box Car——Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed), Feb. 1914. Steel-Underframe Box Cars—J our. Am. Soc. M. E., Feb. 1914. P. R. R. Steel Box Cars—Eng. News, Feb. 12, 1914. Union Pac. Steel Box and Auto Cars—Ry. Rev., June 6, 1914. P. R. R. All-Steel X-25 Type Frt. Box Car—Ry. & Loco. Eng., Aug. 1914. Making Prov. for Emergency Grain Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., July 31, 1914. P. R. R. All-Steel Box Car—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed), August, 1914. Ill. Cent. R. R. New Box Cars—Ry. & Loco. Engng., Feb. 1915. 111. Cent. Steel-Frame Box Cars—Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. E'd.), Feb. 1915. The Standard Box Car—R. W. Burnette, Ry. Age Gaz., Mar. 5, 1915. Defects of Modern Box Cars—Robert N. Miller, Ry. Age Gaz. (Mech. Ed), Apr. 1915. Car Construction—M. C. B. Report, Ry. Age Gaz., June 16, 1915. Union Pacific Auto. and Box Cars—Ry. Age Gaz., Feb. 5, 1915. Bettendorf All-Steel Box Car—Ry. Age Gaz., June 17, 1915. Can. Pac. Steel Box Car—Ry. Age Gaz., June 18, 1915. Tank Oars. Vanderbilt Steel—Frame Tank Car—R. R. Gaz., Feb. 19, 1904. Bettendorf Tank Car, No Center Sill—R. R. Gaz., June 17, 1904. Large Cap. Tank Car—Ry. Age Gaz., Dec. 8, 1911. DISCUSSION Mr. C. T. Passeck* said that the present tendency was not to exceed 40 to 50 tons capacity in the design of box cars; this limit is set by the cubical capacity of the car. The movement in the future will be toward steel cars. Some roads have trouble with the sweating of steel cars. In the design of steel passenger cars the Southern Pacific Company had used separate panels which could be easily replaced. In future, agasote or some other composition will replace steel in part. This material requires re- painting about one-third as often as steel. Mr. G. W. Baker,** Mem. Am. Soc. M. E., said that the new Erie steel car weighed a little less than the wooden car which it replaced. The aim Mr. Baker. * Chief Car Draftsman, Southern Pacific Co., San Francisco, Calif. ** Editor in Chief, Engineering News, New York, N. Y. DISCUSSION: ROLLING STOCK OTHER THAN MOTIX'E PO'WER 569 now is to make a light car, as well as one that is strong and of large capacity. There is a very heavy dead weight now in passenger cars. He stated that the electric railway people are reducing the weight of their cars. E'very pound of weight saved, saves perhaps 50 cents in oper- ating cost during the life of the car. Perhaps the weight may be cut down by using special steel, as has been done in automobile construction. Mr. A. H. Babcock,*** Mem. A. I. E. E., said that some years ago some tank cars were designed uith the bottom section of the tank hea\ y enough to replace the center sills and asked if this design still persisted. Also if the cast-steel truck frame for motor trucks for electric operation “as of sufficient merit to persist. Referring to Mr. Baker ’s remarks, he said that the lightest car in pas- senger service in the East weighs 1250 lb. per passenger, and some weigh 1400 to 1500 lb. per passenger. The Southern Pacific steel suburban car weighs 761 lb. per passenger, seats 116 persons and has a length of 72 ft. 4% in. Mr. I‘. T. Oak1ey,* hI. Am. Soc. C. E., asked as to the merits of the all-cast-steel truck as compared with the built-up truck. In a recent wreck he had seen a number of Pullman trucks badly damaged, but the trucks under the dining car, which were of the type shown in Fig. 31, were not much damaged. The built-up truck may be better. Mr. Arnold Stucki said that Mr. Passeck was right about the 40- and 50-ton box car; that we cannot well get more than 50 tons into a box car. We are new building 100-ton capacity flat cars and hopper cars. The 70-ton hopper car is new standard. A further increase may be looked for because the principle is right. The sweating of steel cars is possibly a result of climatic condition, as Mr. Passeck has said. The Bessemer & Lake Erie and the Union, who built the cars with no lining, had no trouble, though they sent a car of cement from coast to coast. But one car does not establish a fact. With regard to tank cars: In some cases the center sills have been done away with entirely and the tank reinforced at the bottom. This involves a serious problem, however, as the tank is subjected to heavy blows, with consequent liability of breakage. A good many such cars are in service, but few, or none, are now being built. The best design is for the underframe to take the end shock and the tank to take the load. Connection is made at the center of the tank. To Mr. Oakley ’s remarks he replied that he had seen cast-steel trucks and bolsters behave excellently in wrecks, and after having been straight- ened up, used again. Also, that he had seen some that showed clearly the treacherous nature of the material. If you have a well designed truck and a good casting everything will be all right. Rolled steel is all right in railroad construction wherever you put it. He could not say which is better; each had proved its case. *** Consulting Electrical Engineer, Southern Pacific Co., San Francisco, Calif. * Senior Structural Engr., Interstate Commerce Comm., Div. of Valuation, San Francisco, Calif. Mr. Babcock. Mr. Oakley. M1‘. Stucki. Paper No. 92 THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD. By F. L. DU BOSQUE, Mem. S. N. A. & M. E. New York, N. Y., U. S. A. Reviewed by MR. STEVENSON TAYLOR, Life Member, S. N. A. & M. E. New York, N. Y., U. S. A. Railroads whose terminals are located in harbors of impor- tance or whose rails touch such harbors require a considerable amount of floating equipment to complete their delivery agree- ments, and probably nowhere does this kind of equipment become so necessary as in the Port of New York, where all the railroads require vessels to complete their deliveries in whole or in part. The territory covered by this water-borne move- ment is shown on Plate No. 1, which is a map of Manhattan Island, showing the surrounding water area within the lighter- age limits; and the extent of this territory gives an idea of the large amount of floating equipment required by the different roads reaching New York. Requiring as it does almost every type of equipment, a description of the floating equipment used in New York would seem to best describe the subject of this paper. It has been the custom to look upon passenger traffic as the most important of a railroad ’s functions. A glance at Plate No. 1 will show that most of the roads have their rail terminals on the New Jersey shore of the Hudson River, the passengers reach- ing Manhattan Island by ferryboats. In fact, the first steam ferryboat was used on the Hudson River. Step by step this type of vessel has been improved to within a few years, halted now by the prospect that it will not be a very distant day before the various roads use tunnels under the Hudson River for their passenger train service. THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD 571 The Hudson River ferryboat. aside from the feature of fire protection. is the highest development of the type. Plates 2A, 2B show in detail a design that is closely followed on all the modern boats, averaging 210 feet in length, with a displace- ment of 1.000 tons. The hull is built of steel. deck structure and guard beams of steel, but the superstructure is of wood. The main, or lower, deck is used jointly for passenger and vehicle traffic; the two gangways through the center have room for from eighteen to twenty vehicles; the passenger accommo- dations are along the sides. The upper deck is used exclusive- ly for passengers, with elevated approaches thereto from the ferry station. The capacity of the vessel is about 2500 passen- gers, and eight minutes is the average time for the trip across the river. The vessels are propelled by two screws, one at each end. connected by a continuous shaft. The motive power is a vertical compound condensing engine of about 900 i.h.p.. giving the vessel a speed of ten knots. The screw system of propul- sion, which commenced to supersede the side-wheel system in 1891 and is now universal, while not as economical in fuel con- sumption, has many decided advantages: more space is avail- able for passengers; better control is obtained in stopping and starting (a feature of much importance when so many “end on” dockings are made) ; and ability to proceed through the ice in winter without material interruption, which is a feature of much importance, affecting both the earning ability of the equipment and the convenience of the traffic. While the steam pressure carried on this type of vessel ranges around 160 pounds, no one particular type of boiler has been adopted. It would seem, however, that the water-tube type, affording, as it does. safety from disastrous explosion and being so flexible in operation that it will accommodate itself to the intermittent operation necessary, is the most desirable. The vessels have complete elec- tric-light equipment in duplicate, generally indirect hot-air heat- ing system, and complete pumping and fire—fighting facilities, particular attention being given to the feature of quick action with portable chemical extinguishers. It will be noted that the above described type has a wooden superstructure. It is necessarily of light material and should a fire obtain much headway, it would no doubt be disastrous. 572 THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD The fear of this prompted the construction of a ferryboat with a steel superstructure, in fact, of all steel construction, Plates 3A, 3B, 3C. Four of these are now in use on the Dela- ware River, and while none have been built for the Hud- son River service, attention is called to what is a practical and desirable type of ferryboat that will undoubtedly be followed in localities where such service is developing instead of waning. The sketches show a “single-deck” boat, but the design con- templates an upper deck, should traffic require it. The motive power is similar to but less than that in use on the Hudson River ferryboats. Originally, little attention was paid to the means of load- ing and unloading ferryboats, a platform hinged on the shore end with its outboard, or river end, resting on the boat being the means of providing for variation in tide level and conse- quent relative height of the vessel’s deck. As the carrying capacity of vehicles increased, the length of the platform was increased to reduce the incline or grade; coincidently the weight of the platform or “bridge” increased, and means were then required to support, raise and lower the outboard end with more certainty; in some cases a pontoon supports the outboard end, supplemented by chain windlass to obtain exact control. A better plan is to raise and lower the bridge by electrically- operated screw gears, omitting the pontoon and counterweight- ing the dead load; but the growing use of the heavy automo- bile truck brought new problems in loading and unloading and it became desirable to not only control the height of the bridge, but also to provide some means that would keep the bridge and boat in constant vertical alignment and also relieve the boat of the weight of the bridge and the live load on it. Plate No. 4 shows a device now in use that not only accomplishes these re- quirements but also moors the vessel to the bridge automatically. By far the most interesting operation of a railroad is the freight traffic, versatile, with ever occurring opportunities for improvement; and this condition obtains on floating equipment to a most marked degree. Only one trunk line has facilities for the delivery of freight by rail on Manhattan Island. It seems unnatural that such a condition should exist in the great- est “freight consuming” locality in our country; therefore, all / 06:” . eoozwxrcn //\ \ ' ‘S NAOY SIDE -=~e 13$ Plate 1. Manhattan Island and Surrounding Water Area. within Lighterage Limits. '- 1-» l i— i \ A“ \ e 4- ~\* .. _. . _ . . .. - ... n _ .. .. _ . . h a Q n o - - .. U . .. _ u n . - n . . U .. u u u u .... 212%" p _ n . . .. 1..., . - - ¢ - - - 1.1 “— ..n u H A .. "W .Tl-n - ... ..i. _ . . n ....L - . . - I I L - ~— I I - - - o i - \- --\-~- ---._..-.-.---.-..-..-3‘. I. .. -.. . m ball‘ 1 i I a . i ._4_ to \ n I ‘1 __..'.-.,.---,-.-.!---.. i L 11 Plate 2A. Ferry Boat. Elevation. ‘Al-CON UPI-LII Larun In QLNTL.‘ MC N's V _ -. n-mqn‘ , _ "v rmmznngmmm Mt'v-o. J 127:"- 0‘ 0.19 _1\'1$f/\ V . ‘9’ '/\u .9 I‘; '- I h ‘ ' 3‘ ~. l "P _ as‘. fag-‘I.’ 4~D~bhmu gab.“ ."JL‘r-‘P Q :h-Jlu,‘ ‘2150 :6 Plate 218. Amidship Section, Perryboat. Lgngwn ovII Plate 3A. Interior View of Fireproof Ferry'boat. I ‘I: c l l . m— . _ . - I -r a . ‘r- :::r - ‘4 I.%" T‘ Ilm. III. ~ '- . . . "" 2m". .Luuu "- "M °' 1 2:2 l’~3-L‘ ‘ “ " Q . ' , LUV-2 - 9 - ' . ' ‘.120 I'L\ a a. - ‘ d . ' . 2. l ..L . V‘ M,‘ n, » _ _~ nl-t. legg- _ _ .. z _ _ --——-——_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - , or new n-vlvoo ‘7'-'\-- If‘ I“ ”‘ ulnar-mm " '8 ' ' ' ' " i . __ a - ' ‘ - -- - _ "_.. ‘ . - .. ,0 - ' owe "mag-33; :9 .2 g ~~ - 4 ..- . ‘ ..M'w 9'.‘ ' ' ‘=1 ‘ umxowrmw- 4'n3'n71'1- - ‘I V" " """1"' L. ‘Zi- - no!" c. ,cnow'u . aa'm 5015'- ,1, . 5 I ‘Hf-f’ ' _,,z 1"“- s. . . m9" mu." um" -' "MM ‘'6 "17 i./ _ ‘a _ I ' .. - M ...' ' ' "'“u ' uncuu-vutnniw' can": IIlIl,IlA-1o ‘ , v ‘A ' ,' l°|l" . w"- _ -' Q'QILQI' Co QQ-HO‘IHI’QIU CAI": ‘ l ' I 1 I I P ' . . . - ' ‘m Invunolm-4-I ‘7.2 .L. “,0.‘_ I , .’ ‘._- ~ .2424 - "u' . , . "_‘ ! , 10?". ‘.1 ' "_ _ o_ _ , . {rune f-o Ann’. 7 i i - J 34 ~ I i 59,, iw—"m I ‘ ' ' ' ilk-13"?!“ I. _ ' ice-nan any-mu ! , - com A E O ,I‘.-‘ I - - “ ._- \J in.“ l-dcvu. ‘0" ¢ I - ! . ° ‘ 9 g I“ . I - - ' 4 I 9 l .1 .. a _ a’. :e' a‘ ‘- i P S . L‘ . ‘ > '5 ‘' 42117-194 tune: I ‘i a ,|nnu|u.4'd'| ..‘L . on‘. M'croo. 1" - ' - l . I Ivllv nun. on: Al-O'-.‘A"IY, :Anmll N . . ‘ILO' .,wnn lunauAl LIM‘II 1'." M I‘ i l . “III .l“ ‘mu. .r“‘I|.-.. . 5 , l x - . l , I ,- , h v. a‘ i' . " '1 '"h- ' 'a" - '19». ‘'5 1 I 1 . is. " l J ' ' O . ;, onncmou. o IL“ Ila-15 ' i . O I I 3 $0.75- - L 1‘ _ l . ‘E —- _ 7 —_ Ono. '9 i, “‘ - .III Yuan‘ ?h-_‘ - . . t , ‘ ‘ ' I ' - O "r.\-‘v W.‘ | a sun: L! z. 3 o n‘. 2.4. 3 -1 A1 L 2327: wmcen- i " "' I $3310.: 1.. ' - , v,“ . . . —' v.1’ _ , - ‘ _ - _- . , i, - —— 3.2 -‘.$.L. _ . . i w ., . .. ‘SQ 'wfiz. , .'. .. ‘.1 J'W-N‘l- ~mu uyu- ‘ . ., "W i i -._-1_ ' ----'--' -' . . ., . _ _¢ ,._‘ u. 1 _ n: “.5 _ H . a’ I ...~...v : ‘w: Ilhfllnlnlll ‘rolnulcui. ‘ l‘fll ‘6 W. . _ c-°w~_n_._m ,5,_°__ . - g __ _ than. ‘.4 . g I’ "" ulcK ‘IA - . . . )<§'ll'lgfill. ' .¢-‘ ° ~ ' ' . i ' \ - "nil I|‘.“- >11 , l - . _ _ , - ' ' ' v & w‘lelnifu ‘ L lurlu a I ° 1 - " ‘ . To In. D ' 0" I’ II. - ' ‘II -~-- --_--.-...~. -. --~ ‘ - "q z _‘ ' 2' unr- a'L. 2%: 'nzzqzm'n ‘ ' . @ 2°‘ "' ' \ ' . . "If-w. 5 \‘nrn- ‘H '_'.~- 0 -L \ ° hike >G.”-‘¢1 4:‘ I ' E'IISZE~" - ‘ 7° :_ , . a , . n. 7. ' .;.. ._,,__ _ "" " '1 ' . _‘“ ‘ ‘6 t ' \Rov runs» 000 moi-smug"! at". ' -o._n_‘ . I’ .'-_-,,-___":-;"'~€?PL . “L _‘ I~I_ -_ / 1‘:-_'.~’-:_~- 7:: . ‘ \__'_ . _ o ‘I‘fl.o__ "- ,CLII\&DTOD£CK_ 0 ‘LA’ . . J's I'rl'l "Lu, Thalk'lsg” "“’\'°°"9-u‘i-" ‘s’ ' 0 t o a ° ° . . ‘Immune-II! ' I I p n a. an..- h- 0 O - . . V . v o g 7 I . - ' l k - - ~ ' ' ‘s, o. Filth-J lllL JG-Jo'mc- Nil" , "5"‘- -"'~"‘ "'”" 4" 3" 574. -' c 0 A. I- __ O p ‘ I - . GINTIR Kill-SON lflfnnrauc Wu,“- .27_6_ ' Ynllauon gnaw: rowan. am“ 0. "B. ‘15.. 1'?"".."F°.“""_ '“7"'"‘. l'.‘-°"‘___."‘ Plate 33. Amidship Section, Fireproof Perryboat. o “la-ml """.¢..- I 0. {Alan . y . ~ .- _. _ ~ _ I: _r ' 7“ i‘ ‘an. uo~ a ‘ ' """ ~ on ow‘. -_. | .l- |4.| we" n-u-o ’ ;..vn---\-v|‘¢|,..-w ', " "MII- . ~4--- ‘r. v '- . l . 'll'. . . .1 ' & ,_' l . - - -I l \ -. N , F \ ‘A -1- k/ " Z‘ 1 . i I I ‘I . ~11 in nun \\ - b 'OI Clue-IN‘ ' 511A“. all. bid‘. 42 an. 1 '1 ‘-11- "- ."- - i i" ' firew- \ i' x. i9 5 '__i.; '= \J\_ __ 1 i I I: SWWCL A ,_~. .. a .- , . " ‘I U x l- . s ‘A O . :1 ‘ 1 all. .4 o _‘. J 4 :zz'in n \ ' . ‘~7 '- ‘ n h '.~:°““"<>Ivu II‘ I a Z I‘ i. - ‘ “Wu-ac; \ _ I | N . , v,- cflus. 52:1? fox I . g _ .‘l -; 3.4-(‘flu ‘2 no .\ I vb ‘ . i‘ F c - - l -- 1 mm be" - . . .__.r::1__<_\..a°"° '\ a ‘rn_|I~eq-~~ _ ' _ w i 1“. m - |i araucu.‘ -- - . '+ - - ‘Jr-v.71‘. w - . '3- ' --- - . _ ~ ~ - . . - _— " v‘” ~ "x i >. _ _ . - ‘ - _ I I.‘ _ F 7. S\\ , g‘; 'Ullmc o,‘ a“ ’ . - I " ---— _TA ‘ll-lo‘... - ‘ — - — — — _ _ _ _ __ Q a ‘ ‘ - - __ ‘ ‘ _ _ ‘- Nwd_v:l——— . ‘E "M";._. .2‘: .7 SECT‘ON .SEAT DETAIL . INTLRIOR ELEVA-r'oN ~ ~ "'7 Han...“ _ I r .. 'ufi' Plate 30. Details of Construction, Fireproof Ferryboat. THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD 573 the railroads must give much study to the problems occurring in transportation by water. The difierent roads maintain their own freight stations on piers at various points on the water front of Manhattan. Cars are loaded onto “car floats” at the rail terminal and the floats are towed by “tugboats” to these piers; the cars are unloaded i... arnx :'_2:11,_‘ : .-‘ a.‘ it“! Plate 4. Device for Mooring I‘erryboats and Counter-balancing Liveloads. Patented 1914. there and reloaded while on the floats; all the freight handled at these stations arrives and departs on floats. Piers are usually long enough to berth three floats, and freight is taken from the car door, over gang planks, to the side of the pier by hand trucks, distributed around the piers, and stowed where it can be conveniently loaded on to a truck. In a few instances small 574 THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD “yards” have been conceded, by the municipality, along the shore front and cars are moved from the floats into these yards by drill engines, permitting “tail board” deliveries, that is, from car door to truck or van; in still fewer instances large manufacturers adjacent to Manhattan maintain “float bridges” over which the cars can be moved direct to their warehouses; a traffic of considerable volume is also obtained in the interchange of cars between the different roads, principally between the trunk lines and their eastern connections. The car floats used for this movement may be classed in two types; pier floats and transfer floats. Pier floats, as the name implies, are used to deliver freight to the freight stations on piers; the traffic is usually in less than car load lots (L. C. L. freight) and the loads carried are therefore less than those car- ried by transfer floats,—the cars on which are usually fully loaded at transfer stations before reaching the terminal,—or less than those containing heavier materials, such as coal, structural iron, etc. Pier floats are not required, therefore, to be as strongly constructed and are built of wood because of their lesser first cost and subsequent cost for maintenance. Moving them fre- quently and maneuvering around piers somewhat restricts their length. Plate 5 shows the usual type of pier float. It will be seen that they are of box form, sides nearly straight, with their ends slightly curved from keel to deck; so as to reduce some- what the resistance in towing; they carry twelve cars, six on each side, and the roofed platform through the center is to permit the unloading of the freight in the offshore cars onto the pier against which the float is moored, or to a bulkhead against the end of which a float may be placed. The transfer floats, as before mentioned, must be more strongly constructed. They support three, and sometimes four, tracks, are longer than pier floats, and carry twenty-two fully-loaded cars. They are used principally for interchange between railroads and for the move- ment to the yards and manufacturing plants above mentioned. It has seemed impossible to construct of wood satisfactory floats of this type, and steel is therefore used. A typical float is shown on Plates 6A, 6B. As the pier and transfer traffic is not constant, or relatively so, it has been found desirable to maintain a type of float that could be used in either service, strong enough for the -_ , ‘I. ' ' - .. -. I. A1 PA? I \5’ "t 1- 5. c»- ' ‘a: , _ _ §" _ ‘— 14 U CAST anon ARC-LE BLocK PA1’. Nb P \4>3 I - ! I _ > i I -. _ _I g: ' -: 1» 4- \- . ha.‘ mun. . _‘_i i |;_-_____ 2‘- __‘, a; “I '1 mi ___-___ _,J 41, .7‘ .. I. ,. _ I I f) ~‘—‘ ‘\I‘& -‘~|i H" I I ] if I I 'i ':7 l : I '1“ll°~Y-P- ‘ l .5 :II II t- s; in f‘. - BIAGID ‘:0’ u-W-uo Jim-Y, I? "L < aacaew emuro .,. _ 3_ . . l, _ z \.o _ i \ . , _ H >’\ ' - f . _ . i I . ~ l ‘_> . 5. _1 I I l - _ -fl5 PR R SYAN'D I ‘—§ I‘! 'l -"_> ‘run MKLI GAL‘ ‘ ._ ‘) -$_ - .3 .,‘ 3 Norm; mmunv or PIA-rronm (514-Agave ate-u, ON FLOAT‘: 2571, 10 R11. ...—1...... ‘224" ... 4"x8"\r.P. 4'xa' mp l..___>_____._ ... .__..__- 7:8’ _. Q- - _ 1?; {sum an“; ‘ 3‘,ua'v.P.l . a 1'1‘. ‘QLK; . — "‘ was] ~;—' 13¢; lg; 4.5/£1111" l/'/- l-‘ f -.~' e- - f . : - . '01. ,- =-~--—. . 7 1 : '~ — ‘__ > . . v . . _ , a ‘swan ~‘ A'ne #1:, 2 :12 ‘LP. if’ _ _%,: 5am", 3'mt‘ém ,0; : ' a? no“; \ \ \ ¢ , ' -- —~———- I — »-~» *‘I \q l | _ | w‘r‘W w‘ ("e 20 I ' ~ ~ "'l \ ~3PA¢50 IO" " l L*___ 5.54.50“ 5C-ARF 5'0 A..- ' , ." I‘ ""“P l -- I '- \ - » i9'2 I I A F ‘ $_9_,_. ,‘ sl'ceuv. PAIMQ‘RIS \ . I l A'I 6'3: 9 rwvgp 6;: 10* of DECK BEA ‘r Q I ‘lorr. amt-17. £18112‘! - \ flklli“ GER-‘LI? : l 1; L 1.4 >- e .. 6 cnowN miosuuv some s‘ke'YP lij/ir I, 7»; a“? n . '-l I . . :7? 5K acnnw lbvra ‘ q A. \M \ - -_ ’ m1 I W " -- '-' '4' ‘ '\_ ‘, \l‘: ~63I5‘YP. '., I .‘ - |‘'\ I - ,\_ ' 7 I § . _ .. 79% ‘ I .‘Nc‘m' '° I‘ ‘. ‘ ‘24.591 . ' ~ ___,‘— il “Q3 --—~- ' Zicilqq “ape-rs ; 3": to‘ w can. . :' ' ] ' . {I 1 li _ r a‘ . _ I y ‘ I ‘ l ' _I o ,. ./ 0W ,, \ year-~79; Douro M'ucfllw Bow. - snAmNG BET a I .n, p/ ‘Ht-wining, ' l ' ~< 5.." ~.-;' ‘:-~ ‘5?’. . I; a“ . a _.,__ e.‘- a'vn FRAME: B'IIO'YJP. [~1 \6 l1. .‘U r K?“ a-“ .- 7 ' V a, anmcu Sous-3 A cunca sour; I..\- i i l ‘(~- -—— , z I Y;-|S om-u: your; - In.“ ‘ I l v . '1 _- I \2'1l4-YP. ' . 17114 1 - I \ x" v I /< '~-> b ‘ . ___—.0 ——~ .47‘ I ‘ _1. I ) zé'qwm 501.13 7 ~, _ 95": can; my; ‘ g‘ ' . 7* . a’: v ___i . ‘. . ' . ' \ ‘ ~ ‘1 1 '- > _‘_I I. 4 .- e A :5 /|'\.1 -__ ~ -- . 7. é .- _, ‘_ V 39 \'_10__'K \_ ‘ ', g. z b' I’: ‘ ‘ ' ”' ' -: . _ _. . i ‘ i Q t 2 it Home 8 "o ‘P’ \Vz'kaliscoppzns A. 'i A -¢- n L'," -_ . , \, . . . .."l" . \ .1 ~ .~.. '; 'r»? 11: first‘??? :1 era-W =‘\~‘=F“><‘1X1L .I assess; warmest; “some ~l-‘><\ l--‘ -1~\ .\ui\rs.>i-\~ as t ~ - ~l ' l , , _ ~ ' - . I fi‘-9:§"‘-'""// i' lgfc'lifsvifiu-Ee’fiq‘K/"é/ ‘3'7"’ L ' ‘ r P . ‘3;; ‘v’ di-utIp-S ;‘ ‘6”! “EV P- 32 :- 2 “BEAM MOULDE cl '- ’ . . W/l ' “Circa no"; ’ vszo on: ':._r_:.__...-_.'____-_._ I: E I". e‘ ‘é 2| ___ . :z r v . . . 3 39+ w; ,1, ,(bcflew Bon§// A ' 1‘ . 10 I ' “ ‘I7 , . I 4 w"! \d l‘ I ,i1~,-‘,_.'.'lvifi"‘,' [ "\f'l] - :3. g . r .4 --. - . ._ no‘ I '- 1 s I < ' ‘5‘ I I I‘ ‘ '2 l \ 1 v , ;-.~ ' Plate 5. Amidship Section of Car Float, Pier Service. . u _ _ l-l II D _ - - Q _ . ‘I - v _ . . ill-o. ll‘. . _ Will ..l in-.. ......uli _ u n o Wmmulpwmfllnlllln l l I I I I || _ . u - a _ .. . u _ W _ l. _. o u “ m a _l_ n . I. In _ . lnllzl I . . . ~ _ . . I. lluvllol _ .fi _ . .l a. r . . _ _ . s. . .. u .|_l| .a _ . . . .h. . . . a u . . 0 +3.: Pl ate 6A. Car Float, Transfer Service _ a l _ .. \ . .lnlzl _ .. _ . — - I u n . ..l .IFI _ _ . . l \ _ _ l. \ lulll _ \ _ .. . i - d _ _ _ a ... A . . n _ . - - _ n: _ z u a n . . . l4 iiii iiTln 0 ii. i . .. z “llama ..... --.T ||||||| l 0 3| . . _ _ _ I - _ . _. _ _ . _ __ _ .. .. o u _ _. lT .ll r .3.‘ 1 2; _ _ . .. PVT li_.l . _ lllLll: .. . . .. [IF — - - .l lrl - _ _ _ l:l|.l. _ l i _ _ 4 ill... ..... ll» 1.. u. .. o a des... .... --..i--- . - I‘ o . u I r _ l“. n o _ .. n .1 - l 1 . u _ _ . . 4 F n e _ — lol D _ _ _ - - - _ .. ._ . . © H. M: 1.. . . Ill! N“ M. .. . “m ..- .l o . ~_ ._ ... _ -.. _ ..l n . _. - J- I o n _ .l :l l..l _ l. f _ . . ' I l ' . | ' . l‘ .- _ l I . . l ' I ' . . -' ° - I » fi 51".}... l . . . . -..- . P I I l I IIL I l I I I O O I‘ IilPllli... . 'lulllllrllbll'lll'OW _ n . o l.._l..\|.\\|.|.|r..i| “ . _ I k..: Jiiila O _ . . _ _ . u . _ - " ... n u _ . - ~ - _ l a n o. _ H l. w l. l u . _ _ " ll _ . . i A u “ .lfi _ . _ o _ _ . _ _ l l _ ‘lllélllll . _ - I i v I a l | l ‘In ...Iwnll _ _ e . i o u. Swans." ..... --..r ..... -- . . - _ q. ....s Ll _1 u; n A _ _ .l . _ _ i - - a n u w _ m L.‘ . ~© - u _|- L.- . a. . . - u - _.. ... u e , l l_l _ - _ ‘IT lull _ . . - - _ v 1 ll - - ‘Li A a n _ .- n l 5 I I i 5 5 ‘l _ ll ||||| In .iilu . _ _ o 1:14.... .... -L n 13.5.: _ ...... {A _ - - . llqsllulllvl - I'll... . U1 1 - _ _ _ _ ill - _ _ l llpl _ _ - - 1,1] 15?")5 - _ l. I! o . _ lJi ill . - - A ‘IT-Ill‘ - @ - .. _ . i. .. .- . . . n o u u u . a H .. _ _ _ .lLl - . . _ J1 _ it i _ . . .....- l - .- . u ‘ . . .....lnllilillhw _ . olllflivnevihii iiii u I"... o . . u lllll .i I. l _ f . _ l l“ o 7.. u “ o " lP " lhTzlfi . l; a .@ .n M ...l l .l # Z‘ Illrl l‘ - d U_ I 8 . l? n 0 M . _ _ . Lf - u - o _ . .- In“ _ n p . J YIIOIIIII _ e I'--ll"lllllll" _ u i ||J ii i . _ stills ...... .. _ _ a II - o _ . . _- .- . _ __ “ .la _ . . _ a . O - J .-. t. . _ O . . _ u L m. .. _ _ P O __ _ - .. Al - - I“ _ . m. _ . . _ u u a... . . . ...l O . . _ - I _ n - I 1 ti r. . IA .| a, . .. - I, L ‘.--IIII'III - II . ‘ | . O | ' I I‘ o d _ \kfikmilllilhliii _ . i . _ - . _ . lllzl . . _ n P _ c n. _ . -.l _ n H . - I 1 ‘I'll. . _ I - _ q l. h 1 _ . ..l _ _ bl - _ a ..l _ - u t u _ - . |.||1 _ - . Q j i I _ _ d n _ _ . 15.5 I Q _ ll’ll _ . - " --- ‘I’- o I“ Aafimm.“ ||||| IL ||||||| -.. _ - _ l . . ..lT . _ l _ ill - Q _ _ - - - l - lfi l- lpl ll - - - _ p u _ _ n _ u _ ll . - _ - , _l l “A - »~-' _PLA'I'EL 6 8. “der 0! (If: in». Sim-whens __> 1. , . "a -’ 4.14-GOA f i l. r ' _ . af'Jf-u s" . I‘ Shlnrr J‘ ‘ a . In’ f¢llapvfiflc Sim‘, Girl)‘: za- 4-‘- Iz'Oak : 4 iv} 12 J ' . _ . ' "2‘ Q n E _ - w _ ._ . \ __ l \ - ' \ -Z¢EZ§== . t‘w _o I ~ \_- r ‘=1 < . § § ' \ . k g g 174-’ q 4 203 ‘.5’ 7;?065 was i9. . . ~ \ \ \ q'-¢ A: t’ " , .. v . Sam: 1L /‘0 -‘ 101m flan,‘ Erlcfiaf _ 1639",",- _' {FF/4n’: N \ ..........__.__....,... .1 ...‘,__._x_. ___. ._.1_..- . .__|_ .. 8"‘1 ""‘s ..A- l - ___....'...___._._._.__L____._.. .__1____._,__. _ 1 _ l L I 1 z 3 ‘ 4- d‘ 7 3 2t- 3? a: [GI] ~16 120 I ' I 3 _ N07’: -' FRAMES ARC NUMBERED FROM BOTH ENDS. NO GB BEING M/USH/P PRAMC 2“‘ Q Q 0:23;}- ' _r lJ--2; FkAA/E vy/rH_ STA/VCH/ON$___ Fella "mad 5:,”- y», Loom/vs TOWARDS £410 or HOAT_ Ji‘-‘3£".a". é/Ywal. 2:1 din‘ - Ix"- 1'‘: W1. ,. film‘ or v c‘. Ii- 1:: 2.155 _ - '1 Re vnr: c from‘ n { J’ ‘ ‘- ‘ s u 3; n J l 7.8 \\ x G \g 2 t ‘b :1 B ‘ k g m Plan’: fir‘glq-r 1311!‘- ,1. \ " , ,0 ‘a _ ‘l! o q‘ \ x 1 =‘ _' q n E $ ‘ ‘ ~ . Q E) I; ' Iii-1 J-Chfi $70”? I! "' _~ \ ‘ 2 ¥ - '1 ~ 77~=uss No. 2 t g is ‘w I" , .. ' Sea/e ‘f'l'O v“ a, 3i" 1: 4'" . .-..|_ ___‘.."l I g 3 85:5. “1' ‘7 ~-¢/ Pm‘. ~|;'-at"_0-‘o/MJ WA TER- TIGHT 804 KHEAD Loom/vs 779M070 Mum/.5 or FLOAT Trdv/c rmr/Il. 8v!) arm/5 I‘ .. p‘- n‘; u. a; l I’! 10'.‘ *‘CII’, ‘"18’. 4.01 vi‘ * +I4l'u-py. Tfi’USS No. / /~ TL'RMEUM r5 FIQAME _ San/r. 5 =10 LOOKING 7EJWARU [M0 or F204’? . I , NUMBERED z’. 12', 221.35‘, 45'. 5;’.65', 7é.82'- 3;‘ 102.112‘ fin-‘e Lyn-,1! 3' Plate 618. Car Float, Transfer Service. .-.~ >’ 3 1N’ 4 I ‘I... A l 1 I ‘ ‘7 ll“. .- \ I v VI 1' ' ' '4 i .‘ ... . l ’ ‘ 1 l l '- ~ ¢ - 4* P 4 . L 1 I . l ’ . 1 'W (1(2— ' - v . I (I I‘ y 5 . __ - 1 ~~ \ '- - 1 £ ‘ F I E (I a tv 1 ’ -\ __-L rm - ____, __ , ~ -—'-~ __;——*——~—-—- __.___ _‘_____~7 ___ _ ___. ,, __fi,_ fi 7._ _ ' ' 4 1' a . . . . a 5 ; ; - ' i . __ .., E E i . I 4,. .-_ _ _ 1 .= . _ __ _ ; ,_ i‘ '7 “a ' ' ‘ ‘——'_ " ' -— ' —--‘_IL='\-IA*;";'S:_~ -- - Ltmvu 25950‘ -- ------¢-- -->---~- -—— --- - ~ - >- '4 ‘ - DICK Pl-AN '— - _ ‘:IN'r-K TN.‘ '- in ‘I h n u I. n I. p .- II n p _ n “ ‘I In -—- u--q.~~~u Aun-a n‘ugn — 7 ~ — ~4‘—~ ---——~—- - -- - » lam-‘mu.- - 0\r'-n~n —— — WING TIUSO'BWFIH IND " Cl .1! 6. II .- ‘1 II H I- I\ II “ 4' 4‘ ‘I ‘I 4’ ‘I 4| 4“ J, I )1 Q‘ I‘ ‘.1 I. n I = h I I‘ \B I, II F I’ I‘! 15 II I‘ II I‘ II I i Q I l . 4 I . | -— ----’—-—~ "'1 5°“: vac‘. w-IQvIvuQI Yn~¢~l Ina - ‘ , __..__ -__ _>v_.<___. . _ ' - I I-WINS "U83-1'036L‘ INO- ‘ ~ In D‘ _YI\,|III3 35G" Pne— cnn-n 1..“- -' m'v- Yvsya luv O-vvr— -I-> Film.’- Plate 7A. Car Float, Pier and Transfer Service. 'lfl'efl" 3 us J r J I )1 L —/,r.,.-:-=-- PLAN 0' ROOF Lila-rib. I )[ H42)?- an- em- Aa o__o_o av o__o 9'_o e 0110 Ed”; me.- ‘0 ;° a 0; ~ ' "e o"o‘u o' o‘ o ‘ale 0 o ' filo. “our IvI-nuI-n- . . o 0*”‘75'QU75IF ‘'0 1i" ‘rt-- 5* O. <°-_“A1l° wood “\4 _.:¢_ :I.'.-n~.~v~o-n - nary-:6‘ _ 0 v ~41. 2 f- if- S 1... av.‘- :15 e-l ‘nu-L M 'o : |.L—~ . I a .5\. Que“ apt-u 3:4'Av‘nt I'f-suu _ nu ail-11:7. m "on - ‘It I.“ v. Inn. WM ~43 I'm‘ 5 \- on "our nu‘- '» n u." ‘n M n m u‘. -. afl- ¢'nmva m- 9.». '42831'’ no M‘ afar..- ‘my ._._-___- rd-o,‘ II- 'j' OTo‘p' ‘o 0 I7'- 70.‘ - CI‘AI-0.~. 6"“. I\‘ e” um “ml-"11°04 ‘N IMO “NM-film:— glen‘ “(milieu-Gay] n] :0‘..- m-wu r~.. Inn's" "'21 562°- u~umujmni___. ‘___- — BUkKHZAO— Plate 73. Amidship Section of Car Float, Pier and Transfer Service. 5 \ ' _ _ n ' ' V c o o ..~ \ 4.. _ -. . a o 0 o o o o n I :0“ r . - ° ° .‘0: I v o are g\'-7'i_|h\_ _ D'Q‘QMQL. - ' -‘F_-_-_. “..-..- 7~|° -.__ .-.b..--- . . ___... _ , Z libvfiflt ! . ~ .1 I o 0 v =‘o -. - 0.‘, ’ ' ' m'u: l' -o o o x i '_ e, I.- T I o . . ~9‘a‘hrima \ x ‘ ‘far-‘Mao ‘n ‘ - . ' v v-n— --—-- —--~ 9.5 .~_-_ .-= . .. ‘v - I! ‘__4 __4‘g|_qxhsu____ ___,_ r ' I ‘v ' IHQMzwm-a ‘5L.’ Iz-v-no. 4 1 1 - 4 ",7'\‘,. _ ‘ L A All‘ i \ '- ‘T rooooobooocoooo 00 0001000600000. . _. _ _ o o o o ' R 4.5-55w: . a o . -~-- 'a-l:\.~ b“ / _ ' gouw-uvova Q g o o 0 o a Q - \4-Bl‘$‘o\ ‘_"mwv. o 0 . Q >0 0 ° 0 a o o o . 70'- IA u» co~'v'\>avovl - o o o 0 9 o O o o O 7 I 0 9 O O 0 9 O Q . . O O o o O s.‘ o o o 0 8s...- 0 ° . o O O O o _ o 9 . . Jeo'éo'oéoe a6'0'6'65'6éa'o'liéd'é'o'oaooaooo00500 00f .u 4'u5‘ll ,L.‘ Dav-e... u . wzlu .rv AnA-v o o 9 o O 0 . ‘ Sin-Fencing o O ‘Ha-am. o Q o o Q ~ 0 (0 A’ "~ . “___-w _- 0 0 ° ° ° _ "eonoooooo . . . v , ~ > ». w,- - 'I/'!‘l|\I\\“.>.-y~\ ' _ ‘ ' 0 o a c o o o o o _o_ _Q 0_‘__q4__'9_"9n_qoooooo0 00° 0 g o 0 o e O o o o g c o a ‘.3 o a o 0 c 0 : ‘ ' o O O - O O O O c I . ocoooooooooooooooooooooooo000000000060oooqpoqooqolojonoogoeqfqpogpuqfiggocf . . .. _.v., .. ‘v e. .. . 0 ' 'IAMI SPAC-M. 24“'¢ '7‘ - I . - ' ff)‘ - I.‘ l a“: 9 o o 1"'.’;1".l o o c l ‘ . . ' _-_\l'.n ._-'.."i'-'v‘! .’--'.~_‘ __ ' ocoocooaaooooaoaooflQoocflooooooaouoooeoeoo ‘ * ' ' '- - -- —‘ - ' 7 l°\.l_ . 5- :53;“. n"- -_.. Fun‘... m5‘ , . ‘_flntzévlgllzor - _‘. _ l - ' 0 - _ r. . 3-9 .1 '9 _ THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD 575 heaviest loads and not too large for pier service; this compromise float is shown on Plates 7A and 7 B. One of the most interesting problems involved in this float movement is in loading and unloading them. Plate No. 8 shows the device employed. The height of the shore is constant, but the height of the float naturally varies with the stages of the tide; the floats are loaded over their end. Drill engines move the cars over tracks on the float that are a continuation of the tracks on shore. A “bridge”, installed between the shore and the float, hinged at its shore end and with its outer end attached to the end of the float, completes the continuous track. The outer end is free to move up and down to accommodate itself to the exact height of the float. Naturally, the grade on the bridge will increase with increased variation in the height of the water and, therefore, of the float; it follows that the length of the bridge is governed by a permissible grade. The bridge joint at the shore end and at the float must be abrupt. It has been found that the permissible grade is not governed by the ability of an engine to push the cars, but by the vertical angle result— ing at the joints; too great an angle permits the couplers on the cars to slide up or down sufficiently to allow them to disen- gage; 3° is the maximum safe angle when the center of the car truck is 5 ft. 10 in. away from the coupler, as is usual. Great differences in tide level could be provided for by extremely long bridges, room for which is not always available, so that it has become the practice to introduce articulated bridges, each joint being individually supported and operated, and their number depending upon the difference in tide levels at the localities where used. A single-span bridge is satisfactory at Norfolk, Va.; two spans are used in New York, and three spans are used in Maine. The first span is of the through plate-girder type bridge, about 75 feet long; the outboard end of this bridge is supported from an overhead girder by four vertical lifting screws, on each of which a nut is turned by worm gear driven by electric motors on a common driving shaft. Where suf- ficient lifting force is provided to operate this end of the bridge with its maximum load, the length of the span may be reduced. The second span, usually called an “apron”, the outboard end of which is attached to the float, is made of wood and is usually 576 THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD about 35 feet long; it must be designed so that the platform will endure considerable twisting. The float is made fast to the apron by heavy chain moorings, and alignment of track vertically and transversely is maintained by inserting four steel toggle-bars, five inches square, that pass horizontally through \ "if' ' w/ ‘ ,\\\ i u. " l . A _ 4. V .I.‘ I l.‘- _,. ._. ‘no - .-_-.\_~_.—c W ‘A . V /\ \T ‘f \_\/ Plate 8. Car Transfer Bridge, Float Service. eyes or pockets on the apron into similar pockets on the float, directly opposite. When one side of a float is being loaded it naturally lists to that side and must carry with it the end of the apron to which it is attached; the inshore end of the apron cannot list, as it is hinged to the bridge; twisting of the apron must therefore take place and is arranged for by a suitably designed structure. As the cars move over the end of the float PRR 000 ?RR 000 .,..._ __. _- __.._- _ __.‘.__..____.-.___..___._~.___._.. .. --. ...-___.‘ - _-__|..:~6'rn.|OO'-o‘—— _—---.-- ___—___...” ___-___— _ lLtVATION ~ .._.'__.._____ .. ___-P ..— pufr-r-cab a-az‘cnuam... . r |4“<-|. W I -Ifll Inna- gum rum. l l-MI'A'WW “an! em". I l- llll‘c' . ‘via-v nu.’ .1” I l- ,u 31. Inwnv‘ an“. I ~ DICK PLAN~ i I "1 | —' ZNERAL DIMENSION " O ; Lln'avn Qvllbuu._.__.._._>~' ' I IIAH ANIDJIHPIOVIIALM. _. a - . ,Rbusblb J ! . Ail’qol, . ,__--_ )1 ;. 9101a Anuhlanl.lk'.“"~ _m o ! 5Hlln___._.__-_._.-_____l I I LING?!‘ amalga- 1 _ _ l _ _ .. .:. _ - - "- i I .3 _' ‘morn , n _ _ _ _ - - _ _ __ . - °1 nilnn'r . ‘ _ _ _ _ _ _ - -.‘ I2‘ ." ’ O I; PLAN 6!‘ DIM 6cm: - -‘_ PLAN or FLOOR. in‘ "~00.— oln Vol. 011;? ,, .gg. I'- min-n- Plate 9A. House Barge. N. scovvovn uucw- 7b w.v--~g Y to ""’ . - q - o llAngl '1- ‘ "flu—i J ‘a o-“oh ""I ~ . Brand; ' _“'_ 1 I, o‘- MOULOIPQQ 3’ . . M1; 1 4'9 "~ ""‘1 A“: wPINI ‘..MLO-A. --~'-- 4.“! . . ' i I 2 00 w _F\NI . ’ u l o In vn~o ‘nu ma. . ‘If ..., _' '- . , . . _ . . o ‘n ‘(a ‘on... n , . .Q a yi-I'K‘wq'nnq 'Y‘uu’ "i l K '\_ L.‘ a t-I-fl-m- a~ .1 n "cf-on on ‘A —A E a. ., J r g “ — '1 r-. 0 H... - w 0 ' ‘ 51.7‘ .I... g h ‘ . “I. on": Kiwi-DIM _ Lunar‘ w c -< a" GALV mow’ mu. 9 0: n — \\ J Y i g _ , _, Okvv'unur ‘A'Ylq; 3 ‘I . ) . ~°VIL77 “QU‘. ..Mq _- g = 9. WI?“ :In‘rll cu? '“ .. ‘ ‘I: L''. LIN. om“: . an.’ ‘Ix! . x Z "‘ W ‘ .l ‘ PIN°IR fll’fia olgd, \,Q Q \ . - . . . C t I l l ' ' , K‘uo' own u.r ! /II.VPINI , . ‘,g 0 w pun- a-ovnma. \ " ' - V . ~ >- - - — -._-Q -—~ _ — ~— _ I‘ .n|3vp|~._-_- _ __ ¢-'..-— -'- fir‘?— ' , _ __ ‘ _ ' - 4 q ‘ , " '- _ - _—_~-- . I‘ lWOAK ~“ \ - _ I L ' h ' ' ‘ ' ' :7‘ " é, - . . ~ ' , . 4 - .H _ I‘ .. .IAM. on. v P".- - 4 ‘no... |~ . ' :7;- nm OALV lieu - >9 q f r ‘ --—1-—- -—-¢ . ' v I . l V I ‘ v a p i ' , I‘ I " I ' %""'""'"°" , 1 i. v" ‘ "‘“.- , r-: - i)- ' $- 1' *-'- ~--- :1; "‘ ‘- 2 i. —- - —,-—; _ g . ' \ ' ‘1 ‘ 1 _ ' ‘ ~vv “um-Una , r I I - '~ anww“! _ \ ,4’ i,’ ‘ . - ‘r r74" 3*’ l 6 -,>- l.~,--,-- - Q1:- v an‘. 1‘ ~ I". "I"! *' g , |°;_|° q- pl".- ' - v ’ |‘-"Y 'm‘ . \, I ~41“. ‘ - ‘I’. 2 - ' \/ u OAK CA. ' . I ' 4" 7 " 49 ‘now run. ' - > - * I ' ‘_-_—1~ _ ‘ , ~~ ‘Yam-Q‘ : ‘*1 ~ I 5 can LA .1 ' a in‘ wJaA-t i Z r n 7 .a i’ - g R .... _ .. _ a - i \, I‘II ' . I ‘I. w 04-1 E I ' ‘ I I Q 7 "_ _ . ' ' “.0~v w-v-q ' , . , 9,». v PIN. on. v P04.‘ ~N ,' ~vv . win-n. ‘ I ‘ | I l o ' ' ’ .. . a i _v ; Inc a uoo ‘ m ( I vtn mu'ru IAII : E L I ’ Y I I " l % DOW-l- .u .__.__ ‘ , _ _ 1.0".‘ '" , t IIYV'NI < a 'novrna \ ' w, .~ '‘ - . I‘ \ ’° I - a“. 'N- \ ,,‘ 7c LAO “Ilwnl‘ ‘TRAP 1*‘ Q,‘ ,, l I , 5&1? » - $- ' h. FLOOR. aha-w unma- ' ~ =.-' " " .'-,m.w '- ' ‘ if ‘ , ' ' ‘.\.v .v-Z-“n ,Imwo" _ I‘l‘ “N-m-o-m ' ' . *1. . I. n’h-Ioamvnnou h _ I 5. i ., —- ‘...-"H l ‘J ormcd._ . "u , \ . , a e _\I_ -' - \. \ \ c» v -' . c J ’ I ' \ ,.‘_' \ ‘'11- ‘run- Iniiruul ‘Ill’ ‘emu. 3 o‘ .IAM M'ouuolo TLdif—J \llll Y PIN. I’! <~I~Aw "KY 7 I” 1 ‘.51 "an ’ Inv' gun-onl— ~ PA‘YINIMO sic!‘ fiyIAY‘ '- ‘10 Y '01. III ‘I V. II“. ~ VINYILAYQQw Loun'runman IIKINO A1 count 465 Plate 93. Amidship Section of House Barge. 7.. ..,.1....“..§.1L Ilsa-ll -H.N.DIVFDD . \ l I l . ‘v.l--¢l '01:’... _LQ-Im'ur-un. .lcY-o-n- ,n;~ ,0 lap.“ oazn_ _',.r~An w um! one’... Plate 103. Amidship Section, Self-Propelled House Barge. . n . ___"; Q Luv-LA. ___"____.___..___. r . r ‘s r r . . \\ _ v t r . _ ...[Il Ill‘lfilil . ll‘llll .4 AIIAH‘II'IIHY nu MA<|~|~IRY M . -_~_Jv-.- --., '. "An ‘I... I.‘ a’ u-nq M ‘J’ n.- 0.0% Plate 10A. General Plan and Interior, Self-Propelled House Barge. nu? ‘0'0 10 men =—. .Ia'r' “MW I _. I!_- ‘- l .n . ‘u “Ii-q‘ ‘-- '-- ' I“ . - - _.~ . - _>_--»- h.-.;:;n:r.fi ‘.0 --_~l. C“: :-¢‘~-;0 "‘" J - - _- - ‘ ‘ ‘ ru- ‘ n1: - 4 ~ \ W, - - - ‘~-__ ,. .--_ --. -. 1 F r vim 4| - - - , );-o . .. - . '~ \_.9 ‘- 1“..- 1 . _ . \, -... J" In‘ '0 Q - . ‘ _ . LI~4¢Y~ ‘JI- Au. 82-0 .8 ‘5 BI..- mono "Ah! ovlna~m ‘. ,._. __!9 II: My _ A_-g .1 CI’QVII \-~_I _ . . 9 A’ ulPvu, I-ooa ~v cu~~~0 --~l - . .. rO'O' - PLAN .- Cnluu - Plate 11. Hand Derrick Barge. ‘Us I; (5° fig F’! IOO Pier 0 m. 34 72:1’ _ 0 mull! — 1 ii= Y v i Y "r 1...‘. Y.‘ - w‘.‘_ v- ~- QC.) __4 __v.’ i. Q Plate 12A. Steam Derrick Barge. ' I if} 7 7: 0i 0' Q i of o~ _ o¢ 01 o g _ . a v ' ’ . o: ‘ a: blur” of o; o o- ‘ .1 , " o- . a: I; g ; a. o 9‘ 0 . 01 O ' " *f}; Q ' Q \_ o ‘ o o 3 ° 1 \ I ' e a d 1 - ‘ m'nlF-Vl‘hm I J ' o 1 f i I II - . 1 0 ‘ I 0 ° . o f, . . v. ‘ >- I o o . p“ 0 __ ‘I ' o: o o \f-ul~l~ 3 'l. J 1. I: 0- I 0 v 0 Q .:.~ ,: .2 . 2° : 2 t j 05 m 3.: . “A , I ' - _\ ° 3 1.‘. ,2: O 8 O “:9, __..___ ,. .__rr ' _'. _._-_ ‘ °-"" "_2__'_1- 1 ’ 11 1| ,0 n I. n In M ) ll I‘! u no D U u TRUSQ' B‘ in“ PLAW‘MW M- . ell . . g I.‘ .000 5“"'. ,. "...... ‘g ‘Tm?’ ' c . Q. Q -o 4 . . 1" e 19 n , f‘ -'- tv Poo-nun." I, .0 1 ' 0 z y, 4 a I. i f’ ' ‘ 5 / E. . a F! 4 I‘ 0 F‘ ‘O I : Cq " .' __- Dunc-c on Inna-un- a“. a.‘ t ..l .' I C1’ Q ~ 3': f ‘ Q ‘ I—Tlivu' Q’ 1—m50’A' I .50‘ ¢ ‘0' \\ f i I n-|5\.n __ _\ I In‘. > I . O" , ‘ I ’ ‘ ' O . __.g'_|§s.l .'_ .l’ll’b.) . ‘a g , ‘ . I I r . 5" J. MI"! I! _ IQYI‘“ - " 9 ‘kn. . - 0 ..\C ;v-.' ~ - . i...’ ......J .' ,_ Blcvlon Iron MKHQAO ‘I: "o IND. l - — ‘31: 0 sum- ‘ ‘n on." mu Pun-rune lbw‘ ‘N.- I.‘. / w‘. W I 9 Q‘ — ' J [a 9 9"‘ 2K- l5~. ? l J o :~ - I 1 . I l i 2 ' ' 9 0' I | 5 : ; . ‘Jr . ‘ . _ z , : “aware-9:,‘ ‘W I .: ' '1 K = '~ ‘ °' -. i : ' v Tflgsg'n’ ' a’. £91 1' : $ ' " ' ‘1 Z ‘ T f . . . 00- 2 00.0.0 5 ‘ oojoJ'oo I 000 e‘ ‘Tw“|°", "-‘.’.|_.. , ..~.. 1 . ¢..-...-.-..--......,.,..... .. I, -- ->-- .r MALYIINAT FRAM— t : j ' r o. ' 2 2 3‘ m . - _ . I Z : . ‘4 II C-o -- ° : * ; l o _ E Z i l ' “ rum: 394N504. 24'. n‘ ' Q r to to. E : l ‘ I: I : i ‘ 6 ~ . . . ' , °- I I 1 5 I Nu -‘ / . [1:515:33 awn-ma o z ‘ z z . ~_ _ 399-3.... an.“ nu'oo I ‘- —’ ‘ P t ' m‘- W- n k ~‘ 03 : ‘H7- - : I l 2 l- 4 v I ‘Ifl-IILIS¥.CIAMIIL> ' ; ‘f ‘I 0.6 010' A a ‘I; II‘. ‘I - 07-’0' \v ___' ' _ I_ acc-°~ It'rwilu menu-non ‘l5 MD '05 -- fluguneluo -' 3- .’_ f I M I~\,‘.In.I- 'm—g ‘at, V‘ DUI-n-.- .Q ‘ ‘y'QI-QAY. IIAI. ‘Qt-‘- ~'. VIN‘.‘ . “flew-...‘. ' - Plate 123. Structural Arrangement, Steam Derrick Barge. :5. .‘ '— fizz: ‘ ' ‘That’? goon ' . ' , : ‘ _, E‘ ' ‘ .' wmmwhl ‘ | . I. i’ ‘ I C v C .-..-- g}. 1 gleam £59 @ » ~¢mw ~~J ml- @- ea I mill". 3,5313% ‘_ lounge! m '. :MWYWWMWWW ' “'1 mm H fiuglliil‘biighlllllfl' Plate 13A. Harbor Tug. -— PLAN 0' mm ogc',‘ _. w'LAu 0 man “an. - ' ' N" cam! . ‘ . . Ayrqng. _—~!\ 1655 v1 . n . . _ ‘ff-i’ mm,‘ Ill‘-VJ-PIVI‘- win 22'. I l>§'t'~ . '\ __‘_~ "_ . I L4‘ ‘ _“ _ "_z.' u: ,u’ I . _ _ ._ ‘ Neurone-rm In :67‘ wnmi. . 'g"nl.PuN_I-. N96 Own/Al ‘ \ V ....4 rug": I.-. ’ ‘i I . a l ' ~ ' ‘12:2;- 1-,__ it‘ i ‘I’: ‘5‘__ 8M‘: jQ-Q‘Q-Qc. ‘-.'-l~‘ l~ ‘51°- ‘zu-n “ F¢..- 0'90: . l ‘ 000 21.1"‘- >\ " o- . . ‘o T r - ‘ l M‘ o o 551281‘1‘0 _‘ '— T9 :1 l A . I 55355“: stucco Qfl'cne 056'- . l _ l. I\ ‘x x’ P’ IN 5 Se 2V4 ’ ‘Ed'w ~ __ _ ' . Q'IQ'WPI u t ' M m - l5" 6' — ‘- . _ .. _ v. :Ymunoua 5543's. 1 i Y n" | ‘u ' ' - ... - ' - > - , L, . 53*09'S ‘w “'Uux ‘on? as. i v \y_'m_ _ -' . .I h N 9'. I410‘ in“. I. -; _ '- ‘Qqeau my I '9_.5..'9_£!3* i!" _ o u . 1 . v E - E -_-, _L ', . 3i.‘ ' ‘I If .0‘ n" if’ i I.‘ a: -- a’ \ A 6'ISH'IlL5u-Il Burg ‘ I’ \ ' \ H '\' V -~ ‘I ._9__,_ \‘I ‘ Q a q: a”lgfi.ls|t..t_ - ‘H: . , ANcLu on A-LTIINATI mvAmua- 4'srnom m 24" vo' _, _ r - ‘ -- h ' _ ' _ - ‘ - v 0 O o 6 1% “moul- .-/'<\ 30;; ‘ QZ§QII~§JLQJLLLQMG P, . . ' ~ 7 I - ° 8 I - MW "2 :- '2¥1L.° ' l2; "_" ‘.2711’: lo ‘ ,* Fl. Auazcv‘gzzgzv'a‘u. 0 ‘77215 , ., ' ; WHIIII no o¢ 2'!‘ I I - Z _ J n: : I 5'; __~_ Lo uzm ‘ o , ')‘/$32Z;’x§ms '0 ' Fin/ease Fun-“Ana 1'0 °;___o_l_c~\ on qylvijtfmla .! i, >1 ' _ _ ~ 4 - 5% 12/’l‘|".5 o Sfncto 24'QnQ-1P , I , ‘a: FIHAMES 5%!26 ‘6",’ u - I77; -_ Rlwlflac rnAMe: inf-77;- 5w! ' Mono STANCHOONS 9.‘ F‘"°°"'5 ‘77"’; '5' '"GH ' ‘ii—9; I . \ Cons» Buuxgq 2,, ‘x ‘A, P." .‘ g I ‘ . . . ' ' ' ' "i lfi'7ll'é'gfl- ’.é"""~‘4“! ' , .‘.. - - .‘ l'l'll no: =18.~|l,BLlb 4:3185k .— .v '0 m CIHIII'I _ 1Y3‘- 771 ‘5*. min". >..|5\..5. ow M ‘ I""l I00“ Invol- ' _ ne‘lrnAutan'ofle "ta-r l ----" ----.--_--_-_._-_-l---;-'._.- ---q,.—----¢L‘V-4._--_ ...-f.--_..__....----_--..__-_- ‘_ vhf/haw“ Moco N. F-AH.‘ ,- l _ , ~ —' §fi~-'Z'/l—I6h.‘. / mun, I ‘ ‘31 .$'léu\> _l~ “ . . ./ ax, \ 'lZlfi-P? I l‘ g. lblflb - ~ ‘ rLuS ‘ : n ‘ n I I | w I ‘ ' f I .. Emma k Z’l‘7‘l'J 35"”. ‘an! - ‘ 5/11 2615“... . 0 “Fa-‘:1 A ~_ I"" ‘Qt.’v ‘ _. _ __V\ _ _ ‘ 2 I ' 27‘ v5“cufl / "4 . . . _. , ‘ .'__‘‘" " ' ‘a , 9’ 0 '6 . o n o 0 o _ n’ol l '- o o o I 0 q QUE; 0 0,6 ' I a / Plumes . ~ I rigging |:~A|"h\|‘.. / ’ , - l9» 7| - _ m 1N_6ml am‘ 1'5\0 _ i ‘ '77: L05. *--"~4~~ _,,_ . Q I, av,‘ lwi an: cw: I . - 4 . .1‘ _ - 5] BA’ i7, .')_Y|_~__Llm ’ ‘\ 5 ~. I,” I... ' rue {El-F »' \ 2‘4" 0' BEAM HOHLOED - n- Strruan F'uAMr .54 (In 1. _I-QIIWQID . . 5§Q| “WI-Pu!“ vc. ‘ 7'.‘ Plate 133. Amidship Section, Harbor Tug. L'cwagn ‘\W. ___ \ 4 fl“. *4; ‘T \ , / \ ~§ ' a 5 : a 5 .g I 1 TS? .‘ ’ n - - w: “ ‘F ‘ r sear-mm, - 5' __m-u» n l " u a’ "“'" 4'- 1- w can‘ ' :l ' ___.“ _ I . “g \- . T n B 'n N I _ , :'-3'-aae- QZJDJL‘». m—u' an}! - L _- ‘kg’ 7X- 7}; 91'5- 9 1 '\ a 2 " 6 Z Finlay? Q B\\ I“ ~l\l\_ Aw“ I\ 3'91»!!! 952.3296)".- '. 3 - a \ll 1' ‘an. ovmw‘ noun-o a f a zip-Quiz“? ’ |z Ll- ;{-)’~.n.-;‘ \ n‘; "D 'gi'eq‘l-anl c 4 _ o ' '2'3-73-5un' 1b - - o b _ .1 Plate 14A. General Plan Interior, Drill Tug. Plate 143. Amidship Section, Drill Tug. PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD M- -§0'-_,,,'____ .- ' “v.0” I‘MV‘O'I. --_ l ‘LAN 0'' 9.0-‘. I n I m . N t _'1”“'''""' n 5‘ “a m 5' JL "I l H "—23 * ' I - .r_4 ‘. ' __1__ ,____~__ --_”. -___W___ -__ _ __ .h______~ _-U.. .u nene__nw .. _ v_.~_wr__d_a 3, v- e~=---1-+-~ ~ -~ -- J ' - mm -' .o-vou, - IA l NI - _I~"-‘ en! a“ 2 P I D l < . O r a? :38! " ".6 N0- ll.- 1!! ' 'IIL - 7!’ 5': vnr-o w."- Iw M \ nlmvw». ~ M anal-i‘ w~ eo_~u~n¢~_ Plate 15A. Coal Barge. ' 4 - rg‘can _— ~ I "- l°n “pl~e_ I upguM—I'Acx ‘(J-Ill a'n l2’ OAK. _ 07;! x - @YzééQEEEP‘é‘EEEW 6‘: a'vnug r 111-i6'fipmw Inn-la. ‘Id ' ' ' ‘ ‘ ’ ‘On? \ ‘ _ , ' / LL' _ /, ''v I / \- 'r " B'HAcuMAYn: k g. - |:\ < Io \ 10'- )o' our. /0v\‘ \ u'— e’ cm L‘ ’/,/\" r: , 1r’ fia§ fi‘ ; I'IA'm» u u l\ A B'ni'vfiuc u‘ L I’; _ __ \4~\ ...-1 \ a w ' ‘ -c~.v . v : '-. y ‘ - --~ _-= J? - - IO'IIQ'VPINE ' \ / ~s| 1pm " "' _ rt) , --- _ 1..., ‘.4- n_ -- —-~ -_~__. ‘__7# :* ~‘ ‘ I I / (N " w, / I ~ ' "" \ 2. . (:Llgfjiev . . . \ 9.3‘ ,. ~ ~ \i b I " vn c I Y’ _. - - ' ' N I v?) " 2 '“e / fiflunuflh. - , . ‘g i W ‘, / _. I ‘ I I _ . . . “v I ._.J-‘ ‘C 1] .- ‘- ‘ ___- ____=e__;=--:~_~"—N_- ;—-~---—— . - a. =__ _ V L? -__~_-;£'- i» ' ‘j’ - '1“:- —_l > -‘ ___ x '. - ~ — ‘___ r > ~ g.- ' Ci - -- ?_~-;-_v__ \ '_ - ‘ “TV >:_—_~—~‘,_‘ _- --— i.‘ __3" _ -=i—‘;_‘_ ""‘__|'__ _..' _V -_—- I: '3‘; ‘ ~'''‘ 2;.’ - - _ . _~‘ ‘~~= - - £1- ; ; _— \ A's-11‘ v on“; I 4 =-_w 29w -'-- - Plate 153. Amidship Section, Goal Barge. wr Iv‘vl. m in ‘~\!' m . _ HM a, MY», a i (I. ‘e “6 0H #J.‘ //’\\ \ , ,A“ \_/ __ p LI~1vI1~1IALn__ ...___.,...._ . . LCIIQVflWII—M¢‘miflm.w ‘IA~,.¢I- ~¢_-_,Mn-°. Paul... .V .r... . “In-‘V’ u “an vuv. _---A_-AM e/r _ _ _ a V r f 2.7:... i\ \ I _ . _ __. a.‘ mm M -_I\,Au a’ MA.‘ ml‘. . till)! 180.. Plate 16A. Tug used for Towing Barges. Bl... 1 Tr; 0' p_ __~ _ “5%. "i;- fili‘” "a g‘ ' \ ai-ll'y'ls n.0, a I ell I .6‘ ii . ‘ X‘\\' . r; .0 i055‘ _ a: l- '_ :4 | I _|°LI‘ 2}‘75 owlcolz|ug by 1.3 v__ ‘21¢; _ a _z’_ 2‘ l _ ——- -— 5. I‘IL” . . w _‘ > _ ‘ l .. _ _, . “an me. r0‘ 0 a‘ '2‘ ‘Ha’ 7‘ "A"? 1°4'5P'Iu0 m 2.1-o‘ 2i'I?§-I$ a“ L 4'n6.I-l2.3\..$ \ um“: SenVTv-n. "I -..‘! flu‘IY‘I‘. ‘av—— an‘ Pun’: A l1§LlS m *1“ or CQAL BUNKER 1,)"nr1 w“? 5337i .6 no; .Sr-ceco 70'! 5.. 4'- ll'loAK J'l i’NAgF GALVANIZCO ' I 62410.: Les !— ' Iowan-‘H 3'13'164a05 - a Y L\ C 5§G2rl¢| Lot ‘ a2} 13hr”. Aggy-anus. -.q=_—.-_—:— ‘~rv--<_- _ 6' (‘an-4kg‘; MM», . .24“ 1055s. *vv—I\_IV~ i".-. "'-|".‘-~:Em\a~-' G.Ia'-l|| 5L5; BULB A G I - __~- ‘ ~ .._.."-_Z.-f 15': '10"! I711 “as 'LANGBD Guaavra wonlll no ‘IAN. Ocsyn 701.0: :°° 0°‘ U __-__ Os ~— ’ >— -2§- ll pun: STANCMION‘ I ' I l - "Ia-21:13: ... { DICK BIArna-B'n 5f-l15noa (BULD) ‘” c r‘ " ' k u’ KAMz-S'b"2l}~lc 1m. 1° '; - PIVEISI FIAMIQ'2§‘I2£”15LIS ‘ io ; ‘ Float-‘J?’ Laa. IB'DEEP _ ' 5 L" KlnLsona-Sf'n M'IGAI Lea. : . 3° / ’ ,;°- W) Lu: 2° / I o‘ \ ,- ,~ ,, - i —---.'~—-—-—'‘ g \f-m-Zvslms I’ 3g :2‘ ‘GM-Q __ T vr— __ . \ 'ru-a ‘(tn-sou n4 ‘ Iflli‘lSI-IQfc-u! '‘ . ___. _— _— . 2°‘ “_V QOIuEI. I ‘___ - 1 6 ‘4'- Wbulfl. ’ ; , I: L” 5527526 no: - - ,cemeu-r: I 25375;: LS! cm- I \.—5§_12;16| "Q14. mon Ron.‘ m '2‘ L.‘ [5,, - I: has ' 9 0009 00000000 0 5 0 ° _. ‘ nary-sue 000-Lg. / o a’, '‘ Eur-2510:». /a, y i / n - 0 -§.nm.’./ao °/ x’ h a _ 1' / “m”: a O . O P -1 -‘ 7 (,g\$1 y _ \ ‘26.2.. {3 2° 201$ '4": o o o o o - o o c o e o c "61,": ' - °.\‘\ innit ISL-.7 \ s 0 g2'\ v3‘ )2! Lla. o _ A t a. a "\.0\\ PM.‘ ‘I’: nfieon- \_'l a . 2 t ‘ .Gl" ~ :[a‘li'n‘u‘m '- ° °- WRB ~ . . . . ‘_ 7 . .Q..r‘_ \ 3 OM Lnmpll Haul . nun. 51w» In’ 7353-3361;.‘ I \ 90'.‘ I’, r.» - KEEL- 6''- I\’ I?! Lon aim MOULOIO 32'-o' Plate 163. Amidship Section of Tug used for Towing Coal Barges. ..l .0 _wnAflJ “"_“. ."__.. ~UUU“. ....“ NHUH.“ Mn I?“ I e Deon ’ “MA: ‘RI A omwco W "cm" lgm r “nu _ . ’ v \ .~+',-~ _ nr’~,'p\_ ‘ 1, -m>->-r_’_¢r~_'_ ‘nw». Plate 17A. Chesapeake Bay Gar Float. .hao.‘ Om. m l-\-~)_’O pnLuYLLmmhz-m . . . \ :1 -_It_1‘zg}_p_qu.ngv ‘~ Q 10am “0 ino\00-Z,.~f.Y.q.—Fa.e I\/ . \ _ H 2‘ ~: m —~ m 7, P} '——I - \LJml—q li-zggn' ' I r ‘ \‘l\. "'v *2‘. M‘ , ‘i ;:n.vm_/»-1 \ ‘i [A r . i: ‘. f‘ a m i, I ~ 37% I ' - ' ‘ r 0 ‘a ,- . . u I . 3. means,‘ we I‘ . '5 - >1 [ .‘ I: ’ I’ I‘ p i I: _. .1 .w ‘ , _ E a_>_n-w_.___s.__.._.l an . >---__ I . I AQQ-All if,“ , . ‘10.4.5.7; - _ ~ _ _ ___ .__-m -a “___ - _ -. _._--.~ ..............~ , __.lh|r._._<___.l.._ .. __ - -. -. J ‘I. I QOI‘ . : at. .___ . "manna-n I uo~ _ ‘ I _ _ ‘ii-‘nan | 09' 0 o O _ 1 .1‘ _-..._.___ ,_._-_1_____.r.._ _ _ _ _ ___..4_. _ _ _ _ ___‘- _J-q 3 , r0 I F- : I . \ I'l'lllll I 1 l I I l \ I ___},- \_: ' zt—o~< &: Inn»: e- ~Y1~n~ l! '.5~- , MKHI-KDTO.‘ IOLB- Parr-‘M _hn-Jm‘—___ o I . ‘_ Cous'rlzuc-ncN-Or buI-m-mAos BI'YVV‘IIN 52-51 Cowrrnuc-nou Or But-KHIAD- 'M_'00..0§ ) '- _D\:\ “~a‘o Mas-aim \& alum“! A - Luna .01. - - , A. ~45 " mi a” - no rug-r rum lno'. — I.L ‘ I I I - . - l. ‘L. 2.558AM-2i2-IlL“ ‘__41' w 0 e O "I 9 ~.- l ‘ ‘I, ‘_ ' l c pun-‘cur run. 1' some I ‘ IL» I M ‘ - ‘ ' ' I I ‘ . J- a v _ _ _ _ I . "/ r‘ ; a I - \ a , . \ L\F§|=_m I --'<< - /' I I ‘H’; \k-m | I. I 1 _ . I . - I ' . - r I 1.4:.» Mining-l. . - - I | ,3, a. . / .1' 5 m u l I m I | / I 3 I : - v I I ' I F \ I 1 ' ‘ _ | I I L ‘ J")- /.'-I:1LUL‘.JL' ' 3M 1? ' ‘I a’ '11. LBBLBuULL Jam. I l _ . 55.“: 4'- i'bSLO ’ -:; r w a’ i -' r . ‘s I I ' Jq we rm... Av- n We l-I-uqa e "an - l | , . ‘12,5 .3“ I l il-lnj ’ 1 \ m ' \ I ‘~ \ I . I .9 | ~ » hi2 [a ' ‘ . 15.01 ‘ r " ' .‘ n | ' ‘u . I I . "e I’ / I I I T a i _ . 4 Q ~ “ 1 _ _. ” 1.7a vrgmmlimmmelmn ‘4' ,, - ' "-9-" "" ' ' -- ‘ 3. AW 0 , ' \ a.“ \\ i A’. S q / N. / -' - m2. 3 W114 ‘ll-Mina. _ \_ - - ‘ (- lbw I O - Inca-..“ P_--‘ ‘ _ ~ ~ 7 .0\ Hal - - _ \ ' \ ‘v _ 1. a "I _ g t K‘ T. | _ in‘: .uln 5}‘fi‘9rltuI 1‘ ‘ 11ml CAM n7.“ sa‘a—s'm'm . 75rd FLU emu. "~_.r i|-n.A:>'-~ » voJ_0s:> (~19— ,m“. b'....--.; E‘ .-- '51:’; ,n -"_--c. ' ' ~v filth-n I awn‘ '=‘.~n-,.' mm _ . 6m‘! 7-"00 (0'1... - 0 Plate 17B. Amidship Section, Chesapeake Bay Car Float. THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD 577 a weight of considerable magnitude is thrown thereon which it is difficult to provide for in the structural design without con- siderable expense, especially in long floats; further, this weight would immerse the end of the float and, consequently, increase the “joint angle” above referred to as controlling the grade. To relieve the strain on the float and reduce the joint angle, an arrangement is provided to automatically counterbalance the live load. The ends of a wire rope are made fast to the outer end of the apron, the rope passes overhead around pulleys and downward until its loop rests in a sheave; on the shaft carry- ing this sheave is a similar sheave over which a wire rope passes, one end of which is attached to the drum of a hoisting engine and the other to a counterweight resting on the ground. When the apron is light it may be raised and lowered by the hoisting engine, but when a load comes on it is counterbalanced to the extent of the counterweight. Some space has been given to a description of this device, as so much has been said at various times of specialized vessel-loading devices; here is a facility which has been developed by degrees and unnoticed, and which will load 1,500 tons on a vessel in five minutes. Floats are moored, unloaded, reloaded and depart in twenty-five minutes at the type of bridge above described, with the further and greater advantage that floats may be made of less strength, and, consequently, at less cost and of less weight. The delivery of freight to steamship piers. to manufactur- ing plants not equipped with float bridges. and to public piers is made by barges and lighters. “Covered barges” are used for “perishable” material, which term covers a larger field than its name implies, as it means almost everything that could be affected by the elements. These barges are built of wood, usually about 100 feet long; the deck is housed over, and sliding doors are fitted along the sides —Plates 9A, 9B. A few of these are provided with stoves for heating the interior in winter, and ice boxes to cool them in summer. These barges are docked alongside covered piers main tained by the railroads at their rail terminals and confined to box-car freight. The tracks extend the length of the pier, and freight is unloaded directly from the car to the barge wherever delivery arrangements will permit. Unfortunately, this is not 578 THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD always possible, and the storage and rehandling of a consid- erable amount of freight on the piers is a waste that it seems impossible to overcome. The freight is moved on hand trucks; while various mechanical devices have been tried, none has been found to be economically successful; the small electric truck with low platform is the nearest competitor and this can be made to handle some classes of freight more economically than the hand truck. The barges have a capacity equal to seven cars, but they are seldom fully loaded, as a consignment rarely calls for this exact amount; for adjacent distant deliveries sev- eral consignments will be loaded in one barge, but for delivery to nearby points it is frequently more economical to put only a few car loads in a barge and complete the delivery of the ship- ment. Supplementing these house barges, a self-propelled type is growing in favor—a steel-hull boat 120 feet long, with the deck housed over, having a capacity equal to twelve cars, as illustrated on Plates 10A, 10B. Originally designed for the quick delivery of certain classes of freight, its functions have been largely extended, as it has been found that for small ship— ments it is a strong competitor, in efficiency, with the towed barge. These vessels are loaded at night with a large number of consignments and make deliveries to the various piers during the following day. They carry a crew of stevedores, so as to avoid delay in unloading on arrival at a pier. The vessels have a speed of about 10 knots, and the form of the hull and the efficiency of their steering arrangements permits them to pass rapidly from point to point and maneuver quickly about the always crowded piers. Open freight is handled on barges, or lighters, as generally termed, on which derricks take the place of houses; and because the weight they carry in units and in total amount is consid- erably more than is carried on house barges, more attention is given to their towing resistance. The smaller ones, shown on Plate 11, carry about 250 tons and are built of wood, with ship- shape ends. The derricks on these are hand operated, of about 3-tons lifting capacity. Usually these boats are loaded .by the cranes maintained by the railroads at their open piers, the boats’ derricks being used for unloading at the delivery point. For heavier unit loads and increased capacity, steam-operated THE FLOATING EQUIPMEXT OF A RAILROAD 579 derricks are installed on steel-hull barges about 100 feet long, shown on Plates 12A, 12B. These vessels will carry 450 tons; their derricks will lift 10 tons and are fitted with booms 75 feet long. so as to reach to a second or third track on a pier. Every movement of the boom is mechanically operated. Supplement- ing the towed barges, self-propelled vessels, following the lines of the self-propelled house barges, are used, where, of course, steam-operated derricks take the place of the houses, and are used in a similar manner to the house barges for the delivery of small consignments. Very few roads maintain floating equip- ment capable of transporting heavy and unusual unit weights; they depend upon one of the wrecking and lighterage concerns to perform this intermittent service. To move the car floats and barges that are not self-propelled from point to point, tugboats are employed. These vessels take their “tow”, when loaded, to the delivery point, and usually pick up a “tow” in the vicinity on their return, their work being confined to the business of the road by which they-are employed. The crowded condition of the harbor requires them to take their tow alongside for better control, and for this reason their guards and deck must be very strongly constructed. In the design of these vessels, the prevailing idea is to install the maximum of power in the minimum of space, as, naturally, the smaller the vessel the more easily it is maneuvered—a most important feature. The prevailing type of tug used for towing car floats and the heavier barges is shown on Plates 13A, 13B; it is about 105 feet long, has 650 i. h. p., and a displacement of 300 tons. They are fitted with steam steering-gear, electric lights. fire-pumps and wrecking suction-hose. Most of these vessels are operated the full 24 hours, but their crews are not berthed on them, as they prefer to spend their time ashore when oflz duty. A smaller size tug, of similar design, is used for towing the smaller lighters, and a still smaller tug is used in the shift- ing of barges around the piers to place them in the most advan- tageous position for loading, doing on water what the “drill engine” does on land. The little boats, Plates 14A, 14B, have a form of hull particularly adapted for maneuvering, have ample steering facilities, and contain little else than their motive power. The operation of this equipment is controlled from a central 580 THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD office, where a record is kept of the location of each vessel, and orders to each are issued therefrom, these orders being usually transmitted by telephone to the nearest station where the vessel is expected to report; supplementing this method, “runners” are employed to expedite the unloading and releasing of barges at the various piers outside the company’s stations. The transportation of coal to Manhattan is, as might be supposed, an important feature. The domestic supply is pro- vided for in two ways :-—by car float delivery to a few stations reached over float bridges, and by trucking over the ferries— the latter method being the greatest in volume. Manufacturers adjacent to the water front and steamships take their supply from barges, which are in most cases loaded at rail terminals devoted entirely to coal and located some distance from Man- hattan, the furthest being twenty-five miles. These barges are built of wood, box form, in various capacities up to 1,200 tons. A type is shown on Plates 15A, 15B. They are loaded from a trestle or by a car dumper and are then gathered together in a “tow” by a drill tug of the type above described. Hawsers are made fast, and the “tow” is then taken up by a tug of larger size and brought to the harbor for distribution; the barges are arranged three to four abreast and in tandem, until it is not unusual for a tow to contain twenty-eight boats. The most powerful tug used in this service is shown on Plates 16A, 16B. This vessel is built entirely of steel, is 118 feet long, has twin screws, and a total of 900 i.h.p. In making the journey, nature is called upon to assist, by arranging the departure so that the tide will always favor the voyage. On arrival in the harbor, assisting tugs will pick up the various boats, take them alongside, and deliver them to the various piers to which they are consigned. The above describes what may be termed the floating equipment of a railroad. The size of each unit and its char- acter vary considerably from those individually shown, but selection has been made of the most modern design and suitable size that experience has seemed to show to be the most appropriate. The railroad between Cape Charles and Norfolk, Va., op- erates a float service that is unusual in results obtained, and To be inserted facing page 582 The following table and drawings accompany Mr. Bab- cock’s discussion appearing on p. 583: (1.) Table of ferry-steamer equipment operating on San Francisco Bay. (2) Aprons and Hydraulic Hoist, Southern Pacific (10., south side of Oakland Mole. (23) Deck Plans, Southern Pacific Passenger Ferry Boat, San Fran- cisco Bay. (4) Platform Deck Plan and Side and End Elevations of Southern Pacific Ferry Boat “Santa Clara”. (5) Platform Deck Plan and Side and End Elevations of Southern Pacific Transfer Boat “Contra Costa”. THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD 581 deserves notice. The route is over the Chesapeake Bay, and, in length, is about thirty-two miles. Heavy ice is never encoun- tered and the ice-breaking type of vessel, as used on the Great Lakes, is not required. A fleet of floats such as is shown on Plates 17A, 1713 has been installed. They are of steel, 358 feet long, carry four tracks, with room for twenty-eight to thirty cars, are equipped with steam steering-gear, and are sub- divided into watertight compartments so efficiently that while they have been damaged by collision, none have yet been sunk. They are towed on a hawser by a tugboat, of 750 i.h.p., at a speed between seven and eight knots, as they are of very easy form. Undoubtedly, this service is an example of the cheapest and safest method of transferring cars by water. To give an idea of the equipment necessary to conduct its business, a railroad that maintains the greatest amount of float- ing equipment has the following in New York Harbor: ten ferry boats, thirty-one tug boats, seven self-propelled barges, sixty-eight car floats, seventy-one covered barges, seventy-one derrick barges, and twenty coal barges. Attached is a table giving the important dimensions of the equipment described herein. 889 CIVOH’IIV'EI V cIO LLNZEIWcIIIIOEI BNLLVO'IJ HILL Principal Dimensions of the Various Types of Vessels in the Floating Equipment of a Railroad. _ Boilers Length Beam Depth B13813?‘ Engines Steam Hezwg Grate Propellers pig?“ Surface Surface ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. tons Dimensions II.H.P. lbs. sq. ft. sq. ft. Dia. \ Pitch. q 32"x22"x32" Ferryboat Plate 2 206 0 65 015 4 960 850 160 5052 112 9' 3" 12' 0" . 26”x18"x2(‘” . . “ “ 3 168 o 55 015 2 500 700 150 5300 92 8'2” 12' e" l‘ ‘ 18'IX36” I I/ Tugboat 13 105 0 24 012 2 306 26,, 665 160 2522 71.3 9' 0" 12 6 14”X21"X35" , “ “ 16 118 0 32 013 11 530 2T 900 175 3946 112 8'6" 12'0" l4”x28" , “ “ 14 70 0 13 0 9 1] 145 00,, 180 130 902 36 7' 0" 11' 0" 17!! 24:]! ’‘4:1!’ “ “ 18 141 o 25 013 s 450 750 180 2455 78 s’ s" 14' o" “ 17"X34" ‘ , Steam barge* 10 120 0 32 014 9 380 24,, 330 125 1273 45.5 8' 0’ 12' 0" * The steam barge has a capacity equal to twelve cars. Length Beam Depth Capacity Tracks Car float Plate 5 250 0 34 0 9 10 12 cars 2 “ “ 7 250 0 36 0 10 0 12 “ 2 “ “ 6 340 0 38 0 11 0 22 “ 3 “ “ “ 17 353 0 47 4 l2 6 30 “ Barge “ 9 100 0 30 3 9 2 7 “ “ “ 11 82 0 28 5 9 4 250130113 “ “ 12 100 0 34 0 9 6 450 “ “ “ 15 130 0 30 0 12 9 1000 “ NAME OF LENGTH WIDTH DISPlLAdnElIENT ENGINES BOILERS RIG CLASS DEPTH 0},‘ T‘H'IS VESSEL Keel Deck Beam (£12238 Light Loaded No. Cylinders IHP No, Pres. g3??? Type Dia. Pitch CLASS Tewerlr Pass. Ferry 268’ 290' 42.5’ 75.8’ 18.8’ 1136 1287 1 65712’ 1200 2 56 8776 122 side wheel 25'-8" 1 iedino'nt “ “ 257.1’ 273' 39.55 74.1' 15.6’ 1212 1375 1 57"/l4' 1385 2 60 5902 76 “ “ 25'-8" 10 anta Clara “ “ 273' 293' 42' 76' 17' 1580 1814 4 20" & 40" 2500 4 225 10,140 340 “ “ 24'-0" ’ S. P. Go. elrose Pass. & Frt. Ferry 273' 294' 43' 76.6’ 17.9’ 1344 1424 2 22%"-38%" 1040 4 175 13,396 126 “ “ 22'-7" 2 i 8! ‘ ' I I I I I . c 22%m—3g3‘” -' '- r c 4 ~ I !/ ava]o River Steamer 219.8 220 42 48 8.9 1033 1260 2 W 1200 1 175 3710 61 Stern 25 -2 6 olano Car Transf. 407' 424' 65.5’ 116.8’ 17.4’ 3900 4850 4 60”/11’ 1600 8 90 15,784 448 Side “ 30-0'’ 3 i an Pablo Pass. Ferry 226' 238' 36' 64' 17’—6” 1584 1 2500 2800B.H.P “ “ 19"-9" 2 L 60 Santa Fe Gar Floats 260' 272-3" 39' 39’-8” 11’—6" Gib-£216,155, 14.4.5, cars 4 J San Jose Pass. Ferry 175-4" 200' 38' 58' 17' 1115 1 18"-27"~42" 1200 2 200 45ee. Propeller 2-8'-4" 10.5’ 2 9 5,282” } Key Route Fernwood “ “ 194’—3" 200’ 38’ 58’ 19.2’ 1160 2 2000 2 200 4878 ea 140ea “ 2—9'-7" 12.5’ 3 azadero “ “ 231' 38' 17' 1682 1 50712 1600 2 90 Side Wheel 26’ 5 . r N.W.Pac. Uklah Oar Ferry 271' 41'-6" 14'-2" 2564 1 65”/12’ 2200 50 “ “ 27' 2 J E. T. Jeffry Pass. Ferry 230’ 42' 62'-6” 19’—-6" 1150 2 42%‘? 2000 4 200 10,000 234 Propeller 2—9'—9" 12' 1 Telephone “ “ 201’—6” 31’—6" 8’-O" 600 Stern wheel 25’—6” 1 $2284??? No. 1 Car Float 272'-0" 258'-4" 390 40-10’’ 126’ Li’ggglgilgy 160m 2 {:7— f_‘l Flllllld / . H . ;5fl+l..t,....... . s i .. Tlii. E. .../1.8484 .. .- t at!‘ @ ...‘... v 3-. . < < .: <81... KM...» a. ......K.....M: a I v ___ " < a t . _. .fiww%fl§fifififlfifiy>?%&fi an . %mri “ m.“ J1. i... .Mslo... . .. rid..- r QEfl/d ...K r- _ A _ . _ _ _ . F .. a; .i _ . 7.4 _ I I. . . y L. .... , 7J rm .../3. W ...n; 1.1m"? .. . _"_l. .N_ 731 r .> _ . gt. a. , w. rt 3 I fill l llli I. 3?”. ' 1*”! JJv-vc —/T/'a/1r/IJ7J ;. .. f 77. ff: 2%; '.‘ “K, .,. t 114 1 .. .. . , | ‘ ‘ii-1'' r,“ ‘ . 1109/44 :vxjr' “222' r} . _‘wrc: . if ' 71117" .. §~~ _._ .I ‘. _ {Iv/7 r¢~l~ n I if! N t } i9?‘7_— _' " {Diva/)2‘ 5:670! LL’ >1 . j; v m p-,-‘fl- __i. Ell! area I Owurvll v . 141.10.07.17 ,7 "'/VV7d “— I imftl I a . , i. : FIIF; ‘_q—J ' ji/MI 9 1.? “JIM/I511?— ' < —//fl/_[M]77 979/5‘— _ Mimi. H t ..w. i , L iriz. _ ...-.. .lllllllllllfivn : n. . ._ _ u'vanzl : I l _ I .i H :i i M m _ I. _ _ __ . a _, , _ , w _ ... m m . ..T, _ _ l _ _ l _ . 4.. _ M _F- \.bi\\.._>..\\.$u\. _w _ . .. v _ 1 1 | +3 .. i. will i V . . vi! _ _ H n _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ p r .. _ _ . _ m w. . n _ _ n. _ _ i Iii A " \utfimsq gakawb \ik. .uskQXE). .31 n r .z.. _. . _ , " i'l . . I t .. . . .llllll » ||¢| .\ . lilil I ll 0 n _ 9 .. I.|.lbl i ‘ _ 2 ti i 1 ill . n _9. Ill l! l _ _ w 1 h— J‘ h _ l».|. .iii... ll. _ _ . _ m o _ \nN \\\V A 3W§R~M§§ .I ill _ 1i mfiHW§£§222>>22 _ - F $.12 ma. . Irwl. iii: . . \ .“ §§< ‘E M m _. WWMHVNMVMWHHHHUHHm......-... .....i; 1 I I .MQ/asswi _ ,...<...>ea4<...€...av5.2» ;. - .... mflmywrwr. T.......EF|...1.........W... H. . 1 E ..mwmfiaw .._<>_ p ..+ . - HF 158E211 . sum. H. .wéflwwv . ....imndvfil. H . .- I _l! ,1,’- 1' r u "—“‘ L ,0/- d/ l. aarzamlifif’ _0 5/ _. I, I . \ 0017; 0102911 1' J/I :FnIYIQI //.//7fi$‘ 10' F44 49 71?/01 0”! IVA/'80 JV (It! 014 7704/ J/VI7J/Vfl JV .70/.5‘ pg" an" 3' ‘ Jill/P I7.K _A/fi/JMJUY .Z/Vflé/J— ' .0/70/ I, lg‘L--!._l r‘. \ 1 ~\ r~ . f“ raw/aw; Jam £74407 a/va/ yield/7 80.1 _[f/W/ flfifiéWU/A/ J/t/V .91/0614" JO z/l/J/vyy/vraar 71%7/1/19 ' ‘er,’ I O I l A l q:::::i:qF :1 ‘Awr-vn/ f0 xm/naz’c/r l 5‘0/00/7 Deck. l 5;‘ a mu \. "l7 3F Jm/nny :b l v r» ‘Hm/r» p'b' Dov-Sf.‘ u/zc a’c'rz-w H0066 f M. p 1.. Ti 3 _ ___ rr-E ._ :3 g 4 l I . W1 _ Mm £4 E s 9: _ A g‘ hoe/M _ “VI? 4.18 9%? 9w ._ 5» \mns Ma _ l 41,... a” _ a; g Y.” _ c? 448 a.u _ .. _ cm is‘ _ .qvu . L4 8 _ rq§\ _ L 05A ¢'/~ " ém/rnpy ent!‘ _ \fishvn\_f\\v0< AWQQSUQQ. _ 1.“ +s~r4—ea—t4se44~4a~ ESQ 3:66 _ ; _.._ e _ _. _ 4-~-1-»lln»--l—~'l i~~=l— é—i t l—i—lk l fli'a/n JrfC/i’. I 1 ‘1 ~ 4-~l--r'--4—4-r'~~r~4~~r~=r~ Flai‘form Dec/f x 96- fng/nea. 11E- _24'1'2 _ § Sfewards fire In en i Hesfauranf. __.._ . . 7. ___»... 3‘; .: v i i -—4-—. ‘—'—— 1 ‘No i fers. Dec/{hands- ' if 36 ' ing/Q es. Genera/ D/mens/ons, Lehg/h War /7// Z9J'-0' Zeng/h 01/er 5/crn P05 /5 27.3' - 0' ' N/d/h Qrer Guards 76'— 0' Moulded Beam 42'-0' Mou/ded Dept/7 /7'- 0' [GE] @[El O 5 E 2 N78 WI’ 00 "TU NIB ‘0 W78 W78 W78 4‘ ".78. 0‘ W78 80 W70 H: N78 DISCUSSION: THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD 583 _ cinity of San Francisco. DISCUSSION Mr. A. H. Babcock,* Mem. A. I. E. E. (by letter), said if the author had been a little more specific in naming the location of the railroad whose floating equipment he was describing there would be no necessity for calling attention in particular terms to the ferry-steamer equipment of the various companies operating on San Francisco Bay. In comparison with the tabulation given on the last page of the author ’s paper, there is presented here a similar tabulation, showing the principal dimensions of the various types of vessels operated in the vi- The vessels listed therein are merely typical of their class. In the concluding paragraph the author gives an idea of the equipment necessary to the railroad that maintains the greatest amount of floating equipment in New York harbor. Similar figures for San Francisco Harbor would be: l_1 O Passenger Ferryboats Passenger and Vehicle Boats Stern-wheel River Steamers Car Transfer Vessels Ocean-going Steamship Tugs Launches Car Floats (oneself-propelled) ' Pile Drivers Dredgers Mud Scows. l-PQOCJQNJCUNJI-JUDOUN The dredgers are all of the suction type. The author names the Hudson River ferryboat as the highest develop- ment of its type, and gives the dimensions: 210 ft. long, displacement of approximately 1000 tons, capacity for 2500 passengers, motive power 900 i.hp., and speed of 10 knots. The tabulation shows for the vessels on San Francisco Bay lengths up to within a few feet of 300, displacements from 1100 to 1800 tons; the larger passenger vessels carry life-preservers for 3500 passengers; the 1. hp. ranges from 1200 to 2500. Many of the vessels operate at a schedule speed of very approximately 16.5 knots. The author calls attention to the methods for the loading and discharg- ing of passengers and vehicles on the New York ferryboats, which are utterly incomprehensible to one who is accustomed to the methods ordi- narily in use in San Francisco Bay, and who is disposed to observe the methods used in New York harbor with some amusement. On the west coast the cost of a single typical ferry slip with one half of the dolphin on each side will be $80,000, and the cost of the car ferry slips, $245,000; the side aprons for the handling of passengers cost approximately $14,500 per slip. Space does not permit a complete analysis of such structures as * Consulting Electrical Engineer, Southern Pacific Co., San Francisco, Calif. Mr. Babcock. 584 DISCUSSION: THE FLOATING EQUIPMENT OF A RAILROAD Mr. Babcock. the aprons at Port Costa and Benicia, where transcontinental trains are ferried across a river. The cost would mean little, because of local condi- tions that make very expensive piling necessary. The ferryboats as operated today are the logical developments of a traffic that originated in the travel from San Francisco to the gold dig- gings, that is to say, up the various rivers. The vessels at that time were of the walking-beam type with large slow-speed wheels and very low boiler pressures. In those days there was no settlement on the east side of the bay to make necessary the swift, large, double-end boats now oper- ated. When these were first developed they were merely modifications of the river steamers. One of the original vessels is now in service; her length is 225 ft., loaded displacements 697 tons, i. hp. 250. Step by step, as conditions changed, the dimensions of the vessels were increased, without, however, changing materially their general characteristics, until the first double-ended propeller boat was built about seventeen years ago. Owing to the limited draft of this vessel, made necessary by a shoal over which she was obliged to operate, it cannot be said she is a satisfactory vessel for ferryboat service, and it is probably well within the facts to state that all of the propeller boats now operating in this passenger serv- ice are satisfactory in inverse proportion to their over-all dimensions. For these reasons the latest developments are steel hulled, similar in shape to the double-end type originally developed, but equipped with horizontal inclined engines, one or two on each paddle wheel, according to the indi- viduality of the designing engineer. Ice is never known in San Francisco harbor, consequently one of the chief advantages of a propeller-driven ferryboat disappears, as far as this locality is concerned. Some persons who have traveled a great deal and who have seen dif- ferent types of ferry equipment in difierent parts of the world have ex- pressed themselves to the effect that “the highest development of the type” is to be found somewhere else than in the neighborhood of New York. 5/7/ a S/orcs P 801/er Room BOI/Cf Room .fngine IP00 fil'lera. Harriers M65’ 751/!’ , n E ‘a: E z . \‘1 0 PE. 2: 6, General D/menS/ons. .9 1. . _ “(S leng/h over a//,___________433 - 4- s ._ _ , _ P‘ 51'!‘ mag Inqine [Eng/h afar 7rar150m5___420 — 0 E . / _MP _x Hid/h aver Guards ___J/6'~ 0' Beam Moulded _ . _ 66‘ — 6' Dep/h Mau/a’ed___—/9' - 5 ' [Cl C] \ ’ -\ z ‘ \ \ Wafer flan/r Wafer Kznh ‘1 new" Tank 02/ Tan/r. \ »->— -~m@— / [C] Inyr'ne fies la urarll Gen/3 mm Zdflllicer ‘5’ % I 3: u Q Q Boiler Room Boi/er Room fngr'ng Room new! of flea/aura”! a bar mar/a f/Y649- 0. fngm ee r1: [QE] I I ENE] Elm] mm [film .' Paper No. 93 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN THE OPERATION OF RAILROADS. By WILLIAM HOOD, M. Am. Soc. C. E. Chief Engineer, Southern Pacific Co. San Francisco, Calif, U. S. A. In considering the question of electric motive power versus the use of steam locomotives, the probability of the electric motive power being proper for adoption is evidently greater when a new railroad is to be equipped than if the question per- tains to an existing railroad, and lies between retaining the steam locomotives or purchasing new electric locomotives in addition to the other expenses of equipping the road for elec- trical operation. This question is especially important when the existing railroad is an extensive suburban system, with steam loco- motives and cars of special adaptation to the service and not suitable for general use on a steam-operated main line, and which suburban system is giving satisfactory returns on the investment. In such a case the change to electrical operation, with the probability of cost being much in excess of the estimates and the possibility of increase of traffic being much less than pre- dicted, together with the practical loss of the original rolling stock may transform a satisfactory, remunerative property into a heavily losing investment for a disastrously long period. That is, the probabilities of the propriety of electrical operation are: (1) Greatest on a new main line railroad; (2) Next greatest on an existing main line railroad when the equipment, other than motive power equipment, will not be changed; 586 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POI/YER IN RAILROAD OPERATION (3) And next greatest on a portion, that is on one or more operating divisions of an existing main line railroad, when the equipment, other than motive power equipment, will not be changed; (4) And least on a railroad when electrification involves scrapping or nearly corresponding salvage value of existing equipment. When these matters are under consideration, the amount of risk to investors depends on whether the one making the decision is in charge of matters that he does understand and also of matters that he does not understand, the decision being either a matter of flat or otherwise, as the case may be. The inconveniences of electrical operation of part of a main line, a division or more, have been so fully discussed as to require no more than mention, as for instance, the certainty of increased investment for motive power of both classes over that required for operation of the entire road either by steam or by electric locomotives. When this partial method is correctly adopted, the evi- dent disadvantages of the two kinds of motive power must have been more than balanced by the saving due to the elec- trical operation of the parts of the road so operated. The question of whether or not to adopt electric motive power on a portion, for instance on an operating division, of a main line elsewhere operated by steam locomotives is espe- cially likely to be taken under advisement in reference to a mountain operating division having a steep grade system of considerable length, the electric operation at first glance ap- pearing particularly attractive on such a piece of railroad. Evidently such a railroad if already built with a double track is more conveniently operated either with electric loco- motives or with steam locomotives, than if built with only a single main line track. The opinion that is sometimes entertained, however, that in cases where a single-track road is already overburdened with traffic as handled by steam locomotives, the substitution of electric locomotives will materially postpone the expendi- ture necessary for double tracking the road is not always cor- rect, excepting with the condition that an unusual and, per- ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 587 haps properly termed, unreasonable and impracticable amount of electric power is available at a cost that can be properly contemplated. The reason for this condition is that on a single-track mountain railroad operating division with a steep grade system and having a considerable number of daily passenger trains throughout the year, the time of passage of these trains over the mountain division cannot be materially modified, owing to necessary business adjustment of times of departure from and arrival at important terminals. And with a considerable freight traffic at all times, and perhaps several times the aver- age freight traffic at certain seasons of the year, it is necessary to move a number of freight trains of maximum practicable size one after the other, and as near as practicable to each other, up the steep grade, at such periods of the twenty-four- hour day as will least interfere with the passenger train move- ments. This is accomplished without difficulty with the use of steam locomotives, which, per varying necessities of traffic vol- ume, can be used on any operating division. When such mountain operating division is operated elec- trically, however, not only must the adequate number of elec- tric locomotives be on hand for meeting these traffic conditions, but the amount of electric power available must correspond to the special traffic requirements. The following table gives an approximate statement of electric power required on mountain grades under the condi- tions and approximate assumptions stated. It will be noticed from the following tabulation that on . 2.2% up-grade there will be required about the following power- house delivery into transmission line of ordinary length by a hydraulic plant in the general vicinity of the railroad. Passenger train of 250 tons exclusive of locomotives -. .. 1600 kilowatts Passenger train of 400 tons exclusive of locomotives ............ .. 2300 kilowatts Freight train of 2000 tons exclusive of locomotives - . . 4900 kilowatts By the necessary method of operation of a single-track road heretofore outlined, the maximum power-house output for freight trains only, at certain seasons of the year, might reach about 889 NOLLVHEIJO (IVO'H’IIVH NI ‘HEIAAOcI IHALLOWI OI'HLOH’IEI Hydraulic power-house Speed 383123111108 Trains Axle to Sbliglifhouse as _ Grade rate including 51 to 70 Miles Per cent gravity . . per hour Pounds Number of Welght. of Train Trams .a'nd . . per ton locomotives locomotives Tons locomotives Kilowatts Kilowatts Tons Tons per ton per tram Passenger Trains. 30 1.0 21.0 1 100 400 500 2.539 1,270 30 1.0 21.0 1 100 250 350 2.539 889 30 1.5 41.0 1 100 400 500 3.359 1,680 30 1.5 41.0 1 100 250 350 3.359 1,176 30 1.8 47.0 1 100 400 500 3.850 1,925 30 1.8 47.0 1 100 250 350 3.850 1,348 30 2.0 51.0 1 100 400 500 4.178 2,089 30 2.0 51.0 1 100 250 350 4.178 1,462 30 2.1 53.0 1 100 400 500 4.342 2,171 30 2.1 53.0 1 100 250 350 4.342 1,520 30 2.2 55.0 1 100 400 500 4.505 2,253 30 2.2 55.0 1 100 250 350 4.505 1,577 Freight Trains. 15 1.0 25.8 2 200 2,000 2,200 1.057 2,325 15 1.5 35.8 3 300 2,000 2,300 1.466 3,372 15 1.8 41.8 4 400 2,000 2,400 1.712 4,109 15 2.0 45.8 "- 400 2,000 2,400 1.876 4,502 15 2.1 47.8 4 400 2,000 2,400 1.958 4,699 15 2.2 49.8 4 400 2,000 2,400 2.040 4,896 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 589 40,000 kilowatts, with perhaps 8000 kilowatts for passenger trains, being about 48,000 kilowatts in all, and possibly more; while for much of the year the requirements would be very con- siderably less, making an undesirable method of power produc- tion as to cost of operation and of installation. In general, a transportation company will find it impolitic to attempt to equalize power production and fluctuating consump- tion on so large a scale by entering the market and selling power to suitable consumers in competition with power producing com- panies regularly in the business of supplying the market. This results in the cost .of power to a railroad company for operating a mountain division being, in general, equal to the entire cost of operating the power house or houses and their related plants plus the entire fixed charges, without very ma- terial variation in this cost on account of variations in amount of traffic as between seasons of the year or as between the several years. That is, the cost of power under these conditions has no direct relation to the actual power expenditure for conducting transportation, and in a way is analogous to the fixed charges pertaining to power-plant installation, as well as to the fixed charges pertaining to the cost of the railroad itself, which fixed charges are constant, regardless of traffic fluctuations. On a similar mountain division having 2.2% grade and with a double track, the conditions would evidently be much more favorable, and the maximum power-house output for freight trains only at the heaviest traffic period might be no more than 10,000 kilowatts, with perhaps 8000 kilowatts for passenger trains, being 18,000 kilowatts in all; while for much of the year the requirements would be considerably less. In general, the cost of double tracking a mountain division will be so great that it should not be done until absolutely neces- sary, especially in view of possible failure of traffic to increase or even remain constant, on account, for instance, of the con- struction of competitive lines, entered into judiciously or other- wise. Evidently on light grade railroads the question of amount of installation of power plant versus fluctuations of traffic is less serious. 590 DISCUSSION: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER Mr. Hood. The reduction in the necessary production of electric energy by the returning to the line of energy produced by the control of descending trains on a mountain division, electrically ope- rated, might be worth the expense of installation of the necessary appliances as efiecting some fuel saving in a steam—power elec- tric-generating station; but when the electric energy is de- veloped in a water-power station, the power saving would be of doubtful value, and in particular because, as heretofore out- lined, the cost of power so produced is not per kilowatt hour or any usual function, but is essentially so much per year, regard- less of any ordinary fluctuations of power requirements. The increasing cost of fuel for steam locomotives or for steam electric-generating plant tends to hasten the time when railroads will be operated by electric power generated by hy- draulic plants, particularly on mountain grades. Presumably much more would have been accomplished in this direction if the National laws and regulations had been so modified as to give to railroad companies the necessary confi- dence to enable them to make the very large investment required. Some large water-power locations made by railroad corpo- rations with a view to their development and utilization for mountain railroad operation have, after considerable prelimi- nary expenditure, been abandoned when it was found that after the installation expenditure, the right to continue the opera- tion would depend entirely on the several successive Secretaries of the Interior. This condition is well understood and preliminary steps have been taken at times to correct it, but without satisfactory results in the way of legislation. DISCUSSION Mr. William Hood, to the questions: (a) As long as large power companies are in operation and parallel the railways, is it not possible for the railways to purchase power from them“? (b) What makes the great difference between the load on a single- and double-track system as stated in the paper‘? (c) In figuring the consumption of power was any account taken of the regeneration of power‘? DISCUSSION: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER Answered: (a) That the first thing that would occur to one was the purchase of power, but that never yet had they been able to get a power company to give an unqualified answer that it could furnish the requisite amount of power at any time. If the power company is forced to install new equip- ment to handle the railroad load it wants the railroad company to stand the expense. (b) That the great difierence is on account of the better distribution of freight traffic on the double-track line. (c) That the regeneration of power had not been considered in the estimate. Mr. Hood. Paper No. 94 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN THE OPERATION OF RAILROADS. By E. H. MeHENRY, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Mem. Can. Soc. C. E. New Haven, Conn., U. S. A. DEVELOPMENT AND PRESENT STATUS. General. The evolution of electric traction as applied to the opera- tion of standard railways has advanced along two distinct lines of development: In one line there has been a normal develop- ment in progressive steps, beginning with the earliest success- ful commercial application of the new method of motive power to light surface railways in Richmond, Va. (1888), culminat- ing in the heavy high-speed motor car trains of today; while in the other line the many faults and disabilities of steam opera- tion in subways, tunnels and large passenger terminals created the need for some better form of motive power capable of per- forming the same functions and forced the very ‘rapid develop- ment of an electric locomotive, which, like Minerva, sprang full grown into existence. In both lines the first commercially practicable installations were completed almost simultaneously, and although originating in widely separated classes of ser- vice and for very different reasons, have since steadily con- verged to a common goal. Light Surface Railways. A very rapid development and extension followed the suc- cessful issue of the epochal installation at Richmond, Va., by F. J. Sprague, which, of the many early experiments, has alone survived the test of time. The length of the light city and suburban routes then in existence was usually within the eco- nomic radius of the earlier power stations, which supplied low tension continuous current direct to an overhead contact wire, ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 593 but it was soon evident that the valuable possibilities afiorded by higher speed and larger cars were severely limited and restricted by the relatively short distances over which the cur- rent could be economically transmitted, thus tending to retard further progress. Interurban Railways. These limitations were soon overpassed and the next great step in advance was made possible by Tesla ’s invention of the polyphase system, in which are retained the economical features of long distance, high-tension transmission, and which converts high-tension alternating currents into low-tension continuous cur- rents by transformers and rotary converters installed in local sub-stations located at intervals along the line of route. The earliest application of this system to interurban traffic was made in 1890 by the Twin City Rapid Transit Company be- tween St. Paul and Minneapolis. Mr. E. P. Burch in his val- uable compendium “Electric Traction for Railroad Trains” (1911). in referring to this stage of development, notes: “In the whole history of transportation no development has been more wonderful and important than that of the electric inter- urban railways”. For convenience, all railways of this class may be considered to include those intermediate between the light surface street railways and the “so-called” steam rail- roads. although no precise lines of demarcation can be estab- lished at either limit. Many such lines fulfill all the require- ments and functions of a high class steam railroad, but in gen- eral the service is of a lighter character and more particularly designed for passenger traffic. The number of lines of this character in existence today in all parts of the world almost defies enumeration, and their economic value is very large. Subway and Elevated Lines. Railways so classified properly form a sub-group under the general head of Interurban Railways. The adoption of electric traction in such service was the logical result of the wider field of operation afforded by the success of Tesla’s poly- phase system. The more or less complete elimination of smoke, sparks, cinders, heat and gases permitted by electric traction peculiarly adapts it to urban conditions, more particularly in subways in which additional and even more important advan- 594: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION tages are gained in the greater safety and increased track capacity. In the earlier stages of development, motor cars were oper- ated singly or in light trains with a motor car hauling one or more “trail cars”, of which the Intramural Railway at the 'World’s Fair in Chicago, 1893, was perhaps the earliest exam- ple, but it was not until after the invention of the first practic- able system of multiple unit control by F. J. Sprague. and its adoption by the West End Elevated Railroad in Chicago in 1898, that the full utilization of the inherent economy and ad- vantages of electric traction in motor car trains became pos- sible. Steam Railroads. It is unfortunate that no distinctive and precise appella- tion for converted railroads of this class has yet been adopted, nor is it easy to suggest one, as they do not possess a single distinctive feature of operation which is not shared in common by the lighter lines. The somewhat awkward term of “electri- fied railroads” is frequently applied to railroads of the class generally operated by steam locomotives in the heavier and higher class of transportation service, but a better term is very much needed. All things considered, the term “Standard Railways” adopted by Mr. E. P. Burch, seems most satisfactory. The distinction between converted steam railroads and new electric railroads of the same class will probably disappear as more new railways for electric operation are constructed. The history of the development in this field is virtually a repetition of that of the lighter lines, beginning a little later in the order of time and ultimately reaching a more advanced stage of progress through the same series of steps in a higher order of service. A recital of the earlier experiments by Tesla, Villard, Sprague and others may be omitted as lying outside the scope of this paper, but it may be of interest to note that the first serious consideration of the application of electric traction to heavy railroad service was undertaken by Mr. Henry Villard, who appointed a commission early in 1892, of which the writer was a member, to investigate and report on the feasibility of electrically equipping and operating the main line of the North- ELECTRIC MOTIIIE POYVER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 595 ern Pacific Railroad. This commission visited the works of all prominent electrical manufacturers in the United States in existence at that time, but made no substantial progress apart from the completion of a schedule of service requirements and general specifications for an electric locomotive substantially as constructed in the course of the following year by the North American Company under the direction of its President, Mr. Henry Villard. The great advance since that date may be best illustrated by referring to a design of locomotive then pre- sented by Mr. Thomas A. Edison, which embraced an engine with two four-wheel trucks with centrally mounted D. Ci motors transmitting power to the driving wheels by an ar- rangement of rope drives and belt tighteners. Electric current was to be taken from an unprotected third rail located in the center of the track, at 30 volts. Light Passenger Service. The subsequent evolution following these crude begin- nings at first separated into two distinct lines of progress, as before noted; in one of which the primitive type of motor cars hauling one or more trailers was simply substituted for the steam locomotive previously used, from which the powerful high-speed motor car trains of today have grown. The pioneer installation of this kind was made on the Nantasket Beach Branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Company in 1895, which was only seven miles in length (11.26 km.). Tunnel Lines. The necessity for some form of motive power better adapted to conditions of tunnel operation, and free from the many objections attending the use of steam engines in similar service, forced the almost simultaneous development of an elec- tric locomotive of sufficient tractive and horse power to afford a satisfactory and efficient substitute for the steam engine then in use. The first commercially practical engines of this kind were operated by the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad through its Baltimore Tunnel in 1905; only a few months later than the initiation of electric service on the Nantasket Beach line above mentioned. The five electric engines installed were of 1000 hp. each and are still in active service. The great gain in 596 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION o~~-.u ‘9 ‘e—J; 1h"!- - - '- i-uqvwfl'r . -Mev- "fir-“x .1‘ ‘ e a ‘the 8*» A] "I . i‘ g L p) 1:.‘ ‘, ‘t y I ‘it Pig. 1. Boston 8: Maine Railroad, Hoosac Tunnel. Tunnel and approach construction. ~ ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 59? track capacity, safety and other benefits was immediately ap- parent and the present list of tunnel sections so operated is a very long one, including such notable examples as the Balti- more Tunnel, B. & O. R. R., 1905; Woodlawn Tunnel, N. Y. C. & H. R. R., 1907; Sarnia Tunnel, Grand Trunk Railway, 1908; Cascade Tunnel, Great Northern Railway, 1909; Detroit River Tunnel, 1910; Hoosac Tunnel, B. & M. R. R., 1911,—all in the United States, and the longer Simplon, Ltitschberg, Mont Cenis and Arlberg Tunnels in Europe. The five-mile tunnel of the Canadian Pacific at Rogers Pass, B. C., will also be elec- trically operated upon its expected completion in 1916. The operation of mountain sections of high resistance properly de- mands a classification of its own as the factors to be taken into consideration in this class of service are quite distinct from those influencing a choice of motive power for tunnel operation, but tunnels and mountain lines are usually so inseparably asso- ciated that with one or two possible exceptions there are no in- stallations of this kind which have not primarily been influ- enced by the existence of important tunnels. Railroad Terminals. Next in the order of time and importance, electric traction was adopted in large terminals, to which it is peculiarly well adapted. The high value of real estate and the frequent tun- nels, multiple track levels and many other advantages of the new form of motive power, forced its adoption even in advance of the time when such applications had become practical and available. By an Act of Legislature of the State of New York (May 7, 1903) the New York Central and the New Haven systems were required to operate their trains within specified limits in the City of New York on or before July 1, 1908, by some form of “motive power other than steam which does not involve combustion in the motors themselves”. It was the primary purpose of the legislation to insure greater safety in the opera- tion of the well known Park Avenue tunnel, but the practical effect was to force the conversion to electric traction of a four- tracked main line section twelve miles in length, including Grand Central Terminal in New York City. The magnitude, complexity and high traffic density of this great passenger ter- 598 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION minal made necessary the solution of many new and formid- able problems on a much higher plane of operation than had been previously attempted, which was successfully accom- plished by the engineers of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad. Only less remarkable, because less novel, is the Pennsyl- vania’s great passenger terminal in New York City, which was completed two years later and operated by electric power from the beginning. Other railroad terminals have been electrified in this country and abroad, some of which antedate the two most prominent examples already cited. The latest addition to the list is that of the Mt. Royal Tunnel and Terminal of the Canadian Northern at Montreal, Can., now nearing completion. The public interest in this phase of electric traction is very keen and has forced upon the railways the consideration of similar installations in many of our great cities. Of all such projects, the most important is the proposed electrification of all railroads within the city limits of Chicago, which is now under consideration by a commission especially appointed to study and report upon its feasibility and cost. This great project includes 4501 miles (7242 km.) of single track in two zones, of which 2819 miles (4536 km.) is included within the inner zone or city limits. The great capital expenditures re- quired, together with inadequate returns upon the invested capital, tend to retard progress on all such projects, and under present conditions of failing income due to the prevailing com- mercial depression and to the blighting repression of the Inter- state Commerce Commission, no material advance may be ex- pected in the immediate future. Switching Yards. Electric switching was initiated very early and has now reached an advanced stage, best represented in the Mott Haven Yard of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, the Sunnyside Yard of the Pennsylvania and the Oak Point and Harlem River Yards of the New York, New Haven and Hart- ford Railroad,—all within the city limits of New York. The two largest yards of the New Haven Road include 60 miles (96.5 km.) of trackage, transfer float bridges, freight stations and general facilities of all kinds for handling the immense ELECTRIC MOTI\’E POWER 1N RAILROAD OPERATION 599 volume of freight trafiic of the New Haven system to and from New York City. Long Distance Traflic. It is impossible to preserve absolute continuity in attempt- ing to trace the progressive development of electric traction in all of its applications, as such developments must necessarily overlap and merge in ever increasing degree until the entire Fig. 2. New York, New Haven 8: Hartford Railroad. Harlem River Branch, Oak Point Yard. Switch engine at work. Single-phase. field of railroad service is covered, including passenger and freight traffic; yard and terminal switching, and the movement of baggage, mail and express matter in the heaviest class of long distance trunk line service. The Long Island Railroad was the first steam road to equip its lines for passenger travel on an extensive scale (1905), and the Spokane & Inland Empire, which while not originally a steam road, was the first to attempt long distance heavy freight traflic in 1906, and now operates 216 route miles (347.5 km.) in 600 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION its electrified system. Later and more advanced examples of railroad electrification in this class in the United States are afforded by the New York, Westchester & Boston; Norfolk & Western; Baltimore & Ohio and Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound. European railways are more diflicult to classify as their service is usually of a lighter character and the electrification has been more often influenced by terminal and suburban con- Pig. 3. Denver 8: Rio Grande By" Salt Lake Division. Mountain operation on 4% grade. Grades reduced to 2% in 1913. ditions, or by the existence of high grade tunnel sections of line, but such important examples as the London, Brighton & South Coast Railway in England; the Midi Railway of France; the Dessau-Bitterfeld and Lauban-Konigszelt electrifications of Germany and the Valtelina Railway of Italy are typical rail- ways of the same general class. Of the examples cited, the New York, Westchester & Boston of the New Haven system presents the highest type of develop- ment in passenger service, for which it was primarily designed; ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 601 this road having been electrically operated from the date of its completion. The installation by the Butte, Anaconda & Pacific, 1'01‘- folk 8; Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound afford modern and interesting examples of the application of electric traction to heavy freight traffic; which in all three cases was chiefly influenced by the existence of sections of heavy mountain grades. The Butte, Anaconda & Pacific is an ' ' i i 0 r. ' .4, r‘ mmmmmmmmmmmn . °‘ 7 . Y . \ ‘ 7,“, ‘a .1. ....ga ,.. 38105489‘; . _15- _ 3'14 -_.-..~ ..- Q.“ ' Fig. 4. New York, New Haven 8: Hartford Railroad. Harlem River Branch. Six- track main line tangent construction. ore-carrying road operating between the mines and smelters of the Anaconda Mining Company at Butte and Anaconda, and has sections of high grades at both terminals. A heavy coal and ore traffic is conducted in trains of fifty loaded cars of 3400 tons (3085 tonnes). The electrification of the entire mile- age is nearly complete, comprising thirty miles (48.3 km.) of main route or ninety miles (144.9 km.) of total trackage. Elec- tric operation has been recently initiated. 602 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION A later mountain electrification, still under construction, is that of the Norfolk & Western between Vivian and Bluefield, West Va., including about thirty route miles (48.3 km.) or seventy-five miles (120.7 km.) of total track. This is a section of high grade over which it is proposed to conduct a heavy coal traffic on 2% maximum grades in trains of 3250 tons (2768 tonnes). The latest and most interesting project is that of the Chi- \ Fig. 5. New York, New Haven 8: Hartford Railroad, Harlem River Branch. Freight engine and train—single-phase. Six-track main line tangent construction. cago Milwaukee & Puget Sound, which has quite recently an- nounced its decision to equip for electric operation four engine districts of its main line from Harlowton, Mont, to Avery, Idaho,—a distance of 440 miles (708 km.) of which the first engine district between Deer Lodge and Three Forks, 113 miles in length (182 km), will immediately be placed under construction. The total section includes several long mountain inclines on the Belt, Rocky Mountain and Bitter Root Moun- ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 603 tain ranges, with maximum grades of 2% which it is proposed to operate with trains of 2500 tons (2268.6 tonnes). While the main line is single-tracked only and the traific density is rela- tively low, in point of combined train weights and length of route, this electrification will mark the point of furthest ad- vance in this particular field. Heavy Trunk Lines. There is as yet little to be written under this head, but .. .mwafll ‘ , ' sitar-£158?“ A ‘A: Pig. 6. New York. New Haven 8: Hartford Railroad, Harlem River Branch. Mul- tiple-unit passenger train, six-track main line tangent construction. broad foundations have been laid and the outlines of the future superstructure have already taken shape. The great installa- tions of the Pennsylvania and the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Companies at New York City have not yet ex- tended beyond the terminal and suburban zones for the trans- portation of passengers, baggage, mail and express; nor does the service include any part of the enormous volume of freight trafiic within these zones, but a large proportion of the expen- 604 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION ditures already incurred will become available and applicable to freight traffic with more extended operating limits and when electric operation is made general and homogeneous. The elec- trification of the Pennsylvania lines in and about Philadelphia, which has been already begun between Philadelphia and Paoli, 20 miles (32.2 km), is a long step in this direction, and fore- shadows continuous electric operation between New York and Washington at no distant date. The greatest progress in eX- tended homogeneous trunk line operation has been attained by the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, which has completed the equipment of its four- and six-track main routes to New Haven, Conn., within the past year and now operates by electricity trains of all classes between New York and New Haven, 73 miles (117.5 km). All steam engines will be elimi- nated when the full quota of electric engines and cars has been received. The route and track mileage of the electric zone operated by the New Haven Road within these limits, including joint trackage and controlled lines, is 112 route miles (180 km.) and 633 miles (1019 km.) of single track of all descrip- tions. A comprehensive review of the progress to date and the present status of standard railway electrification is best af- forded by the tabulated data recently compiled by Mr. Edward P. Burch of Minneapolis, appended hereto, which is believed to afford the latest and most reliable list now available. ADAPTATION TO TRAFFIC REQUIREMENTS. Advantages. The‘ adaptation of electric traction to the requirements of railway service in many cases seems almost perfect, as many of the objections and limitations of the older steam service are avoided and the advantages are so numerous and diversified as to permit only a brief mention of the more salient features. The relief from annoyances and losses due to smoke, cinders, hot gases and the reduction of fire risks is general and of high commercial value. In tunnels and terminals the value of these improved conditions is increased and further augmented by additional gains. L. C. Winship, Electrical Superintendent of the Boston & ELECTRIC MOTIYE POYVER IN RAILROAD OPERATION . 005 Maine Railroad Company, in a recent article on the electric operation of the Hoosac Tunnel, (4% miles, 7.7 km.) notes ben- efits arising from the electric operation of this tunnel since its completion in 1911 as follows: Maximum train tonnage ra- tings increased from 1300 to 3200 tons (1179-2904) tonnes); track capacity doubled; overtime wages decreased; better rail adhesion; unobscured signals; no asphyxiation of engine and train crews; reduced track maintenance; life of rail and fast- enings increased from 3% to 4 years to 10 to 12 years; drier and cooler air and greater comfort to passengers and employees. The same advantages are gained at electrically operated passenger terminals in more or less degree, together with other advantages of great commercial value, more particularly by the better utilization of costly terminal real estate and aug- mented capacity permitted by multiple track levels and im- proved conditions of operation. In large terminals and switching yards, electric switching service is peculiarly convenient and profitable. The fuel sav- ing is maximum and the engines are much better adapted to the service conditions and requirements. J. A. Droege, Gen- eral Superintendent of the New Haven Road, advises that the use of such engines permits actual continuous operation, par- ticularly in eight-hour yards. and cites a case in which one engine worked continuously for thirty days in switching ser- vice without delays for repairs or other attention. In passenger service the higher rates of acceleration per- mit faster train schedules; terminal delays and terminal switch- ing are reduced; also the train mile cost. Similar gains are made in every branch of service, to which may be added the advantage of higher train speeds, greater engine horse power and increased engine mileage,—-all of which are features of high commercial value. “Three round trips between New York and Bridgeport, Conn., can be made in the same time with elec- tric freight engines as are required for two round trips with steam engines”.—J. A. Droege, General Supt, N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. At engine terminals the necessity for coal and water sta- tions, ash pits and turntables is eliminated and roundhouse expenses are much reduced. Much less time is lost in shop- 606 . ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION ping engines as the repairs are less in amount and the necessity for general overhauling at intervals of 12 to 15 months is avoided. The design of electric engines permits ready substitutions of damaged parts with minimum detention in shops. The uni- form radial torque of motors contrasts most favorably with the uneven “moments” of crank pins. The gain in effective “adhesion” is about 20% (“Locomotive Operation”, Hender- son, page 206. The electric engine must be credited with a further unique and valuable characteristic, in that its horse power increases with lower temperatures, thus compensating increased friction and radiation losses at such temperatures. Also, higher rates of acceleration permit faster train schedules; machinery friction is reduced and track capacity is increased; time and money are saved at engine terminal in “firing up” and drawing fires; charges for engine fuel and repairs are heavily reduced ;—all of which are considerations of great value. Large savings are also possible in charges under head of “Maintenance of Track and Structures”, which at least par- tially compensate for the additional cost of maintaining the necessary transmission and distributing systems. The life of rails, ties and bridges and other structures forming part of the track equipment may be considerably in— creased. Fire hazards from locomotive sparks and cinders are elim- inated; the painting on bridges and buildings needs less fre- quent renewals and the recurrent cost of cleaning rock ballast of cinders is avoided. A cheap and convenient source of power is afforded which is almost universally available for all purposes, including train lighting and heating; yard, station and other lighting; energiz- ing track circuits and other signaling requirements; operating pumping stations, drawbridges, transfer bridges, turntables, shop tools and machinery of all kinds. The list of benefits and advantages is a long one and if reduced to equivalent values in dollars and cents would afford substantial credits to railway electrification, but there are also other charges to be made to the debit side of the account, which too often result in an unfavorable balance. ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 607 LIMITATIONS. Variable Speed. The inability of the electric engine to flexibly utilize its available horse power by inversely varying speed and tractive effort is a severe handicap under some conditions, as later ex- plained. Diversity of Type. Another factor which undoubtedly exercises a deterrent effect upon the more rapid adoption of electric traction is the number and diversity of the types now under trial, together with the yet unsettled opinions of the specialists in this field. Reference to the appended list will indicate that the progress in Europe has been principally confined to single-phase and three— phase systems, while in England and the United States the struggle for supremacy has been almost wholly between the single-phase and direct current systems. It was both inevitable and desirable that evolution should have simultaneously pro- gressed along many different lines, as an exploration of so broad a field was necessarily antecedent to the adoption of a final type through a process of the “survival of the fittest”. In late years the convergent tendency of all systems to a com~ mon type is strongly marked. The earlier direct-current (500-volt system has progressed in successive steps to 1200, 2-100 and 8000 volts, with even higher stages already foreshadowed, but with rising voltage has been forced to abandon the earlier third rail conductors in favor of the single-phase high tension overhead distribution system, while on the other hand the single-phase systems show a strong tendency toward the adoption of direct current motors. Three-phase installations have graduated into the split- phase system of the Norfolk & Western, in which single-phase transmission and distribution are joined with three-phase en- gine motors, and the latest development of the mercury con- verter in an experimental engine now under trial bids fair to reconcile all differences of opinion by combining the chief mer- its of all systems into one. The writer cannot refrain from betraying his inner convictions at this point by remarking that the single-phase system is the only one which permits the sim- ultaneous and independent operation on the same track of Q 608 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION single-phase, three-phase and direct current locomotives, all taking current from the same overhead wire. Restricted Radius of Operation. Electric traction also labors under disabilities of restricted radius of operation, which limits commercial efficiency. This is a temporary disadvantage, however, and grows less as the zone limits are enlarged. Also, the greater freedom and flexi- bility of operation within the zone limits apply in compensa- ' " em Fig. 7. New York, New Haven 8; Hartford Railroad. Electric engine—single-phase. Double articulated truck type, 8-motor, 1360 h. p. tion, as electric engines are less dependent upon local engine facilities and can be used with much more advantage on de- tached or outlying service; at intermediate yards; on “shuttle” runs and in assistant engine service on relatively short inclines. Complexity of System. Among the penalties to be paid for each step in advance in all lines of development are the ever-growing complexity of systems and the higher degree of organization required for ELECTRIC MOTIVE POIVER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 609 operation. Electric traction in its highest form affords a strik— ing example of this tendency, as the transfer of the fire-box and boiler from the locomotives to fixed locations along the line of route leads to the necessity for an intricate and highly developed system of inter-related and inter-dependent power stations, line equipment and locomotives requiring more highly specialized and better paid labor for its proper maintenance and operation. Continuity of Service. There is also a greater concentration of risk both in main- taining the physical continuity of service and in the relations of railways to organized labor. Regarding these aspects it may be said that train delays and interruptions to service are actu- ally less frequent than before and that while greater depend- ence must be placed upon the operating organization, this must be accepted as incidental to progress in all of the applied arts. In the evolution of transportation from the two-wheeled cart to the electrically operated trains of the present day, each step has been attended by increasing inter-dependence between the parts and corresponding losses of freedom in the elementary units. Induction and Electrolysis. Induction may seriously impair telegraph and telephone service in adjacent circuits, and is more particularly incident to single-phase operation. Electrolysis may cause great dam- age to pipe systems, under-ground cables and all metal struct- ures, but its effects are practically confined to direct-current operation. Induction can now be practically eliminated by special devices and methods. It is more difficult to eliminate electrolysis to the same degree, but more or less satisfactory means to this end have been devised. Difficulties of Transition. Among the minor difficulties should be noted those arising in the transition stage in changing from steam to electric power, more particularly those incident to train lighting and heating; mixed steam and electric operation; engine transfers; track signals; restricted interchangeability of engines and cars and other difficulties of adaptation. These difficulties are great- est in the earlier stage of the transition, but rapidly diminish in 610 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION both absolute and relative importance as the zone of electric operation is extended. FUTURE POSSIBHJITIES AND TENDENCIES. The trend of future development in so new an art is diffi- cult to forecast as it has as yet barely made a beginning in the vast field which it is destined to occupy. The problems incident to the movement of enormous volumes of long distance freight traffic have but recently begun to receive serious consideration, and in the next decade it is probable that the greatest develop- ment of electric traction will occur in this branch of railway service. Speed-Torque Control. A better utilization of the possibilities of the electric loco- motive is probable, which in one important particular compares very unfavorably with the steam engine of the same horse power capacity, as it cannot effectively utilize its rated capacity throughout the same wide range of variable speed and tractive efiort, which has the effect of greatly limiting its field of use fulness. This disability is only partially mitigated by various methods of extending the operating range by the use of various systems of potential and field speed control or of pole-changing devices to obtain the desired effect. The radical difference in the speed-torque characteristics of steam and electric engines will be readily understood by referring to the accompanying charts (Nos. 1 and 2) which indicate the necessity for closely designing electric engines for the service to which they will be assigned, as they cannot be operated above the critical speeds corresponding to their horse power ratings without serious reductions of horse power capacity; nor can their effective ad- hesion be continuously utilized at lower speeds without exceed- ing safe temperature limits, or, as an alternative, of accepting severe penalties at the other end of the scale. Of the different types of motors most available for railroad service, the single- phase motor most nearly attains variable speed with equal horse power. A fuller discussion of the characteristics of single-phase, three-phase and continuous current motors is outside of the proper scope of this paper, as it is only sought to show the rela- ELECTRIC MOTIVE POIVER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 611 SPEEDIN MILES PER HOUR. 7O 60 SO 40 2.0 10 //' COMPARATIVE SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS ELECTRIC AND STEAM LOCOMOTIVES (CONTINUOUS RATINGS) A ELEcTRIc LOCOMOTIVE. I907, PAssENGER TYPE‘ smqLEPHAsE, 25 CYCLE6 SERIES COMPEN- SATED MOTORS 4, voLTS 11000. WHEEL PLAN 2-8-2, N.\/.M.H.&H-R-R- "B" DITTo BUT WITH ZMOTOFI'S. "C" ELEcTRIc LOCOMOTIVE 1911, FREIGHT TYPE, filNéiLE PHASE , 25 CYCLES,€EF?IES com- PENSATED MOTORS a, voLTs ilOOQWHEEL PLAN 2-8-2, N.Y. N. I-I.& H.R.F\’. 'D'ELEc-rmc LOCOMOTIVE 1915,13A685N6ERTYPE, DIRECT CURRENT, sERIEs MO- ToRs 4», voLTs 2400,WHEEL. PLAN 0- 8-0, BUTT E,ANACONDA, aPAcIr-‘Ic RH "E'ATLANTIC TYPE STEAM LocomoTlvE 1910, CYLINDERS Ed's x 26", BOILER PRESSURE Eoolfl, NO $UPERHEAT, HEATING SURFACE 2320 SOFT, PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD ‘VII/1005:»: ATLANTIC TYPE STEAM LOCOMOTIVE‘,CYLINDER6 azwzcflsouen PRESSURE 205LBS., SUPERHEAT, EQUIVALENT HEATING SURFACE 3690 56 F'IZBALDWI N LOCOMOT IvE woRKs \ \ \ ‘(5" ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 1515, PASSENGER TYPE, SINGLE PHASE. lb CYCLES, sERIEs COM PENSATEP MOTORS 2, VOLTS 15000, WHEEL PLAN 2—Io-2, LOETSCHBERG MOUNTAIN RAH-WAY, SWITZERLAND. 'H' SAME AS'D" BUT GEARED FOR FREIGHT WORK "I" MODERN ATLANTIC TYPE STEAM Loco Mo-r|vc,cYI_moERs ze'xea; BOILER PRESSURE 200 L85, SUPERHEAT, EQUIVAIENT‘ W\. \ \ s\ H EATING SURFACE 2.400 50 FT,BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE woRKs, \ \ \ 7U/ f/Z/ //// \\ \ \\ \ \ II] U \s D \ N W H/Ul/l/ N II t I H Llfl. 5000 10000 15000 TRACTIVE EFFORT IN use. 20000 2. 5000 ‘50000 35000 40000 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER INTHE oecmnuoemmm EHMcHE-NRY CHART No.1. 612 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION SPEEo IN MILES PER HOUR 7O 6O 50 4-0 30 20 10 COMPARATIVE SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS ELECTRIC AND STEAM LOCOMOTIVES OF EouAL CONTINUOUS HORSE POWER. I r e’ o , CHART No.2. ,6 . I ' , 10' . Q ';'0'‘. ‘0'0’. 09%0'0”. ‘.0 a’. A 4. O 00’ .0‘ a’ \ ~.. "A" MODERN ATLANTIC TYPE STEAM LocoMoTIvE, CYLINDERS 22126," SUF’ERHEA‘T', EQUIVALENT HEATING SURFACE 3690 SOFT BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. B TYPICAL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE, DIRECT CURRENT, SERIE5 B‘ MOTORS. 4-, VOLTS 2400, WHEEL PLAN 0- 8-0, B" RELATIvE GEAR RATIOS B=1, B'=2, B"= 4-. NOTE THE Low CONTINUOUS TRACT IVE POWER WHEN GEARED FOR HIGH SPEED IS); AND THE L055 IN HOR‘EJE POWER CAPACITY AT HI 6H SPEED WHEN GEARED FOR Low 5PEEO (5") \\\ ' \ 20 00 HP / I/ W / \ [/I L\ l 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 (55000 40000 ELECTRIC MoTIvE POWER TRACTIVE EFFORT IN L65 Rama-ism \N THE OPERATION OF RAILRQADS. ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 613 tion of the principal characteristics of electric engines to the practical operating requirements. Axle Loads. A further and most promising opportunity is presented for reducing and limiting the present great expenditures incurred for Maintenance of Equipment and Maintenance of Way and Structures. The necessity for maintaining the rigid wheel base within reasonable limits, while meeting the demand for in- creased tractive power, has resulted in the imposition of con- centrated loads on driving axles, which in modern engines may reach 65000 lbs. (29490 kg.) or more. The strength of rails and track has not kept pace with the increasing wheel loads, which if not unsafe are certainly very costly in construction standards and track maintenance. The rule of the Baldwin Locomotive Works for safe working limits prescribes weights of 2240 lbs. (1016 kg.) on driving wheels for each 10 lbs. (4.5 kg.) of weight per lineal yard of rail section, or for maximum axle loads of 65000 lbs. (29490 kg.) as above, 145 lbs. (65.8 kg.) rail sections are required. Rail sections in excess of 100 lbs. (45.4 kg.) are not in common use and for such sections the rule allows but 44800 lbs. (20325 kg.) per axle. \Vhile the recent development of engines of the “Mallet” type permits lighter axle loads for equal tractive power, it is not likely that such engines will long hold the field against their electric competitor, with their disa- bilities of great weight, high machinery friction and costly repairs. There is also a pronounced tendency in electric engine design to eliminate all reciprocating parts, including connecting rods, pins, jack shafts and counterweights in order to reduce wheel loads, machinery friction and maintenance charges. Multiple Unit Control. It is also probable that some form of multiple unit control will be developed for the operation of freight trains which will relieve and distribute the present excessive strains on draft rigging, track and bridges, which will require the equipment of freight trains with a system of control circuits. The neces- sity for such equipment seems close at hand, in connection with similar requirements for electric-pneumatic brake control and the growing need for better means of communication through- out the great length of modern freight trains. 614 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION Ideal Characteristics. If we may venture to peer into the future sufficiently far to predict the development of an effective method of variable speed-torque control and of high speed motors of lighter weight and greater horse power, the general specifications of the ideal electric freight engine assume form and promise results of the greatest commercial importance and value. The value of the great reduction in train mileage and in maintenance of track and equipment which may be secured by the use of engines of the following specifications will be appreciated by all practical railway men: Variable speed—torque control. Electric braking and power recuperation. Rigid wheel base, not exceeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..8' 0" (2.44 m.) Reciprocating parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .None Number of axles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Draft rigging limits Weight on driving wheels, per axle . . . . . . . . . . . . ..40,000 lbs. (18,144 kg.) Tractive power, 27% adhesion, per axle . . . . . . . . . .10,800 lbs. (4,899 kg.) Horse power, continuous, per axle . . . . . . . . . . . . ..720-864 (730-876 chev) Maximum speed, full traction rating, miles per hr. .25-30 Horse power, weight on drivers, per ton . . . . . . . . ..36-43 (40.1-48.2 chev) Horse power, total engine weight, per ton . . . . . . ..30-36 (32.5-40.1 chev) In the writer’s opinion there are no inherent difficulties which would make these seemingly high specifications unat- tainable, nor has he any good reason to doubt that such quali- ties will soon be forthcoming should the commercial demand for them become insistent. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF APPLICATION. Yield on Investment. The first condition of economical electrification is of course the requirement that adequate returns shall be earned upon invested capital. In the case of new railways it must be as- sumed that the yield will be sufficient to justify the necessary expenditure for construction upon the most economical basis, and if electrical operation is contemplated it will only be neces- sary to insure that the additional savings or earnings from oper- ation will be at least sufficient to afiord a satisfactory return upon the additional cost of electric motive power. A greater ELECTRIC MOTIVE POIVER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 61.5 yield will be required to justify the conversion from steam to electric power on railways already fitted for steam operation, as in such case the gain must be sufficient to pay interest upon both the old and the new investments. In all cases the scale of operation must be sufficient to utilize to best advantage the large investment in power stations, lines, equipment and roll- ing stock, and to secure the largest possible divisor for addi- tional fixed charges. “Railroads must have ten trains each way per day or haul 1,000,000 ten miles, total, per 100-mile (161 km.) division before electrification is practicable.” —— E. P. Burch. Another writer, H. W. Leonard, fixes the minimum requirement at 250 hp. per mile of track, but there are so many modifying factors entering into the problem that no general rules can be safely accepted and the equated values of all fac- tors must be worked out and established for each particular case. The most favorable conditions for electrification may be broadly classified under two general heads, viz: “Conditions Afiecting Earnings” and “Conditions Affecting Expenses”. CONDITIONS AFFECTING EARNINGS. Train Frequency and Speed. Quite contrary to the generally accepted belief, the effect upon earnings is usually of much greater importance and value than that upon operating expenses, as both gross and railway net earnings may be much more affected by changed conditions of service than by mere reductions in operating expense. trains can be run more cheaply, which not only increases net revenues per train mile but permits greater frequency of ser- vice, which in turn reacts to increase both the volume of traffic and gross earnings. Heavy trains can be run faster. thus gain- ing the benefit of the higher rates for such service without unduly sacrificing train tonnage and train earnings. Acceleration. Higher rates of acceleration permit faster schedules in local and suburban service, which together with the greater safety and comfort afforded, and the relief from annoyances and damages incident to smoke, cinders and gases and obscura- tion of signals, also tend to increase the volume of traffic and the amount of gross and net earnings. 616 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION Competitive Conditions. Unfavorable competitive conditions may be equalized or reversed and valuable advertising secured which will corres- pondingly affect gross and net revenues. Multiple Track Levels, etc. The adoption of multiple track levels and the commercial utilization of aerial rights over the track levels in the larger passenger terminals will make the large investment at such terminals more efficient and under favorable conditions the income from commercial uses may be sufficient to defray the greater part of the fixed charges on costly real estate and buildings. Real Estate and Land Values. A change from steam to electrical operation will also re- sult in a great advance in the value of real estate along the line of route, which unfortunately is not shared by the stock- holders contributing the capital for the improvement, and which suggests the thought that some portion of the burden of expense could be equitably assessed upon the property own- ers most benefited thereby. “ . it would not be wise to enact legislation which would compel one class of the public to pay for an improvement which would accrue largely to an- other class.”—Report of Joint Board on Metropolitan Improve- ments to the Massachusetts Legislature, March, 1911. Track Capacity. A further and most favorable condition for electrification is afforded when the limit of track capacity is reached with steam operation. The value of the additional track capacity gained by faster schedules or by the consolidation of trains is always large and often exceeds the total cost of electrification. Legislation. It should be noted that the necessity for electrification is frequently occasioned by compulsory legislation or by the physical disabilities of steam operation in tunnels and termin- als, quite regardless of the economical aspects. CONDITIONS AFFECTING EXPENSES. Economic Comparisons. All physical and financial comparisons of steam and elec- tric operation should be primarily based upon trains of equal ELECTRIC MOTIVE POIVER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 617 number, length and weight moving through the same distance in equal times, further subject to only such modifications as may result from inherent distinctions and features 11_o_t_ shared in common. The general failure to observe this rule commonly results in faulty and misleading conclusions in which “electrification” is usually credited with savings due to heavier engines or to better methods of operation, which may be equally secured with either steam or electric traction. The reduction of operating expenses will be greatest under conditions of high traffic density, high train frequency and uniform distribution of traffic over time and distance, which will afford large divisors for all overhead expenses; improve the efficiency of labor and more effectively utilize the capacity of power stations and special equipment. Train Mileage. A large volume of freight traffic affords opportunities for utilizing the inherent possibilities of electric traction to best advantage, more particularly in conjunction with concentrated power requirements, as the saving in train miles and operating expenses effected by consolidating the traffic into fewer and heavier trains may readily be larger than that derived from any other source. Train tonnage ratings are more frequently determined by the requirements of the time schedules than by the resistance of the ruling grades and within tractive limits such ratings may be increased in almost direct proportion with the engine horse power. Also, tonnage ratings based upon full traction or adhesion ratings may be readily increased by the use of two or more engine units operated by a single crew. In either case a large saving in train miles and operating expenses should result. Assistant Engine Service. The higher percentage of available adhesion afforded by the uniform rotary torque of the electric engine is not yet as fully utilized as it should be, for reasons previously explained, but even with the present limitations the existence of mountain grades and long inclines requiring the use of heavy road en- gines and assistant engines is a favorable condition for elec- trification. The extra weight of steam engine and tender which is saved may be added to the train rating in the form 618 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION of commercial tonnage. Fast time schedules increase engine mileage and efficiency and also reduce overtime wages. The fuel lost by incomplete cylinder expansion and by higher ma- chinery friction is saved. Track maintenance is much reduced and the cost of maintaining secondary engine terminals is avoided. Electric braking and, in less degree, power recupera- tion are included among the attractive possibilities of electric operation on mountain grades. Terminals, Yards and. Tunnels. The advantages of electric traction in its application to large terminal and switching yards or to long tunnels have been previously noted, but in the case of large switching yards it may be further remarked that the cost of engine fuel will frequently not exceed 25% of that required in steam operation and that the better control and greater tractive power of such engines will reduce the cost of power requirements, which to- gether with the longer hours of service, in the writer ’s opinion, will economically justify the electrification of isolated yards of large capacity. Length of Division. For the most economical results it is necessary that the zone of electric operation be extended to cover the full length of the engine stage or district and that operation within the zone be made homogeneous by the inclusion of all passenger, freight and switching service. Engine Fuel and Repairs. Engine fuel and engine repairs are the two largest specific items of expense in the operating accounts of steam railways, and apart from the value of train mileage which may be saved under some conditions or the efiect upon gross and net earn- ings by changed conditions of operation, the possible reduc- tions in these two items will in most cases determine the com- mercial feasibility of electric operation. A crude “rule of thumb” sometimes used by the writer for quick approxima- tions, assumes that the fixed charges of an electric installation should not exceed one half of the cost of steam engine fuel and repairs, plus 10%. It is obvious that economic estimates will be correspondingly affected by the costs of fuel and that local conditions of cheap coal or oil fuel are unfavorable to electri- ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 619 flcation. Such conclusions may be modified or reversed, how- ever, by available sources of cheap hydro-electric power or by unfavorable water conditions, including scanty or expensive sources of supply or by sealing and foaming boiler waters, so frequently encountered on western roads. In general, the cost of steam generated electric power with coal at $1.00 to $1.50 per ton compares more favorably with hydro-electric power than is appreciated, more particularly when cheaper or uncom- mercial grades of coal can be burned under the boilers at the power station. The commercial efficiency of the coal used at power stations as compared with the coal consumed in steam engines is relatively very high, although burdened with large transmission and conversion losses. The ratios vary in differ- ent classes and conditions of service, but as ascertained by ex- perience on the New Haven Road the ratio in passenger service is approximately 1 to 2; in freight service 1 to 21/2 and in switching service 1 to 3. Relative and absolute quantities of coal consumed in dif- ferent classes of electric service in pounds per 1000 ton miles, (1460 ton-km.) were as follows: June, 1914. Lbs. Passenger, express . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95.1 ( 43.2 kg.) “ local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 195.9 ( 88.9 “) Oct.-Nov., 1914 Freight, fast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72.8 ( 33.0 kg.) “ slow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78.6 ( 35.6 “ ) “ local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 186.1 ( 84.4 “ ) Switch engines, per hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 331.0 (150.1 “ ) Similar comparisons of the cost of engine repairs in the same service are not satisfactory on account of abnormal local conditions, but in general it may be safely assumed that under normal conditions the cost of repairs per engine mile will not vary between one third and one half of the cost in similar steam service. The saving is of course still greater with bad water conditions. The application of these large ratios to the great cost of fuel and engine repairs may be expected to afford large operating credits applying on new fixed charges incurred. The efiect of the many minor factors previously noted upon the cost of operation, while important, forms so small a factor in the final result that a further analysis need not be attempted. 620 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION CONCLUSION. A comprehensive review of the results already obtained and of the attractive possibilities indicated by the experience of later years, leads to the conclusion that the field in which electric traction may be profitably applied is much larger than generally understood, and that there are many existing op- portunities for capital investments upon a large scale which will earn from ten to twenty percent with reasonable certainty. While the art is not yet fully developed in some applications, in many others all present practical requirements may be met with added advantages of great value and profit, and there is consequently little reason to doubt a continued development and further expansion in the field of electric traction as soon as the financial and legislative conditions permit. A few typical views showing different phases of practical electric traction, together with an extreme example of steam traction, are added for their general interest. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1900. Davies, “Railroad Tunnels”, N. Y. Railroad Club, Dec. 20th. Boynton, “Electric Traction under Steam Railway Conditions”, (N. Y., N. H. 80 H.), A. I. E. E., February. 1901. Francis Fox, “Alpine Tunnels”, Smithsonian Report, 1355. Burch, “Electric Traction for Heavy Railway Service”, Northwest Ry. Club, January. Hill, “Historical Data”, S. R. J., May 4th. 1902. Lamme, ‘ ‘Single-Phase Railways”, A. I. E. E., September. 1903 Westinghouse, “Electric-pneumatic”, S. R. J., Jan. 3d, Sept. 26th. 1904.. Frank J. Sprague, “Richmond Street Ry.’ ’, Transactions, International Elec. Cong., St. Louis. Bentley, “The First Electric Car”, E. W., March 5th. “History and Development of Electric Railways”, International Elec. Conga, Sec. F., St. Louis. Stillwell, “Electric Traction under Steam Road Conditions”, E. R. J ., October 8th. Hutchinson, “Mountain Electrification on Altoona Grades”, Elec. Age. Henderson, “Locomotive Operation”. ' ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 621 1905. Potter, “Developments in Electric Traction”, N. Y. Railroad Club, January. Waterman, “Three-Phase Traction”, A. I. E. E. Westinghouse, “Direct Current Vs. Single-Phase Current System for New York Central”, S. R. J. and E. W., December. 1906. “Simplon Tunnel”, S. R. J., Feb. 3d and 24th. Lamme, “Alternating Current Systems for Heavy Railway Service”, N. Y. Railroad Club. 1907. Murray, “N. Y., N. H. 85 H. Tests”, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25th. Armstrong, “Comparative Performance of Steam and Elec. Locos”, A. I. E. E., November. Harwood, “Cost of Steam and Electric Power, New York Central”, A. I. E. E. Murray, “Cost of Maintenance, Steam and Electric, on N. Y., N. H. 86 H. R. R.”, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25th. Stillwell, ‘ ‘Electric Motor Vs. Steam Locomotive”, A. I. E. E., January. “Spokane & Inland Empire R. R. Electrification”, S. R. J., Apr. 27th. Murray, “Log of New Haven Electrification”, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25th. Murray, “Steam Locomotive, Fuel and Maintenance”, A. I. E. E., Jan. McHenry, “Heavy Electric Traction on the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R.”, S. R. J., Aug. 17th. 1908. Shadd, “Hoosac Tunnel, Boston & Maine Electrification”, E. R. J., Oct. 24th. Fowler, “Value of Electrification to Railroads”, E. W., March 2lst. Sprague, “Latest Practice”, E. R. J., Oct. 15th. Wilgus, “Steam Vs. Electricity”, A. S. C. E., February. Wilgus, “Financial Results on Operation, Steam Vs. Electricity”, A. S. C. E., February. Murray, “New York, New Haven & Hartford Electrification”, A. I. E. E., January. Wilgus, “Electrification of Suburban Zone of N. Y. C. & H. R. R”, Transactions, A. S. C. E., February. 1909. Editorial, “Historical and Interurban Roads”, E. R. J., P. 571. Alfred Noble, “Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal Railway”, A. S. C. E., September. Hutchinson, “Great Northern Ry. Cascade”, A. I. E. E., November. Hutchinson, “Mallet Vs. Electric”, A. I. E. E. November. Darlington, “Substitution of Electric Power for Steam on American Railroads”, English Magazine, September. Hutchinson, “Great Northern”, A. I. E. E., November. Sprague, “Trunk Line Operation”, A. I. E. E., May 2181:. 622 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION Evans, “Reports to City Council of Chicago on Terminal Electrifica- tion”. Davis, “Operating Data, B. & O. R. R.”, A. I. E. E. 1910. Henny, International Ry. Congress, June. “Financial Aspects”, English Magazine, Feb. “Giovi Lines, Italy”, E. J., May. Storer, “Single-Phase Railways”, E. R. J., Jan. 21st. Hobart, “Electric Trains, English Practice”, Van Nostrand. Gibbs, “Electric Locomotives”, International Ry. Congress. Westinghouse, “Electrification of Railways”, A. S. M. E., July. Storer and Eaton, “Electric Locomotive Design”, A. I. E. E., July. Peters, “Development of German Railways”, Ry. Age, Dec. 16th. “Swedish State Single-Phase Installations and Cost of Electrification”, E. R. J., Oct. 15th. L. R. Pomeroy, “The Electrification of Trunk Lines”, Inst. of M. E., July 29th. McHenry, “Report of the N. Y., N. H. & H. and B. 80 M., to the Joint Board Met. Imp, Boston, Mass.”, November 1st. Huber-Stockar, “Electric Traction in Switzerland”, Proceedings Joint Meeting Inst. of M. E. and Am. Soc. C. E., Zurich, July 25th. Dawson, “The Electrification of a Portion of the London, Brighton & South Coast Ry.”, Proceedings Joint Meeting Inst. of M. E. and Am. Soc. C. E., London, July 29th. 1911. Murray, “N. Y., N. H. 80 H. Tests”, A. I. E. E., Nov. 8th. Dawson, “Electric Traction on Railways”, B. I. C. E., March. “Spokane & Inland Empire R. R. Electrification”, S. R. J ., February. McRea, “Pennsylvania Railroad”, N. Y. Railroad Club, March. Murray, “Analysis of Electrification”, A. I. E. E. Collett, “American and European Railway Practice”, E. J., January. Murray, “Electrification Analyzed”, A. I. E. E., Toronto, April 7th. Burch, “Electric Traction for Railway Trains”. 1912. E. M. Herr, “Electricity on Railroads”, E. J., October. “New York, Westchester & Boston Railway System”, E. J., October. Wynne, “Economics in Railroad Operation”, Transactions, A. I. E. E. Hoey, “Southern Pacific High Voltage D. C. Locomotives”, E. J., October. Storer, “Trunk Line Electrification”, Proceedings, A. I. E. E. 1913. Dodd, “Cost of Operating Electric Switch Engines”, G. E. R., November. “Locomotives for Norfolk & Western Electrification”, E. R. J., Oct. 4th. “Electrification Montreal Tunnel and Terminal”, E. R. J., Oct. 11th. Murray, “Choice of Electrification for Concrete Case”, E. R. J ., Dec. 27th. ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION 623 Lydall, “Driving Systems for Electric Locomotives’ ’, E. R. 1., Dec. 27th. “The 2500 hp. Lotschberg Locomotive”, E. R. J., Nov. 15th. “Locomotives for the Butte, Anaconda & Pacific Ry.”, June 7th. “Electrification and Progress in the United States”, E. R. J., June 7th. Kahler, “Trunk Line Electrification”, Transactions, A. I. E. E. Steinmetz, “Why Steam Railroads are Electrified”, E. J., October. Murray, “Heavy Electrification Tendencies”, E. J., October. “The Norfolk & Western Electrification”, E. J., October. Helmund, “Electrification of Trunk Lines in Europe”, E. J., October. Aspinwall, “Selection of Electric Locomotives”, E. J., October. Babcock, “A Study of Electrification on the Southern Pacific Railway’ ’, Proceedings, A. I. E. E. “Progress in Heavy Electric Traction”, Birmingham Convention, B. A. S. S., Sept. 10-17. 1914. “Track Construction”, Bulletin A. R. E. A., July 1st. Armstrong, “Engineering Problem of Electrification”, Transactions, C. S. C. E. Dewhurst, “A Review of American Steam R. R. Electrification”, E. R., November. Cox, “Electrical Operation of the B. A. & P. Ry.”, G. E. R., November. Harte, “Equipment and Its Maintenance”, E. R. J., Aug. 29th. “Statistics of Electric Railways for 1913”, McGraw Electric Ry. Manual. Sinclair, “Maximum Safe Loads for Steel Tires on Steel Rails”, A. S. M. E., Volume 7, Page 786. “Extensive Electrification on the St. Paul Road’ ’, E. R. J., Dec. 18th. “Some High Record Train Loads”, Railway Age Gazette, July 31st. Ewing, “Railroad Electrification”, Proceedings, Indiana Engineering Society. Mack, “Maintenance and Operation, Detroit River Tunnel”, E. E. R., November. Katte, “Multiple Unit Trains on the N. Y. C. 8c H. R. R.”, E. E. R., November. L. C. Winship, “Hoosac Tunnel”, E. J., October. 1915. Editorial, “Locomotive Development in 1914”, R. A. G., Jan. 1st. Storer, “Progress in Railway Electrification in 1914”, R. A. G., Jan. 1st. Murray, “Conditions Afiecting the Success of Main Line Electrifica- tion”, Transactions, Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Jan. 20th. 624 ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER IN RAILROAD OPERATION sasseeswesesees aassesggerearea Q eeasfises'ses ' ete°ee as EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS. Electric Railway Journal American Society Civil Engineers American Institute Electrical Engineers Electrical World Street Railway Journal British Institute Civil Engineers American Society Mechanical Engineers Railway Age Electric Age American Railway Engineering Association Canadian Society Civil Engineers General Electric Review Electric Journal Railway Age Gazette Electric Review 39 NOIQLV'HEIcIO CIVO'rEI’IIV'H NI HEAAOcI EIAICLOW OI’ELLOEIFIEI U1 APPENDIX. STATISTICS OF ELECTRIFICATION STANDARD RAILWAYS. (Compiled and furnished by Edward P. Burch, Consulting Engineer, Minne- apolis, Minn, September, 1914.) Name of Railway New York, New Haven 85 Hartford, Boston 85 Maine, Norfolk 85 Western, Pennsylvania, Windsor, Essex 85 Lake Shore, Grand Trunk, Spokane 85 Inland Empire, London, Brighton 85 South Coast, Kiruna Riksgransen, Christiania-Drammen, Thamshaven—Lokken, Midi, Villafranche, Bernese Alps, Ltitschberg, Rhaetian, St. Gotthard, Baden State, Prussian State, Bavarian State, Single-Phase System. General Trolley Location Voltage Connecticut . . . . . . . .. 11,000 Massachusetts . . . . . .. 11,000 Virginia . . . . . . . . . .. 11,000 Philadelphia . . . . . .. 11,000 Canada . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,600 Michigan-Canada 3,300 Washington . . . . . . .. 6,600 England . . . . . . . . . .. 6,600 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,000 Norway . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,000 “ . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,600 France . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,000 “ . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,000 Switzerland . . . . . . .. 15,000 “ . . . . . . .. 10,000 “ . . . . . . .. 15,000 Germany . . . . . . . . . .. 15,000 “ . . . . . . . . . .. 11,000 “ . . . . . . . . . .. 11,000 Route Miles 110 8 30 20 37 4 152 60 81 33 33 165 8 52 40 or 46 68 or 73 31 19 15 * Spokane 85 Inland Empire has in all 216 route miles and 294 track miles. Track Miles 572 22 75 or 85 90 40 12 or 19 *162 160 90 42 36 295 8 55 48 or 186 100 34 50 or 100 16 Locomotives 100 5 26 or 25 0(1915) 1 6 12 0 15 17 3 16 or 73 1 18 or 16 11 —-(1916) 12 or 10 13 or 45 2 989 NOLLVHEIdIO ([VO'H'IIV‘H NI HEIAAOcI HALLON OI‘HLOE'IH Name of Railway Lauban Konigszelt, Mittenwald-Innsbruck, Waitzen Budapest, Vienna-Pressburg, St. Polten-Mariazell, Baltimore 80 Ohio, New York Central, New York Central, Pennsylvania—- Long Island R. R., Manhattan Terminal, West Jersey 80 Sea Shore, Piedmont 80 Northern, Canadian Northern, Michigan & Chicago, Toledo & Western, Illinois Traction, Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern, Single-Phase System—Continued. General Trolley Location Voltage Germany . . . . . . . . . .. 11,000 Austria—Germany . . . . 15,000 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000 “ . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,000 ‘ ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,600 Total . . . . . . . . . . Direct-Current System. Maryland . . . . . . . . . . 660 New York . . . . . . . . . . 660 Detroit . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Long Island . . . . . . . . 660 New York . . . . . . . . . . 660 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . 660 Carolinas . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,400 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . 2,400 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,200 Route Miles 81 66 34 43 63 1253 or 1264 100 24 75 140 18 92 59 200 50 Track Miles 124 69 36 45 or 50 68 2216 or 2426 10 250 20 250 100 150 160 20 100 89 450 100 Locomotives 45 or 54 90r 8 4 8 14 33 8 or 432 14 63 10 L89 NOILVHEIJO (IVOH'IIVH NI HHAAOcI EIAIILOIWI OI‘ZI-IIOEI'IH Fort Dodge, Des Moines & So., Butte, Anaconda & Pacific, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, British Columbia Electric, Oregon Electric, United Railways, Portland, Eugene & Eastern, Oakland, Antioch 8: Eastern, Southern Pacific— Oakland Division, Pacific Electric, North Eastern— Newcastle-Tynemouth, Darlington-Newport, Lancashire & Yorkshire— Bury-Holcombe Brook, 13ury=h1anchcster, Metropolitan, London & So. Western, London 85 No. Western, StockholnrSaltzoebaden, Moselhutte, St. Georges~La Mure, Paris Orleans, VVestern, Ididh near ViHafranche, Bernia Railway, Lugano, Tesserete, Pontetrese, Iowa . . . . . . . . . . _ _ Montana . . . . . . . . . . . ( { British Columbia . . . . Washington . . . . . . . . Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . i‘ (l a 0 I 0 0 a n o a 0 0 (l (( Switzerland . . . . . . . . . ‘l 120 30 113 24 154 28 95 or 122 100 81 or 50 57 37 18 4 10 145 or 126 9 90 17 168 16 30 7 180 10 or 9 35 1 100 or 340 3 or 2 100 4 or 3 121 1 114 14 82 6 44 or 50 10 4 20 59 or 70 20 73 0 79 0 6 0 10 3 21 4 46 11 130 0 36 0 0 6 0 889 NOII'LV'EIIIIcIO (IVO'EI'IIV'EI NI 'EIEIAAOcI HAILLON OI‘HCLOH'IH Name of Railway Milan-Porto Ceresio, Budapest Suburban, Poprad-Csorbasee, Melbourne Suburban, Italian State—— Valtellina, Milan-Lecco, Giovi~Genoa, Savona-Ceva, Mt. Cenis, Burgdorf-Thun, Swiss Federal, Great Northern, Direct Current System.— Continued. General Trolley Location Voltage Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 ‘ ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . 1,650 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . 1,200 Total . . . . . . . . . . Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,300 ‘ ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,300 ‘ ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,300 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,300 ‘ ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,300 Switzerland . . . . . . . . 750 ‘ ‘ . . . . . . . . 3,300 Washington . . . . . . . . 6,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . Grand total . . . . Route Miles 48 123 or 55 21 150 2171 or 2234 67 32 13 30 11 26 13 or 23 4 196 or 206 3,620 01‘ 3,704 Track Miles 81 130 or 123 21 323 3953 or 4184 72 60 46 33 12 28 26 283 6452 or 6893 Locomotives 5 12 0 O 326 or 329 14 65 QI'POOUIUI 116 780 or 877 DISCUSSION: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POYVER 6.29 DISCUSSION Mr. H. J. Kennedy, referring to the author’s statement, “The first commercially practical engines of this kind were operated by the Baltimore 80 Ohio Railroad through its Baltimore tunnel in 1905; only a few months later than the initiation of electrical service on the Nantasket Beach line above mentioned,” noted an error and said that three of the five locomo- tives were purchased in 1894 and were of about 1000 hp.; these were, he believed, taken out of service in 1910 or 1911. The other two were pur- chased in 1903 and were of 160 tons each. He then pointed out the following from the paper as one probable ex- planation why companies are holding back in electrification of their sys- tems: “Another factor which undoubtedly exercises a deterrent effect upon the more rapid adoption of electric traction is the number and di- versity of types now under trial, together with the yet unsettled opinions of the specialists in this field. ” Two experiments along this line are (1) the 3000-volt installation on the Chicago, Milwaukee 86 Puget Sound Ry. and (2) the single-phase three-phase system on the Norfolk 85 Western Ry. The reference to the mercury-vapor converter experiments, the speaker thought, refers to a locomotive experimented with on the N. Y., N. H. 85 H. R. R. Mr. W. J. Davis, Jr.,* Mem. A. I. E. E., said that power companies can afford to give a very low price on power due to the very low load factor. This has been done on the C. M. 85 P. S. Ry., where power has been pur- chased for 0.6 cent per kw-hr. Some companies have ofiered power at the low rate of 0.5 cent per kw-lir. This is possible because the high load factor of extensive power companies will give them a chance to absorb heavy loads carried by mountain electrifications. Cost is the controlling factor, whether the railroad makes or buys its power. Mr. G. M. Eatonfl Mem. A. I. E. E. (by letter), called attention to the author’s reference to the practice of working electric switching locomo- tives in yards continuously, in one case for 30 days without attention. If this practice is economy, it is so in spite of the heavy maintenance charges that are sure to be eventually incurred. Incipient failures are usually easily detected, and a comparatively small amount of attention in the early stages of deterioration will place the equipment in first-class con- dition. The same principle is involved in connection with annual overhauling, to which the author refers on page 606. If the margin in favor of elec- trification of a steam road is so narrow that the estimated expense of an annual overhaul of the electric locomotive has an appreciable influence in deciding whether to electrify or not, then continue steam operation. Hav- ing actually electrified, the conservative practice is to overhaul annually * Pacific Coast Engineer, General Electric Co., San Francisco, Calif. 1' Eng, Railway Division, Westinghouse Elec. 85 Mfg. 00., East Pittsburgh, Pa. Kennedy. Davis. Eaton. 63() DISCUSSION: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER Eaton. for a few years, and after finding the overhaul actually useless, extend the overhauling period gradually till the logical period is determined. The author refers to the high adhesion possible with electric locomo- tives. This high adhesion must be reckoned with in proportioning the parts to insure sufficient strength. It is, however, necessary to advance slowly in guaranteeing to make use of this high adhesion in actually pulling trains on mountain grades. The rail conditions are very varied, and data are yet incomplete on the maximum safe pulling adhesion of an electric locomotive. The theoretical ability of the electric locomotive to start heavier trains than a steam locomotive of equal adhesive weight undoubtedly exists, and a certain amount of progress may be looked for in capitalizing this feature. Referring to the headmg “Diversity of Types,” railroad electrification shares with other large problems the advantage of different possible solu- tions. It has been conclusively proved that various systems possessed sufficient advantage over steam to justify the expense of electrification. The ultimate best electrification will never be attained as long as there are men striving for improvement. _ The steam locomotive has advanced more in the last ten years than at any other equal period in its history, and electric locomotives and railway electrification may confidently be expected to advance greatly year by year. Reference is made to the increasing complexity of system. In this con- nection it is very interesting to note that the first trunk-line locomotives built by the Baldwin Westinghouse interests are the most complicated they have ever turned out, being designed for A.C.—D.C. operation. In spite of their complexity, however, the locomotives are now in their tenth year of successful service. The author also refers to the demand for more highly specialized and better paid labor, presumably as compared with steam locomotives. When a steam railroad is electrified, the senior steam engineers quite generally select the electric runs. They are, as a class, ambitious to master the ma- chines, and prove themselves capable of doing so. Very thoroughly or~ ganized instruction is always necessary, and no man can be a competent steam man today and an expert operator of an electric locomotive tomor- row without painstaking study. The point remains, however, that it is not a different class of labor, but the same individuals who operate the electric motive power. In connection with multiple-unit control, consideration was given seven or eight years ago to the feasibility of hanging a control cable to cars in- tervening between locomotives in a long freight train. If one could imagine the adoption of a standard control train line, it might be legislated into existence as a necessary part of freight car equip- ment. The whistle and shock method of control, with a locomotive that can hang at a standstill for one minute, seem, however, to be too success- DISCUSSION: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POIVER 631 ful to warrant the expenditure involved in a more complicated system. This is true even where mountainous country confuses the whistle alone because of echoes. The variable-speed torque control, referred to in the paper, is an ideal which has been earnestly sought. Every known type of mechanical and other speed-changing device has been investigated, only to find some pro- hibitive feature, such as cost, weight, space, or maintenance, etc. This search is still active, and when it is successful, the cause of railroad elec- trification will receive a great impetus. Mr. Kennedy was correct in his opinion that the mercury-vapor con- verter experiment was conducted on the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. It must be realized, however, that this adaptation of the single-phase system is at present entirely in the experimental stage, and while the re- sults of the experiments made are very gratifying, no estimate of the time when it will become commercial can be attempted. Regeneration is not economical unless you have a load to absorb the regenerated power; this in some cases has been taken up by rheostats. However, the great gain is in the safe and automatic control and the saving in the wear of brake shoes and tires; also in the elimination of brake-shoe dust. Mr. Paul Lebenbaum,* Mem. A. I. E. E., said that Mr. Eaton was very conservative in speaking of regeneration of power, for regeneration is a great argument in favor of electric power, as on a steam road it cannot be accomplished. Mr. H. Y. Hall,H Mem. A. I. E. E., said that the reason why the power companies are not furnishing the railroads with power lies in the fact that the power companies will not give a reasonable rate, together with continuity of service. Mr. A. H. Babcock,*** Mem. A. I. E. E., said that on the Southern Pa- cific electric lines the engineers’ seniority controls the selection of runs. If a steam man wishes to have an electric run and has the seniority to en- force his desires, he first attends a school of instruction, and, after quali- fying, he can “bump” any man with less seniority than his out of a run and take it for his own. As a rule the steam engineers qualify without difficulty, but while they learn easily they are apt to forget easily, because, having much less to do than when on steam locomotives, their minds are not so actively employed and, consequently, from time to time reinstruction is necessary. With reference to Mr. Eaton’s question in regard to multiple operation of steam locomotives: It is the practice on the Sierra Nevada grades to place locomotives about thirty car lengths apart, this being approximately the maximum distance whistle signals can be heard distinctly in the snow- * Electrical Engineer, Portland, Eugene & Eastern Ry., Portland, Oregon. ** Consulting Engineer, San Francisco, Calif. *** Consulting Electrical Engineer, Southern Pacific Co., San Francisco, Calif. Eaton. Mr. Lebenbaum. Mr. Hall. Mr. Babcock. 632 DISCUSSION: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER Mr. Babcock. sheds. When the head man is ready to leave a station he whistles to the rear man, who answers, and then pushes up all the slack he can until he comes to a standstill with his throttle open; the head man then moves ahead, and when he has pulled out enough slack to relieve the rear man, the train moves out. In coming to a stop the reverse procedure is used—— the head man shuts 0E and when the rear man finds be can go no further he shuts off too. Often, in the handling of heavy trainloads in this man- ner, the engines will stand three or four minutes against the load with the throttle open nearly to the slipping point of the wheels. In the study of any mountain or other main-line electrification, a com- parison of many points of view is necessary before conclusions can be reached with respect to the most economical method. Two of the elements entering into this problem are popularly very much misunderstood. The first is the factor of regeneration of power on descending grades. The actual power return by any such system is of extremely small importance as compared with the advantages secured in other directions, namely, better control of the train on heavy grades and a diminished heating of wheels and axles, and consequent accidents arising therefrom. The other point is the effect on any such problem of alleged very cheap water power. In many cases if the power were delivered free to the loco- motives, it would not change in any material degree the economic problem of electrification. Furthermore, it makes practically no difference in the problem whether the power is purchased from a power company or whether it is developed in plants owned by the railroad company, for the very simple reason that a change in ownership of power sources cannot change the load factor of the railroad. In other words, the fixed charges must be paid by someone in the beginning, and always, eventually, by the con- sumer. And, finally, the much discussed diversity factor does not afiect this problem materially, because the railroads by no possibility can change the flow of their passengers or freight with respect to time of day or season of the year, and the peak loads must come when they will, not always as is desired. Therefore, any source of power suitable for railroad use in any serious problem must contemplate the handling of maximum demands at any time. The railroad companies are not opposed to electrification in itself, but people with power to sell, or machinery to sell, or both, who have urged upon the railroads so forcibly consideration of electric methods, as yet undeveloped and to be financed, give, in support of their views such ex- travagant claims for economies that the railroad companies conserva- tively are asking for very complete demonstrations before risking large sums of money in such improvements. As far as can be ascertained, no railroad company is opposed to real economies, and many of them open freely their financial and statistical records to all competent students in order that they may be shown where such economies can be found. And it is significant that those engineers in this country who have made the DISCUSSION: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER 633 most extensive study of the problem are the least enthusiastic as to im- mediate electrification in general. Mr. Howard Stillmanfi‘ Mem. Am. Soc. M. E'., concurred with Mr. Babcock that it is impossible for power companies at the present time to assume the necessary peak load caused by blockades. Mr. E. H. McHenry, in closing, accepted Mr. Kennedy's corrections, as the date of initial operation of electric service through the Baltimore Tunnel was erroneously given as 1905, instead of 1895; and also as the author had not been advised that any of the earlier engines had been taken out of service. Referring to the comments by Mr. G. M. Eaton, the author said that in referring to the continuous operation of electric switching engines for thirty days or more, it was not intended to imply that this was good practice, but rather as indicative of the comparatively small amount of attention required by electric engines, as compared with steam locomo- tive engines; nor was it thought that the cost incurred in the general overhauling of engines could be escaped, but that the time interval be- tween general repairs would be increased and possibly wholly obviated by current “running repairs”. The ability to quickly replace damaged motors, transformers and other large parts without taking the engine out of service for long intervals of time makes this at least possible. The author ’s reference to the utilization of a higher percentage of adhesion has apparently been misunderstood, as the uniform rotary torque of the electric motor makes it possible to obtain 20% more efiective adhe- sion within the present maximum limit in steam service, which is reached four times in each revolution, with the uneven angular moments of crank- driven axles. The author referred more particularly to the complexity of electric systems, rather than to that of electric engines, which must be considered self-evident; and in his reference to the demand for more highly specialized and better paid labor, had more particularly in mind the additional requirements imposed by the maintenance and operation of power houses and of the transmission and distributing systems. No necessity has been found in practice for better paid or more intelligent labor in operating electric locomotives than is already afforded by the present steam engineers, when specially instructed. It is the author’s belief that the variable speed-torque control is much closer at hand than realized, as such possibilities in connection with the further development of field speed-torque control are quite promising. The economic value of regenerated power was at first much overvalued, but there has been of late a tendency to go to the opposite extreme. Quite apart from the incidental considerations mentioned by Mr. Kennedy, the commercial value of regenerated power may be very large, as it in- creases very rapidly with rate of grade, length of incline, density of traffic and length of route. Regarding the comparative value of steam and water power, as noted T Engineer of Tests, Southern Pacific 00., San Francisco, Calif. Mr. Babcock. Mr. Stillman. Mr. McHenry. 634 DISCUSSION: ELECTRIC MOTIVE POWER Mr. McHenry. by Mr. A. H. Babcock, “it makes practically no difference in the problem whether the power is purchased from a power company or whether it is developed at plants owned by the railroad company”; but as the first case is usually associated with long-distance transmission, more particu- larly in the utilization of hydroelectric power, there is frequently a differ- ence in fact, due to the serious efiect upon transmission charges and transmission losses under conditions of fluctuating load. The author also finds it difficult to accept the statement that “Rail- roads by no possibility can change the flow of their passengers or freight with respect to time of day or season of the year, and the peak loads must come when they will, not always as desired”, as it is quite evident that the track capacity in large measure fixes a maximum limit, which automatically tends to avoid high peak loads by distributing the power demand over more time during hours of maximum traffic, and much more can be done in the same direction in fixing time schedules and dispatch- ing trains. ew the charge, book musl be brought lo the I" ‘ TWO WEEK BOOK DO NOT RETURN BOOKS ON SUNDAY I"? UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 3 9015‘02794 fifiQfiM l ll .. .r Ill i llllllllllll 1a! ‘ \ l: . - ' . .0 " a“ a‘, .f it r ' g ,‘ 1 ‘ ' _ I “ ' .. ~ .- ‘l _ . ' ' ‘i l ' “ . ~33“ . . , v . , “ ' > . ‘ ' was" ' , ' ' ’ ' ‘ dry-v, I” R“ ‘QW ' .7 ‘ . ’ ‘wen ‘ _>. my!‘ 1 . ' 7“)- ,s. ""5 5" g V ‘ '1 - a‘. ._ - ‘~' ' 52m’ q. ~ ‘£33’; I g; . Q‘ I Iv _ V . ‘Q‘SI‘LI . “I L I hag‘ ‘ ,7 , I, a‘; .- , _' . w ‘ n‘wk- v .. .. - ,c , .¢--I , ., .I_I a I :, L‘ :‘ , : ' l ' a ~19‘. ' "a :e . »._ ‘t g5‘ ‘7}’, '» 5:3 ' 1;?‘ ' . ‘it; ‘- .I _‘I .d, ‘F v I i ... . .. - 3w Q, , I _ I 1 I I i... a I II , I- W . . - < m .m . V 3'?“ ’ 654'‘ ‘I’ '= " ‘ a: .' . -, ' ‘- ‘, i, ' v e, i‘ > . ' ; . . i‘ , , . . e ‘ ' “in” It’! ’ _ , .' n h 1 ‘ ' “new, "a. a‘ n ’ “whiff-9'94 72d‘, -. y i‘ l" 7 ~ ’ D l i‘ V WW’ 7 _ b ‘ :5‘ I i ‘3*.’ a» a‘ . ‘see . ~ ~ ’ e . ~ ~ - a.’ a . ' v r . 1e c .. .. p: a. fig 13, I‘ ‘man. {u , - I. I. II 2. lea-e" . ~___I yea I M-cawwygui I a in’ I II .gtggfitdg as‘. > I , ‘bet, ' ' ' v . 2.; "rf- ' 32g 7' we; ‘Ema-.1“; gs... {AW ' " 1+4» . "' “ I ‘r '- . .; ‘ . ‘ “I, ' ': »w_>‘-‘ ~‘u4 ~. I ' ‘; A ., . - . i -_ s - . .- ,f, r y‘. r . ' I " ‘ ' '. ‘ " ‘ ’ ease as; , . g, , » . - , - I _, “eggs-s“ ~ .w-e . " "5s 1'... ' framers: r’ .“eaae eve .,; ...~ , , ~d' '31?‘ fil'b- . .- r . . . ‘th- '~' .1 , . . - I ' \ ~ 1*‘; a, I I " Yaw‘- ..~»,-;.:_-xim§~%w I : ’ ' m a I‘ w; _ "1' "4.; sees-1"", ”~ . 1.’; ~ a 73?“ " "my " with?" "w ‘ ' *4“ _, sax-gaff - .mzmqgfifl‘l ' . . . . > . ~ , J - rainwater. ~ 1. _. 7 .~ ~ - . - ..... as ~ - ‘we? ..- vi" "“ ~ “ “ ' a ‘ ' a ‘ l ' “:35 , 3 i " " as..." - . .- ' . ""“51- "w' -'> ~..~!~‘-“ “ -“‘ 5* ~ er‘ ‘.- . I .- 1 . > : .- 3w. " - ' '" é: ,. -‘ . ' vfiiwsrreewwam . ‘if’ . . . . . 53w A: Via w ,"b‘ a A‘, . .7 ~ - v , :’ ' » ‘ {I 'W . ‘ > ‘ ' via'fvkgiq v.‘ A‘? ‘7* 1:4 ntw 1 I. .q ‘a , u. a,» a. I ,1». faég'zajgtpgi ' p a s’:- , -- w 1’» as" ' " 6"" i4 .. e < "are? ‘It.’ in»: ivy-‘2:1 193"" I'Pasiflfiatt ‘ .’ 'Wi ' f ‘2%; ‘W ** “ram; "is: ‘u ., _ I‘ a.‘ .rirc *1 ~ a; . .. < 'i ~l - 1 - M ‘ , i =“m¢__,:_“r , nib-‘h "hr :4- ‘any, sw- _ r \ f‘: I?“ w we‘ k' ‘ - q xvi ~ ‘ , ,. w: as} eémfia i.;.,... . no i 4 “ .... W . f . t;- Q . ‘Yv‘l‘j' .-v 41, y!‘ b a‘ ‘)1 J MJH-a'ml “69* ‘My " t» I‘, a. H: , m, veg-gas ". Q7 . D's .~ 1) .2r (a a? w PM; .J‘a» ‘ a?“ . 47., 4"" "t a ." .1.‘ at." “ f‘i M. We‘: J £3,” 0 w‘ ta i... , . ‘ - .m ., . I..,~.....: , .- ,~ I if» _ , I, > , , .. 1h, . . ‘g. . I ah" .. I , I” ‘I I?» I V .I . . V I _ ‘I I I m. I vi: II. I k .; ..- ' I VI , I I I ,- p- I a .. 7. . j I g Mg j 35.; ~ ‘H.,: a... ; _ . .1‘ y» “335A 4*’ - , i i I_ ref if "4* l v3‘ >1 as; a ‘1: sea ., ‘"5, a‘ . " 1E1 A