HD
6751
1162
No.11
THE SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT
OF PROSPECTIVE FOREMEN
Unweenile
By
JOHN W. RIEGEL
RSITY
Miche

n
OF
DECLARA
1811
MICHIC
AN
Bulletin No. 11
BUREAU OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
1941
THE SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT
OF PROSPECTIVE FOREMEN
By
JOHN W. RIEGEL

UNIVERS
RSITY
OF
MICH
TTA VERITA
1817
AN
BULLETIN No. 11
BUREAU OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
1941
COPYRIGHT, 1941
BY THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
Garnit
STOCK
12.41
3
FOREWORD
In the latter part of 1940, foremen-training programs took on special ·
significance when national defense preparations brought about a marked
increase in business activity. A potential bottleneck in the defense
program,
according to some observers, was being created by the demand for additional
numbers of properly trained supervisors, both in the defense industries and
in other manufacturing establishments.
Because of these conditions the Bureau of Industrial Relations at the
University of Michigan made a rapid survey of executive opinion regarding
the selection and development of prospective foremen. The survey con-
sisted of a series of comprehensive interviews with the representatives of
twenty leading companies. The experience and opinions of these men form
the chief bases of this report. The author wishes to acknowledge their
collaboration, and also the assistance of ten other executives who read the
manuscript and offered suggestions for its improvement.
The survey was aided, moreover, by the Bureau's earlier studies of fore-
men-training programs. These studies were made in some fifty companies
by S. J. Lukens while he was on leave of absence from the University of
Pittsburgh. In drawing upon Mr. Lukens' findings and in the preparation
of this manuscript, the author had the editorial assistance of Philip H.
Trezise.
The earlier studies were made possible by a grant of funds by the
Earhart Foundation of Detroit. The final survey was financed by the
Endowment Fund of the Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies
at the University of Michigan. The generous assistance of these agencies
is gratefully acknowledged.
February, 1941
J. W. R.
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
SUMMARY
I. Responsibilities of Foremen and Subforemen
II. Selection of Candidates for Training
III. Helping Candidates to Understand Supervisory Problems 30
IV. Developing Candidates' Managerial Skills and Personality
Traits
APPENDIX
Specimen Statements of Foremen's Responsibilities_
PAGE
I
1
11
41
59
67
CHAPTER I
RESPONSIBILITIES OF FOREMEN AND SUBFOREMEN
In 1940, the national defense program brought about a rapid increase
in the volume of production in many firms. Well-qualified observers
stated that the program might be impaired because of the limited supply
of properly trained supervisors. It was pointed out that, because of the
previously existing depression, many companies had neglected to develop
prospective foremen for a decade. The need for reconstituting programs
for the selection and development of prospective foremen became gen-
erally recognized.
These conditions were thought to warrant a survey of the opinions of
executives in twenty leading companies, with reference to their objectives
and plans for the training of new supervisors. Fortunately, the survey
occurred when the executives were pondering this problem, and they freely
discussed their views on it. These interviews were the foundation of this
essay, which is a critical discussion of the elements in existing and projected
programs for the selection and development of prospective foremen.
The executives maintained, as a first principle, that the responsibilities
of a supervisory position be carefully considered before any candidate is
selected or trained for it. It was a commonplace among them that each
foreman's responsibilities are different. Their emphasis on this point sug-
gests the desirability of individualized instruction for prospective foremen.
Notwithstanding the differences in foremen's responsibilities, it is possible
to mention a number of typical duties which mark their positions. These
comprise a general pattern which will be reviewed broadly before some
noteworthy variations in it are discussed.
Typical Responsibilities of Foremen
A foreman is primarily an executive; he translates plans for his depart-
ment into instructions for each member, and he sees that the group produces
the desired results. He often has the aid of auxiliary departments, but the
responsibility for the achievement of his group rests on him. To a con-
siderable extent he must plan and schedule the work of his subordinates and
obtain the materials and equipment which they need. He must select,
1
assign, and direct his subordinates so that the group meets the quantity and
quality standards which his management has established. Moreover, it
is his duty to see that the cost of production does not exceed prescribed
limits.
Another common responsibility of foremen is the training and main-
tenance of a competent workforce. Each foreman must instruct his men
concerning the standards which govern their work and their conduct in the
shop. He must train them in effective methods of operation, observe their
performance, and correct dangerous or faulty habits of work. He must
attend to the physical conditions which affect their health, and see that they
comply with regulations for their safety.
In addition, a foreman should be concerned with improvements within
his department. Although the development of better processing methods
may be largely in the hands of engineers, he is expected to be alert to op-
portunities for betterments. After new methods have been designed, it is
usually his task to help in perfecting and adjusting them. A foreman,
furthermore, is expected to observe technical conditions and developments
within his department and transmit information about these to his superiors.
Thus he aids them to reformulate plans to meet changing conditions.
A foreman should be interested in the welfare of his company as a
whole. He is expected to cooperate with technicians and to facilitate the
work of other departments which use the products turned out in his own.
section. Even where there has been a well-considered assignment of duties
to each person in an organization, the plans cannot provide for all con-
tingencies. In the general interest, foremen frequently must go beyond
their prescribed duties to assist other departments.
S
Again, a foreman is expected to serve as the representative of his man-
agement to his men and, in turn, as their representative to the management.
Here all parties are viewed primarily as members in a productive team.
He should be well acquainted and have a friendly relationship with each
of his employees in order to express their interests to the higher executives.
While his knowledge of his employees should relate mainly to their work,
he can improve his leadership by learning about their outside activities
and their interests in the community. A foreman can represent his
management better after it has informed him with regard to its labor policy
and the production policies which are of vital interest to the employees.
And his managers should encourage him to represent his employees and
make recommendations in their interest.
2
Finally, recognition must be given to the fundamental obligation of a
foreman to improve himself. He is duty-bound to be his own critic and to
take positive steps to correct any shortcomings in his supervisory methods.
or in his personal relations with his men.
This summary of a foreman's responsibilities covers the essential pattern
of his position as it was pictured by executives in a number of companies.
To afford an inclusive view of the pattern, it is presented in outline form.
TYPICAL DUTIES OF A FOREMAN
I. Administer his own department
A. Plan and schedule operations in his department in cooperation
with any central planning unit
B. Execute plans
1. Organize operations in terms of personnel, materials, and
machines
2. Direct operations to attain standards of quality, quantity,
economy, and safety
3. Keep department clean, orderly, and safe
C. Develop subordinates
D. Improve the efficiency of operations by the development of
methods and processes
E. Develop and maintain desirable personnel relations
II. Cooperate with superiors, associates, and other departments in
furthering general aims of the enterprise.
III. Represent his management to his employees, and his employees to his
management
IV. Increase his fitness to meet present and new situations by improving
his abilities and personality traits.
Some Recent Changes in Typical Responsibilities
Within the past score of years, some of the duties in this basic pattern
have been shared increasingly with specialists. This was done because
managers saw a need for greater precision in supervisory methods. During
these years, managers introduced into factory organizations a variety of
technicians: mechanical engineers, cost accountants, planning clerks, chemi-
cal engineers, time-study men, and personnel officers. Each of these types
3
옣
​was concerned with a phase of supervision which previously was dealt with
by superintendents and foremen as only one of the aspects of their work.
The evolution of the relationships between foremen and these staff spe-
cialists has passed through a clearly defined cycle.
First, there was a realization by top management of the burden placed
upon direct supervisors by the need for more scientific management. Then
specialists were introduced and given a free hand. They brought about
rapid progress and, at times, an overdevelopment of particular managerial
techniques. Unfortunately this partitioning of management into specialties
divided the responsibility for results and caused a great deal of internal
friction. The necessity of well-balanced supervision, localized in each de-
partment, became more clearly recognized. Accordingly, the superintend-
ents and foremen were again given control of operations, while the technical
specialists were accorded powers of recommendation and a ready access to
top management. This arrangement allows immediate supervision to bal-
ance and provide for immediate operating needs; at the same time it sub-
jects that supervision to progressive influences. Unfortunately, in some
cases, the advisory powers of staff officers have not been strong enough to
offset the tendency of operating executives to continue in established ways.
The outcome of this evolution has been to require foremen to be versa-
tile executives within small areas. They must understand all phases of
supervision, and they must be able to use and adapt the ideas of experts,
who study selected supervisory problems intensively. These responsibilities
require a breadth of outlook and a willingness to collaborate with others
that were not called for under the single lines of authority which character-
ized production management several decades ago.
Furthermore, the evolution has shown that each foreman necessarily
must shoulder the responsibility for personnel management in his section.
True, he can be advised in his personnel problems by specialists, but he
must deal with those problems in his department when they arise. If he
delegates their treatment to someone else, he is no longer the leader of his
group. In recent years, this train of thought has caused executives to stress
the foremen's responsibilities for personnel management.
Broad developments of an economic and social nature also have served
to emphasize the responsibility of foremen for the maintenance of satis-
factory industrial relations. These relations were severely strained by the
prolonged depression of the thirties, which disorganized industrial activity
4
and placed burdens of unemployment and hardship on millions of work-
men and their families. Many employees and members of the public then
turned to legislative programs which, they hoped, would alleviate their
economic hardships. The result was federal and state legislation which
regulated terms of employment and stimulated the growth of unionism.
The rapid growth of unionism in the thirties emphasized many issues
which can arise within the management-employee relationship. In many
cases, the new unions aired long-standing grievances and pressed for limita-
tions upon what had been considered management's prerogatives. Man-
agers were concerned with the increased powers of their organized em-
ployees and irritated by many of the demands which unions advanced.
Foremen faced new personnel problems under these conditions. They not
only were required to deal with a different attitude among employees from
that to which they had been accustomed, but many of them for the first
time had to understand and observe the terms of collective agreements
which had been negotiated between company executives and the leaders of
the organized employees.
-
Aside from the frictions generated by the depression and by the rapid
growth of unionism, the personnel problems of foremen have been made
more exacting by cultural developments among the working population.
Over a period of years, the standards of treatment expected by young
workers have been elevated by their experiences in the public schools and
by the influence of the radio. Meanwhile, restrictions on immigration have
prevented the infiltration of foreign-born workers to whom less considerate
treatment might have been acceptable.
Variations From the Basic Pattern
The foregoing discussion presents some responsibilities which foremen
commonly have, but it is to be remembered that each foreman's job in an
organization is unique in some respects. The differences grow out of a
number of circumstances. For one thing, each foreman's duties are molded
by the technical processes in his department. In a highly mechanized sec-
tion of one factory, for example, there are comparatively few workers. The
foreman there gives most of his attention to mechanical problems. In an-
other department, where there are many workers, the foreman's major duty
is to direct his subordinates.
Other circumstances were observed which commonly cause variations
in the responsibilities of foremen. The ratio of special orders to total
5
production in the department was one of these. The rate of technical devel-
opment was another, and the characteristics and attitudes of the workers was
still another. Such differences support the principle previously stated:
that the responsibilities of a supervisory position should be analyzed before
a candidate is selected for it. Furthermore, its responsibilities should
govern the program for the candidate's development.¹
Junior Supervisory Positions as Instruction Aids
The existence of junior supervisory positions in some companies has
facilitated the selection and development of prospective foremen. These
positions were fairly common in large manufacturing departments. For
instance, each section of one large department was in charge of a group
leader. The group leaders reported to an assistant foreman, who dealt
with many minor problems. He reported, in turn, to the foreman, who
dealt with all major problems in the department. Some of these the fore-
man took up with his superior, the division superintendent, who was in
charge of several related departments. The positions of "group leader"
and "assistant foreman" served supervisory functions primarily in this case,
but they also served as training levels of increasing difficulty in a plan for
the advancement of outstanding wage earners to the full rank of foreman.
The arrangement can be adopted by companies which must expand their
organizations rapidly, notwithstanding the fact that they have only a limited
number of experienced foremen. They can delegate routine supervisory
duties to new subforemen and reserve the more difficult aspects of supervi-
sion for their experienced foremen. This expansion of the supervisory staff
will enable them to increase their workforce to a marked degree, and
especially is this true if they are to manufacture standardized products.
Where subdivisions of supervisory work are contemplated, the duties
of the new junior supervisory positions will naturally govern the selection
and training of candidates for those positions. If the duties are simple, the
training period can be short and the native capacity desired in candidates
need only be moderate.
As soon as a factory manager foresees a rapid expansion of his organ-
ization, he should consider the advisability of subdividing the work of de-
partmental supervision. If he decides to do that, he should design the
1 Specimen statements of the responsibilities attached to individual foremanships are presented in the
Appendix.
6
junior supervisory positions, and then select and prepare men for them.
He can upgrade leading workmen first in "section chief" positions, then in
"assistant foreman" positions, until enough of the candidates are fitted for
full foremanship rank. By this process, he can increase the supervisory
capacity of his staff in a short period. Furthermore, he can minimize the
risk involved in these promotions, since none will impose strange or mark-
edly greater responsibilities upon the person promoted. It is now in order
to review the responsibilities of subforemen more specifically.
Responsibilities of Subforemen
In a department having subforemen, employees are typically grouped
by the types of machines they operate or by the type of product they are
making. In the latter case, the employees work successively on units of
product which they pass from hand to hand or have transported by con-
veyor. Each group of this sort or possibly several similar groups are in
charge of a leader.¹ Ten to fifteen workers are commonly found in such
a group.
In one company, the responsibilities of group leaders are specified as
follows:
RESPONSIBILITIES OF EACH GROUP LEADER IN A METAL WORKING
ESTABLISHMENT2
-
1. Advise his foreman when additional men are needed in his section or
when he has an excess of men in his section.
2. Be responsible for the quality of products turned out in his section.
Notify his foreman of any condition which is interfering with quality
of product.
3. Advise his foreman or the maintenance department representative when
any equipment in his section is not operating up to standard.
4. Keep his section clean and orderly.
5. Instruct novices assigned to his section, or see to it that qualified work-
men teach such novices.
6. Pass along to the members of his group any instruction or information
that he is given for that purpose by his foreman.
1 These subforemen are given various titles, such as "supervisor," "section chief," "job master," and
"lead man."
2 These were announced in April, 1939.
7
7. Assign the work of the section to individuals and coordinate their efforts
so that the production schedule will be met.
8. See that shop rules are observed in his section.
9. Advise his foreman when the efficiency of any worker in his section
drops below standard for any reason.
10. Cooperate with methods and time-study men in improving methods.
and setting production standards.
11. Assist his foreman in rating the performance of each employee in his
section.
12. Promote safe practices and see to it that safe practices are followed in
his section.
In another plant, "leaders" supervise squads of workers who assemble
standardized products. Each leader, furthermore, represents his group in
dealings with the foreman regarding conditions and assignments of work.
The average number of group leaders reporting to a foreman in this plant
is eight. Less than the standard production is expected from the leaders,
because of their supervisory and representative responsibilities. They are
hourly paid, and the prevailing differentials they receive range from 5
cents to 10 cents per hour above the earnings of the members of their
groups, who are paid in proportion to group output.
In still another company, which manufactures light machinery in a
wide variety of models with special attachments, the work of departmental
supervision is subdivided to a high degree. In one department, for
example, the machines are operated by semiskilled workers, but adjusted
by "job setters." Each job setter adjusts only a few varieties of machines.
He does not assign work, but he sees that his machines are turning out a
product of required quality, and he shares responsibility with the operators
for the quality of the product as tested by inspectors. A job setter in this
company is selected primarily for his mechanical ability, but his personality
is considered also, since he is responsible for training the novices assigned
to his section.
The assistant foremen in this plant are in charge of subdivisions of large
departments. An assistant foreman assigns work to his employees, and sees
that his section is supplied with materials. If its production is interfered
with for any reason, he learns the cause and has it corrected. In each large
department, one of the assistant foremen is designated as first "assistant";
he serves as the head of the department in the absence of the foreman.
8
In this plan of organization each foreman is relieved of the immediate
supervision of operations and he can concentrate on major problems or de-
velopments within his department. These often pertain to unit costs, the
balancing of the production schedule, and the improvement of processes.
Moreover, the foreman deals with grievances, selects new employees,
recommends transfers and promotions, and imposes discipline. And, be-
cause he is concerned primarily with the smooth and effective running of
the entire department, he must develop and coach his subforemen and job
setters who are immediately in charge of operations. The departments in
this plant typically perform many processes on numerous special orders,
and they include from 30 to 150 employees.
In companies which produce a limited variety of standardized items,
the responsibilities of "foremen" resemble those of the assistant foremen
in the case just described. A man in either group, regardless of his title,
supervises a set of similar machines, or he supervises serialized processes.
on a single item. He receives specific orders as to what is wanted, how
much is wanted, and how soon it is wanted. Other departments provide
materials and supplies and maintain the equipment. It remains for him to
assign work, which has little variety, and to see that specified results are
forthcoming from a comparatively small group of people. Although these
supervisors have limited technical functions, they do exert an important
influence upon the attitudes of their subordinates.
From this review of the responsibilities of foremen and subforemen, it
can be said that the training of "foremen" for small, simple departments.
presents much the same considerations as the development of "subforemen❞
for large complex departments. The supervisory responsibilities in both
cases are a moderate burden. The executives interviewed were confident
of their ability to find men in their own organizations who could shoulder
these responsibilities. The executives stated, however, that such new ap-
pointees should be supervised intensively, and should be given an intensive
course of background information immediately after their appointments.¹
The companies with large, complex departments viewed the selection
and training of their foremen very much as other companies with simple
departments viewed the selection and development of "general foremen,"
who coordinate the work of several related but simple departments. In
1 See pp. 34-35 for a discussion of such courses.
9
each case, the companies thought that an adequate number of suitable candi-
dates could be found in the immediately lower classifications. Generally
speaking, the companies which had many subforemen or group leaders were
confident of the quality and numbers of their reserves for higher supervisory
positions. More concern was expressed by companies in which small but
fairly complex departments were to be rapidly expanded, and where no
junior supervisory positions had been used to test and train prospective
foremen.
Responsibility Analysis
A few of the companies had analyzed the responsibilities of their super-
visory positions prior to making plans for the upgrading of the incumbents.
Such analyses also are helpful in the selection and training of candidates
for supervisory positions. For this reason, each foreman and subforeman,
who is about to be advanced in rank, can be asked to analyze his responsi-
bilities, perhaps with the assistance of a personnel officer. His statement
then can be reviewed and corrected in a conference with his superior. If
necessary, staff men can be called in to aid him in outlining his responsibili-
ties which dovetail with theirs.
S
A
The same procedure can be used in case the work of a foreman is to be
subdivided and parts of it assigned to new subforemanships under his super-
vision. Such a responsibility analysis of any supervisory position appears to
be an essential step preparatory to the careful selection and development
of a person to fill it.
10
CHAPTER II
SELECTION OF CANDIDATES FOR TRAINING
The executives interviewed in the course of this survey were unanimous
in saying that they intended to obtain new supervisors from within their
organizations if at all possible. Some of them were apprehensive that new
positions would have to be filled before adequate programs for the selection
and training of candidates could be completed. The companies which faced
rapid expansion in 1941 planned to take action promptly on this problem
which, some of the top executives agreed, was more critical than the
threatened shortage of skilled labor at that time.
Centering of Educational Responsibility
There was general agreement that the responsibility for the selection
and training of new supervisors should be centered upon the operating
executives, since they can demonstrate the skills which the candidates should
develop. The operating executives, moreover, are uniquely qualified to
judge whether any trainee is worthy of advancement. The term "operating
executives" is used here to designate the plant manager, his division super-
intendents, and their foremen.
It was pointed out, however, that the pressure of many other and mo-
mentarily more pressing duties may cause some of these executives to neglect
this educational work unless it is appropriately emphasized by the plant
manager and by an officer on his staff. Such a staff officer, furthermore,
can economize the time of operating executives by assisting them in planning
and supervising the educational programs of prospective foremen. In this
discussion, a staff officer with these duties will be termed an educational
adviser.1
Survey of Probable Needs
The selection of prospective supervisors should occur only after a survey
and forecast of those needs in each division. These divisional forecasts can
then be combined to indicate the total number of prospects to be developed.
1 See pp. 30 and 31 for a detailed discussion of an educational adviser's duties.
}
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In the forecast of supervisory needs of any division, the manager of the
division and the educational adviser should consider the probable expansion
of the division and the content of the new positions to be created. The
major responsibilities attached to these new positions should be listed, even
though some later revisions might be made. In addition to these con-
siderations, the survey should include the positions which probably will
become vacant because of the superannuation or promotion of the in-
cumbents. Such divisional surveys then would indicate the number and
the probable assignments of new foremen and subforemen in each division
in the ensuing twelve to eighteen months.
—
It is advisable also to consider whether potential superintendents are in
the existing foremen groups. For if none of the foremen in a given di-
vision seems qualified for advancement, the management should add to it
an experienced foreman who has potentialities for advancement beyond
that rank. In most instances, however, the choices of candidates for fore-
manship should be made with the idea that the candidates will be satisfied
to hold that rank indefinitely.
Qualifications Sought in Candidates
The qualifications to be sought in prospective foremen can be deter-
mined by a review of the responsibilities attached to supervisory positions.
to be filled. Because of differences in those positions, the emphasis placed
on given qualifications should vary from one case to another. Thus, in
some departments, the nature of products or processes require foremen with
extensive technical knowledge. For example, in one company which manu-
factures electrical equipment, approximately 30 per cent of the foremen are
qualified electrical engineers, and another 20 per cent are mechanical
engineers. In a machinery manufacturing plant, some departments are
headed by foremen with a thorough knowledge of hydraulics. This com-
pany found that men who had "come up from the bench," but who lacked
formal technical training, were not qualified to supervise those departments
because of their inability to work effectively with the engineering staff.
In other cases, foremen give much attention to planning and organiz-
ing the work of their departments. This is evident, for instance, in com-
paring the work of "tool-and-die" foremen with the work of foremen in
charge of routine assembly operations. As a further example, a carton
manufacturer stated that the processing of work to customers' orders neces-
12
sitated an unusually high degree of organizing ability on the part of the
foreman of his printing department.
In practice, it is often necessary to accept some compromise between
the abilities ideally required for the performance of a job and those pos-
sessed by the leading candidates available. Nevertheless, when executives
draw up the ideal qualifications for a position on the basis of a job analysis,
they are better equipped to select a candidate for it. This preparatory
analysis helps them to determine whether the leading candidate has the
ability to shoulder all of the major responsibilities of the position.
Subject to the special requirements for specific positions, a general state-
ment can be made of the qualifications of prospective foremen thought de-
sirable by executives. These qualifications can be presented under three
headings: health, technical skill, and personality traits.
Health and Physical Characteristics
The executives commonly give attention to a candidate's physical con-
dition. In a few companies, a prospect is required to pass a physical ex-
amination. In a majority, the general health record of each prospect is
considered, since lack of health may impair his alertness, temperament, and
attitudes. It is well recognized that a foreman must expend a great deal
of nervous and physical energy in dealing with a considerable number and
variety of details and problems under changing conditions. Furthermore,
the responsibility for results from a certain section is placed squarely upon
his shoulders. A dependable foreman is concerned whenever his depart-
ment is not working smoothly or attaining its objectives fully. Not only
does his work require sustained effort and concern, but it also requires him
to exercise leadership and to energize others. Good health, therefore, is
a basic requirement for foremanship; lack of it will disqualify a candidate
at the outset."
1
Job Knowledge, Skill, and Learning Capacity
There was general agreement that a prospective foreman should have
been a good workman of the type he will supervise if he is promoted. Some
executives held that technical qualifications were overstressed in the past,
when the best workman in a section was usually earmarked as its next fore-
man. These executives said that in their experience, the best workman in
1 Several executives attach some importance to such physical characteristics as height, weight, voice,
and general appearance.
י
13
a department was not necessarily qualified to be its foreman. They stated
that many of their difficulties with employees were traceable to the fact
that some foremen had been selected with too much regard to their technical
knowledge and skill, and too little regard to their managerial qualities,
personality, and character traits. It was generally agreed, however, that
the prospective foreman should be a competent workman whose experience
would help him to direct and judge the performance of subordinates in the
same field.
In addition, it was said that a candidate should be intelligent in a
technical sense, by which was meant that he should have the desire and
capacity to learn about and master processes in his field. Preference was
expressed for a candidate who knows why things are done in approved
Where new supervisors are to be developed within a short period,
the intelligence requirement should be given more than its usual weight.
ways.
In a number of the cooperating companies, a prospective foreman's
educational record is regarded as important. It is thought to be useful
chiefly as evidence of general rather than specific qualifications. A credit-
able record in school is said to indicate mental ability and qualities of in-
tellectual initiative and application. Moreover, the subjects which the
prospect has mastered are believed to reflect his interests and aptitudes. At
present, the satisfactory completion of a high school course, trade school
course, or an apprenticeship is regarded as a desirable minimum qualifica-
tion of candidates for foremanship. This requirement is warranted in view
of the fact that a large and growing proportion of manual workers can
meet it. A particular type of schooling or experience should not be pre-
scribed as a necessary qualification for foremanship, however, if there is a
reasonable prospect that men without that qualification can become suc-
cessful supervisors.
M
Personality Traits
The importance of desirable personality traits in a prospective foreman
was stressed by a number of executives who evidently had given careful
thought to the entire problem. It was their conclusion that the develop-
ment of personality and character traits is difficult in adults. They thought,
therefore, that candidates for foremanship should possess such traits al-
ready. They said that a candidate thus qualified could be taught simple
managerial skills in a short time. The following list presents personality
traits stressed by these executives. The several qualifications are not
--
14
to be regarded as absolutes. Each is thought desirable in some degree,
but it doubtless will be needed to a greater degree in one position than in
another. This check list, therefore, should be used with the requirements
of the particular position definitely in mind.
PERSONALITY TRAITS DESIRED IN A PROSPECTIVE FOREMAN
1. Applies himself to his work to an unusual degree.
face of obstacles.
Perseveres in the
2. Is dependable. Will do what he undertakes to do. Keeps promises.
3. Is willing to accept responsibility. This includes willingness to admit
his own errors.
4. Has initiative and independence. Does his own thinking.
5. Is systematic and orderly.
6. Is sincerely interested in other people-their attitudes, satisfactions,
and progress but is not overly sentimental or inquisitive. Respects
the personalities, views, and rights of others. Safeguards any con-
fidences given to him. Gladly talks with others and answers their
questions.
7. Cooperates well. Is not unduly self-centered.
8. Is interested in a square deal, that is, he is concerned that other persons
receive equitable treatment.
9. Is frank yet tactful.
10. Exercises self-control. Has poise, maturity, and stability.
11. Is decisive, but not opinionated; is willing to change a decision if he
discovers sound reasons for the change.
12. Is able to adapt his views and methods to changed "conditions. Is pro-
gressive and interested in improvements.
13. Is resourceful.
14. Exercises foresight in his work.
15. Reacts well to criticism. Can view himself and his work objectively.
The executives, in selecting prospective foremen, prefer men over
thirty years of age. This requirement was urged on the ground that ma-
turity, poise, and stability of character could be expected in persons who had
attained that age.
One executive, in speaking of personality requirements, said: “It is
advisable to consider the prospect's character and how he gets along with
15
his associates. His standing with them indicates to a considerable degree
how he will deal with subordinates and whether he will be well regarded
as a representative of the management."
Sources of Prospective Foremen
In the companies contributing to this study, new foremen have been
obtained, with few exceptions, by promotions from lower ranks. As a rule,
a new foreman has served for a number of years as a workman, then for a
shorter period as a subforeman or as a staff man, before promotion to his
present position. His prior experience with his company typically has cov-
ered a period ranging from five to ten years.
The groups from which foremen can be selected are: (1) subforemen,
(2) staff specialists, and (3) the rank and file. Generally speaking, sub-
foremen and staff specialists are preferred candidates because they have
already been tested for foremanship in a number of ways. Subforemen,
for example, have performed some of the simple elements of foremanship.
Staff men, and particularly time-study or planning men, have performed
duties which originally were split off from "all-round" foremen's jobs.
Staff men would be competent, therefore, to deal with a few phases of a
foreman's job, but they might be too highly specialized to perform the full
range of duties. Further questions are whether some staff men would have
the executive drive for foremanship and whether they would be competent
to deal with industrial relations problems. If a need for many new fore-
men suddenly arises, however, it should be possible through intensive train-
ing to develop outstanding men in both of these groups for that level of
responsibility.¹
The recent graduates of apprentice courses or of colleges are sometimes
mentioned as prospective foremen. But the members of these groups.
ordinarily are too young or inexperienced for supervisory responsibilities.
Some of them doubtless will become prospective foremen after they have
matured. The recent graduates of colleges preferably should be assigned
to staff work, which will familiarize them with company operations and
personnel and improve their understanding of the problems of the busi-
ness, so that they can deal with those problems with due regard to the
physical, financial, and human factors which govern and limit their
treatment.
1 One executive thought that in case of a rapid expansion, his company would recall temporarily some
foremen and superintendents on the retired list.
16
Several companies which had maintained their programs for recruiting
college men during the thirties expressed satisfaction in 1940 that those
programs had been maintained. These companies looked to the mature
college graduates in their organizations to furnish a considerable number
of new supervisors in 1941 and 1942. One large company, which had not
continued such a recruiting program, reviewed its personnel records in 1940
and located a number of college graduates who had been hired during the
depression years and had continued to work in routine positions. The com-
pany in November, 1940, was observing those graduates in an endeavor
to find potential supervisors in the group.
In exceptional instances, some of the cooperating companies had gone
outside of their organizations to obtain new foremen with special abilities
which could not readily be developed in the companies themselves. Most
of the firms, however, have developed practically all of their foremen
within their organizations. The manufacturing processes of some of them
are so unique that they could not obtain supervisors elsewhere with the
required technical experience. Even where specialized experience is not
of first importance, each company generally tries to obtain foremen by pro-
motion. Thus, its new foremen are well acquainted with its organization,
technical methods, and personnel. In addition, the promotions stimulate
other men to work for advancement.
K
The rank and file is a source of foremen where the plan of organization
does not provide for subforemen. Appointments from this source are risky,
however, since even outstanding members of the rank and file usually have
not been tested or trained for managerial responsibilities.
Some large companies maintain records of outstanding employees who
are regarded as "potential executives." Foremen, superintendents, and
staff officers, who have the opportunity to observe members of the rank and
file in the several divisions, are asked periodically to list employees whom
they regard as in this group, and to keep them under observation. One of
the cooperating steel companies, for example, keeps a special file of in-
formation on each man concerning whose ability and promise three or more
executives are agreed. The record of each man is not a series of formal
ratings; rather it comprises informal notations about him which reflect the
experiences and observations of executives.
17
Courses as Aids to the Selection of Candidates
Four of the companies visited were offering courses to help them select
leading workmen for group-leader or staff positions. These companies had
been able to judge the manual proficiency, application, and technical
knowledge of candidates, but they needed the courses as aids in determining
the candidates' personality traits, ability to grasp managerial concepts, and
ability to express ideas. Each course presents information on the organization
and policies of the company offering it, and each is open to a limited number
of selected members of the rank and file.' The meetings of such courses are
held weekly on company time, but the members are expected to read notes
or informative pamphlets on their own time. The class sessions are given
over to talks and discussions of personnel policies and production problems.
The discussions serve to reveal the comparative abilities of the members.
Examinations on factual material are given periodically to test the ability
of the individuals to grasp and to explain managerial problems and pro-
cedures. Each company is careful to impress upon the members that its
course is given primarily for their information, and that attendance
throughout the course does not assure anyone of promotion.
2
Another selective course was offered by Pennsylvania State College in
one plant of the Aluminum Company of America. In this case, four tests
were used in selecting applicants for admission to the course:
1. The Otis Higher Form A, a test of mental ability, or, as it is com-
monly called, an intelligence test. The persons in charge of the course
assigned to this test a weight of forty points out of a total of one hundred.
2. The Bernreuter Personality Inventory (scored for neurotic ten-
dencies), a test of emotional stability. This test received a weight of thirty
points on the basis that "control of the emotions" is definitely required.
of foremen.
3. The Minnesota Paper Form Boards, a test for mechanical aptitude.
This test received a weight of twenty points.
4. The Strong Vocational Interest Test, scored for production man-
ager. This particular test compares the likes and dislikes of an individual
1 A selective course in industrial management was being given (November, 1940) at another company
by representatives of a technical school. The course was announced by posters, and applicants were
selected by representatives of the school on the basis of educational record, business experience, and score
on an intelligence test. The students were given some practical problems which called for analysis and
recommendations. The grades of each student were given to him and to the company. The company
expected that the course would identify employees of promise who had been overlooked.
2 The case is described by Lyle R. Mercer in Personnel, Vol. 17, No. 2 (November, 1940), pp. 89–96.
18
•
for different activities, types of people, kinds of work, etc., with the likes
and dislikes of successful production managers for the same things. This
test received a weight of ten points.
After completion of the course, a final ranking of the candidates was
made on the basis of several factors: the instructors opinion; scores made
on examinations; grades on projects, outside reading and notebooks; and
the selective test scores. Near the end of the course, thirty-six of its mem-
bers were picked at random and were ranked by their supervisors. There
was a close agreement between the supervisors' rankings and the final grades
of the men in the course.
Superficially, this might indicate that the tests and the course were not
necessary aids to the selection of candidates for supervisory training. This
conclusion is unwarranted, however, since the supervisors had never thought
of sixteen of the men as potential executives. In fact, they had observed
only nine of them from that point of view. "It was only after these (six-
teen) men had been selected for the training course that the supervisors
began to pay close attention to them." This experience suggests that an
informative course, open to volunteers from the rank and file who pass
suitable tests, may serve to bring forward new and promising candidates
for supervisory training.
Subjects for a Brief Selective Course
A company which intends to offer such a brief selective course to suitably
qualified members of the rank and file can readily outline it on the basis
of the major functions of the organization. A review of three such courses
was the basis for the following composite program of topics:
1. Origins and development of the business.
2. Major products or services, and their sales appeals; competing
products or services; how the factory can help to make sales and to keep
customer good will
3. Purchasing organization and policies
4. Warehousing of raw materials
5. Plant layout and the economical handling of materials
6. The design, installation, and maintenance of equipment
7. Selection, transfer, and promotion of employees
8. Production standards
9. The planning and scheduling of work
19
10. Job evaluation and incentive plans used by the company
11. Cost control
12. The supervisor's responsibilities
13. Employee benefit plans
14. Shipping, traffic, and customer service
15. Office contacts with customers (including billing, credits, collec-
tions, and adjustments)
16. Financing the business
17. Legislation and taxation affecting the business
18. Development of products and processes
19. The outlook for the business
In each of a number of large companies, a comprehensive course is
given to outstanding employees to acquaint them with a number of the
company's major departments, and to assist each man and the company to
select the type of work for which he seems suited. One of these companies,
for example, has a three-year course for graduate apprentices, graduate
engineers, and outstanding members of the rank and file. Members of the
course are given a series of temporary assignments in a number of the com-
pany's departments. The members thus develop manual and clerical skills,
and they acquire a great deal of knowledge about company operations. The
course is not intended to develop prospective foremen directly, however.
Rather it is a general program for selected young men, of whom some
later will be highly versatile employees in manual or clerical work, and
others will be technicians, salesmen, or supervisors, depending on their
individual interests and aptitudes, and upon the company's needs.¹ This
1 The course requires definite accomplishments in shop, school, and gymnasium. The shop training
program for technically trained men differs from the program for journeymen, but each requires a mini-
mum of seventy-two weeks. For the remainder of the time, each man is used on shop or office work,
according to his aptitudes and according to company needs. One written report is required each quarter
on a subject of the student's choice.
The school requirements are: attendance of two hours per week; preparation of home assignments;
a grade of at least 75 per cent, determined by recitations and examinations; and a written report on an
assigned subject each quarter.
The school curriculum is as follows:
1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year
1st Quarter
Introductory Course
Business Letters
Engineering Control
Engineering Staff
Functions
Company Machines
2nd Quarter
Materials & Products
Special Problems
Business Letters
Job Training
Foremanship
3rd Quarter
Materials & Products
Company Organiza-
tion
Effective Expression
Company Machines
Foremanship
4th Quarter
Materials & Products
Company Organiza-
tion
Effective Expression
Company Machines
Foremanship
Company Machines
Quality Control
Product Develop-
ment
The gymnasium requirements are: attendance at least one hour per week, and performance satisfactory
to the gymnasium instructor.
i
20
company can doubtless obtain some prospective supervisors among the
graduates of this course, but they will require further intensive training.
Another company, without such a course, could establish other means for
selecting prospective foremen more quickly among the wage earners and
the subforemen in its organization.
Rapid Expansion of Supervisory Forces
The national defense program, beginning in 1940 after a decade of re-
stricted industrial activity, found many companies faced with the need for
large numbers of new supervisors. One metal manufacturing company, for
example, required three hundred new foremen within a relatively short pe-
riod of time. This firm advertised for candidates within its own organization
and also in selected metal-manufacturing centers. The notices on the plant
bulletin boards stated a preferred age range, and explained that applicants
would have to pass a thorough physical examination. The notices further
stated that candidates would be given intelligence and personality tests and
would be carefully interviewed. The notices directed interested persons
to communicate with the employment department. The foremen also were
asked to recommend candidates for consideration, a step which brought
forth a number of desirable men who had not responded to the bulletins.
The company reported that the applicants on the whole were satisfac-
tory; it attributed this result to the clear statement of conditions in the
posted notices. The candidates selected from within the organization in-
cluded members of the rank and file, graduate apprentices, and graduates
of technical schools. Several of the last named had graduated in the depres-
sion years and had been unable to obtain technical employment thereafter.
The advertising outside the plant was placed in newspapers in several
cities. These advertisements specified that engineering graduates with five
to ten years of industrial experience were desired as candidates for super-
visory work. The response in the fall of 1940 was satisfactory. After a pre-
liminary study of each applicant's record or letter, the preferred individuals
were given an intelligence test and a personality test. In addition, each was
thoroughly interviewed by an expert. Moreover, the experience record of
each preferred applicant was verified. In this way, the company selected a
number of prospective supervisors from outside its organization. These men
and the candidates from within the company were then entered in an inten-
sive training course.
21
Trends Affecting the Supply of Candidates
A number of executives referred to developments in recent years, which,
in their opinion, have made the position of foreman less attractive to work-
men than it had been. One of these developments has been the narrow-
ing of the preferential advantages which foremen previously enjoyed. In
these years, for example, sickness benefits, vacations, and unemployment
compensation have been granted to many workmen, whereas previously
these privileges were granted almost exclusively to supervisors. Another
factor which has reduced the desire of some workmen to become foremen,
has been the payment of one and one-half times the regular hourly wage
for any work in excess of eight hours per day or forty hours per week. Such
overtime compensation ordinarily has not been granted to foremen. Be-
cause of these arrangements, workmen in some companies have received
weekly earnings which closely approached and sometimes even exceeded
the weekly earnings of their foremen.
Furthermore, in the past twenty years, the discretion exercised by many
foremen has been circumscribed by the development of the techniques of
scientific management, and by the establishment of checks and balances
within managerial organizations. Many processes have become subject to
close controls, set up by top managers and administered by inspectors,
chemical engineers, cost accountants, and other technicians. These controls
focus directly upon the foremen. Again, many companies no longer permit
foremen to select or discharge employees without the collaboration and ap-
proval of their personnel departments. Channels of appeal have been
established through which individual employees or their representatives
can denounce a foreman's actions to top management. This system of
checks and balances subjects a foreman to pressures from both his superiors.
and the organized employees. Several executives said that shop stewards in
their plants had carried too many complaints beyond the foremen to super-
intendents, and that this practice had undermined the status of foremen.
Similarly, in some plants, foremen's positions had become more difficult
because labor unions had pressed the foremen to relax production standards
or departmental rules and discipline.
G
Finally, under the National Labor Relations Act, as it has been ad-
ministered, a foreman must bear with troublesome employees who are
active unionists until he has clear-cut evidence to support their discharge
on grounds of unsatisfactory workmanship or conduct. Otherwise, any such
employee, if discharged, can allege that he was dismissed because of his
22
union membership. His appeal to the regional office of the National Labor
Relations Board results in an investigation which puts both the foreman and
his company on the defensive.
These developments of recent years have impaired the morale of fore-
men and have made their positions less attractive to members of the rank
and file. It is recommended, therefore, that managers review the status,
security, and compensation of foremen in their organizations and see to it
that the training, compensation, and executive support of foremen measure
up fully to their exacting responsibilities.
Unionism and the Selection of Prospective Foremen
Some executives, particularly in the metal trades, expressed the view
that unionism had made the discovery of supervisory talent among em-
ployees a more difficult task. These executives contended that unionism
had restrained individual workmen from showing evidence of their po-
tential ability. This problem was not generally cited, however. A num-
ber of managers reported that unionism had caused them no difficulties in
identifying workmen with outstanding qualities.
Other barriers to the discovery and selection of prospective foremen
from among organized employees were also mentioned. Several execu-
tives expressed doubt as to the fitness of active unionists for supervisory
responsibilities. As the principal reason for this view, it was stated that
supervisors sometimes have to insist upon compliance with work standards
and shop rules, which the employees wish to have relaxed, and that a
supervisor, who until recently has been a spokesman for his employees in
these matters, finds it difficult to oppose their desires. Furthermore, execu-
tives pointed out that many union members had developed and expressed
anti-company attitudes which could not be reconciled with the obligations
of foremanship. In several cases, moreover, it was reported that union
officials who had been appointed to supervisory tasks were distrusted by the
rank and file.
Fear on the part of unionists that management might weaken their or-
ganizations by the appointment of their leaders to supervisory jobs is re-
sponsible for the clauses in some collective agreements which prohibit
management from offering such positions to union officials during their
terms of office, and for a designated period after those terms have expired.
It would seem desirable, therefore, for management to exercise care in the
selection of active unionists for supervisory responsibilities.
23
In several of the cooperating companies, men who had previously been
active unionists proved to be highly satisfactory when promoted to super-
visory jobs. Executives in these companies believed that the real ability
of these men had not found expression until an opportunity had been pro-
vided by the advent of the union. Unionism in these cases had aided
management by bringing to light the latent or unnoticed abilities of some
employees. Approximately thirty executives were asked whether the fact
that a man was an active unionist would cause them to hesitate to appoint
him to a foremanship, even though they thought him well qualified for the
position. A large majority replied that they would not hesitate to make
such an appointment.
Several companies reported that unions tried to have seniority rules.
govern appointments to supervisory positions. Under certain circumstances,
no harm would be done by following such rules. Thus, if a manager is
considering merely the appointment of a straw boss, and the senior man in
the employee group has sufficient ability for the promotion, a seniority rule
would seem to work no hardship. But, if this senior man has little further
potentiality, his promotion may lead to difficulties for himself, his manager,
and probably the employees whom he then is supervising. This will occur
in case he blocks a channel of promotion because of his incapacity for further
advancement. In that event he will have to be by-passed in some way. By
pointing out such difficulties, some companies have convinced labor organi-
zations that promotions should not be governed by seniority, although the
companies have conceded that seniority should always be a consideration.
Several companies have been able to convince unions that all parties in
time would suffer if seniority rules prevented the promotion of outstand-
ing men. On the other hand, these companies realize that apparent disre-
gard of seniority in making a promotion is disliked by employees. There-
fore, the companies call union leaders in and explain to them why, in such
cases, the apparent abilities of the persons selected for promotion have been
deemed more important than their seniority.
Importance of Initial Selection
The initial promotion of workmen to minor supervisory positions de-
serves great care, since persons unwisely chosen for such promotions suffer
the experience and record of failure later. Furthermore, the loss of the
investment in their training is to be considered. A number of executives
have concluded, therefore, that the qualifications of prospective supervisors
24
should be reviewed by several persons in conference, and that the recom-
mendations of these persons should guide the manager who has the re-
sponsibility of making the appointment. Collective judgment in such a
case will tend to be less biased than the judgment of an individual. Un-
fortunate experiences were cited in which supervisors had selected prospec-
tive foremen on inadequate grounds or with reference to incidents which
were not typical in the candidate's record. Some prospective foremen, for
example, had been chosen because of the quality of their workmanship,
others because they were "quantity producers," still others because they
helped to meet an emergency in the past, and still others because they were
"two-fisted men."
Bias in the selection of junior supervisors seems to have been sufficiently
widespread to suggest the need for a better preparation for such choices on
the part of managers and foremen. Specifically, it is suggested that the
bases of selection for a given supervisory position should be discussed in
advance by the men who are to judge the candidates. The executives con-
cerned should agree upon the qualifications to be sought in the candidates.
A second suggestion is that time-study men and industrial engineers
should assist in the selection of junior supervisors. These staff men can
mention employees who have learned new methods readily and who have
been willing to cooperate in development work. Staff men thus can aid
in judging the intelligence, adaptability, and personality traits of prospec-
tive foremen.
Such preparation for the selection of prospective foremen should be
made without delay by companies which are on the threshold of marked
expansion. In each factory division, the superintendent, the foremen, and
the staff men should confer and decide upon the qualities desired in candi-
dates for given supervisory positions in the division. The foremen and
staff officers in each division should be asked to designate promising em-
ployees and to observe them closely. In this way, these officers will be better
able to select the men who are to be given the preparatory training.
A food manufacturing company which has given careful attention to
the initial selection of prospective supervisors uses the following procedure:
1. Each prospect is interviewed and rated by at least three executives,
usually his foreman, the personnel officer, and the superintendent of the
position to be filled.
2. Each prospect is required to take a mental test and a physical ex-
amination.
25
3. The record of each prospect is studied.
4. The executives who have interviewed the prospects for a position
meet in conference to review the data and to nominate the best candidate
for the vacancy. This nomination is sent to the plant manager.
'Potentiality Ratings
The forms on pages 28 and 29 are suggested as aids to executives in
their selection of prospects for supervisory work. The first provides for
ratings of personal qualifications in view of the requirements of a particular
position. As regards each trait, the individual candidate is graded as being
deficient, adequate, or superior. The check marks regarding any quality
can be placed at any location on the horizontal line to indicate the degree to
which the individual is thought adequate for the position in that respect.
Because this type of rating often refers to abstract qualities which, even
if favorably rated, do not assure the competence of a candidate, it is sug-
gested that candidates be rated on the degree to which they are deemed
competent to shoulder each of the major responsibilities of the position
for which they are being considered. The form on page 29 is designed
according to this view. It calls for the rater's judgment of a candidate's ap-
parent ability to perform each major duty of a position. Preferably, the
duties should be arranged in the order of their importance, so that degree
of competence for the most important duties will be given the greatest
weight in the selection.
Difficulties with ratings of personality traits have developed because
the meanings given the terms and the standards of judgment used by the
raters are not uniform. For these reasons, some companies insist that
ratings be made in the presence of a personnel officer who can advise the
raters regarding the meanings of the terms and of the standards to be used.
Again, raters are not always given sufficient opportunity to judge the
specified abilities of individuals before they the raters are required to
put their opinions on record. If ratings of personal qualities are desired,
the raters should be given several weeks in which to observe the stated qual-
ities of promising men before noting their opinions in writing. Judgments
of each prospect by several raters are highly desirable to correct bias, al-
though in some instances only a candidate's foreman has been sufficiently
well acquainted with him to express opinions on his qualities. This is not
a satisfactory condition, since the responsibility for initial selection then
rests with one man.
Cli
·
1
26
In a few of the companies surveyed, psychological tests were used in
the initial selection of minor supervisors. In some companies, such tests
were used in the selection of apprentices, and in the event that any of the
apprentices were considered later for minor supervisory work, some weight
was given to the test results. Executives in most of the companies, how-
ever, did not favor the use of psychological tests. These executives were
of the opinion that if reliable results were to be obtained from psychological
tests, the investigations should be carried on by competent psychologists.
Few of the executives thought that the tests were needed to an extent
which would warrant the employment of these experts. The executives
thought that the potential supervisory ability of candidates could be de-
termined by careful observation and rating.
It appears that the real question here is whether managers wish to re-
duce somewhat further the probable error in the initial selection of candi-
dates for foremanship. Psychological tests might reduce that error by
predicting the success of individuals who had had no opportunity to exercise
supervisory responsibility. Evidently most of the executives consulted
had decided to rely upon trial assignments of such individuals to minor
supervisory jobs as the means for testing their probable success in more
responsible supervisory positions. The outcome of this policy will depend
on the degree to which the assignments used for purposes of test are care-
fully selected, and actually do require abilities which are the same as those
required for the higher supervisory positions. Furthermore, the success
of the policy will depend on the ability of the supervisors to judge the
personal qualities of outstanding subordinates. A number of managers
admitted that their foremen had not been instructed sufficiently in this
important matter.
This chapter has dealt with some considerations affecting the initial
selection of candidates for foremanship. After such selection, they should
be given information and practical assignments which will train them for
supervisory responsibilities and test them more conclusively.
27
Position
Candidate
QUALIFICATION DESIRED
Health
Technical knowledge and skill
Application and perseverance
Dependability
Acceptance of responsibility
Initiative
Orderliness
Interest in people
Willingness to cooperate
RATING OF PERSONAL QUALITIES
Date
Rating by
RATING OF CANDIDATE'S QUALIFICATIONS
Adequate for
POSITION Requirement
3
DEFICIENT FOR
POSITION Requirement
1
2
4
SUPERIOR TO
POSITION REQUIREMENT
5
6


28
Position
Candidate
RATING OF CANDIDATE'S PROBABLE PERFORMANCE
MAJOR DUTIES OF POSITION
(Listed in order of importance)
Supervise personnel engaged in
pipe line repairs, etc.
Promote safe practices among
repair crew
Plan layout of pipe work
Secure contractors for large re-
pair jobs
Keep costs within approved stand-
ards
Estimate cost of pipe work
Enter suitable charge numbers on
repair vouchers
Secure purchase requisitions for
all contract orders
See that hours and working con-
ditions follow company policy|
EXCELLENT
Date
Rating by
RATING OF PROBABLE PERFORMANCE
ABOVE THE
REQUIREMENT
BELOW THE
Requirement
ACCEPTABLE
FAILURE
A

29
CHAPTER III
HELPING CANDIDATES TO UNDERSTAND
SUPERVISORY PROBLEMS
The objectives in the preparatory training of prospective foremen may
be grouped under three major headings: to promote understanding of com-
pany policies and practices; to develop supervisory skills; and to improve
personality traits. It is now in order to review these objectives somewhat
specifically and to discuss educational methods for developing prospective
foremen along these lines.
Most of the companies surveyed were optimistic with regard to their
ability to train men for foremanship. There was little expression of the
concept that foremen are "born and cannot be made." Rather the execu-
tives thought that satisfactory candidates could be obtained in their organi-
zations and that these candidates could be trained for supervisory respon-
sibilities. Only a few executives were pessimistic or indifferent with regard
to such preparatory training and were unwilling to invest time and effort
in that direction. It was their thought that individuals should be tried
as foremen and, if found wanting, should be replaced. Such a policy,
however, is not likely to be pursued in a company for any length of time.
The advancement of an individual from the ranks to a supervisory position
imposes many new responsibilities upon him for which he should be pre-
pared. Otherwise, the risk of his failure is large, and the failure of any such
appointee is costly, not only in a financial sense because of production
failures, but it also is costly in the loss of employee confidence in the
management.
Staff Assistance to Operating Executives
A previous section stated that the responsibility for the selection and
development of prospective foremen should be centered in the operating
executives. It was noted, however, that these long-range endeavors, which
have little immediate effect, tend to be neglected by operating executives
unless correctives and aids are furnished by top management and a staff
officer.
The services of such a staff officer can be listed as follows:
30
1. He assists in forecasting the needs for new supervisors in each division
and in determining the qualities to be sought in candidates. The operating
executives are primarily responsible for making these analyses.
2. He assists these executives in planning specific training programs
for individual prospects or groups of prospects. The plans cover the
specific objectives of training in individual cases, the training methods to
be used, by whom the training is to be given, and the duration of the
training effort.
3. He aids the operating executives in carrying through these plans.
This aid includes the direction of conferences of foremen and superintend-
ents on the selection and development of prospective foremen. The staff
officer's aid includes also the preparation of instruction materials or mono-
graphs and the arrangement of transfers and work assignments.
4. He observes the progress of each trainee, to judge how well the edu-
cational plans for the individual are being carried out, and to suggest re-
visions in the plans.
5. He counsels and maintains the morale of individual trainees, helps
them meet the criticisms of their supervisors and associates, and assists them
in the improvement of their personality traits. The trainees are told that
they individually are free to go to the staff officer for counsel on personal
difficulties encountered during their training periods.
Such staff officers have been appointed in a number of the companies
visited in the course of this survey. Each of these officers has time for the
detailed oversight of educational activities in individual cases, and he is
qualified to guide the program as a whole. He is selected for his resource-
fulness in planning and arranging educational assignments, and for his abili-
ty to motivate others to participate in educational efforts. He works as an
equal with division superintendents, formulates plans in cooperation with
them, and observes the execution of those plans. This staff work is a full-
time or a part-time assignment, depending on the number of supervisors
to be trained. In normal times, most of the training of prospective foremen
occurs as they work under the supervision of experienced foremen and
technicians. Many of these instructors need stimulation, guidance, and
assistance in carrying on their educational responsibilities, and these aids
can be provided by a competent educational adviser.
Individualized Instruction
The development of prospective foremen is concerned in part with the
improvement of skills and personality traits. These changes are brought
31
about by practice under guidance in junior supervisory positions, which
sometimes are created temporarily for the purpose. This type of training
necessarily involves individualized instruction. More basically, instruction
is individualized because different skills are required in the future positions
of the candidates, and because personality differences exist among the men
themselves. Furthermore, under normal conditions, candidates are selected
and their training launched as needs for them become evident. Thus in
small companies only one candidate may be started at a time. There seems
to be some tendency in larger firms to start several candidates together so
as to facilitate the informative instruction, which can readily be given in
group meetings. And in 1940 the unusual demand for new supervisors
caused many companies to begin much larger "classes" of prospective fore-
men than had been their practice.
It is to be remembered, nevertheless, that group instruction of an in-
formative nature is but one phase of the educational program. General infor-
mation can thus be presented to prospective foremen and the intragroup
discussion can stimulate their thinking and bring about changes in their
attitudes. But even more important to the rounded development of super-
visory candidates is individualized instruction which can be fitted to the
specific needs of different personalities and positions.
Formal courses, definitely labeled as preparatory for foremanship, were
disapproved by the executives interviewed. A number of them ran such
courses in the twenties, but found it difficult to gauge their needs for new
foremen closely. They realized then that they might train more candidates.
than could be given positions. This they knew would cause intense dis-
satisfaction among the trainees. Another difficulty with such a formal
course is the definite time schedule according to which it is operated. If a
candidate is not advanced according to the schedule, he is likely to become.
dissatisfied. Preferably, the means for testing and training prospective
supervisors should not thus arouse their expectation of stated promotions.
at definite dates. Furthermore, a formal preparatory course for prospective
foremen tends to have a discouraging effect upon ambitious men who have
not been appointed to the group. They naturally feel that they are not
being considered for advancement so long as they remain outside. Perhaps
the chief objection to a standardized preforemanship course, however, is
that the program ordinarily is not focused sharply enough upon the specific
preparation which a prospect for a given supervisory position should have.
The existence of this type of course, moreover, has caused some executives
to neglect individualized instruction.
32
should be reviewed by several persons in conference, and that the recom-
mendations of these persons should guide the manager who has the re-
sponsibility of making the appointment. Collective judgment in such a
case will tend to be less biased than the judgment of an individual. Un-
fortunate experiences were cited in which supervisors had selected prospec-
tive foremen on inadequate grounds or with reference to incidents which
were not typical in the candidate's record. Some prospective foremen, for
example, had been chosen because of the quality of their workmanship,
others because they were "quantity producers," still others because they
helped to meet an emergency in the past, and still others because they were
"two-fisted men."
Bias in the selection of junior supervisors seems to have been sufficiently
widespread to suggest the need for a better preparation for such choices on
the part of managers and foremen. Specifically, it is suggested that the
bases of selection for a given supervisory position should be discussed in
advance by the men who are to judge the candidates. The executives con-
cerned should agree upon the qualifications to be sought in the candidates.
A second suggestion is that time-study men and industrial engineers
should assist in the selection of junior supervisors. These staff men can
mention employees who have learned new methods readily and who have
been willing to cooperate in development work. Staff men thus can aid
in judging the intelligence, adaptability, and personality traits of prospec-
tive foremen.
Such preparation for the selection of prospective foremen should be
made without delay by companies which are on the threshold of marked
expansion. In each factory division, the superintendent, the foremen, and
the staff men should confer and decide upon the qualities desired in candi-
dates for given supervisory positions in the division. The foremen and
staff officers in each division should be asked to designate promising em-
ployees and to observe them closely. In this way, these officers will be better
able to select the men who are to be given the preparatory training.
A food manufacturing company which has given careful attention to
the initial selection of prospective supervisors uses the following procedure:
1. Each prospect is interviewed and rated by at least three executives,
usually his foreman, the personnel officer, and the superintendent of the
position to be filled.
2. Each prospect is required to take a mental test and a physical ex-
amination.
25
3. The record of each prospect is studied.
4. The executives who have interviewed the prospects for a position
meet in conference to review the data and to nominate the best candidate
for the vacancy. This nomination is sent to the plant manager.
Potentiality Ratings
The forms on pages 28 and 29 are suggested as aids to executives in
their selection of prospects for supervisory work. The first provides for
ratings of personal qualifications in view of the requirements of a particular
position. As regards each trait, the individual candidate is graded as being
deficient, adequate, or superior. The check marks regarding any quality
can be placed at any location on the horizontal line to indicate the degree to
which the individual is thought adequate for the position in that respect.
Because this type of rating often refers to abstract qualities which, even
if favorably rated, do not assure the competence of a candidate, it is sug-
gested that candidates be rated on the degree to which they are deemed
competent to shoulder each of the major responsibilities of the position
for which they are being considered. The form on page 29 is designed
according to this view. It calls for the rater's judgment of a candidate's ap-
parent ability to perform each major duty of a position. Preferably, the
duties should be arranged in the order of their importance, so that degree
of competence for the most important duties will be given the greatest
weight in the selection.
Difficulties with ratings of personality traits have developed because
the meanings given the terms and the standards of judgment used by the
raters are not uniform. For these reasons, some companies insist that
ratings be made in the presence of a personnel officer who can advise the
raters regarding the meanings of the terms and of the standards to be used.
Again, raters are not always given sufficient opportunity to judge the
specified abilities of individuals before they-the raters—are required to
put their opinions on record. If ratings of personal qualities are desired,
the raters should be given several weeks in which to observe the stated qual-
ities of promising men before noting their opinions in writing. Judgments
of each prospect by several raters are highly desirable to correct bias, al-
though in some instances only a candidate's foreman has been sufficiently
well acquainted with him to express opinions on his qualities. This is not
a satisfactory condition, since the responsibility for initial selection then
rests with one man.
26
In a few of the companies surveyed, psychological tests were used in
the initial selection of minor supervisors. In some companies, such tests
were used in the selection of apprentices, and in the event that any of the
apprentices were considered later for minor supervisory work, some weight
was given to the test results. Executives in most of the companies, how-
ever, did not favor the use of psychological tests. These executives were
of the opinion that if reliable results were to be obtained from psychological
tests, the investigations should be carried on by competent psychologists.
Few of the executives thought that the tests were needed to an extent
which would warrant the employment of these experts. The executives
thought that the potential supervisory ability of candidates could be de-
termined by careful observation and rating.
It appears that the real question here is whether managers wish to re-
duce somewhat further the probable error in the initial selection of candi-
dates for foremanship. Psychological tests might reduce that error by
predicting the success of individuals who had had no opportunity to exercise
supervisory responsibility. Evidently most of the executives consulted
had decided to rely upon trial assignments of such individuals to minor
supervisory jobs as the means for testing their probable success in more
responsible supervisory positions. The outcome of this policy will depend
on the degree to which the assignments used for purposes of test are care-
fully selected, and actually do require abilities which are the same as those
required for the higher supervisory positions. Furthermore, the success
of the policy will depend on the ability of the supervisors to judge the
personal qualities of outstanding subordinates. A number of managers
admitted that their foremen had not been instructed sufficiently in this
important matter.
M
This chapter has dealt with some considerations affecting the initial
selection of candidates for foremanship. After such selection, they should
be given information and practical assignments which will train them for
supervisory responsibilities and test them more conclusively.
27

Position
Candidate
QUALIFICATION DESIRED
Health
Technical knowledge and skill
Application and perseverance
Dependability
Acceptance of responsibility
Initiative
Orderliness
Interest in people
Willingness to cooperate
RATING OF PERSONAL QUALITIES
Date
Rating by
RATING OF CANDIDATE'S QUALIFICATIONS
ADEQUATE FOR
POSITION REQUIREMENT
3
DEFICIENT FOR
POSITION REquirement
1
2
P
4
SUPERIOR TO
POSITION REQuirement
5
6


28
Position
Candidate
RATING OF CANDIDATE'S PROBABLE PERFORMANCE
MAJOR DUTIES OF POSITION
(Listed in order of importance)
Supervise personnel engaged in
pipe line repairs, etc.
Promote safe
safe practices among
repair crew
Plan layout of pipe work
Secure contractors for large re-
pair jobs
Keep costs within approved stand-
ards
Estimate cost of pipe work
Enter suitable charge numbers on
repair vouchers
Secure purchase requisitions for
all contract orders
See that hours and working con-
ditions follow company policy|
EXCELLENT
Date
Rating by
RATING OF PROBABLE PERFORMANCE
ABOVE THE
REQUIREMENT
BELOW THE
RequiremeNT
ACCEPTABLE
K
FAILURE
29
·
CHAPTER III
HELPING CANDIDATES TO UNDERSTAND
SUPERVISORY PROBLEMS
The objectives in the preparatory training of prospective foremen may
be grouped under three major headings: to promote understanding of com-
pany policies and practices; to develop supervisory skills; and to improve
personality traits. It is now in order to review these objectives somewhat
specifically and to discuss educational methods for developing prospective
foremen along these lines.
Most of the companies surveyed were optimistic with regard to their
ability to train men for foremanship. There was little expression of the
concept that foremen are "born and cannot be made." Rather the execu-
tives thought that satisfactory candidates could be obtained in their organi-
zations and that these candidates could be trained for supervisory respon-
sibilities. Only a few executives were pessimistic or indifferent with regard
to such preparatory training and were unwilling to invest time and effort
in that direction. It was their thought that individuals should be tried
as foremen and, if found wanting, should be replaced. Such a policy,
however, is not likely to be pursued in a company for any length of time.
The advancement of an individual from the ranks to a supervisory position.
imposes many new responsibilities upon him for which he should be pre-
pared. Otherwise, the risk of his failure is large, and the failure of any such
appointee is costly, not only in a financial sense because of production
failures, but it also is costly in the loss of employee confidence in the
management.
Staff Assistance to Operating Executives
A previous section stated that the responsibility for the selection and
development of prospective foremen should be centered in the operating
executives. It was noted, however, that these long-range endeavors, which
have little immediate effect, tend to be neglected by operating executives
unless correctives and aids are furnished by top management and a staff
officer.
The services of such a staff officer can be listed as follows:
•
30
1. He assists in forecasting the needs for new supervisors in each division
and in determining the qualities to be sought in candidates. The operating
executives are primarily responsible for making these analyses.
2. He assists these executives in planning specific training programs
for individual prospects or groups of prospects. The plans cover the
specific objectives of training in individual cases, the training methods to
be used, by whom the training is to be given, and the duration of the
training effort.
3. He aids the operating executives in carrying through these plans.
This aid includes the direction of conferences of foremen and superintend-
ents on the selection and development of prospective foremen. The staff
officer's aid includes also the preparation of instruction materials or mono-
graphs and the arrangement of transfers and work assignments.
4. He observes the progress of each trainee, to judge how well the edu-
cational plans for the individual are being carried out, and to suggest re-
visions in the plans.
5. He counsels and maintains the morale of individual trainees, helps
them meet the criticisms of their supervisors and associates, and assists them
in the improvement of their personality traits. The trainees are told that
they individually are free to go to the staff officer for counsel on personal
difficulties encountered during their training periods.
Such staff officers have been appointed in a number of the companies
visited in the course of this survey. Each of these officers has time for the
detailed oversight of educational activities in individual cases, and he is
qualified to guide the program as a whole. He is selected for his resource-
fulness in planning and arranging educational assignments, and for his abili-
ty to motivate others to participate in educational efforts. He works as an
equal with division superintendents, formulates plans in cooperation with
them, and observes the execution of those plans. This staff work is a full-
time or a part-time assignment, depending on the number of supervisors
to be trained. In normal times, most of the training of prospective foremen
occurs as they work under the supervision of experienced foremen and
technicians. Many of these instructors need stimulation, guidance, and
assistance in carrying on their educational responsibilities, and these aids.
can be provided by a competent educational adviser.
Q
Individualized Instruction
The development of prospective foremen is concerned in part with the
improvement of skills and personality traits. These changes are brought
31
about by practice under guidance in junior supervisory positions, which
sometimes are created temporarily for the purpose. This type of training
necessarily involves individualized instruction. More basically, instruction
is individualized because different skills are required in the future positions
of the candidates, and because personality differences exist among the men
themselves. Furthermore, under normal conditions, candidates are selected
and their training launched as needs for them become evident. Thus in
small companies only one candidate may be started at a time. There seems
to be some tendency in larger firms to start several candidates together so
as to facilitate the informative instruction, which can readily be given in
group meetings. And in 1940 the unusual demand for new supervisors
caused many companies to begin much larger "classes" of prospective fore-
men than had been their practice.
It is to be remembered, nevertheless, that group instruction of an in-
formative nature is but one phase of the educational program. General infor-
mation can thus be presented to prospective foremen and the intragroup
discussion can stimulate their thinking and bring about changes in their
attitudes. But even more important to the rounded development of super-
visory candidates is individualized instruction which can be fitted to the
specific needs of different personalities and positions.
Formal courses, definitely labeled as preparatory for foremanship, were
disapproved by the executives interviewed. A number of them ran such
courses in the twenties, but found it difficult to gauge their needs for new
foremen closely. They realized then that they might train more candidates
than could be given positions. This they knew would cause intense dis-
satisfaction among the trainees. Another difficulty with such a formal
course is the definite time schedule according to which it is operated. If a
candidate is not advanced according to the schedule, he is likely to become
dissatisfied. Preferably, the means for testing and training prospective
supervisors should not thus arouse their expectation of stated promotions
at definite dates. Furthermore, a formal preparatory course for prospective
foremen tends to have a discouraging effect upon ambitious men who have
not been appointed to the group. They naturally feel that they are not
being considered for advancement so long as they remain outside. Perhaps
the chief objection to a standardized preforemanship course, however, is
that the program ordinarily is not focused sharply enough upon the specific
preparation which a prospect for a given supervisory position should have.
The existence of this type of course, moreover, has caused some executives
to neglect individualized instruction.
P
32
Imparting Information to Prospective Foremen
At the beginning of this chapter, three objectives in the training of pros-
pective foremen were mentioned: the first was to impart information and
to promote an understanding of company policies and practices. This ob-
jective can be sought in varying degrees of thoroughness. Thus, it may
be sufficient that a candidate have a knowledge of the purpose and a super-
ficial grasp of the procedures of the company in dealing with selected
supervisory problems in the plant. This type of generalized instruction
can be carried forward by means of discussions, the reading of monographs,
and by inspection trips to selected departments. A number of the companies.
visited were engaged in instruction of this nature. In one company, for
example, a course was being offered to a small group of men who had been
nominated by the several foremen as prospective supervisors. No one was
appointed to the course unless there was a probability that he would be
needed as a supervisor within eighteen months. The course includes
material on plant management, industrial relations, cost control, sales
policies, and the company's financial statements, and is given by department
heads under the general supervision of a staff officer who correlates the work
of the individual meetings. Collateral readings are required each week
and examinations are held at intervals of six weeks. The examination
grades are reported to the individuals concerned and to their supervisors.
The meetings are held on company time, and members who fail to do
satisfactory work are dropped.
Such informative courses should be timed so that they probably will
be completed before the members are selected for important supervisory
responsibilities. Accordingly, if a considerable amount of material is to
be presented within a few months, the sessions held each week should be
increased in length or number. The length of a course can be minimized
by limiting it to the informative material which necessarily should be given
to a prospect before he is promoted to supervisory work.
This suggestion reflects the views of executives who discussed their
plans for expanding their supervisory forces rapidly. So far as imparting
information is concerned, these executives stated that they would quickly
organize conference courses for prospective supervisors. These courses
might be held for several sessions a week and in them would be compressed
a great deal of introductory information regarding company organization
and operations. Much of this information could be obtained from the
records of foreman-training courses which the companies have been operating
<
33
for a number of years. The companies appreciate that some individuals
in such a preparatory course might be promoted before they had completed
the program, but in that event, they would continue in the course to its
completion.
Subject Matter Presented
The subject matter of informative courses for prospective foremen may
be grouped under a few major headings. Individual companies will find
that some of these headings are important in their cases, and that other items
can be dealt with quite briefly. The subjects commonly found in this sur-
vey were as follows:
1. A description of major products of the company, their uses, quality,
sales appeals, markets, and the competition being met. In case a company
is subdivided according to lines of product, the individual candidate may be
given information of this type with respect only to the major products of
the division in which he may later serve as foreman.
2. Basic technical information which explains the processes in the can-
didate's division and the relationships of those processes. A technical
treatise referring to the total process of manufacture is used in one company
manufacturing copper and brass products; a somewhat similar treatise is
used in another company manufacturing steel wire products.
3. A survey of the company organization as a whole, followed by a
detailed description of the functions of the staff departments which serve
the candidate's division.
4. A survey of important personnel policies and the content of any
collective agreement in effect. Some companies also introduce a brief
treatment of labor legislation which governs them.
5. A review of the major records and reports which are used to main-
tain departmental efficiency. These may include reports of production,
defective work, idle time, and waste.
6. A brief explanation of the technique of methods analysis and im-
provement, and a detailed explanation of the setting of production stand-
ards.
7. An explanation of job evaluation, incentive plans, and performance
rating plans which are used in the candidate's division.
8. A review of improvements in the products, processes, and organiza-
tion of the company. Reference also is made to the progress made by
34
competitors. This material serves to emphasize the need for technical
research and development.
Such informative courses are valuable in that they present a basic pat-
tern of knowledge to which the candidates can relate their specific observa-
tions and experiences. The material, therefore, is presented according to
a comprehensive and logical plan, and it is selected with a view primarily
to the long-range needs of the members. These courses develop no skills,
but they do tend to create attitudes which are favorable to managerial prac-
tices, and they serve to give the trainees some appreciation of the difficul-
ties and complexities of industrial management. Such informative courses
should not be relied on, however, to bring about a thorough understanding
of selected policies and practices on the part of prospective foremen.¹
Atla
Instruction in Informative Courses
The person who teaches an informative course to prospective foremen
will take a more active part than he would if he were leading a discussion
of the same topics by experienced foremen. Furthermore, the elementary
material he would present in a preparatory course is accepted practice, and
it is not to be formulated but learned by the members of the group. Con-
sequently, explanations by the instructor are appropriate. By introducing
cases, he can see whether the learners can apply accepted rules to specific
typical situations. These cases will illustrate the meanings of policies or
rules and provide bases for discussion which will reveal the intellectual
and conversational qualities of the trainees. Examinations upon the sub-
ject matter can also be used to test the degree to which the material is
understood.
Assignments to Promote Thorough Understanding
In case a thorough understanding of important rules is needed by a
prospective foreman, he should be given an opportunity to work for a while
where he can observe and possibly participate in their application. In one
company, for example, prospective foremen are selected within one year
of the forecasted need for them. Subsequent to their selection, they are
given assignments in six different staff departments: personnel, time study,
planning, engineering, cost, and warehousing. The assignments vary in
length from three to six weeks. The educational adviser and the managers
1 A number of the subjects suggested above are similar to those previously listed for a course to aid
in the initial selection of candidates. The instruction given to prospective foremen on these subjects would
be more thorough than any introductory presentation to a group of employees from which prospective
foremen were to be selected.
Too
35
of these staff departments have listed a series of tasks in each department
which serve to acquaint the candidate with its fundamental operations.
Weekly, each candidate is required to write a report on the purposes of
the several procedures in which he has been engaged. These reports are
read critically by the department head and the educational adviser, who
thus can judge whether the prospective foreman is thoroughly acquainted
with the services of each staff department available to him if he is ad-
vanced to a foremanship. The numerous contacts which each prospective
foreman makes in the course of this series of transfers affords a number
of people an opportunity to judge his capacity for foremanship; and the
experience itself greatly improves the ability of the candidate to master
information, to digest it, and to express his knowledge.
When many new supervisors are to be trained, the number of such
transfers for any trainee would be kept to the minimum, and they would
be carefully planned to maximize their benefits.
Introductory Courses on a Large Scale
The national emergency of 1940-41 created an unprecedented demand
for new supervisors in a number of companies in the aircraft, munitions,
and chemical industries. Although some of these companies normally had
devoted one to two years to the training of prospective foremen, they found
that the pressure of defense preparations would require the development
of new supervisors within three to six months. One company, which faced
this problem late in 1940, had to build a complete supervisory organization
for a munitions plant then in construction. The training course given the
prospective foremen in this case was planned by a committee consisting of
the vice president of manufacturing, the general manager of the munitions
plant, the personnel director, and a secretary. This committee divided the
program into two phases: a technical course dealing with the processes to be
carried on in the new plant, and a conference course concerned primarily
with the management of employees. The secretary was made responsible
for assembling instruction materials on the several topics selected for presen-
tation.
To facilitate instruction, the prospective foremen were grouped into
small classes, each with a weekly schedule of three meetings on
technical processes and three conferences on managerial procedures. This
work was placed under the guidance of the division superintendents of the
new plant so as to afford these officials an opportunity to form opinions
on the intelligence and personality traits of the persons in training. At each
36
conference, however, a specialist in the subject under consideration initiated
the discussion and answered questions. While the individual conferences
nominally were limited to ninety-minute periods, in practice all meetings
were continued until their aims were reached.
Each conference was planned by the committee and the specialist con-
cerned before he presented the material to the trainees. The purpose of
this preparation was to arrange leading or challenging questions which
would stimulate critical and constructive discussion. The company wished
to correct the tendency of the specialists to lecture to the conference groups.
The committee believed, rightly, that lectures could not give as clear an
understanding of technical processes and managerial procedures as could
active discussion on carefully selected questions.
While the trainees were not engaged in conferences, they were working
in the old plant of the company. There they operated metal-cutting and
forming machinery similar to the types which later were installed in the
new plant.
1
Conference Groups of Subforemen
The distinguishing mark of a supervisors' "conference" is that all mem-
bers are expected to contribute toward the solution of common problems.
An informative course, on the other hand, is a logical presentation of basic
information pertaining to particular phases of a company's activities. The
information as presented may have no immediate application, whereas the
discussions in supervisors' conferences usually are focused upon matters of
immediate concern. Since the members of a conference group should have
common interests and backgrounds, such a group should consist of persons
from one large department or from several closely related departments.
<d
A number of companies hold regular conferences of the subforemen in
their plants. Members of these groups can proceed more slowly in their
consideration of current problems than they could if they were combined
with experienced foremen in a group. Furthermore, subforemen will ex-
press themselves more freely when their immediate superiors are excluded.
It is advantageous to include in such a subforemen's conference the staff men
of junior rank who also are concerned with the problems of the members
of the group. Junior planning, cost, and time-study clerks illustrate the
types of staff men who can be included. These men have a point of view
1 The author believes that these trainees should then have been asked to serve as assistants to the
foremen in the old plant, so that they could have observed supervisory work at first hand, and, if possible,
have gained practical experience in that work before they were definitely assigned to foremanships in the
new plant.
37
somewhat different from that of the subforemen, and each type can learn
from mutual discussion to appreciate the contributions which the other is
making to the welfare of the business.
Since a conference group of subforemen usually deals with active prob-
lems, its conclusions should agree with the conclusions of the experienced
foremen in the same division. Such agreement can be promoted by having
the division superintendent preside at all meetings of the groups.
A number of leading companies agree that the ideal conference leader
is the executive to whom the members of a group regularly report and, for
this reason, their conference groups are made up strictly along organization
lines. For example, all of the foremen reporting to a given division
superintendent automatically are members of a conference group of which
he is the leader. This plan requires each executive to cultivate the art of
conference leadership. In some departments, the plan has not worked well
because the executives who should serve as leaders have failed to appreciate
the necessity of adequate preparation for conference sessions. In other
cases, failures have been due to the inability of the executives to stimulate
thought and evoke discussion on the part of their subordinates.
Conference Leadership
The successful management of conference sessions requires thorough
preparation on the part of the leader. He must decide the objectives of
each meeting and then select leading questions which will aid the group
in its consideration of the problems to be presented. The questions should
be comprehensive, and they should be arranged in an order which will
propel the discussion toward conclusions. Some executives who have not
been able to serve as conference leaders have delegated this task to staff
officers or even to outsiders. But it still remains necessary for the executives
to assist in the preparation of conference plans and to show interest in the
program by attending the sessions.
If a conference is being conducted by someone other than the executive
to whom the members report and the executive is present, he should refrain
from participation in the discussion, as that tends to repress the members.
They naturally defer to his judgments. No objection is offered, however,
to his speaking just before the close of a session. Then, if advisable, he can
endorse a conclusion which the group has reached or he can suggest that
possibly the subject should be considered further at a later meeting. By
thus postponing a definite conclusion, the executive can gain an opportunity
to counsel with the conference leader, and advise him to change the
38
emphasis on particular matters. Or the executive can present additional evi-
dence to the leader which, when presented to the group, will direct it toward
conclusions somewhat different from those to which the members were
tending.
With reference to conducting conferences: it is well for the leader to
call the meeting to order and to begin the discussion on time. Prompt at-
tendance should be required, since the lateness of some members disturbs
a meeting and induces tardiness on the part of others. Attendance
can be taken by circulating a list among the members, and no time thus
needs to be taken for a roll call. The leader should strive to put
the group at ease. If any strangers are present, these should be asked to
introduce themselves. The leader's manner is extremely important; he
should be free and informal, yet businesslike. He should encourage and
challenge the members, but he should never try to compel them to speak
or to accept his views.
The leader's introductory remarks at a meeting should present the
topic to be discussed. Often he can relate this topic to problems considered
in prior conferences. He then should stress the questions on which con-
clusions are to be reached. Usually the objective of a conference is to
arrive at conclusions with reference to policies, procedures, or points of
view which all members of the group then can accept freely and with under-
standing. Occasionally, however, the objective may be to interchange
points of view and to hear reports of experiences. Such a conference is aimed
primarily at giving those present a better grasp or appreciation of a complex
issue. Both of these objectives are immediate, and they refer to single
conferences. There are more fundamental, long-range purposes in a con-
ference program as a whole. These are to stimulate thought, to develop
analytical powers and mental resourcefulness, and to improve the ability
of the members to express themselves.
After stating the immediate aims of a meeting, the leader can initiate
discussion by asking a leading question. This may refer to some material
distributed in advance or it can refer directly to the experience of some
member of the group. The questions asked to start discussions should be
carefully chosen and should be directed to individuals who are likely to
give pertinent and definite answers. As the conference proceeds, the leader
should guide the deliberations but endeavor not to do the members' think-
ing for them. In general, his plan should be to ask first why a certain
problem exists and then, having brought out various causes, he should focus
39
the discussion upon its treatment.
its treatment. Often the use of headings on a black-
board aids in guiding the thought of the members, and they can be asked
to suggest those headings.
Vinta
The leader must stimulate and maintain interest during a conference.
If interest lags, he can call for additional experience on a given point, draw
a new person into the discussion, make a challenging statement, or start
a new line of inquiry. When a subject is developing too slowly, he must
accelerate the discussion and, under opposite conditions, he must retard it.
Unduly talkative or reticent members present difficult problems for the
leader. One suggested solution is to see these individuals outside the
sessions and ask them to say less or contribute more. The leader should
make special efforts to draw out reticent individuals who are well in-
formed. He must be careful never to belittle any speaker or the ideas any
member presents, as this arouses resentment and discourages participa-
tion. The leader should be fair in according the floor to persons who
wish to speak on a controversial topic, and he should be sure that each
person who wishes to speak will have that opportunity. At the close of
the discussion, and sometimes part way through it, he should summarize
the sense of the group clearly and concisely and see that the secretary has
noted the summary. In such statements, the leader should emphasize the
important bases on which the members reached their conclusions.
Conference leadership cannot, however, be reduced to rules. The
leader requires an understanding of the subject matter and of the ability
of participants to contribute to given discussions. He must be able to select
and phrase leading questions, and he must be able to plan orderly explora-
tions of complex problems, so that the group, in dealing with his questions,
will proceed toward well-founded conclusions. The leader should have
a likeable personality, a considerate manner, and a sense of humor. These
elementary suggestions on conference leadership will not assure outstanding
success. That depends on many variables and sometimes on favorable
combinations of circumstances in addition to the leader's skill. Proficiency
in conference leadership, however, can be attained by men who pains-
takingly prepare for their sessions and then critically review and endeavor
to improve their methods of conducting the meetings.¹
1 Among the helpful texts on conference leadership are Shellow and Harmon, Conference Manual for
Training Foremen, and R. O. Beckman, How to Train Supervisors. Both books are published by Harper
and Brothers. The Federal Board for Vocational Education has issued several pamphlets on the same
subject. Particularly recommended is No. 125, entitled "The Training of Foreman Conference Leaders."
40
CHAPTER IV
DEVELOPING CANDIDATES' MANAGERIAL SKILLS
AND PERSONALITY TRAITS
A second objective in the development of prospective foremen is the
improvement of their managerial skills. These can best be developed by
practice in selected types of work. That is to say, this objective demands
more active educational measures than does the imparting of information or
the improvement of understanding. The ensuing discussion presents some
skills commonly exercised by foremen and some assignments which are
deemed suitable for developing these skills in candidates. The skills first
mentioned are developed by experience as a manual worker; those mentioned
thereafter are more strictly of a supervisory character. In accord with
the familiar principle that education should proceed from the familiar to
the unfamiliar, a somewhat similar order can be followed in planning the
development of managerial skills in the individual trainee.
The emphasis to be placed upon the development of a given managerial
skill in a trainee naturally depends upon its importance to his success in
the event that he is promoted. Accordingly, certain abilities mentioned in
the following discussion may be disregarded in the training of candidates
for some positions. Care is justified in planning and directing a program
for the development of managerial skills in an individual, since the training
requires special assignments, and these are expensive in that they involve
the wages of the trainee and the time of supervisors.
Assignments Which Develop Managerial Skills
Most candidates are able to identify the conditions which help or hinder
production in their fields. This competence on their part has been de-
veloped by varied experience and as a result of interest in the technical
factors which govern their work. If a candidate is deficient in this technical
ability, however, a first step in his education could well be his assignment
to other manual operations so that he becomes more versatile. He could
advantageously work as a machine operator and possibly as an adjuster
in the department which he might subsequently supervise.
41
Ordinarily, a prospective foreman can judge the quality of workmanship
in his field. He knows the applicable quality standards, and the reasons
for those standards from the standpoint of the users of the product. If a
candidate lacks ability to discriminate between acceptable and unacceptable
products, he can develop it by serving as an inspector. Furthermore, an
active interest in quality control can be cultivated by such an assignment.
A prospective supervisor's ability to devise and apply improvements in
methods usually needs to be improved. In industries undergoing technical
development, the supervisors must be able to detect opportunities for bet-
terments; they must be able to visualize changes; and then be able to
translate plans into achievement. These abilities are important particularly
during the "proving-in" stage which follows the installation of a new
method or piece of equipment. To test and develop these abilities in a
candidate, he can be asked to serve temporarily as an assistant to a methods
engineer. Such an assignment will test technical skills, ingenuity, and
persistence, and it will develop these abilities rapidly in a person with the
desired natural aptitudes. The engineer should put as much responsibility
as possible on the prospective supervisor by encouraging him to suggest
better methods and by having him assist in experimental work. It will be
necessary in such cases to give the candidate at the outset some preliminary
instruction in methods analysis and in the basic ways in which waste effort
can be eliminated.
The ability to diagnose technical difficulties, the ability to judge quality
of product, and the ability to suggest and apply improvements in method,
are developed in some measure by a candidate's prior experience as a work-
man. In fact, his performance on a number of jobs and his proficiency as
a machine adjuster may have shown that these abilities on his part are
adequate for a given supervisory task. The abilities next to be discussed
are less likely to have been developed by manual work, since they are
exercised in the supervision of persons.
The ability of a prospective foreman to instruct workmen in his field
should definitely be assured. He should be able to explain processes, to
demonstrate operations, to correct novices helpfully, and to encourage
them. Ability to instruct is improved by experience in analyzing processes
and then organizing their elements for instruction purposes. Temporary
service as an instructor will test a candidate's ability to deal with novices.
A natively qualified candidate can rapidly develop that ability when
coached by an experienced guide. This training can be given while an
42
expansion in the volume of the work is occurring, for then a need for an
instructor exists, and the cost of his training can be regarded as negligible.
In some companies, educational advisers aid in counselling trainees who
are serving as instructors. The candidates are given an intensive course
dealing with the technique of job instruction. They analyze jobs familiar
to them and develop plans for teaching others to do those jobs. The con-
tent of a teaching plan for a given operation includes items of pertinent
information, and the order in which the novice is to learn the elements in
the process. The development of a teaching plan is described in a footnote."
Clearly, if a prospective foreman prepares teaching plans for a number
1 "In the problem of developing employee skills, a plan of instruction is of primary importance.
Whoever does the teaching, or wherever it is to take place, the training will be done better if the instruc-
tor has made an intelligent analysis of the job and has prepared a written plan of instruction based on
that analysis. The steps we have found helpful in building such a plan are as follows:
Step 1.
Outline a Working Sequence
This means that the instructor should list all the things that have to be done and the most
natural order of doing them. For this purpose he can draw upon manufacturing layouts, en-
gineering specifications, blueprints, micromotion studies, or observation of the job itself.
Step 2. Break Down the More Repetitive Parts of the Job into an Exact Motion Sequence
Although a complete motion analysis is a technical process requiring special training, a
practical working analysis of most jobs can be made by careful observation.
Step 3. State the Quality Requirements
Such things as the gauge limits for each part of the operation, reasons for these require-
ments, quality of materials, and where defects are likely to occur should all be noted.
Add Precautions about Operating Errors that Result in Waste
Care and use of machinery or equipment should be included.
Step 4.
Step 5. Add Judgment Factors
That is, make a list of those troublesome points where the worker must exercise his own
judgment; where he cannot be told exactly what to do except in terms of what is happening.
Step 6. Add Items of Supplementary Information
Include such things as how the job fits into a larger finished product, how it is used, why
certain materials are used, or any facts which make the job meaningful to the learner.
Step 7. Note Teaching Aids
The instructor must be alert to list carefully and use all possible sources of teaching help.
Charts, diagrams, models, engineering standards, photographs, and manufacturers' catalogs are
suggestive.
Step 8. Note Safety and Output Requirements
Using all the data written down as a result of this preparatory work, the instructor then draws up a
definite chart of instruction following this outline:
1. The items of information to be given about the job and when they are to be given to the learner.
Preliminary job information needed before the learner starts work.
a.
b. Working information needed to perform the job.
C.
Supplementary information helpful for stimulating interest.
2.
a.
b. It may be a special learning sequence varied at certain points from the above because of
learning difficulties characteristic of the job or of the learner.
3. The fundamental points of attention need to be driven home.
The order in which the operations themselves should be taught.
This may be a regular operating sequence.
This kind of preparation, worked out in writing and thought about until it becomes a facile part
of the shop supervisor's intellectual equipment, enables him to teach new skills with a minimum amount
of difficulty." G. A. Holmes, Chief of Training Department, Western Electric Company, Inc., Chicago.
43
of jobs and then trains novices under guidance, the experience will marked-
ly increase his ability to instruct.
Few prospective foremen have planned or delegated the duties of in-
dividuals who work in teams. The ability to do this rests in turn upon skill
in operation analysis, in judging the qualifications of individuals, and in
estimating the amount of work they should do in a given period. To
develop the ability to plan and delegate work, candidates for foremanship
have been assigned to serve as helpers to time-study engineers and planning
clerks. In these assignments, candidates develop skill in analyzing opera-
tions, in visualizing the redivision of work, in judging the qualifications of
workers, and in appraising the time which operations require. After a
candidate has developed these skills and the others previously mentioned,
he should be qualified for an assignment as group leader or assistant fore-
man. In those positions, he will gain further skill in subdividing processes
and in delegating the segments to individual employees in working groups.
Another ability to be developed in prospective foremen is the ability
to direct subordinates. As a group leader or assistant foreman, the candi-
date necessarily is tested from this standpoint. If he has the aptitude, his
experience in a supervisory position can rapidly develop his ability to as-
sign work clearly, to observe how well work is being performed, to cor-
rect errors, and to deal with simple types of personnel problems. At this
point, it is particularly desirable that the candidate be asked to analyze the
qualifications required for particular jobs in his unit. This will increase
his ability to observe and judge the competence of individuals for the sev-
eral types of work. Furthermore, he should discuss with his foreman any
personnel problems in his section before he acts on them. The counselling
should emphasize the importance of good personnel relations, and the care
needed to maintain them. The foreman, himself, should exemplify a
thoughtful, unprejudiced approach to the personnel problems discussed.
The ability to analyze cost problems and to make plans for cost reduc-
tion can be cultivated in a prospective foreman after he has been appointed
to a junior supervisory or a technical position. At this time, he can be
asked to analyze cost reduction problems in his field, and to submit written
recommendations for the realization of economies. The cost problems may
refer to waste of materials, handling of materials, machine delays, or other
phases of departmental operations which present opportunities for savings.
Pertinent information, such as waste reports or idle time reports, should be
made available to the trainee. In this type of educational endeavor, he
44
should be encouraged to go as far as he can without help, but help should
be readily available whenever he needs it. Those who instruct him should
avoid telling him what to do. In their conversations with him, they should
rather get him to explore his problems and to suggest corrective measures.
In other words, the function of his instructors should be to place initiative
upon him, so that he exercises his own analytical powers and ingenuity.
Analytical ability in a more general sense can be cultivated by requiring
a person to prepare written reports on some of his assignments. The prepa-
ration of written reports develops powers of observation and analysis, ability
to think logically, and ability to express one's self clearly and concisely.
The learner should be allowed a large latitude in the preparation of his
reports. Not only does this cause him to exercise initiative in his investiga-
tions and in the formulation of his judgments, but his reports then reveal
any matters which he had not adequately considered in the course of his
study. The trainee's reports should be studied for his perception of the
central problem and the pertinent factors involved in its treatment, his
judgment in giving proper weight to the various factors, and his care in
making well-founded statements.
The effective use of reports for this purpose is well illustrated by the
practice of one company surveyed. There a prospective foreman is asked
to report in writing upon selected problems or procedures which he is
observing in his assignments. Each report is reviewed by his foreman and
his superintendent, who then discuss it with him and direct his inquiry to
any phases of the subject which he had either overlooked or exaggerated.
The trainee may be asked to continue the study and present a revised report.
In this company, all candidates for foremanship attend regularly scheduled
meetings for the purpose of discussing these reports. Under the guidance
of the superintendent, who acts as chairman of the meeting, the young men
read their reports and discuss their recommendations. These meetings give
each man an idea of the quality of the work of others, they provide the
superintendent with opportunities to commend meritorious work, and they
stimulate the trainees to do their best.
A prospective foreman may need special experience to improve his
ability to rate the performance of workmen in his field. Practice in exer-
cising judgments of this sort can be afforded to subforemen in any company
which has a performance rating plan, since any of them can be asked to
assist in rating the work of employees in his section. A subforeman in such
a case should be asked why he rates certain men in certain ways. These
45
challenges test the foundations of his opinions, and they stimulate him to
observe the various aspects of performance which should be considered in
a comprehensive and well-balanced judgment.
--
The ability to plan and conduct interviews with employees on a variety
of topics should be cultivated in prospective foremen after they are ad-
vanced to junior supervisory posts. A number of executives expressed the
opinion that industrial relationships could be definitely improved if fore-
men planned their interviews with employees more carefully. Some of
these executives have tried to develop a technique for planning such inter-
views. One of the elements in this technique is the recognition of tempera-
mental differences between individual employees and emotional variations
in the same employee which call for appropriate treatment. Another is that
foremen should discuss an issue with an employee as impersonally as pos-
sible, and avoid direct references to the worker, in such phrases as "your"
methods, "your" output, and so on, which emphasize the official status of
the foreman, by which he is the critic, and the employee the person criti-
cized. Furthermore, the foreman should explain the circumstances which
require that certain things be done by the employee, and then he can ask
the employee how he thinks the problem should be treated. The reply may
reveal sources of misunderstanding which can be cleared away. This pro-
cedure frequently results in voluntary agreement on the employee's part
with the foreman's position.
The ability to plan and conduct interviews can be aided by demonstra-
tions which a group of subforemen can observe and then discuss under
guidance. Also the subforeman can be present when one of his employees
is interviewed by the foreman on a real issue. To give the trainee practice,
he can be asked to explain regulations to new employees, or he can be as-
signed temporarily to the personnel division to interview applicants for
work with which he is familiar.
The accompanying chart summarizes the major suggestions in the fore-
going paragraphs. In one column are mentioned a number of managerial
skills which commonly need to be developed in prospective foremen; in
another column are suggested some assignments which, with intensive
supervision and counselling, can assist a prospective foreman to develop
the desired abilities.
46
SELECTED MANAGERIAL SKILLS AND SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS
TO DEVELOP THEM IN PROSPECTIVE FOREMEN
SKILLS
To identify the conditions which help or
hinder production in his field.
To judge quality of workmanship in the
product
To devise and apply improvements in methods
To instruct novices
To plan and delegate duties.
To direct subordinates
To analyze cost problems and bring about
cost reductions
To rate the performance of workmen
To plan and conduct interviews with em-
ployees
EDUCATIONAL ASSIGNMENTS
Operate a variety of machines in the depart-
ment
Serve as machine adjuster
Serve temporarily as inspector
Serve temporarily as assistant to a methods
engineer
Serve as instructor
Serve temporarily as assistant to a time-study
engineer or planning clerk
Serve as group leader or subforeman
Analyze waste, idle time, or other cost prob-
lems, and offer recommendations for cost
reduction
Assist his foreman to rate workmen in his
section
Be present when his subordinates are inter-
viewed by his foreman; tell new employees
in his department about shop regulations
Time Study as a Preparatory Discipline
Several executives said that experience in a time-study department was
particularly valuable as a preparatory discipline for prospective foremen.
In these cases, the heads of the time-study departments were competent
educators and keenly interested in the development of supervisors.
They also had demonstrated their ability to judge the potentialities
of young men in their departments. Fortunately, an assignment to time-
study work does not earmark an individual as a prospective foreman. He
can be promoted, retained as a time-study man, or reassigned to skilled
manual work, depending on his aptitudes as revealed by this assignment.
Time study calls for the exercise of many abilities which are needed
also in the supervision of a department. For instance, it demands and
develops analytical ability since it requires the critical examination of
manual methods and the study of delays and waste effort. It calls for
47
accuracy and care in the observation and recording of working conditions and
procedures, and in the calculation of production standards. In so far as it
requires the devising of new methods, it stimulates ingenuity, and increases
resourcefulness and adaptability. Furthermore, since a time-study man is
brought into contact with many workmen, he needs to adapt his approach to
each individual. His work calls for courage and ability to withstand opposi-
tion, since many employees dislike time-study procedures. He necessarily
must know quality standards, and he must develop the ability to judge the
degree to which the worker is applying himself to his task. He becomes ac-
quainted with wage rates and incentive plans and, because of his close re-
lationship to foremen, with many supervisory problems. He may be asked
to train employees in new methods. These many educational values of
time study caused some executives to regard it as an ideal means for
testing and training prospective foremen.
The executives recognize, however, that there are limits to the number
of candidates that could be transferred to a time-study department or to
any other department for educational purposes at any given time. These
trainees impose additional supervisory burdens upon the staff of a depart-
ment, and temporarily they reduce its capacity for regular work. This im-
mediate cost may be fully warranted, however, by the trainees' rapid and
sure development as the result of the experience.
Improvement of Personality Traits
A third aim in the development of prospective foremen is the improve-
ment of their attitudes and their personality traits. A number of executives
said that they expected to make only moderate improvements of this sort.
in candidates for foremanship. Several were convinced from their experi-
ence that the behavior characteristics of adults were rather firmly fixed, but
they believed, nevertheless, that superintendents and foremen should en
deavor to aid prospective foremen to improve these characteristics, ever
though the results might be somewhat disappointing. On the other hand
when the executives were questioned on the quick training of new super-
visors, they thought that little change in habits of behavior could be
brought about in a short time. They suggested, therefore, that where
members of the rank and file were to be developed into foremen quickly,
the management should select candidates who possessed desirable per-
sonality traits, and then train the candidates along technical lines. This
they thought might be accomplished within a year.
48
More optimistic opinions were expressed as regards the development
of attitudes, which may be defined as an individual's interests in and dis-
positions toward certain ideas, persons, or things. Thus, a workman may
have a negative attitude towards productivity which can be modified rather
soon when he becomes a foreman. Likewise, another workman with a
rebellious attitude toward discipline might change that attitude quickly if
he were given minor supervisory tasks. Several executives explained that
any influences brought to bear upon a prospective foreman's attitudes
should not reduce his appreciation of employees' points of view. They
thought that foremen should understand and appreciate the outlook of both
employees and managers in order to reconcile and, if possible, harmonize
the differences which exist.
An endeavor to improve personality traits is necessarily an informal
and personalized type of instruction carried on, for the most part, by the
officers to whom the trainees report. Several executives suggested that an
educational adviser skilled in these rather delicate matters might well ad-
vise both the trainers and the trainees. The latter should be privileged
to counsel with this officer, to whom they would have no direct responsi-
bility. This relationship will allow them to take up personal difficulties
informally outside of official channels, whereas such counselling by their
immediate supervisors tends to set up a barrier between them and the
supervisors.
A candidate's personality traits are not to be appraised against ideal
standards, but against the requirements of the positions to which he may
be promoted. A number of personal qualities thought desirable in fore-
men are discussed in the following paragraphs. No candidate can be ex-
pected to possess these qualities in any ideal sense, but he will have each
of them in some degree. The practical question as regards each of the
personality traits required for a position is whether a candidate is better
than, equal to, or worse than the standard which the position requires.
A number of ways to develop personality traits were suggested in
the course of this inquiry. One procedure relies on the force of example:
a trainee deficient in certain personality traits is appointed temporarily as
an assistant to a foreman who has those traits to an outstanding degree.
The foreman is told the reason for the arrangement and his cooperation is
requested. The trainee is advised to observe certain aspects of the fore-
man's behavior and to consider their contribution to his success. The
association should give the trainee a better appreciation of these personality
49
traits and their importance to a supervisor. But the trainee should be
cautioned against attempts to copy the foreman's behavior, since imitation
of a superficial sort leads to artificial conduct. An intelligent candidate
will readily understand that a personal quality is expressed in various ways
by different individuals, and that the exact method of its expression is un-
important. As he observes the attention and care given by the foreman to
particular matters, the novice should come to realize that this behavior
stems from deeply rooted habits and interests, and that he should develop
these same habits and interests if he aspires to be a truly successful foreman.
<<
The most common recommendation for improving the personality traits
of a prospective foreman, however, was his temporary assignment to se-
lected duties. It will be recalled that similar measures were suggested for
the development of managerial skills. Selected assignments afford the
practice which is necessary to bring about desired changes both in a trainee's
skills and in his ways of behavior. Furthermore, these changes can be
guided and accelerated by his supervisors, and best results will follow if
they have been made fully aware of the aims in each case. Since, because
of the expense involved, a trainee ordinarily can be given only a few such
educational assignments, each should be designed to help him improve a
number of his qualities which are deemed essential for his promotion.
A competent workman, in the course of his experience, has usually
formed a number of personality traits which are essential in a supervisor.
Thus, a candidate's application to his work should have been induced by
his prior experience as a worker. His perseverance in surmounting ob-
stacles in the work likewise should have been strengthened by that experi-
ence. But perseverance in new types of endeavor for the trainee can be
cultivated by assignments which involve experimental work, methods de-
velopment, or the instruction of novices. Dependability, like application,
is developed by experience as a member of the rank and file. Willingness
to accept responsibility can be stimulated and developed in a candidate by
assigning him to a variety of new tasks and by personal counsel and en-
couragement. Initiative and independence may not have been cultivated
by experience as a manual worker, but a variety of assignments can be
given to prospective foremen to develop these traits. An investigation of
waste or machine idleness would serve this purpose, as would an assign-
ment to develop an improved method of doing a task in the trainee's field.
The quality of being systematic and orderly may have been developed
in a prospective supervisor while he was a workman, but, if not, it can be
50
cultivated by assigning him to the storeroom or tool room, where he can
be given charge of a section of stock. This work induces orderliness with
reference to physical objects. An assignment to a planning desk will
stimulate orderliness in the handling of records.
Interest in and regard for other people can be developed by service as
an instructor, and also by service as an interviewer of applicants for em-
ployment. The example set by the personnel officers in their treatment of
people will influence the prospective foreman. One company required each
prospective foreman to engage in a job-hunting campaign for about a week.
This company felt that the experience made the trainees more considerate
of their fellow workers.
C
A cooperative attitude can be developed in a prospective foreman by
an assignment to the department which processes materials after they have
left his own department. This is particularly advisable in case the varia-
tions in the quality of work in his department can hamper operations in the
other department. Habits of cooperation can also be fostered in a candi-
date by requiring him to collaborate with a number of foremen in schedul-
ing and expediting the production of rush orders.
“Interest in a square deal," another desirable personality trait in the
prospective foreman, can be described as active concern that other persons
receive equitable treatment. This trait and a judicial attitude toward per-
sonnel problems can be cultivated in the prospective foreman by his par-
ticipation in rating the performance of individual workmen whom he
knows and also by his participation in valuing jobs with which he is familiar.
These personality characteristics can be improved also by service as a time-
study man, and by participation in thoroughgoing discussions of cases in
which appropriate disciplinary action is debated under the guidance of an
experienced executive.
---
W
A prospective foreman's frankness and tact can be tested and developed
by requiring him to interview employees who have failed to meet standards
of performance. Thus, in some plants, inspectors return defective products
to employees and inform them why the items were rejected. Work of this
sort withtend to develop frankness and tact, as will service in the personnel
department as an interviewer of applicants.
A mature candidate should have developed self-control in the course
of mastering his personal problems. But many of these may have been con-
cerned with materials and machines rather than with people. He may still
become impatient with other persons who differ with him or interfere with
51
his purposes. To test and develop his self-control in dealing with irritating
or recalcitrant employees, he could be assigned to tool supply service or to
a work-dispatching desk within a producing department.
To be decisive and yet to remain open-minded are two contrasting
aspects of behavior generally required of foremen. If a candidate for that
office is deficient in these respects, he can be asked to make investigations
and submit recommendations for the improvement of departmental condi-
tions. If he tends to hedge or be vague in his recommendations, he can be
criticised on that score. If, on the other hand, he is opinionated and biased,
he can be asked to investigate conditions which do not coincide with his
views. If, after that, his mind remains closed, he can be counselled on
this weakness and sent back with directions to investigate the subject
further. Thus, he can be impressed with the fact that most questions have
a number of aspects, and that an opinion should be subject to change in the
light of new evidence.
C
The quality of adaptability, like some of the other qualities mentioned,
will have been developed in an individual long before he is considered as
a candidate for foremanship. His record on various types of manual work
will show his adaptability in that field. An assignment to experimental
work will test and develop his adaptability to mechanical problems, and
temporary service in the personnel division should increase his adaptability
to people. A favorable attitude toward progress should characterize the
prospective foreman. The importance of this attitude will vary in different
departments and industries, but in many cases the lack of a progressive point
of view would be a serious handicap to a candidate.
The importance of resourcefulness in a prospective foreman will depend
to some extent upon the scheme of organization in the individual company.
Where methods departments are chiefly responsible for devising improve-
ments in operations, the foremen are not expected to be highly ingenious,
but they are expected to cooperate with the engineers in making proposed
improvements work. It appears to be generally true, moreover, that fore-
men are expected to make all sorts of minor adjustments to keep their de-
partments operating smoothly. Resourcefulness can be stimulated and
developed by assignments which require the trainee to investigate faulty
conditions and to suggest ways of improving them. An assignment to the
plant engineering department also can bring the prospective foreman face
to face with a number of physical conditions which will challenge his re-
sourcefulness.
52
A prospective foreman requires foresight with reference to a variety of
problems. If his foresight in treating mechanical problems needs to be
developed, he can be assigned to an experimental department. His fore-
sight in the treatment of personnel can be cultivated by requiring him to
consider and suggest action to be taken on employee grievance cases which
might establish precedents. An assignment to the scheduling department
will stimulate his foresight with reference to the timing of operations.
A prospective foreman's willingness to accept and profit from criticism
is tested and required on many occasions in the course of his training. His
supervisors can readily observe whether he accepts and benefits from their
constructive criticisms. As his training proceeds, he probably will improve
his ability to direct himself. To an increasing extent, he will view his be-
havior and performance objectively, and this will help him to improve his
personality traits.
It is essential that desirable kinds of behavior which are learned in
educational situations become habitual on a trainee's part. To assist this
development, he should be made fully aware of these types of behavior,
and be encouraged to repeat them under suitable circumstances. For
example, after he has shown an improvement in dealing with people, the
foreman can discuss this improvement with him and urge that he conduct
himself generally in the same manner. Thus the trainee's effort will be
recognized and his progress will become something in which he can take
pride. The foreman can render this aid if he knows the trainee's educa-
tional needs, watches for the appropriate behavior, and understands that
such discussions can help the trainee to improve his personality traits.
The accompanying list on page 54 presents most of the suggestions con-
tained in the foregoing discussion of the improvement of personality traits in
prospective foremen.
With reference to this table G. A. Holmes writes: "Experiences will
contribute to the development of personality traits, but lining these up
as 'specifics' for selected traits may give the reader the impression that
he can manipulate these traits in detail whereas they essentially are aspects
of total personality or behavior. It is doubtful whether many of these
trait names refer to unitary aspects of behavior that can be dealt with or
developed directly. A number of these desirable aspects of behavior may
be developed from one or another of the assignments described in the text.”
The author concurs fully with this comment. Any of the assignments
suggested for the purpose of developing a particular skill or quality will
53
SELECTED PERSONALITY TRAITS AND SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS
TO DEVELOP THEM IN PROSPECTIVE FOREMEN
TRAITS REQUIRING DEVELOPMENT
General
Application to duties; perseverance
Dependability
Willingness to accept responsibility
Initiative and independence
Being systematic and orderly
Interest in and regard for other people
Willingness to cooperate
Interest in a square deal
Frankness and tact
Self-control
Open-mindedness
Adaptability
Resourcefulness
Foresight
EDUCATIONAL ASSIGNMENTS
Assign trainee who is deficient in certain per-
sonality traits to serve as assistant to a fore-
man who has those traits to an outstanding
degree. Rely on force of example
Assign to experimental work, methods develop-
ment, or instruction of novices
Assign to work which is not closely super-
vised, then inspect the results
Give the individual a variety of new tasks
Require the study of an original problem,
such as waste of material
Transfer temporarily to storeroom, tool room,
or planning department
Appoint to special work in personnel division
Assign to a "subsequent" processing depart-
ment, or to a rush order department
Provide opportunity for participation in per-
formance rating or job evaluation; also for
participation in discussions of disciplinary
cases
Arrange for temporary work as inspector or as
employment interviewer
Assign to tool supply service or to dispatching
desk
Ask the trainee to investigate and report upon
a problem on which he seems to be opin-
ionated
Transfer temporarily to experimental work
or personnel division
Appoint the trainee to work in the methods
department or plant engineering depart-
ment
Assign to experimental work; to scheduling
department; or to personnel department for
consideration of employee grievance cases
which might establish precedents
3
54
develop others as well. Each assignment, therefore, should not be re-
garded as serving one purpose exclusively. After an individual trainee's
educational needs are determined, it will usually be found that a number
of those can be served by a single assignment.
The Planning of Educational Programs
The foregoing review of educational objectives and methods indicates
the need for planning a program for each prospective foreman. In large
companies, these plans are developed by the superintendents and a staff
officer who is skilled in educational techniques. In small companies, an
assistant to the plant manager can collaborate with department heads for
this purpose.
The executives who formulate educational programs should consider
first the major duties which the prospective foreman has in his present
assignment and those which he will have in the event of his promotion to
the next higher level. In the second place, they should have in mind the
information, managerial skills, and personality traits which he possesses,
and his apparent ability to perform his present and prospective duties. The
purpose of this analysis is to reveal the information, the managerial skills,
and the personality traits upon which educational effort is to be centered
in his case. Having determined these immediate objectives, the person
serving as educational adviser and the division superintendent directly con-
cerned should arrange opportunities for the individual to develop himself
in the desired ways. These opportunities may be work assignments, par-
ticipation in discussion groups, special reading programs, or other appro-
priate and practical means for developing the individual for his present and
future responsibilities. Sometimes the most desirable educational disci-
plines cannot be arranged; opportunities of the sort are not present or they
may be too costly to provide. Persistence and ingenuity in treating these
educational problems, however, will result in sound and economical ways
to prepare candidates more adequately for foremanship.
The officer who serves as educational adviser should maintain an in-
dividual record of each prospective foreman. This record, in chronological
form, should contain decisions made with reference to the educational pro-
gram that the individual is to follow and the reasons for those decisions.
The record, furthermore, should include comments or ratings of the candi-
date by executives or technicians with whom he works. These ratings will
be important considerations in redirecting the individual's educational
55
program from time to time. When any educational assignment is thought to
have served its purpose, it can be terminated. In some cases, the assign-
ment will demonstrate that the individual is not qualified for further ad-
vancement.
Seniority Rules and the Training of Prospective Foremen
In some companies, seniority requirements have interfered with the
training of prospective foremen by requiring their layoff rather than the
layoff of other individuals having longer service. A number of companies.
have kept the trainees employed by transferring them to clerical or techni-
cal jobs not covered by the seniority rules.
Some collective agreements exempt from seniority rules a certain num-
ber of key men to be designated by the management. These clauses have
been used on occasion to claim exemptions for young men of promise who
were not designated theretofore as minor supervisors. Because such last-
minute claims have been branded by other employees as instances of
favoritism and discrimination, they should be avoided. On the other hand,
after men have been officially designated as group leaders or subforemen,
it is believed that they should be exempt from seniority rules.
G
Selection for Foremanship
This discussion has indicated that the selection of a foreman should not
be the accomplishment of a moment. Instead, it should be a process ex-
tending over a period of months, during which a number of executives are
given opportunities to observe each prospect on a variety of assignments.
The process preferably should involve the advancement of the candidate.
from the rank and file through one or more intermediate positions, such as
those of group leader and assistant foreman.
In a number of companies, promotions to the full rank of foreman are
made by the superintendent in consultation with the foremen and staff men
best qualified to judge the achievements and potentialities of each candi-
date. Thus, in a rubber company, the division superintendent, the per-
sonnel officer, the general superintendent, and the plant manager separately
interview each prospective foreman. These executives meet to discuss a
candidate's personal history and experience record before they definitely
decide to advance him to full rank. The opinions of foremen under whom
he has worked are also obtained. In companies having an educational ad-
viser, this officer also participates in the final selection.
Ka
G
56
A number of executives said that when a new foreman is selected, the
report of his appointment should be given him first by his division super-
intendent. Shortly thereafter, the superintendent should introduce the
appointee to the plant manager. The plant manager should outline for
him the responsibilities which go with the position of foreman and should
assure him of his opportunities in that position and the support which will
be given to him. Furthermore, his appointment should be announced on
the bulletin boards and in a circular letter to department heads and the
technical staff. Some companies use the designation "Acting Foreman"
temporarily, until the appointee fully demonstrates his ability to fill the
position.
Training Subsequent to Selection
It is recognized that a candidate may be advanced to foremanship with-
out having completed the preparatory training outlined for him, and,
furthermore, that a part of this preparatory training cannot be given to
the best advantage while he remains a candidate. This is true of some of
the training in the field of personnel relations, for it is difficult to instruct
a man in the treatment of employees when his position does not permit
him actually to deal with problems of that sort.
Some companies at the time of this survey were preparing review
courses in personnel policies and procedures for men immediately after
their appointment to foremanship. Such a review course can be given to
individuals or to small groups. If this type of material is prepared for
recently promoted foremen, arrangements should be made so that they can
discuss it with a member of the personnel department who can test their
understanding of each topic.
For a time, a recently appointed foreman requires close guidance from
his superintendent and special aid from staff men. He needs guidance,
for example, in the use of production control reports and in his dealings
with individual employees with reference to unsatisfactory work or con-
duct. The general foreman can help him plan his first interviews and then
discuss their improvement with him after they have occurred.
After the new appointee has been given intensive instruction in the
treatment of personnel problems, he can be assigned to a conference group
of experienced foremen. Other educational activities can be outlined for
him when his performance indicates his need for particular items of informa-
tion, for the strengthening of specific managerial abilities, or for the im-
provement of given personality traits.
57
Even the most thorough preparatory training does not complete a
supervisor's development. The constant progress of technology and the
changes in the labor situation require experienced foremen to continue their
educational efforts. A management which leads and assists them in those
efforts is increasing the ability of its organization to survive.
58
SUMMARY
Responsibilities of Foremen and Subforemen
A foreman is primarily an executive: he translates plans for his depart-
ment into instructions for each member, and he sees that the group produces
the desired results.
A basic pattern of foremen's responsibilities can be traced. These re-
sponsibilities pertain to the division and delegation of work; planning and
scheduling jobs; direction of operations; development of subordinates;
improvement of methods; maintenance of good personnel relations; co-
operation with other departments in furthering general aims of the enter-
prise; representation of management to employees and of employees to
management; and, finally, self-improvement.
In recent years there has been a trend toward greater precision in super-
visory methods. Furthermore, the introduction of staff specialists into
factory organizations has required foremen to collaborate increasingly with
these staff men in the management of departments. It has become generally
recognized, however, that each foreman necessarily must direct the em-
ployees in his section. Broad developments of an economic and social
nature have emphasized the key positions of foremen in maintaining satisfac-
tory relations between managers and employees.
Although foremen have typical duties, there are noteworthy differences
in their positions which reflect distinctive factors in their departments, such
as the equipment and processes, the technical developments in progress,
the ratio of special orders to total production, and the characteristics of the
employees.
A
Junior supervisory positions, such as those of group leaders and assistant
foremen, can be used as training levels of increasing difficulty in programs
for the advancement of outstanding wage earners to the rank of foremen.
If a manufacturing organization is to be expanded rapidly, the work of
departmental supervision can be subdivided. Men can be trained in the
subforemanships thus created, and some of these men later can be assigned
to supervise new or extra-shift operations.
Typical responsibilities of group leaders were noted in the course of
this study. These suggest ways in which foremanships can be subdivided
to facilitate the training of new supervisors.
59
Generally speaking, the companies which had many group leaders and
assistant foremen in their organizations were confident of the quality and
numbers of their trained reserves to fill new supervisory positions.
A responsibility analysis of any supervisory position appears to be an
essential first step preparatory to the careful selection and development of
a person to fill it.
Selection of Candidates for Training
There was general agreement that the responsibility for the selection
and training of new supervisors should be centered upon the operating
executives, since they are uniquely qualified to judge whether any trainee
is worthy of advancement, and they can demonstrate the skills which the
trainees should develop.
The pressure of other duties, however, may cause operating executives
to neglect this responsibility unless it is emphasized by the plant manager
and by an officer on his staff serving as an educational adviser.
The selection of prospective supervisors should occur only after a survey
and forecast of needs in each division. The qualifications to be sought in
candidates can be determined by a review of the responsibilities of super-
visory positions to be filled.
Subject to the special requirements for specific positions, a general state-
ment can be made of the qualifications desired in men to be trained for
supervisory work. These qualifications can be presented under three head-
ings: health, technical skill, and personality traits.
Usually new foremen are obtained from within a business organization.
Subforemen, staff specialists, and sometimes members of the rank and file,
are the chief groups from which the selections are made.
Sudden demands for new foremen have caused some companies to use
informative courses and psychological tests as means for selecting candidates.
A few, in their search for potential supervisors, have advertised for tech-
nical graduates with business experience.
Developments in the years immediately preceding 1940 were thought
by some executives to have reduced the attractiveness of foremanship to
outstanding wage earners. In that period, the preferential advantages of
foremen were reduced, overtime pay was granted to workmen but usually
not to foremen, the discretion exercised by foremen was circumscribed,
channels of appeal were established through which employees could
60
denounce foremen's actions to top management, and the leaders of new
unions were aggressive in advancing workers' grievances. These develop-
ments impaired the morale of foremen, and emphasized the need for
periodic reviews of their status, security, and compensation.
In some cases, union members have opposed the appointment of their
leaders to supervisory jobs, on the ground that such promotions weakened
their organizations. Executives should be particularly careful to see that
their appointments of active unionists to supervisory positions are made on
the basis of the superior qualifications of the appointees.
Several companies have been able to convince unions that all parties
in time would suffer if seniority rules prevented the promotion of out-
standing wage earners to supervisory positions. The employers generally
recognized seniority as one consideration, although not a major considera-
tion, in selecting men for promotion.
The selection of candidates for supervisory training deserves care from
the points of view of management, of employees, and of the men selected.
The bases of selection for a given supervisory position should be discussed
in advance by the men who are to judge the candidates. The judges usually
are foremen, superintendents, and technical men who have opportunities to
observe the candidates closely.
Rating plans can be used to guide the judges in considering the perti-
nent qualities and potentialities of candidates in a comprehensive manner.
Candidates can be rated on the degree to which they are deemed competent
to shoulder each of the major responsibilities of the position for which they
are being considered.
After the initial selection of candidates for training, they should be
given information and practical assignments which will train them for
supervisory responsibilities and test them more conclusively.
Helping Candidates to Understand Supervisory Problems
The objectives in the preparatory training of prospective foremen may
be grouped under three headings: to promote understanding of supervisory
problems; to develop supervisory skills; and to improve personality traits.
A staff officer can aid operating executives in training candidates. He
can assist in analyzing the needs for training, in planning educational pro-
grams for individuals, in carrying through those programs, in judging the
quality of the training being given by operating executives, and in counseling
the trainees.
61
The training of prospective foremen is in large part individualized
because different skills are required in the future positions of the candidates,
and because personality differences exist among the men themselves. There
is, nevertheless, some place for group instruction of an informative nature,
if a number of candidates begin their training simultaneously.
Generalized instruction, which is intended to impart information and
to promote an understanding of company policies and procedures, can be
carried forward by means of discussions, the reading of monographs, and by
inspection trips to selected departments.
The subject matter typically presented in informative courses deals with
company products, processes, organization, cost records, production stand-
ards, and personnel management.
The instructor of an informative course usually presents a great deal of
material which the learners are expected to accept rather than question and
discuss. He can ask them to apply company policies and rules to typical
cases, however, and thus he can test their knowledge of this introductory
information.
Such courses serve valued purposes, but they should not be relied on to
bring about a thorough understanding of selected rules of the company. For
that purpose, a prospective foreman should be given an opportunity to work
temporarily in different positions where he can observe and preferably
apply the rules.
The contacts which a prospective foreman makes in the course of sev-
eral transfers afford a number of people an opportunity to judge his
capacity for foremanship.
In an emergency, when many new supervisors are to be trained, the
number of such transfers for any trainee would be kept to the minimum,
but the number of conferences which they attend each week could be in-
creased.
Conferences of Subforemen
The distinguishing mark of a supervisors' "conference" is that all mem-
bers are expected to contribute toward the solution of common problems.
An informative course, on the other hand, is a logical presentation of basic
information pertaining to particular phases of a company's activities. The
information as presented may have no immediate application, whereas the
discussions in supervisors' conferences usually are focused upon matters of
current concern. Since the members of a conference group should have
62
common interests and backgrounds, they should be drawn from one large
department or from several closely related departments.
In a number of companies subforemen's conference groups have been
established. The members can proceed more slowly in their consideration
of current problems than they could if they met with experienced foremen.
Furthermore, the subforemen express themselves freely in the absence of
their immediate superiors. It is advantageous to include in a subforemen's
conference the staff men of junior rank who also are concerned with the
problems of the members.
Usually the objective of a conference is to arrive at conclusions with
reference to policies, procedures, or points of view, which all members of
the group then can accept freely and with understanding. Occasionally,
however, the objective may be to interchange ideas and to hear reports of
experiences, so that the conferees obtain a better grasp or appreciation of a
complex issue. Both of these objectives are immediate, and they refer to
single conferences. There are more fundamental, long-range purposes in a
conference program as a whole. These are to stimulate thought, to develop
analytical powers and mental resourcefulness, and to improve the ability
of the members to express themselves.
Preferably the executive to whom the members of the group report
should lead the discussions. The task can be delegated to another person,
but the executive should then assist the leader to prepare for the meetings,
and the executive should show interest in the program by attending the ses-
sions.
A number of suggestions on conference leadership are offered in the
text, although the art cannot be reduced to rules. The personal qualities
of conference leaders are factors in their success, but many men have be-
come proficient leaders by careful preparation, critical analysis of their
methods of conducting meetings, and by constant endeavors to improve
their skill.
Developing Candidates' Managerial Skills
Candidates' managerial skills can best be developed by practice in se-
lected types of work. The emphasis to be placed upon the development
of a given managerial ability in a trainee naturally depends upon its im-
portance to his success in the event that he is promoted.
Candidates usually have developed some managerial skills as a result
of their experience as manual workers. In their fields, the candidates can
63
identify the conditions which help or hinder production, they can judge
the quality of workmanship, and they can devise and apply improvements
in processing methods. Suitable assignments are suggested, however, for
the further development of these skills.
Other skills exercised by foremen are less likely to have been de-
veloped by manual work, since they are supervisory in character. Usually,
candidates can profit from assignments which will help them to develop
supervisory skills. To instruct, to plan and delegate duties, to direct em-
ployees, to analyze costs, to judge proficiency, and to conduct interviews-
these are some abilities which can be developed in candidates by suitable
practice.
Improving Candidates' Personality Traits
Endeavors to improve personality traits are necessarily informal and
personalized types of instruction, carried on, for the most part, by the
officers to whom the trainees report, although an educational adviser also
can assist in those efforts.
The development of personality traits is aided by example. Thus, a
trainee who is deficient in certain traits can with advantage be appointed
temporarily as an assistant to a foreman who has those traits to an out-
standing degree.
Personality traits can be developed also by circumstances, and this sug-
gests the use of temporary assignments for that purpose. The best results
will follow if the supervisors have been made fully aware of the aims in
each case. Since, because of the expense involved, a trainee ordinarily can
be given only a few such educational assignments, each should be designed
to help him improve a number of his qualities which are deemed essential
for his promotion. Assignments thought likely to cultivate a number of
personality traits are suggested in the text.
A candidate's personality traits are not to be appraised against ideal
standards, but against the requirements of the position to which he may be
promoted. A number of personal qualities thought desirable in foremen
are discussed in this report, but no candidate can be expected to possess
these qualities in any ideal sense. He will have each of them in some de-
gree, and the practical question as regards each is whether, in that respect,
he is better than, equal to, or worse than the standard which the position
requires.
C
64
A competent workman, in the course of his experience, has usually
formed a number of personality traits which are essential in a supervisor.
These are: application to duties, perseverance with mechanical problems,
dependability, and willingness to accept technical responsibility. Other
personal qualities needed in a supervisor are not so likely to be developed
by experience as a workman. Among these are initiative and independence.
In view of a foreman's relations with people, a candidate for that
position should be interested in and have regard for them. He should
desire others to have a square deal, and he should be cooperative. He
should have frankness, tact, and self-control.
A foreman's mental qualities are significant both in the technical and
the human aspects of his work. In this regard, it appears that candidates
should be decisive, open-minded, adaptable, resourceful, and foresighted.
Final Selection
The selection of foremen should not be the accomplishment of a mo-
ment. Instead it should be a process extending over a period of months,
during which a number of executives are given opportunities to observe
each prospect on a variety of assignments. In some companies, promotions
to the full rank of foreman are made by the superintendent in consultation
with the foremen and staff men best qualified to express opinions with
reference to the achievements and potentialities of each candidate.
For a time, a recently appointed foreman requires close guidance from
his superintendent and special aid from staff men. This is particularly true
of his training in the field of personnel relations. Then he can be made a
member of a conference group of experienced foremen, and other educa-
tional activities can be outlined for him when his performance indicates
special needs.
Even the most thorough preparatory training does not complete a super-
visor's development. The constant progress of technology and the changes
in the labor situation require experienced foremen to continue their educa-
tional efforts. A management which leads and assists them in those efforts
is increasing the ability of its organization to survive.
·
detik
65
SPECIMEN STATEMENTS OF FOREMEN'S
RESPONSIBILITIES
A specimen statement of responsibilities of a foreman in a steel mill
follows. The statement is in general terms.
APPENDIX
1. Is responsible for the turn supervision of all men and equipment en-
gaged in the handling, processing, conditioning, packaging and
loading of the products of the 10 Merchant Bar and Structural
Mills and 3 Hot Strip Mills, also of the Concrete Bar Processing
and Fabricating Plant (night turns only). Also of the Pickling
Plant (all turns)
2. Cooperates with rolling end in the keeping clear of cooling beds, coilers,
bundlers, pilers, etc., so that continuous operations may be main-
tained
3. Is responsible for the safety of all men under his supervision
4. Is responsible for the upkeep and cleanliness of all mill property under
his supervision
5. Is responsible for the following up and compilation of production sched-
ules so that promised shipping dates may be met
6. Is directly responsible for the control of costs in his section
7. Is responsible for the quality of products, in so far as processing and
conditioning is concerned
*
The following statement of responsibilities pertains to a maintenance
foreman in a chemical plant:
1. Layout and estimates
2. Requisitions
Estimate the cost and plan the layout of all pipe work and work on
storage tanks as requested.
*
3. Contracts
Secure purchase requisitions for all direct purchases for repairs and
for all contract orders
Secure contractors for large repair jobs
67
4. Supervision of personnel
Supervise repairs and small construction jobs within the plant
Assign work to subordinates in accord with their respective me-
chanical abilities
Interview and select applicants for positions in the departments
See that prospective employees are given medical examination be-
fore being placed on the payroll
See that working hours and conditions are within company policy
Inform all employees with reference to personnel policies of the
company, and particularly on wage policy, benefit plans, vaca-
tions, disciplinary rules, and accident compensation
Suspend employees for breaches of established rules
Discuss cases of unsatisfactory work and conduct with employees
concerned in an endeavor to prevent recurrences of these cases
5. Safety
See that all tools and equipment are in a safe, acceptable condition;
report hazards to operating manager
See that employees are instructed regarding safe practices
6. Costs and records
Keep accurate record of work orders and see that suitable charge
numbers are entered on all vouchers
Endeavor to keep costs within approved standards
**
The following statement of responsibilities is in considerable detail,
and refers to the work of a foreman of a warehousing and compounding
plant of a petroleum company:
*
1. Direct the receiving, handling, and shipping of all merchandise stocks
See that daily reports of bulk storage inventories are distributed to
departments requiring this information
See that samples are submitted to laboratory for approval before
unloading or loading tank cars or tank trucks.
See that data on tank car gauges and temperatures are supplied to
laboratory
See that receiving reports are delivered to Purchasing and Stock
Control Departments on materials received.
See that Industrial Department and Stock Control Department are
advised on tank car releases of stocks required
68
Direct or arrange for economical loading and distributing of local
deliveries
Direct or arrange for securing information from Traffic Depart-
ment on all C/L-LCL and export shipments
2. Stock Control Department
Arrange for daily report of receipts and deliveries of products
Arrange for and direct monthly physical inventory
3. Orders
Responsible for receipt, handling and filling of all orders received
from Order Department, Stock Control Department, salesmen
and others
See that orders are distributed to proper files in warehouse
See that necessary information is placed on orders by warehouse-
men for completion of detail work
See that clerks complete details of order relative to gallonage
and/or weights received from warehousemen
See that delivery receipts are matched with order department copy
of order and returned to Stock Control Department
See that report on empty container receipts are delivered to Order
and Billing Departments daily
See that C.O.D. orders are delivered to cashier for checking col-
lections by drivers daily
See that credits for merchandise returned are delivered to Stock
Control Department daily
4. Responsible for tank truck deliveries of lubricating oils
To automotive accounts on definite schedules and to industrial ac-
counts and designated bulk plants on order
See that tank trucks are gauged before and after loading
5. Responsible for specialty deliveries by specialty truck
To dealer accounts on orders by salesmen, Order Department, and
customer calls
See that physical inventory is taken on last working day of month
This statement of this foreman's responsibilities continues with refer-
ence to compounding operations and also with reference to supervision of
personnel, maintenance of safe practices, maintenance of plant in an orderly
condition, responsibility for submitting details for preparation of annual
budget, and for operating the department within the budget.
69